WATER

TREATMENT
THEORY AND
PRACTICE
 WATER
TREATMENT
THEORY AND
PRACTICE

SUKALYAN SENGUPTA
Water Treatment: Theory and Practice
Copyright Momentum Press, LLC, 2017.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

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brief quotations, not to exceed 250 words, without the prior permission of
the publisher.

First published in 2017 by

Momentum Press, LLC
222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.momentumpress.net

ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-572-4 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-573-1 (e-book)

Momentum Press Environmental Engineering Collection

DOI: 10.5643/9781606505731

Collection ISSN: 2375-3625 (print)

Collection ISSN: 2375-3633 (electronic)

Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Service Private Ltd.

Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

 ABSTRACT

A primary responsibility of a water quality engineer is to supply potable

and palatable drinking water to a community. This book covers the gamut
of operations that are required to convert a raw water sourcewhether
surface water or groundwaterto a quality that conforms to all federal,
state, and local environmental standards for drinking water. This book
includes basic chemistry principles that are indispensable to a fundamental
understanding of water treatment operations. The goal is to enable the
reader to quickly find all the informationwithout any need for multiple
sourcesrequired to clearly understand concepts that are integral to water
treatment. Numerous solved examples throughout the book facilitate a
step-by-step approach to any water treatment process.

KEYWORDS
acid dissociation constant, adsorption isotherm, alkalinity, alum, Chicks
law, CSTR, equivalent weight, head loss, Henrys constant, lime-soda
softening, oxygenation rate, PFR, pH, rapid-sand filter, root mean square
velocity gradient, SBR, slow-sand filter, type I sedimentation, type II
sedimentation
 CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF TABLES xiii
PREFACE xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
1. CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 1
Preamble 1
1.1 Concentration 1
1.1.1 Molar Concentration 1
1.1.2 Equivalent Concentration 4
1.2 Chemical Equilibrium 5
1.2.1 Henrys Law 5
1.2.2 Acid and Base Dissociation Constant 6
1.2.3 Solubility Product 8
1.2.4 Alkalinity 8
References 10
2. REACTION KINETICS 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Stoichiometry and Reaction Rate 11
2.3 Order of Reaction and Specific Rate Constant 13
2.4 Types of Reactions 16
2.4.1 Consecutive Reactions 16
2.4.2 Equilibrium Constant 18
Reference 20
viii CONTENTS

3. REACTORS 21
3.1 Sequencing Batch Reactor 21
3.2 Continuously Stirred Tank Reactor 22
3.2.1 CSTRs in Series (Cascade) 24
3.3 Plug Flow Reactor 26
3.4 Dispersion Model 29
References 31
4. GROUNDWATER TREATMENT 33
4.1 Aeration 33
4.1.1 Kinetics 34
4.1.2 Cascade Aeration 35
4.2 Softening 36
4.2.1 Hardness 36
4.2.1.1 Total, Carbonate, and Non-carbonate
Hardness 37
4.2.2 Lime Soda Softening 38
4.2.2.1 Softening Reactions 39
4.3 Iron and Manganese Removal 45
References 46
5. SURFACE WATER TREATMENT 47
5.1 Coagulation 47
5.1.1 Coagulant Dose Determination 51
5.1.2 Design of A Coagulation Chamber 52
5.2 Flocculation 56
5.3 Sedimentation 57
5.3.1 Type I Sedimentation 58
5.3.2 Particle Removal in a Horizontal
Sedimentation Tank 60
5.3.3 Type II Sedimentation 62
5.4 Filtration 65
5.4.1 Hydraulics of Filtration 65
 CONTENTS ix

5.5 Disinfection 68
5.5.1 The CT Concept 68
5.5.2 Chlorine/Ammonia Reactions 70
References 70
6. WATER TREATMENT PLANT RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT 71
6.1 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Residuals 72
6.2 Specific Gravity of Sludge 73
6.2.1 Density of Sludge 74
6.2.2 Volume of Sludge 74
6.3 Management of Coagulation Sludge 75
6.4 Management of Lime Soda Softening Sludge 77
6.5 Management of Residual Sludges 79
6.5.1 Thickening 79
6.5.1.1 Gravity Thickening 79
6.5.1.2 Flotation Thickening 80
6.5.2 Conditioning 80
6.5.3 Dewatering 80
6.5.3.1 Sand Drying Beds 80
6.5.3.2 Solar Drying Beds 81
6.5.3.3 Dewatering Lagoons 81
6.5.3.4 Vacuum Filters 81
6.5.3.5 Belt Filter Presses 82
6.5.3.6 Centrifuges 82
6.6 Resource Recovery 83
6.7 Final Disposal 83
References 84
7. NEW TECHNOLOGIES 85
7.1 Adsorption 85
7.1.1 Adsorption Isotherm 87
7.1.1.1 Langmuir Model 87
7.1.1.2 Freundlich Model 89
x CONTENTS

7.2 Membrane Technologies 93

7.2.1 Microfiltration 93
7.2.2 Ultrafiltration 93
7.2.3 Nanofiltration 94
7.2.4 Reverse Osmosis 94
References 96
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY 97
INDEX 99
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. Distribution of HOCl and OCl as a function

of pH 7
Figure 2.1. Determination of the reaction order and
the reaction rate constant from experimental
dataExample Problem 2.2 15
Figure 2.2. Plot of A/A0, B/A0, and P/A0 for a consecutive
reactionExample Problem 2.3 18
Figure 3.1. CSTRs in a series 24
Figure 3.2. Schematic of a PFR 27
Figure 4.1. Sketch of a cascade aerator 35
Figure 4.2. Flow diagram of a lime soda softening
groundwater treatment plant 39
Figure 4.3. Summary of softening reactions 39
Figure 5.1. Flow diagram of a conventional surface water
treatment plant 47
Figure 5.2. Stability of colloidal particles due to electrostatic
repulsion 48
Figure 5.3. Schematic of surface charge reduction by addition
of a salt 49
Figure 5.4. Jar test apparatus 52
Figure 5.5. Plot of results obtained from a jar test 52
Figure 5.6. Experimental data for type-II settling test 63
Figure 6.1. Solid bowl decanter centrifuge 82
Figure 7.1. Schematic of flow of water during normal osmosis
(left and center) and reverse osmosis (right) 95
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1. Raw water composition of a groundwater sample 34

Table 4.2. Hard water classification 37
Table 5.1. Settling time of particles with a density
of 2,650 kg/m3 48
Table 5.2. Values of KL and KT for various impellers 54
Table 6.1. Source of principal residuals in WTP 72
Table 6.2. Physical, chemical, and biological properties used
to characterize water treatment plant residuals 72
Table 7.1. Principle uses, advantages, and disadvantages of
granular and powdered activated carbon 86
 PREFACE

A primary responsibility of a water quality engineer is to supply potable

and palatable drinking water to a community. This text covers the gamut
of operations that are required to convert a raw water sourceboth sur-
face water and groundwaterto a quality that conforms to all federal,
state, and local environmental standards for drinking water. This text in-
cludes basic chemistry principles that are indispensable to a fundamental
understanding of water treatment operations. The goal is to enable an up-
per-class or graduate college student to quickly find all the information
requiredwithout any need for multiple sourcesto clearly understand
concepts that are integral to water treatment. Numerous solved examples
throughout the text will facilitate a step-by-step approach to any water
treatment process. While detailed cost estimation of a water treatment
plant is beyond the scope of this text, the reader will be exposed to eco-
nomic limitations that a society imposes, and will obtain a general idea of
the range of drinking water supply costs that are prevalent today.
This volume also addresses some challenges being faced by water
quality engineers in terms of sludge disposal, water reuse, and new con-
taminants that are being detected, either in a raw water source or a product
of reactions inside a Drinking Water Treatment Plant (DWTP). It is the
intent of this volume to encourage the reader to think beyond a series of
treatment operations to a holistic understanding of water balance, demand
and supply, and sustainability.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author expresses his gratitude to Professor Francis Hopcroft, editor,

whose constant support, editorial insights, and frequent reminders over the
past couple of years helped complete this book.
The author also owes his students over the past 22 years a debt of
gratitude for their comments and questions, which helped clarify so many
topics/concepts. This book could not be what it is without their input.
 CHAPTER 1

CHEMICAL CONCEPTS

PREAMBLE

This chapter builds on basic chemical concepts that are indispensable to

water treatment and are covered in detail in the Casparian & Sirokman
text published as part of this series. The focus of this chapter is to rein-
force the discussion (in Casparian & Sirokman) by examples related to
water treatment.

1.1 CONCENTRATION

1.1.1 MOLAR CONCENTRATION

Refer to Section 1.4 of the Casparian & Sirokman text. Example Problems
1.1 to 1.3 illustrate the use of molar concentration and its relation to mass
concentration as applied to water treatment.

Example Problem 1.1

During drinking water treatment, 17 lb. of chlorine are added daily to dis-
infect 5 million gallons of water. What is the aqueous concentration of
chlorine in mg/L and M?

Solution

g mg
Mass of chlorine = 17 lb = 17lb 453.6 1, 000 = 7, 711, 200mg
lb g

L
Volume of water = 5 million gal = 5 106 gal 3.7854 = 18, 927, 000L
gal
2 WATER TREATMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE

7, 711, 200mg mg
Mass concentration = = 0.407
18, 927, 000L L

Chlorine = Cl2
g mg mg
molarweightofCl 2 = 2 35.45 1, 000 = 70, 900
mole g mole

Molarconcentrationofchlorinedose
mg mole mole
= 0.407 = 5.74 10 6
L 70, 900mg L

= 5.74 10 6 M = 5.74 M.

Example Problem 1.2

A chemist reports that the concentration of nitrite (NO2) plus nitrate
(NO3) in a groundwater sample from an agricultural region is 0.850 mM.
Nitrite and nitrate are often elevated in groundwater in agricultural regions
because of nitrogen fertilization. Regulations require that the total concen-
tration ([NO2] + [NO3]) be below 10.0 mg/L as N to avoid methemoglo-
binemia, or bluebaby syndrome, which can be fatal.

a. What is the concentration of ([NO2] + [NO3]) expressed as

{mg/L as N}?
b. What is the concentration expressed as ppmm as N?
c. What is the concentration expressed as % by mass as N?

Solution
a. [NO2] + [NO3] = 0.850 mM

moles 14, 000mgN mg

= 0.850 10 3 = 11.9 asN
L mole L

b. If density of water is assumed as 1,000 kg/m3

g mg
1, 000kg 1, 000 1, 000
kg g mg
= = 106
L L
m 1, 000 3
3

m
 CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 3

mg
11.9 asN
L
NO2 + NO3 =

106 = 11.9ppm m
6 mg
10
L

c. The concentration expressed as % by mass as N = 11.9 106

102 = 11.9 104 = 0.00119%

Example Problem 1.3

Mirex (MW = 540) is a fully chlorinated organic pesticide that was manu-
factured to control fire ants. It is very unreactive and therefore persists in
the environment. Lake Erie water samples have had Mirex measured as
high as 0.002 g/L, and lake trout samples with 0.002 g/g of Mirex have
been obtained.

a. What is the aqueous concentration of Mirex in units of ppb, ppt,

and moles/L?
b. What is the concentration of Mirex in fish in ppmm and ppbm?

Solution
a. The concentration of Mirex in Lake Erie = 0.002 g/L = 0.002
106 g/L

Density of water = 1,000 g/L

Aqueous concentration of Mirex in ppb

g
0.002 10 6
= L 109 = 0.002ppb
g
103
L
= 2.0ppt

The aqueous concentration in M

g mole mole
= 0.002 = 3.7 10 6 = 3.7 10 6 M
L 540g L

b. The concentration of Mirex in fish = 0.002 g/g

g
= 0.002 10 6 106 = 0.002ppm m
g
4 WATER TREATMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE

The concentration of Mirex in fish in ppb

ppb
= 0.002ppm 103 = 2.0ppb m
ppm

1.1.2 EQUIVALENT CONCENTRATION

Equivalent weight is an important chemistry concept in drinking water

treatment because it is related to charge and along with electroneutrality,
allows relationships to be established between reacting species.

Molecularweight
Equivalentweight = (1.1)
n

where n = absolute value of charge, number of hydrogen or hydroxyl ions

capable of being transferred, or the number of electrons transferred during
a redox reaction. Another associated concept, Normality, is also frequently
needed in drinking water treatment.

Numberofequivalents
Normality = (1.2)
L

Example Problems 1.4 and 1.5 illustrate this concept for precipita-
tion-dissolution and acid-base reactions.

Example Problem 1.4

Calcium carbonate dissolves in water according to the following reaction:

CaCO3 ( s ) Ca 2 + + CO32

If the molecular weight of calcium carbonate is 100 g/mole, what is its

equivalent weight?

Solution
Because the change in charge (positive or negative) is 2, the n in Equa-
tion 1.1 in this case will be 2. Thus, the equivalent weight = Molecular
weight /2 = 50 g/equivalent.
 CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 5

Example Problem 1.5

Calculate the Normality of the following solutions:

a. 36.5 g/L HCl

b. 9.8 g/L H2SO4

Solution
a. HCl MW = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 g/mole
n = 1 (one mole of HCl provides 1 equivalent of H+)
Therefore, equivalent weight of HCl = Molecular
weight / 1 = 36.5 g/equivalent

g
36.5
L equivalent
Thus, Normality = = 1.0 = 1.0N
g L
36.5
equivalent

b. H2SO4 MW = [(1 2) + 32 + (16 4)] = 98 g/mole

n = 2 (one mole of H2SO4 provides 2 equivalent of H+ as

H2SO4 2H+ + SO42)

Therefore, equivalent weight of

H2SO4 = Molecular weight / 2 = 98/2 = 49 g/equivalent

g
9.8
L equivalent
Thus, Normality = = 0.2 = 0.2N
g L
49.0
equivalent

1.2 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

1.2.1 HENRYS LAW

As discussed in Section 1.10.4 of the Casparian & Sirokman text in this

collection, Henrys law relates the solubility of a gas in a liquid to the par-
tial pressure of the gas above the liquid. In water treatment, the most
common use of this law is the dissolution of oxygen in water, as high-
lighted in Example Problem 1.6.
6 WATER TREATMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE

Example Problem 1.6

A water source is at an elevation (El) of 1,200 ft (366 m) and a tempera-
ture of 25 C. The atmospheric pressure at El 1,000 ft (305 m) is 733 mm
Hg and at El 1,500 ft (457 m) is 720 mm Hg. What is the saturation
dissolved-oxygen concentration of this water source in mg/L?

Solution

Patm at El 305 m = 733 mm Hg

Patm at El 457 m = 720 mm Hg

Linear interpolation of this data results in

( 733 720 )
Patm atEL366m = 733 ( 366 305 )
( 457 305 )
= 727.78mmHg = 0.958atm

CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics (96th edition, Haynes, 2016)

states that air contains 20.9% of oxygen by volume.

partialpressureofoxygen = 0.209 0.958atm = 0.2atm

Applying Equation 1.14 of the Casparian & Sirokman text, and taking the
value of Henrys law Constant for oxygen to be 756.7 atm/(mol/L) at
25C from the same reference,

SaturatedDissolvedOxygenconcentration at
0.2atm mol
25C = = 2.643*10 4 = 2.643
L
atm
756.7
mol
L
mol 32, 000mg mg
10 4 = 8.46
L mol L

1.2.2 ACID AND BASE DISSOCIATION CONSTANT

Please refer to Chapter 2 of the Casparian & Sirokman text in this

collection for a detailed discussion of this topic. Example Problem 1.7
shows how this concept is useful in water treatment.
 CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 7

Example Problem 1.7

Chlorine is widely used as a disinfectant in drinking water treatment
plants, as discussed in detail in Chapter 5 of this text. Chlorine gas reacts
readily with water to form hypochlorous acid, HOCl, according to the
following reaction:

Cl 2 ( g ) + H 2 O HOCl + H + + Cl (1.3)

The hypochlorous acid, because it is a weak acid, partially dissociates

to yield hypochlorite ion according to the following reaction:

HOCl H + + OCl (1.4)

How does the relative distribution of HOCl and OCl vary as a func-
tion of the pH?

Solution
Note from Table 2.1 of the Casparian & Sirokman text that Ka for Equa-
tion 1.4 is 3 108.

H + OCl
Thus, K a = = 3 10 8 (1.5)
[ HOCl ]
The relative distribution of HOCl and OCl is a function of pH, as
shown in Figure 1.1.

100
90
Percent OCl or HOCl

80
70
60
50 Ocl
40 HOCl
30
20
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
pH

Figure 1.1. Distribution of HOCl and OCl as a function of pH.

8 WATER TREATMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE

1.2.3 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT

This topic is discussed in detail in Section 2.4 of the Casparian & Sirok-
man text and is not repeated here. Example 1.8 illustrates the use of this
concept in water treatment.

Example Problem 1.8

The presence of phosphorus (as inorganic orthophosphate) in freshwaters
can cause eutrophication, a major water quality issue in many countries. A
common technique used to reduce phosphorus concentration in freshwater
is to precipitate it by addition of a polyvalent cation salt. Solid Aluminum
Phosphate (AlPO4) has a Ksp of 1022. Find the equilibrium concentration
of orthophosphate-phosphorus in mg/L.

Solution

AlPO 4 ( s ) Al3+ + PO34 ; K sp = 10 22 = Al3+ PO34 (1.6)

Since 1 mole of AlPO4 dissolves to give 1 mole of Al3+ and 1 mole of

PO34 ,

Al3+ = PO34 = 10 22 = 10 11 M

1 molPO34 = 1 mol

orthophosphate-phosphorus = 31 g of P = 31,000 mg of P

Therefore, 1011 M = 1011 mol/L 31,000 mg/mol = 3.1 107 mg/L as P.

1.2.4 ALKALINITY

The alkalinity of a water is the capacity of that water to accept protons.

Alkalinity is usually imparted by the bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydrox-
ide components of a natural or treated water supply. It is determined by
titration with a standard solution of a strong mineral acid to the successive
bicarbonate and carbonic acid equivalence points, indicated electrometri-
cally or by means of color. As far as environmental significance is con-
cerned, highly alkaline waters are usually unpalatable, and consumers may
tend to seek other supplies. Alkalinity data are used in a variety of ways in
environmental engineering practice:
 CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 9

a. Chemical coagulation: Chemicals used for coagulation of water,

wastewater, and industrial wastes react with water to form insolu-
ble hydroxide precipitates. The hydrogen ions released react with
the alkalinity of the water. The alkalinity acts to buffer the water in
a pH range, where the coagulant can be effective. Chapter 5 covers
this in more detail.
b. Water softening: Alkalinity is a major item that must be considered
in calculating the lime and soda-ash requirements in softening of
water by precipitation methods. Chapter 4 covers this in more detail.
c. Corrosion control: One of the important parameters in controlling
corrosion is alkalinity.
d. Industrial wastes: Many regulatory agencies prohibit the discharge
of wastes containing caustic (hydroxide) alkalinity to receiving waters.

The general equation for total alkalinity in most waters where the
carbonate system is the only external species that has the ability to accept
protons is as follows:

equiv.
TotalAlkalinity( TALK ) in
L
= HCO3 + 2 CO32 + OH H + (1.7)

Example Problem 1.9

A water sample has a carbonate (CO32) concentration of 90 mg/L. The pH
is 10.33.

a. What is its TALK in equiv./L?

b. What is its TALK in mg/L as CaCO3?
c. What is the pOH of this solution?

Solution
a. Ionic weight of carbonate = [12 + (16 3)] = 60 g/mol
Therefore, 60 g/L carbonate = 1M

Thus, 90 mg/L carbonate =

mole mg
1 90
L L = 1.5 10 3 M = CO 2
g mg 3
60 1, 000
L g
10 WATER TREATMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE

From Table 2.1 of the Casparian & Sirokman text,

11
H + CO32
4.7 *10 =
HCO3

pH = 10.33. Therefore, [H+] = 1010.33 = 4.7 1011

H + CO32 4.7 10 11 1.5 10 3

HCO3 = 11 = 11
= 1.5*10 3
4.7 10 4.7 10

10 14
OH = + = 2.14 10 4
H

Application of Equation 1.7 results in:

TALK = 1.5 103 + 2 (1.5 103)
+ 2.14 104 4.7 1011 = 4.714 103 equiv./L

b. From Example Problem 1.4 it is observed that

1 equiv./L = 50 g/L as CaCO3 = 50,000 mg/L as CaCO3

4.714 10 3 equiv./L
mg
50, 000 asCaCO3
equiv. L
= 4.714 10 3
L 1equiv. / L
mg
= 235.7 asCaCO3
L

c. [OH] = 2.14 104 Therefore, pOH = log (2.14 104) = 3.67

REFERENCES

Casparian, A. S., and G. Sirokman. 2016. Chemistry for Environmental Engineer-

ing, 1st ed. New York, NY: Momentum Press.
Haynes, W. H. Ed. 2016. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 96th ed. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC.
 INDEX

A chemical, 9
Acid dissociation constant, 67
Activated carbon, 8586, 89, 90,
92
Adsorbent, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91
Adsorption, 8586, 8790, 96
isotherm, 8792
Aeration, 3336
cascade aeration, 3536
kinetics, 3435
Alkalinity, 810, 37, 39
B belt filter presses, 82
Base dissociation constant, 67
Belt filter presses, 82
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD), 73
C Disinfection, 47, 6870
Carbonate hardness (CH), 37, 39
CarmenKozeny equation, 65, 66
Cascade aeration, 3536
Centrifuges, 8284
Chemical concepts
chemical equilibrium, 510
concentration, 15
Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD), 73
Chicks Law, 68
Chlorine/ammonia reactions, 70
Coagulation, 4755
chamber, 5255
dose determination, 5152
sludge, management of, 7577
Consecutive reactions, 1618
Continuously stirred tank reactors
(CSTR), 21, 2330
in series (cascade), 2426
Corrosion control, 9
CT concept, 6869
D
Dewatering, 8083
centrifuges, 8283
lagoons, 81
sand drying beds, 8081
solar drying beds, 81
vacuum filters, 81
chlorine/ammonia reactions, 70
CT concept, 6869
Dispersion model, 2931
Dissolved air flotation (DAF), 80
Dissolved organic matter (DOM), 85
Dissolved oxygen (DO), 3336, 45
Drinking Water Treatment Plants
(DWTPs), 33, 47
E
Efficiency of gas transfer, 3536
Equilibrium constant, 1819
Equivalent concentration, 45
100 INDEX

F N
Filtration, hydraulics of, 6568 Nanofiltration, 9394
Flocculation, 47, 5657 Natural organic matter (NOM), 85,
Fractional efficiency, 25 93
Freundlich model, 87, 8992
O
G Order of reaction, 1315
Gas transfer, efficiency of, 35
Granular activated carbon (GAC), P
86 Pharmaceutical and personal care
Groundwater treatment products (PPCPs), 85
aeration, 3336 Plug flow reactors, 21, 2631
cascade aeration, 3536 Powdered activated carbon (PAC),
kinetics, 3436 86, 92
iron and manganese removal,
4546 R
softening Reaction kinetics
hardness, 3645 introduction, 11
lime soda softening, 3845 order of reaction and specific
rate constant, 1315
H stoichiometry and reaction rate,
Hardness, 3645 1113
Henrys law, 56 types of reactions, 1619
Reaction rate, 1113
I Reactors
Industrial wastes, 9 continuously stirred tank, 2230
in series, 2426
L dispersion model, 2931
Lagoons, dewatering, 81 plug flow, 2631
Langmuir model, 8789 sequencing batch, 2122
Lime soda softening, 3845 Residual sludge, management of,
sludge, management of, 7779 7983
softening reactions, 3945 conditioning, 80
Log Removal (LR), 69 dewatering, 8083
thickening, 7980
M Residuals management.See Water
Membrane technologies treatment plant
microfiltration, 93 Reverse osmosis (RO), 9496
nanofiltration, 94
reverse osmosis, 9496 S
ultrafiltration, 93 Sand drying beds, 8081
Microfiltration (MF), 93 Sedimentation, 5765
Micropollutants, 85 type I, 5862
Molar concentration, 14 type II, 6265

Sequencing batch reactors (SBR),
2122
Sludge, management of
coagulation, 7577
lime soda softening, 7779
residual, 7983
specific gravity of, 7375
Softening process
hardness, 3645
lime soda softening, 3845
Softening reactions, 3945
Solar drying beds, 81
Solubility product, 8
Specific gravity, of sludge, 7375
density of, 74
volume of, 7475
Specific rate constant, 1315
Stoichiometry, 1113
Surface water treatment
coagulation, 4755
chamber, 5255
dose determination, 5152
disinfection, 6870
chlorine/ammonia reactions,
70
CT concept, 6869
filtration
hydraulics of, 6568
flocculation, 5657
sedimentation, 5765
type I, 5862
type II, 6265
Surface Water Treatment Rule
(SWTR), 69
Sweep floc, 49
Synthetic organic compounds
(SOCs), 85, 89
INDEX 101
T
Thickening, 7980
flotation, 80
gravity, 79
Total hardness (TH), 37, 3945
Total Suspended Solids (TSS), 62
Tri Halo Methanes (THMs), 70
Type II sedimentation, 6265
Type I sedimentation, 5862
U
Ultrafiltration (UF), 93
United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA),
45, 6970
V
Vacuum filters, 81
Vant Hoff equation, 94
W
Water softening, 9, 3645
Water treatment plant (WTP)
residuals management, 7172,
7983
coagulation sludge,
management of, 7577
final disposal, 8384
lime soda softening sludge,
management of, 7779
physical, chemical, and
biological properties of,
7273
residualsludges, management
of, 7983
resource recovery, 83
specific gravity of sludge,
7375
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Environmental Site Investigation by Christopher B. Pickles
Engineering Economics for Environmental Engineers by Francis J. Hopcroft
Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers by Francis J. Hopcroft
Ponds, Lagoons, and Wetlands for Wastewater Management by Matthew E. Verbyla
Hydrology and Storm Sewer Design by Gautham P. Das

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Announcing Digital Content Crafted by Librarians

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