ME 3207

Instrumentation and Control

C O U RS E T E A C H E R
DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN
A S S ISTANT P ROF ESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ME, RUET
DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF
ME 3207 ME, RUET 1
 References

1. Experimental Methods for Engineers

By J.P.Holman et al.
(Any available edition)

2. Mechanical measutrements
Thomas G. Beckwith et al.
(Any available edition)

3. Mechatronics
W. Bolton
(Any available edition)

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
2
 Course Plan
Fundamentals of measurement, instrumentation and measuring
systems, error, uncertainty analysis, accuracy precision, sensitivity,
resolution etc. and introducing with basic instrumentation.
(2 Weeks)
Basic electrical systems, electromechanical and electronic meters,
introduction with different sensors, signal conditioning etc.
(3 weeks)
Instrumentation for measuring some mechanical
properties(Displacement, force, pressure, strain, power and torque,
fluid flow, temperature etc.
(7 weeks)

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
3
 Measurement, an overview.
It has been said, Whatever exists, exists in some amount.
The determination of the amount is what measurement is all
about.
Instrumentation is an electrical or pneumatic device placed in
the field to provide measurement and/ or control capabilities
for the system.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
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 Measurement, an overview.
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a
quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and a
measurand.

Measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter

being observed and quantified; that is, the input quantity to the
measuring process.

The act of measurement produces result.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
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Measurement, an overview.
Standard

Measurand Process of Result

comparison
(Input) (Measurement) (Output)

ME 3207 DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF ME, RUET 6
 Measurement, (Significance)
Measurement provides quantitative information on the actual state of physical
variables and processes.
Because experimentation is so important in all phases of engineering, there is a very
definite need for the engineer to be familiar with methods of measurement as well
as analysis techniques for interpreting experimental data.
Further development in instrumentation techniques is certain because of the
increasing demand for measurement and control of physical variables in a wide
variety of applications.
Measurement is a fundamental element of any control system.
The accuracy of control is necessarily dependent on the accuracy of measurement.
Hence, we see that a good knowledge of measurement techniques is necessary for
the design of control systems.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
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 Fundamental methods of measurement
Two basic methods of measurement
1. Direct Comparison
with either primary or secondary standard
2. Indirect comparison
through the use of a calibrated system
Transducing device is used to transform signal in different form, then this
signal is sent to the measuring system, which then processes and presents at
the output as a known analogous form.
Example: thermocouple, manometer for fluid pressure measurement etc.
Sometimes processing (amplification, filtering, remote recording etc.) of the
analogous signal is necessary.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
8
 Calibration
The calibration of all instruments is very important, for it affords the
opportunity to check the instrument against a known standard and
subsequently to reduce errors in accuracy.
Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular
instrument with either (1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary
standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated,
or (3) a known input source.
Example: Flowmeter
The importance of calibration cannot be overemphasized because it is
calibration that firmly establishes the accuracy of the instruments.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
9
 Standards of measurement
In order that investigators in different parts of the country
and different parts of the world may compare the results
of their experiments on a consistent basis, it is necessary
to establish certain standard units of length, weight, time,
temperature, and electrical quantities.
History of adopting the standards of length, weight and
time.
NIST has the primary responsibility for maintaining these
standards in the United States.
In Bangladesh BSTI is the legal authority.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
10
 Dimension and units
One must be careful not to confuse the meaning of the
term units and dimensions. A dimension is a physical
variable used to specify the behavior or nature of a
particular system. For example, the length of a rod is a
dimension of the rod.
In like manner, the temperature of a gas may be
considered one of the thermodynamic dimensions of the
gas. When we say the rod is so many meters long, or the
gas has a temperature of so many degrees Celsius, we
have given the units with which we chose to measure the
dimension.
DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF
ME 3207
ME, RUET
11
 Dimension and units
Although the SI system is preferred, one must recognize that the English
system is still very popular.

Unfortunately, all the above unit systems are used in various places throughout
the world. While the foot-pound force, pound-mass, second, degree Fahrenheit, Btu
system is still widely used in the United States, there should be increasing impetus
to institute the SI units as a worldwide standard.
DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF
ME 3207
ME, RUET
12
Significant digits, rounding and truncation
Number
Whole number
Mixed number
Result: Desired numerical objective, obtained either experimentally or by calculation.
Significant digits: Digits that are meaningful in assigning a true and realistic value to a
result.
Truncating: Simplification of a number by arbitrary cutting off or removing right hand
digits.
Taylor series.
Rounding: The discarding of insignificant digits in a number, discarding of digits on the
right of a decimal point in a mixed number or replacement of a right hand non zero
number is rounding
= 3.15159265

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
13
 Generalized Measuring system
Most measurement systems may be divided into three phases or
stages:
Stage 1: A detector-transducer stage
Which detects the physical variable and performs either a mechanical or an
electrical transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form.

A transducer is a device that transforms one physical effect into another.

In most cases, however, the physical variable is transformed into an electric

signal because:

This is the form of signal that is most easily measured.

Digital signals offer the advantage of easy storage in memory devices, or
manipulations with computers.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
14
 Generalized Measuring system
Stage 2: Some intermediate stage
Which modifies the direct signal by amplification, filtering, or other means so
that a desirable output is available.

Stage 3: A final or terminating stage

Which acts to indicate, record, or control the variable being measured. The
output may also be digital or analog.

Example: Low voltage signal measurement at low frequency

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
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Generalized Measuring system

Bourdon-tube pressure gauge as generalized measurement system

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF
ME 3207
ME, RUET
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Generalized Measuring system

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
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Definition of some important terms in
instrumentation
Readability:
This term indicates the closeness with which the scale of the instrument may be
read; an instrument with a 12-in scale would have a higher readability than an
instrument with a 6-in scale and
the same range.

The least count:

It is the smallest difference between two indications that can be detected on the
instrument scale.
Both readability and least count are dependent on scale length, spacing of
graduations, size of pointer (or pen if a recorder is used), and parallax effects.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
18
Definition of some important terms in
instrumentation
Sensitivity
It is the ratio of the linear movement of the pointer on an analog instrument to the
change in the measured variable causing this motion.

For example, a 1-mV recorder might have a 25-cm scale length. Its sensitivity would be
25 cm/mV, assuming that the measurement was linear all across the scale.

Hysteresis
An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is a difference in readings
depending on whether the value of the measured quantity is approached from above
or below.
Hysteresis may be the result of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, elastic
deformation, or thermal effects.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
19
 Definition of some important terms in
instrumentation
Accuracy
The accuracy of an instrument indicates the deviation of the reading from a known
input. Accuracy is frequently expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading, so
that a 100-kPa pressure gage having an accuracy of 1 percent would be accurate
within 1 kPa over the entire range of the gage.
In other cases accuracy may be expressed as an absolute value, over all ranges of
the instrument.

Precision
The precision of an instrument indicates its ability to reproduce a certain reading
with a given accuracy. As an example of the distinction between precision and
accuracy, consider the measurement of a known voltage of 100 volts (V) with a
certain meter.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
20
 Analysis of Experimental Data
Error: It is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true
physical value of the quantity.
Some error is present in every measurement and hence we can not know the exact
true physical value of the quantity. So we can never know the error exactly.

An experimental error is an experimental error. If the experimenter knew what

the error was, he or she would correct it and it would no longer be an error. In
other words, the real errors in experimental data are those factors that are
always vague to some extent and carry some amount of uncertainty.

Our task is to determine just how uncertain a particular observation may be and
to devise a consistent way of specifying the uncertainty in analytical form. A
reasonable definition of experimental uncertainty may be taken as the possible
value the error may have.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
21
 Types of errors

First, there can always be those gross blunders in apparatus or instrument

construction which may invalidate the data.

Second, there may be certain fixed errors which will cause repeated readings
to be in error by roughly the same amount but for some unknown reason.
These fixed errors are sometimes called systematic errors, or bias errors.

Third, there are the random errors, which may be caused by personal
fluctuations, random electronic fluctuations in the apparatus or instruments,
various influences of friction, and so forth. These random errors usually follow a
certain statistical distribution, but not always.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
22
 Uncertainty Analysis
Error Analysis on a Commonsense Basis
Uncertainty Analysis
The result R is a given function of the independent variables x1, x2, x3, . . . ,
xn. Thus,

Let wR be the uncertainty in the result and w1, w2, . . . , wn be the

uncertainties in the independent variables.

Uncertainties for Product Functions

Uncertainties for Additive Functions

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
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 Uncertainty Analysis

Problems regarding uncertainty analysis

Assignment
( J.P.Holman, Chapter 3)
3.4,3.5, 3.14, 3.15, 3.54, 3.55,3.56, 3.70

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
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 Graphical Analysis and Curve Fitting

The person who is usually most successful in analyzing

experimental data is the one who understands the physical
processes behind the data.
When the data may be approximated by a straight line, the
analytical relation is easy to obtain; but when almost any
other functional variation is present, difficulties are usually
encountered.
This fact is easy to understand since a straight line is easily
recognizable on a graph, whereas the functional form of a
curve is rather doubtful.

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
25
 DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF
ME 3207
ME, RUET
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An Example

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
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General Considerations in Data Analysis

Examine the data for consistency.

Perform a statistical analysis of data where
appropriate.
Estimate the uncertainties in the results.
Anticipate the results from theory.
Correlate the data

DR. SHAHAJADA MAHMUDUL HASAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

ME 3207
ME, RUET
28