Art therapy

Art therapy combines traditional psychotherapeutic theories with creative

exploration through paint, chalk, crayons and sometimes sculpture.
Techniques might also include drama and puppetry or movement. In sand-play,
for example, clients choose toys to represent miniature people, animals and
buildings and arrange them in the controlled space of a 'theatre of the
sandbox'. The art therapist is trained to have a comprehensive psychological
understanding of the creative process and the affective attributes of different
art materials. In this instance, art is seen as an outer expression of the inner
emotional landscape of an individual's world; for example in a painting, the
inter-relationship of size, shape, line, space, texture, shade, tone, colour and
distance all reveal elements of the client's/patient's perceived reality.

Within the mental health sector, art therapy is a valuable tool for patients who
have difficulties verbally expressing themselves. In non-clinical settings, such
as art studios and workshops, the focus on creative development can be useful
particularly when working with children and adolescents, as well as adults,
couples, families, groups, and communities.

Attachment-based psychotherapy

Attachment-based psychotherapy is a branch of relational psychoanalysis

exploring interrelated emotional forms of attachment from birth onwards.

The theory behind attachment-based psychotherapy can be traced back to the

end of the 19th Century, but it's really the work of John Bowlby that has had
the most influence. Bowlby was a British psychiatrist and psychoanalyst
interested in early child development and the forming of early attachments -
secure, anxious, avoidant, ambivalent or disorganised. This led to an
understanding of how problematic attachment experiences early on in life are
subsequently re-enacted later in adult life. He believed that secure and
supportive relationships enable us to develop a sense of who we are. Hence, a
growing attachment-based relationship with a psychotherapist will allow the
client opportunities to mourn past losses, and explore the impact of important
relationships on the client's life in the present and the past.
Behavioural therapy

Behavioural therapy is based on the theory that learnt behaviour in response

to past experiences can be unlearnt or reformulated, without focusing on the
reasoning for the original behaviour.

Individuals with compulsive and obsessive disorders, fears, phobias and

addictions may benefit from this type of therapy. The focus is on helping the
client to achieve goals and modify extreme behavioural responses to stress,
anxiety etc. It is based on the principles of learning, operant and respondent
conditioning, and can also draw upon theories from acceptance and
commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, dialectical behaviour
therapy, and can be integrated with cognitive therapy.

Brief therapy

Brief therapy utilizes a variety of approaches to psychotherapy. It differs from

other therapeutic approaches in that it focuses on a specific problem, and
involves a direct intervention by the therapist who works more pro-actively with
the client. It emphasizes precise observation, the utilization of a client's natural
resources, and the temporary suspension of disbelief, to enable the
consideration of new perspectives and multiple viewpoints.

The primary objective is to aid the client to view present circumstances in a

wider context with increased functionality. Brief therapy is seen as solution
based rather than problem solving, and therapists are more concerned with
current factors preventing change rather than how the issues arose. There is
not one specific mode of approach but many paths which, singly or combined,
might ultimately be beneficial. Brief therapy is short term, usually in a pre-
arranged number of sessions.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) developed out of behaviour modification,

cognitive therapy, and rational emotive behaviour therapy, and combines
cognitive and behavioural techniques.
CBT is psychotherapy based on cognitions, assumptions, beliefs and
behaviours, which aims to influence negative emotions relating to inaccurate
appraisal of events. Therapeutic techniques vary to accommodate individual
clients or issues but commonly include: keeping a diary of significant events
and associated feelings, thoughts and behaviours; questioning and testing
cognitions, assumptions, evaluations and beliefs that might be unhelpful and
unrealistic; gradually facing activities which may have been avoided; trying out
new ways of behaving and reacting. Relaxation and distraction techniques are
also commonly used.

CBT is sometimes used with groups of people as well as individuals, and the
techniques are often adapted for self-help manuals.

Dance movement therapy (DMT)

Dance movement therapy (DMT) is an expressive form of psychotherapy,

founded on the belief that the body and mind are an interrelated continuum.
Through the vehicle of movement and dance, the client can creatively explore
emotional, cognitive, physical and social integration.

Dance therapists operate from the principle that movement reflects an

individual's process of thinking and feeling. By acknowledging and supporting
the client's movements, the therapist encourages the development of new
emotional experiences through adaptive movement patterns, supporting the
solution of psychological issues.

DMT can be practised individually with the therapist, or within groups. The
client does not have to be a trained dancer to benefit from DMT, as movement
is an essential part of who we are.

Drama therapy

Drama therapy is the intentional use of theatrical techniques, such as role-

play, theatre games, mime, puppetry, voice work, myth, ritual, storytelling and
other improvisational techniques to facilitate creativity, imagination, learning,
insight and personal growth. Its extremely varied approach provides an
expressive therapy modality that can be used in a wide variety of settings,
including hospitals, schools, mental health centres, prisons and businesses.
Drama therapy supports opportunities for individuals or groups to explore
personal and/or social problems in a creative environment, and to safely reflect
upon existing beliefs, attitudes, and feelings, exploring alternative ways of
acting in the world. The drama therapist encourages self-awareness, reflection
upon, and expression of, feelings in relationship to the self and to others.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is a specialist training

in trauma work available to qualified psychotherapists. EMDR combines
elements of cognitive behavioural and psychodynamic therapies with specific
techniques, to desensitize traumatic memories.

EMDR is an information processing approach, developed to resolve symptoms

of trauma, which uses a structured method to address the past, present and
future aspects of disturbing memories. EMDR's most unique aspect is a
bilateral stimulation of the brain, either through eye movements, bilateral
sound or bilateral tactile stimulation. These interventions are combined with
cognitions, visualized images and attention to body sensations. EMDR also
utilizes dual attention awareness to help the individual to move between the
traumatic material and the safety of the present moment. Clinical trials have
demonstrated EMDR's efficacy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD). Although some psychotherapists may use EMDR for various
problems, its research support is primarily for disorders stemming from
distressing life experiences.

EMDR is available in the NHS and in the private sector.

Existential psychotherapy

Existential psychotherapy is centred upon supporting the client to make sense

of life through the willingness to face it and its problems. The existentialist
belief is that life has no essential or predetermined meaning, the individual is
entirely free and ultimately responsible, so meaning has to be found or created.
This can trigger feelings of meaninglessness in life, thus the therapy explores
the client's experience of the human condition and aims to clarify the
individual's understanding of values and beliefs, explicitly naming what has
previously been left unspoken. The client is supported in living more
authentically and purposefully, whilst accepting the limitations and
contradictions of what it is to be human.

As a movement existentialism began in the 19th Century with philosophers

Nietzsche and Kierkegaard. As a therapy it is regarded as a serious enquiry into
what it means to be human, often involving the painful process of squarely
facing up to aspects of humanity that are ordinarily avoided and evaded.
Existentialist therapists believe that such in depth explorations can ultimately
bring great strength and joy.

Family therapy

Family therapy is a branch of psychotherapy focusing specifically on family

relationships. It works from the premise that a problem lies within the family
as a whole, rather than with a single person within the family unit. It is also
referred to as couples therapy and family systems therapy.

Family therapy encourages change and development, and the combined

resolution of family conflicts and problems. The focus is on how families
interact relationally together, emphasizing the importance of a functioning
family unit for psychological health and wellbeing. Regardless of the origin of
an issue, or whom the problem lies with, the therapist's aim is to engage the
family in beneficial solutions, seeking constructive ways for family members to
support each other through direct participation. A skilled family therapist will
have the ability to influence conversations in such a way as to harness the
strength and the wisdom of the family unit as a whole, taking into
consideration the wider economic, social, cultural, political and religious
context in which the family lives, and respecting each individual's different
perspectives, beliefs, views and stories.

(Family in this instance is defined as long-term relationships that are active

within the family, or strongly support the familial unit, irrelevant as to whether
related by blood or not.)

Gestalt therapy
Gestalt is a German word meaning the whole and the sum of all the parts, and
the symbolic configuration or pattern of elements, that make up the whole.

Gestalt therapy is a psychotherapeutic approach, devised by Fritz Perls in the

1940's. Perls, originally a Freudian analyst, was also influenced by the
principles of Gestalt psychology and existentialist philosophy. His insights
helped to form the human potential movement that began in the 1960's.
Gestalt therapy draws on the belief that people have a natural predilection
towards health, but old patterns of behaviour and fixed ideas can create blocks
interrupting the natural cycle of wellness, therefore effecting communication
with others.

In its purest application, Gestalt therapy addresses what is happening in the

moment, bringing into awareness an individual's representation of the self,
his/her response and interaction with others. Perls believed that only by living
in the present is the client capable of taking responsibility for his/her actions.
The belief is that to be fully present in the here and now creates within the
client the potential for more excitement, energy, and the courage to live life
directly. How the individual resists contact in the here and now, or how they
resist change, is the rich resource from which the skilled therapist draws upon,
as are certain modes of behaviour or symptoms that the client regards as
undesirable or unsatisfactory. The skilled Gestalt therapist makes effective and
efficient interventions to bring the client into awareness of not only what is
happening and what is being said but also body language and repressed
feelings. Gestalt techniques often include acting out scenarios and dream
recall.

Group analysis

Group analysis combines psychoanalytic insights, with the exploration of

interpersonal functioning in a social context. The intention is to achieve a
healthier integration of the individual in his or her network of relationships, ie
within the family, the community and socially. Group analysis focuses on the
relationship between the individual and the rest of the group, emphasising the
social nature of human experience through an interactive approach. Group
analysis can be applied in many fields of human relations such as teaching,
training and organisational consultancy.

The theory is based on the belief that deep lasting change can occur within a
carefully selected group, whose combined membership reflects the norms of
society. Group analysis views the group as an organic entity, within which the
role of the therapist is to hold the group rather than take an active
participatory role. The group becomes a dynamic entity of its own, and
functions within a socio-cultural context that in turn influences the process.

Group psychotherapy

Group psychotherapy is a branch of psychotherapy intended to help people who

would like to improve their ability to cope with life's difficulties and problems
but in a group situation.

In group therapy, one or more therapists, work with a small group of clients
together. Although initially created to decrease costs and increase efficiency,
practitioners soon recognised positive therapeutic benefits that could not be
gained from one-on-one therapies. For example - interpersonal problems are
addressed well within groups. Group therapy is not based on one single
psychotherapeutic theory, but many and often revolves around talking, and
may also include other approaches such as psychodrama, movement work,
body psychotherapy or constellations work.

The aim of group psychotherapy is to support the solving of emotional

difficulties and encourage the personal development of the participants in the
group. The combination of past experiences and experiences outside the
therapeutic group, with the interactions between group members and the
therapist's, becomes the material through which the therapy is conducted.
These interactions might not be perceived as entirely positive, as the issues
that the client has in daily life, will inevitably be reflected in his or her
interactions within the group setting. However, this allows for valuable
opportunities for such problems to be worked through in a therapeutic setting,
generating experiences, which may then be translated into "real life." The
skilled therapist will be selective in choosing members of the group to support
the group process.

Body psychotherapy

Body psychotherapy encompasses a number of integrative approaches, and is

concerned with the integration of physiological/somatic (body), emotional,
mental, spiritual, and social/relational aspects of the individual. It involves an
extensive depth of knowledge and explicit theories of mind-body functioning,
taking into account the complexity of interactions and reciprocal relationships
between psyche and soma.

Body psychotherapy modalities, such as integrative body psychotherapy,

bioenergetic analysis, or biodynamic psychotherapy and biodynamic massage,
share an underlying assumption that humans are embodied beings and
therefore share a functional unity between psychological and physiological
aspects of existence.

Body psychotherapists acknowledge dynamic correlations between somatic

(body) manifestations and psychological processes instead of hierarchical
relationships between mind and body. Recent advances in neuroscience have
substantiated these core body psychotherapy concepts. Body Psychotherapy is
widely available in the UK for individuals and as group therapy.

Cognitive analytical therapy

Anthony Ryle, a British GP who later became a psychotherapist, developed

cognitive analytic therapy (CAT). His aim was to a create therapeutic module
that could easily be offered by the NHS, providing effective and affordable
psychological treatment in as short a time as possible.

CAT combines cognitive theories, psychotherapy and Vygotskian explorations

between language and thinking, and the link between historical, cultural and
social factors on how we function. It encourages clients to explore their own
resources and develop the skills to change destructive patterns of behaviour,
and negative ways of thinking and acting. The therapy is short term (16 weeks),
structured and directive, ie through diary keeping, progress charts, etc. The
therapist works in collaboration with the client, focusing on changing
maladaptive patterns of behaviour and teaching alternative strategies for
coping. Attention is given to understanding the connections between childhood
patterns, social input and their impact on the client as an adult. It includes
keywords such as Snags, Dilemmas, Traps and Sequential Diagrammatic
Reformulation.

Humanistic integrative psychotherapy

Humanistic integrative psychotherapy has its roots in humanistic philosophies

and aims to work with a full range of influences to encourage the development
of the individual, their relationship to others and society.

Humanistic integrative psychotherapy relies upon relationship-based, dialogical

and experiential methods to facilitate the integration of affective, cognitive,
behavioural, physiological and the transpersonal dimensions of the individual.
Both the client and the psychotherapist are actively engaged in shaping the
processes of assessment, intervention and evaluation of outcomes. This
approach stresses the importance of the individual's capacities for self-
regulation, self-actualisation, responsibility and choice, which underpin the
process of change; the psychotherapist works with the client to realise these
potentials. Psychotherapists also take into consideration the impact of the
external world upon the internal world of the client to explore the significance
of social, cultural and political realms of experience.

Humanistic integrative psychotherapy is available in a range of settings in the

public, private and voluntary sectors and benefits individuals, couples,
children, families, groups and organisations,

Hypno-psychotherapy

Hypno-psychotherapy, or 'neuro-hypnotism' meaning sleep of the nervous

system, uses hypnosis to induce a deep state of heightened relaxation and
altered awareness, during which the unconscious mind is highly receptive to
new or alternative perspectives and ideas.

In the field of hypno-psychotherapy the unconscious mind is looked upon as a

resource for wellness and creativity. Accessing this part of the mind through
hypnosis opens up possibilities for the maintenance of the body towards health
via the autonomic processes.

Hypno-psychotherapy can be applied to modify a client's behaviour, attitudes

and emotions, as well as manage pain, anxiety, stress-related illnesses and
dysfunctional habits, promoting personal development.

UKCP considers hypnotherapy to be a subset of hypno-psychotherapy. That is,

anyone registered with UKCP is qualified to deal with the issues addressed by
hypnotherapists, but have extra training to work at a deeper level with more
complex emotional and psychological issues.

Jungian psychotherapy/psychoanalysis

Jungian analysis is a specialised form of psychotherapy which works with the

unconscious. The Jungian analyst and the client work together to expand the
client's consciousness in order to move toward psychological balance, harmony
and wholeness. Jungian Analysis examines deep motivations within the clients
psyche, his thoughts and actions which lie beneath conscious awareness. The
Jungian analyst will focus on the process of what happens within sessions, in
addition to the experience of the inner and outer happenings of the client's life,
to achieve deeper and more long lasting changes in the personality. At the heart
of Jungian Analysis is the belief that realignment of conscious and
unconscious aspects of the personality, with an ensuing creation of new values
and purpose, brings relief and meaning to psychological suffering and pain.

Jung's approach to psychology has been profoundly influential in all aspects of

countercultural movements across Europe and the United States since the
1960s. His emphasis on understanding our motivation through the psyche,
facilitated through the exploration of dreams, art, mythology, world religion and
philosophy have shaped how we look at life today. Jung was trained as a
theoretical psychologist and practicing clinician, but much of his life's work
was centred upon exploring the realms of Eastern and Western philosophy,
alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts. He wrote
extensively on the concept of archetypes, synchronicity and the collective
unconscious.

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)

Neuro-linguistic programming, or NLP, is a means of interpersonal

communication offering an alternative model to psychotherapy. Co-created by
Richard Bandler and linguist John Grinder in the 1970s, it is often referred to
as 'the psychology of excellence'.

In NLP the world is perceived in terms of excellence where individuals can be

supported in creating their own choice and flexibility. The theories of NLP have
been based on the subjective study of language, communication and personal
change, drawing upon the work of Gestalt, family systems therapy and clinical
hypnosis.

NLP incorporates a set of techniques and strategies to enhance communication

and personal experience. The core of NLP is the process of replicating
excellence, understanding how individuals organise their thinking, feeling,
language and behaviour to produce results. The theory is broken down into
three layers:

Neuro: the establishment of our individual mental map of the world

Linguistic: how we each assign personal meaning to the information

Programming: Our behavioural response to the latter.

NLP techniques are often utilised to instigate change and enhance personal
growth, development and performance in groups and organisations, and with
individuals. NLP techniques are not always suitable in addressing complex
psychological difficulties or distress.

Object relations therapy

Object relations therapy operates on the theory that the ego-self exists only in
relation to other objects, whether internal or external. Object relations was
originally a British development of Freudian psychoanalytical theory by DW
Winnicott, Ronald Fairbairn, Harry Guntrip and others, which places
relationship at the centre of what it is to be human. Object relations sees the
self as a personal self developing and existing within the context of
relationship, primarily the parents but also taking into consideration home,
art, politics, culture, etc. It rests on the beliefs that human beings are social
beings, therefore, contact with others is a basic need and our inner world is a
changing dynamic process, made up of fixed and fluid patterns, conscious and
unconscious. These dynamics effect how we perceive and experience reality.

The object relations therapist does not assume a passive role in therapy, as in
Freudian analysis, but interacts with the client, supporting him or her in the
resolution of pathological constructs through the active experience of the real
relationship between the therapist and the client. The opportunity to re-
experience such necessary relational issues as loss, intimacy, control,
dependency, autonomy and trust, etc represent the primary supportive
influence of the therapist. Though interpretation and confrontation may be
involved, the primary objective is the working through original pathological
components of the patient's emotional world. The skilled therapist offers a safe,
caring relational environment, and is aware of the client's unconscious
attempts to involve the therapist in the same patterns of relationship as those
that constitute the patient's distorted dynamic interactions with significant
others.

Person-centred counselling

Person-centred counselling, as devised by Carl Rogers, is based on the

assumption that an individual seeking support in the resolution of a problem
can engage in an accepting non-judgmental relationship with the counselor,
allowing the client to freely express emotions and feelings. It is also called
client-centred or Rogerian counselling

Person-centred counselling is for clients who would like to address specific

psychological habits or patterns of thinking. The client is perceived by the
counsellor as being the best authority of their own experience and therefore
capable of achieving their own potential for growth and problem resolution. The
person-centred counsellor provides favourable conditions to allow the
emergence of such potential through unconditional positive regard, empathic
understanding and congruence, thus enabling the client to come to terms with
negative feelings, and develop inner resources with the power and freedom to
bring about change.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is based on the theories of Sigmund Freud and his followers.

There are at least 20 different theoretical orientations regarding the underlying
theory of the understanding of human mentation and development, but
essentially psychoanalysis deals with the investigation of the mind, a
systematised body of knowledge about human behaviour, and a method of
treatment of psychological or emotional illness.

Regular sessions of psychoanalysis provide a setting where unconscious

patterns can be brought into awareness with a view to changing them. The
client's relationship with the analyst is an important influence upon the client's
unconscious ways of behaving and, in itself, becomes a central area of focus,
highlighting the client's patterns within the relationship in the immediacy of
the sessions.

Freudian psychoanalysis is a specific type of psychoanalysis in which the

"analysand" verbalizes thoughts, through methods such as free association,
fantasy, and dreams. The analyst interprets them for the client to create insight
for the resolution of issues and problems in the clients life.

Freud believed that unacceptable thoughts from early childhood are repressed
in the unconscious mind but continue to influence our feelings, thoughts,
emotions and behaviour. These repressed feelings often surface in adulthood as
conflicts, depression, etc or in dreams and/or creative activities. These
unconscious aspects are explored in the therapy through the intervention of
the analyst, confronting the client's pathological defenses, wishes and guilt.

Psychodynamic psychotherapy

Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a term that encompasses therapy of an

analytical nature; essentially it is a form of depth psychology that focuses on
the unconscious and past experiences, to determine current behaviour.
Generally psychodynamic psychotherapists adhere to the theories and teaching
of Freud and his followers. But psychodynamic therapy also draws upon
techniques from a variety of sources, including the ideas of various other
luminaries including Jung and Adler.

The client is encouraged to talk about childhood relationships with parents and
other significant people, the primary focus being to reveal the unconscious
content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate psychic tension. The
therapist endeavors to keep his own personality out of the picture, in essence
becoming a blank canvas onto which the client can transfer and project deep
feelings about themselves, parents and other significant players in their life.
The therapist remains focused on the dynamics between the client and the
therapist.

Psychodynamic therapy tends to be less intensive and briefer than

psychoanalysis, and also relies more on the interpersonal relationship between
client and therapist than do other forms of depth psychology. It is a focus that
has been used in individual psychotherapy, group psychotherapy, family
therapy, and to understand and work with institutional and organisational
contexts.

Psychosynthesis

Psychosynthesis is an approach to psychology developed by Roberto Assagioli,

MD. It is based on the inclusion of the past within the context of the awakening
of the self. Psychosynthesis is considered an existential psychology with
spiritual goals and concepts, and is sometimes described as "psychology of the
soul".

Psychosynthesis aims to integrate or "synthesise" a higher, spiritual level of

consciousness with the level at which thoughts and emotions are experienced.
Through painting, movement and other techniques, the different facets of the
personality are recognised and valued. Assagioli used the term
superconsciousness to describe the realm of the psyche that contains our
highest potential, the source of our unique path of development. He believed
that repression of this potential can lead to psychological disturbances as
debilitating as repression of past childhood traumas. Assagioli insisted that
psychosynthesis be included in the empirical understanding of psychology, and
was careful to maintain a balance with rational and conscious therapeutic
work, alongside the integration of the spiritual.

Relational psychotherapy and psychoanalysis

Relational psychotherapy is not so much a particular school of psychotherapy

as it is a broad way of understanding human motivation and the process of
therapy. Therapists who take a relational approach understand that person-to-
person relating is one of the most central motivations that people have, hence it
can also be what brings many individuals to therapy.

Therapists from all different modalities can be described to have a relational

approach if they prioritise their clients' ways of relating to others as central to
understanding themselves. While understanding the way previous relationships
inform current relationships is important, relational therapists also maintain
that the therapeutic relationship creates a space where such relational
dynamics are provoked and can be worked through, understood and improved.
Relational therapists may draw on dynamics that are occurring in the here and
now within the therapeutic relationship in order to shed greater light on
understanding the client's relational dynamics and hence enable them to
understand themselves more. The way a therapist behaves in therapy with
regard to their relational position will largely depend on their own personality
and training, privileging the client's way in which they relate, however, is likely
to be common among most individuals working relationally.

Relationship counselling

Relationship counselling is for family members, couples, employees or

employers in a workplace, and professionals and their clients. It aims to enable
people to recognise and better manage or reconcile troublesome differences and
repetitious patterns of distress within their relationship. The therapist will
most likely explore the clients' feelings, values and expectations, encouraging
communication and problem solving and looking at options and new
possibilities.

Systemic therapies

Systemic therapies is a generic term for therapy dealing with people in

relationship to one another, the interactions of groups, and their patterns and
dynamics.

Systemic therapy has its roots in family therapy, and family systems therapy,
and approaches problems practically rather than analytically. It does not seek
to determine cause, nor assign diagnosis, but rather identify the stagnant
patterns of behaviour within the group or family and address the patterns
directly. The role of the therapist in systemic therapies is to introduce creative
nudges to support the changing of the system, and address current
relationship patterns, rather than analyse causes such as subconscious
impulses or childhood trauma. Systemic therapy can also be used in
businesses, and is increasingly being implemented in the fields of education,
politics, psychiatry, social work and family medicine.

Transactional analysis (TA)

Transactional analysis, commonly known as TA, is an integrative approach to

psychology and psychotherapy developed during the late 1950s by Dr Eric
Berne. It is based on two notions: first that we have three parts or 'ego-states'
to our personality: the child, adult and parent self. Secondly that these parts
converse with one another in 'transactions' and, within each social interaction,
one self predominates. Therefore by recognising these roles, the client can
choose which part to adopt and so adjust behaviour. This form of therapy
works with the term inner child to describe unfulfilled needs from childhood.
Transactional analysis is an integrative analysis drawing upon psychoanalytic,
humanist and cognitive approaches.
Transpersonal psychotherapy

Transpersonal psychotherapy describes any form of counselling or

psychotherapy which places emphasis on the transpersonal, the transcendent
or spiritual aspects of the human experience. Transpersonal psychotherapy is
often viewed as a companion to other schools of psychology that include
psychoanalysis, behaviourism and humanistic psychology.

The transpersonal psychotherapist's focus would include spiritual self-

development, peak experiences, mystical experiences, systemic trance and
other metaphysical experiences of living. As in psychosynthesis, the ultimate
goal of transpersonal psychotherapy is not merely the alleviation of suffering,
but the integration of physical, emotional, mental and spiritual aspects of the
client's well-being. It includes the exploration and focus of the client's potential,
and the development of inner resources and creativity.
asic Principles of Learning

Multiple Choice Quiz

Which of the following is/are part of the definition of learning?

A) change in behavior

B) relatively permanent

C) brought about by experience

D) all of the above

Pavlov's initial interest in classical conditioning was stimulated when he

observed his research dogs salivating at the sight of
 A) food

B) the attendants

C) saliva

D) the food dish

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, inborn reaction to an unconditioned

stimulus is a(n)

A) unconditioned stimulus

B) conditioned stimulus

C) unconditioned response

D) conditioned response

In Pavlov's classic experiment, meat powder was the

A) unconditioned stimulus

B) unconditioned response

C) conditioned stimulus

D) conditioned response
5

Classical conditioning apparently plays a role in the development of

A) resistance to disease

B) allergic reactions

C) sexual arousal

D) all of the above

Irrational fears that are thought to be caused by classical conditioning are

called

A) psychosomatic illnesses

B) avoidance behaviors

C) phobias

D) stimulus discrimination

7
Learning that results from the consequences of behaviors is called

A) extinguished conditioning

B) operant conditioning

C) classical conditioning

D) positive conditioning

If positive reinforcement is not given within a short time following the response,
learning will proceed slowly. This phenomenon is called

A) delay of reinforcement

B) extinction

C) conditioned response

D) consistency

Jill was trying to operantly condition her dog to roll over. Each time her dog
rolled over she immediately said "good dog." However, the dog did not roll over
on command. Which of the following may best explain why?

A) Jill used inconsistent reinforcement

B) the CS did not match the CR

 C) Jill should have delayed reinforcement

D) saying "good dog" was not reinforcing to her dog

10

Reinforcers that are innately reinforcing, such as food, water, and warmth are
called

A) primary reinforcers

B) secondary reinforcers

C) extinguished reinforcers

D) superstitious reinforcers

11

If a child is rewarded for appropriate behavior every 15 minutes, what type of

schedule is being used?

A) fixed ratio

B) variable ratio

C) fixed interval

D) variable interval
12

Salespeople who are paid exclusively by commission are reinforced on which

type of schedule?

A) fixed ratio

B) fixed interval

C) variable ratio

D) variable interval

13

If you wanted to teach a chicken to "play" the piano, you should

A) wait for a musically inclined chicken to show up

B) extinguish piano-playing behavior

C) use shaping

D) use negative reinforcement

14

Behavior that is reinforced because it causes a negative event to stop is called

A) shaping
 B) punishment

C) escape conditioning

D) avoidance conditioning

15

Both escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning are forms of

A) superstitious behavior

B) positive reinforcement

C) negative reinforcement

D) secondary reinforcement

16

Which of the following is suggested as a guideline for the use of punishment?

A) Do not use physical punishment

B) Do not give punishment mixed with rewards

C) Make it clear to the individual which behavior is being punished

D) all of the above

17

If the consequence of a behavior is negative and the frequency of that behavior

decreases, the behavior has been

A) positively reinforced

B) negatively reinforced

C) disinhibited

D) punished

18

Which of the following is correct?

A) Classical conditioning usually involves reflexive behavior, while

operant conditioning usually involves more complicated, spontaneous behavior.

B) Classical conditioning usually involves more complicated,

spontaneous behavior, while operant conditioning involves reflexive behavior.

C) In classical conditioning, the reinforcement is contingent on the

behavior of the learner.

D) In operant conditioning the UCS and CS occur independently of

the learner's behavior.

19
John loves to receive mail. Over the years, he has learned to tell the difference
between the sound of the mail truck and the other cars and trucks that pass
his house. What process is at work here?

A) stimulus discrimination

B) stimulus generalization

C) extinction

D) negative reinforcement

20

After Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, he also displayed fear
responses to a white rabbit and a white coat. This is an example of

A) stimulus generalization

B) stimulus discrimination

C) variable interval reinforcement

D) superstitious behavior

21

When Sandy's disruptive classroom behavior stops because the teacher and
other students no longer pay attention to the behavior, the process is called

A) stimulus discrimination
 B) extinction

C) stimulus generalization

D) punishment

22

Behaviors that have been reinforced on a variable schedule are more difficult to
extinguish than those that have been continuously reinforced. This is known as

A) the partial reinforcement effect

B) an extinction schedule

C) shaping

D) avoidance conditioning

23

The most difficult responses of all to extinguish are those learned through

A) positive reinforcement

B) variable schedules

C) escape conditioning

D) avoidance conditioning
24

Behaviors that appear to be extinguished may return when some dramatic, but
unrelated, stimulus event occurs. This is called

A) spontaneous recovery

B) stimulus generalization

C) stimulus discrimination

D) external disinhibition

25

What do spontaneous recovery and disinhibition have in common?

A) the UCS becomes neutral

B) the UCR is diminished

C) an extinguished response returns

D) a response is generalized

26

The neural-connection view of learning is supported by which of the following?

 A) place learning

B) latent learning

C) insight learning

D) none of the above

27

Khler's research with Sultan supports which theoretical view of learning?

A) insight learning

B) latent learning

C) place learning

D) modeling

28

Learning to learn insightfully is a characteristic of

A) latent learning

B) place learning

C) learning sets

D) modeling
29

Those who are concerned about the effects that televised aggression has on
children are likely to focus on

A) insight learning

B) latent learning

C) place learning

D) modeling

30

Modeling demonstrates the importance of ________ in learning.

A) secondary reinforcers

B) biological factors

C) preparedness

D) cognition

31

Learned taste aversion is a form of

 A) operant conditioning

B) classical conditioning

C) insight learning

D) none of the above

32

The fact that fish cannot fly and owls cannot learn to swim is an indication of

A) lack of adequate reinforcement

B) their lack of experience

C) the laziness of these creatures

D) the effects of biological limits