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Vukan Vuchic
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Vukan R. Vuchic
Copyright 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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Vuchic, Vukan R.
Urban transit systems and technology / by Vukan Vuchic.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-471-75823-5
1. Urban transportationUnited StatesPlanning. 2. Local transitUnited StatesPlanning.
3. Transportation engineeringUnited States. I. Title.
HE308.V834 2007
388.40973dc22
2006020356
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my Rada, who has been my intellectual partner and
supported my professional and academic work
ever since we rst met in Belgrade in 1957.
CONTENTS
Preface, xiii 1.5.2 Electric Interurban Railways, 35
Acknowledgments, xv 1.5.3 Rapid Transit/Metro, 37
1.6 Overview and Conclusions: Transit
Development and Cities, 39
1
HISTORY AND ROLE OF PUBLIC 2
TRANSPORTATION IN URBAN URBAN PASSENGER TRANSPORT
DEVELOPMENT 1 MODES 45
1.1 Early Development of Cities, 1 2.1 Transport System Denitions and
1.1.1 Transportation and Locations of Classication, 45
Cities, 1 2.1.1 Classication by Type of Usage, 45
1.1.2 Transportation and City Size, 2 2.1.2 Transit Modes, 47
1.1.3 Form and Structure of Cities, 3 2.1.3 Transit System Components, 53
1.1.4 The Industrial Revolution, Urbanization, 2.1.4 Transit System Operations, Service, and
and the Growth of Cities, 5 Characteristics, 53
1.2 Beginnings of Public Transportation, 8 2.2 Theory of Urban Passenger Transport
1.2.1 Public Transportation before the Modes, 55
Nineteenth Century, 8 2.2.1 Evolution of a Transportation System in
1.2.2 Horse-Drawn Omnibuses, 9 a Model Urban Area, 55
1.2.3 Horse-Drawn Tramways, 10 2.2.2 Review of Modal Features, 64
1.2.4 Mechanized Street Transit Technologies 2.3 The Family of Transit Modes: Categories and
before 1880, 11 Descriptions, 66
1.3 Invention of Electric Streetcars/Tramways, 14 2.3.1 Paratransit, 66
1.3.1 Beginnings of Electric Streetcars in the 2.3.2 Street Transit Modes, 67
United States, 15 2.3.3 Medium-Capacity Modes: Semirapid
1.3.2 Introduction of Electric Tramways in Transit, 68
Europe, 17 2.3.4 High-Performance Modes: Rapid
1.4 Street Transit Development since 1900, 19 Transit, 71
1.4.1 Streetcars/Tramways, 19 2.3.5 Specialized Transit Modes, 73
1.4.2 Motorbuses, 25 2.3.6 Review of the Family of Regular Transit
1.4.3 Trolleybuses, 29 Modes, 73
1.5 Development of High-Speed Rail Transit 2.3.7 Commuter Transit, 81
Modes, 33 2.4 Trends in Transit Ridership and in Use of
1.5.1 Suburban Railways/Regional Rail, 33 Different Modes, 81
vii
viii CONTENTS
2.4.1 Urban Travel and Transit Ridership, 82 3.7 Energy Consumption and Efciency, 134
2.4.2 Increasing Diversity of Transit 3.7.1 Structure of Energy Consumption
Modes, 86 Analysis, 135
3.7.2 Inuence of Operating Regimes, 136
3.7.3 Potential Energy Savings through
3 Preprogrammed Driving, 138
VEHICLE MOTION AND PERFORMANCE 91 3.7.4 Inuence of Stop/Station Spacing, 139
3.7.5 Measures of Energy Consumption, 139
3.1 Vehicle Motion, 91
3.2 Resistance to Motion, 93
3.2.1 Vehicle Resistance, 93 4
3.2.2 Alignment Resistance, 95 TRANSIT SYSTEM PERFORMANCE:
3.3 Internal Combustion Engine Propulsion, 97 CAPACITY, PRODUCTIVITY, EFFICIENCY,
3.3.1 Characteristic Diagram for ICEs, 97 AND UTILIZATION 149
3.3.2 Speed-Tractive Effort Diagram:
TE f(V), 98 4.1 Denitions of Quantitative Performance
3.3.3 Vehicle Motion Force as a Function of Attributes, 149
Speed, 100 4.1.1 Basic Attributes, 149
3.4 Electric Propulsion, 100 4.1.2 Transportation Work and
3.4.1 Wayside Electric Power Supply and Its Productivity, 151
Distribution to Lines, 101 4.1.3 Transit System Efciency and
3.4.2 Propulsion Motors and Their Productivity, 152
Control, 101 4.1.4 Consumption and Utilization, 153
3.4.3 Electronic Motor Control, 108 4.2 Transit Line Capacity, 153
3.4.4 AC Propulsion Motors and Their 4.2.1 Denitions, 153
Electronic Control, 108 4.2.2 Vehicle Capacity, 156
3.4.5 Comparison of Motor Control 4.3 Way Capacity, 160
Types, 110 4.3.1 Basic Elements, 161
3.4.6 Other Propulsion Systems, 112 4.3.2 Vehicle Control Categories in Transit
3.4.7 Vehicle Acceleration Force, 113 Operation, 163
3.4.8 Comparison of Electric and Diesel 4.3.3 Operating Safety Regimes, 165
Propulsions, 114 4.3.4 Impacts of Train Size and Control
3.5 Vehicle Acceleration, Braking, and Stopping Characteristics, 169
Distances, 115 4.3.5 Application of Equations to Different
3.5.1 Adhesion for Wheel Traction, 115 Modes, 173
3.5.2 Acceleration and Braking Forces and 4.4 Station Capacity, 175
Distances, 119 4.4.1 Signicance and Denitions, 175
3.6 Station-to-Station Travel Analysis, 120 4.4.2 Components and Inuencing
3.6.1 Basic Variables of Vehicle Motion, 121 Factors, 177
3.6.2 Regimes of Motion, 122 4.4.3 Capacity Diagrams and Equations, 178
3.6.3 Travel Time Equations and 4.4.4 Measures to Increase Station
Diagrams, 124 Capacity, 181
3.6.4 Sensitivity of Travel Time and Speed to 4.5 Theoretical and Practical Capacities of Major
Individual Parameters, 130 Transit Modes, 186
CONTENTS ix
xiii
xiv PREFACE
to the grouping of modes into several categories which of modes in different categories: medium-capacity, au-
are covered in later chapters. tomated, rail transit modes, and others. Common errors
Chapter 3 covers theory of traction and describes and biased arguments frequently used in mode com-
particularly internal combustion engine and electric parisons are also critically discussed.
traction. The latter has recorded revolutionary devel- Each chapter has a set of exercises and a list of
opments in recent decades (choppers and inverters, references. A list of most relevant references for the
then AC motors, both resulting in great increases in entire book follows Chapter 10.
energy efciency). Travel time computations and en- Like the preceding books of the Transit Trilogy,
ergy consumption are also covered. this one is intended for use as a textbook, and as a
Transit system performance and measures of its ca- reference book for professionals such as transit oper-
pacity, efciency, utilization, etc., are presented in ators, trafc engineers, consultants, and planners. It
Chapter 4. Material covers considerable theoretical therefore attempts to bridge the separations between
analyses, as well as practical methods for performance research, teaching, and applications in practice. The
and efciency computations. international coverage and extensive references to lead-
Chapters 5 through 9 describe different categories ing transit systems in different countries is also fol-
of transit modes. Chapter 5 has extensive material on lowed again. Both of these featuresbridging theory
bus systems, including bus rapid transit in a separate and practice and international orientationhave found
section. Rail systems, including the four major modes, very positive responses with the users of previous
are the subject of Chapter 6. This is the largest chapter books. This was obvious from considerable acceptance
because of the technical complexity, diversity, as well of these books in many countries, as well as its several
as increasing use of rail modes in many countries. translations.
Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the recent introduction of This book utilizes SI units in a few instances where
low-oor vehicles, which have signicantly increased it was logical to add English traditional measures. A
the convenience and efciency of bus, LRT, and RGR very convenient set of tables for conversion of units
services in pedestrian-oriented urban areas. between the SI and English systems is presented as
Unconventional modes, particularly automated Appendix I. Other appendices present a list of abbre-
guided systems, are the subject of Chapter 7. Increas- viations (II), denitions of transit terms (III), and so-
ing use of these modes as people mover shuttles and lutions to selected exercise problems (IV). Two
as regular transit lines are described. Chapter 8 covers indexesgeneral and names of citiesare at the end
specialized modes, such as cog railways, funiculars, of the book.
and ferryboats, all of which have had increasing ap- With extensive development and diversity of urban
plications in many cities in recent years. A variety of transit systems, it is increasingly difcult to cover the
paratransit modes and their numerous applications in broad eld of transit technology in one book. The au-
industrialized and in developing countries are de- thor has tried to select the material that will be most
scribed in Chapter 9. useful for increasing knowledge about transit and for
Finally, Chapter 10 presents a review and compar- assisting in its planning, operations, and analysis in
isons of different modes presented in the preceding ve cities with a variety of conditions. If that has been
chapters. Some material from preceding chapters is achieved, the main goal of writing this Transit Tril-
summarized to facilitate this review and comparisons ogy will have been realized.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wants to express his gratitude to many per- Transportation in Oslo, Norway; and Richard Stanger,
sonscolleagues and students at universities, trans- consultant in Los Angeles, California, who also pro-
portation engineers and planners in transit agencies, vided extensive information from his work on planning
government organizations, and consulting rmswho and operating rail transit systems in Atlanta and Los
contributed information and materials, assisted in prep- Angeles, and a number of other cities.
aration, or reviewed manuscript for this book. Many Professors Shinya Kikuchi, Virginia Tech Univer-
materials and contributions were produced over a pe- sity and Antonio Musso, Universita di Roma provided
riod of several years, but the most intensive coopera- valuable experiences from their use of my rst book
tion has been done under pressure, during the rather in their teaching over the years.
short period of about one and a half years that it took I also want to recognize several persons who have
to write this book. always readily provided me with information, data,
Manuscript for every chapter was reviewed by sev- photographs, and other materials during the writing of
eral persons. For this assistance, constructive criticism, this book and other research I have performed. John
and provision of additional material I rst want to Schumann of LTK Engineering provided data on tran-
thank Wolfgang S. Homburger, retired from the Insti- sit in different cities, particularly light rail transit
tute of Transportation Studies at the University of Cal- systems. William Vigrass supplied information and
ifornia in Berkeley, who put many hours and very numerous photographs, some of which are in this
concentrated effort into providing overall evaluation as book. Others who provided materials include Andrew
well as numerous detailed comments and additions to Bata, Harry Hondius, Srecko Kahvedzic, Tom Matoff,
the text. His reviews are particularly valuable because Angel Molinero, Dr. Francesca Pagliara, Tom Parkin-
he has superb editing skills, deep knowledge of the son, Takis Salpeas, and Gradimir Stefanovic.
material, and he obviously dedicates many hours to Contributors of substantial materials used directly
reviews because he enjoys the subject and our discus- for this book include several persons. Norman Vutz of
sions which have now lasted for over 40 years. LTK Engineering Services structured and wrote major
I want to point out that Wolfgang Homburger and parts of the section on electric propulsion. Nathan
Hans Leopold, my colleague since our joint work in Maak, as my student, prepared a paper which has been
Hamburg in the early 1960s, have actually reviewed used for the tables and diagrams on rail rolling stock.
manuscripts for all four books I have published and Christopher Wallgren and Paul Christener provided
therefore share any credit that my Transit Trilogy many technical materials and photographs.
may obtain. Among transit agencies, I want to recognize coop-
Other persons who reviewed and sent very useful eration of the American Public Transportation Asso-
comments on manuscript chapters were Dr. Eric ciation and its President William Millar, Bay Area
Bruun, University of Pennsylvania; Dr. Jeffrey Casello, Rapid Transit, Municipal Railway in San Francisco,
University of Waterloo; Thor Haatveit, Department of New York City Transit, New Jersey Transit, South-
xv
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
eastern Pennsylvania Public Transportation Authority, My team at the University of Pennsylvania, which
and many others. has worked intensively on this book, included James
This and my other books could not have such in- Aslaksen, Huafang Cui, Christopher Puchalsky, and
ternational breadth without my frequent contacts with Mario Semmler, as well as my former students Drs.
numerous colleagues in many countries. Most valuable Eric Bruun and Jeffrey Casello. This group worked
cooperation I have enjoyed over several decades and numerous hours with great precision, interest, and ded-
which have been directly useful for this book has been ication. Their assistance is reected in the quality of
with Dr. Gunter Girnau, honorary Director of Verband materials and extensive information presented in this
Deutscher VerkehrsunternehmenVDV in Germany; book.
Dr. Adolf Muller-Hellmann, VDV present Director; Dr. I want to point out that my work with the publisher
Wolfgang Meyer, honorary President of the Inter- was by no means routine. The team at John Wiley,
national Union of Public TransportUITP; Manfred consisting of James Harper, Kerstin Nasdeo, Evan
Bonz and Peter Hofinger, Directors of the Stuttgarter
Jones, and Elizabeth Cepeda, has been highly profes-
Strassenbahnen. Discussions, materials, publications,
sional, pressing me to meet the deadlines in a polite
and visits that we have exchanged have provided the
and supportive manner, with clear goal of producing a
highest professional and intellectual experience with
high-quality book.
respect to transit and urban transportation that I have
As with all my previous books, the support of my
had in my career. Other similar contacts I have had
family was crucial in this difcult multi-year task. In
have been with colleagues in Japan, several other Eur-
opean and Latin American countries, South Africa, addition to the gratitude to my wife Rada, reected in
Canada, and Australia. the books dedication, our childrenMonika, Boris,
My contacts with the International Union of Public Lili, Victorand their families deserve sincere thanks
Transport (UITP), which started when I was student in for their continuous understanding and support.
Belgrade in the late 1950s, have been a constant source
of ideas, information, and intellectual exchanges. Par- Vukan R. Vuchic
ticular thanks go to its Secretary General Johannes Rat. University of Pennsylvania