HUMANIZING LANGUAGE LEARNING

Year 14; Issue 5; October 2012, ISSN 1755-

SHORT ARTICLES 9715
Language Learning Strategy (LLS) in EFL Classroom

Saeedeh Karbalaee Kamran, Iran

Saeedeh Karbalaee Kamran is an EFL instructor at Kish Institute of Science and

Technology in Tehran, Iran. She holds an MA in teaching English as a foreign
language (TEFL) from Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Tehran, Iran. She is interested in SLA, language learning strategies, syllabus
design, and CALL. E-mail: s.kamran@srbiau.ac.ir, and
saeedehkamran@gmail.com.

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Introduction
Classification of language learning strategies
Good language learner strategies
Metacognitive beliefs and strategy
Strategy training
Conclusion
References

Introduction

As Oxford (2003) stated, in ancient Greece, strategy involved a general's plan to

win a war. In the form of extended modern usage, a strategy is considered as a
plan that is consciously designed to meet a target. According to Cohen (2003),
language learning strategies are the conscious or semi-conscious thoughts and
behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and
understanding of a target language. Moreover, Ellis (1994) describes a language
learning strategy as "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic
competence in target language" (p. 530). As Brown (2000) argues, styles are quite
fixed characteristics within a person, which do not change in short time, while
strategies are used when learners face a particular learning difficulty, and they vary
considering the nature of the learning problem. Further, he mentions that
"language learning strategies are usually contrasted with communication
strategies, which deal with the production of L2 output, not its acquisition and
internalization. Language learning strategies are also contrasted with learning
styles due to their problem-oriented nature" (pp.122-123).

Classification of language learning strategies

As numerous learning strategies exist, a variety of modes of strategy
classifications have been emerged. Wenden and Rubin (1987) classified language
learning strategies to three groups of learning, communication, and social
strategies. Learning strategies included cognitive and metacognitive strategies
which help learners deal with learning task directly and provide them with
knowledge about learning respectively. Communication strategies aid students
when interacting with others despite their limited language knowledge, and social
strategies could help learners to increase their opportunities of exposure to and
interaction with other learners or native speakers. In 1990, Oxford developed her
Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), in which factor analysis is used
to group strategies into six categories. Oxford (1990) identifies six major groups of
L2 learning strategies:

1. Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material

in direct ways, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, and
synthesizing
2. Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying ones own preferences and need
planning, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success) are used to
manage the learning process overall.
3. Memory-related strategies (e.g., acronyms, sound similarities, images, key
words) help learners link one L2 item or concept with another but do not
necessarily involve deep understanding.
4. Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from the context; circumlocution;
and gestures and pause words) help make up for missing knowledge.
5. Affective strategies, such as identifying ones mood and anxiety level,
talking about feelings, rewarding oneself, and using deep breathing or,
positive self talk, help learners manage their emotions.
6. Social strategies (e.g., asking questions, asking for clarification, asking for
conversation help, talking with a native-speaking partner, and exploring.
cultural and social norms) enable the learner to learn via interaction with
others and understand the target culture (p. 52)

An alternative taxonomy has been offered by OMalley and Chamot (1990), who
emphasize "the interaction of teacher and student and place emphasis on
scaffolding and the development of metacognitive strategies, under the rubric of
CALLA (cognitive academic language learning approach)" ( p. 35).

Brown (2000) states that the strategies provided by O'Malley and Chamot are
typically divided into three main categories: Metacognative, cognitive, and
socioaffective strategies. Metacognative is a term used in information-processing
theory, to indicate an executive function, and strategies that involve planning for
learning, thinking about learning as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production
or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed. Cognitive
strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more direct
manipulation of the learning material itself. Socioaffective strategies have to do
with social-mediating activity and interacting with others.

Good language learner strategies

According to Cook (2001), people who are realized as good language learners
might tackle learning in different ways from those who seem to be less good or
they might behave in the same way but more efficiently. Krashen (1988), predicts
that a ``good language learner, is an acquirer, who is able to obtain sufficient intake
in second language and has a low affective filter. As he claims the good language
learner may or may not be a conscious learner`` (p.37). He states that there seem
to be three sorts of bad language learners. The very worst type of a language
learner has neither acquisition nor learning going for him. This might be the result
of attitudinal factors i.e., lack of interest in the target language, high anxiety, etc.
or may due to low aptitude or interest in grammar. Two other varieties of bad
language learners are underusers of the Monitor and overusers of that. In a study
on good language learners, Naiman, Flohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978) found
that good learners were the ones who constantly improve their language
knowledge, actively involved in learning process, and were aware of language as
not only a system of rules but also a means of communication.

Rubin (1975) in his significant article on "good language learner" observed the
strategies used by good language learners, and provided them in a list, that is
briefly mentioned below:

1. The good language learner is a willing and accurate guesser.

2. The good language learner has a strong drive to communicate, or to learn
from a communication.
3. The good language learner is often not inhibited.
4. In addition to focusing on communication, the good language learner is
prepared to attend to form.
5. The good language learner practices. He may practice pronouncing words
or making up sentences.
6. The good language learner monitors his own and the speech of others.
7. The good language learner attends to meaning.

Metacognitive beliefs and strategy

From the viewpoint of psychology, we now discuss strategies as related to two

broad aspects of mental activity: metacognition and cognition, with an emphasis
on the former. Cognition involves the mental process of knowing, including aspects
such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment (and strategies related
to those aspects). Flavell (1979) who introduced the issue of metacognition,
defined it as ''knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena'' (p. 906). It
conveys that metacognition is the awareness of cognition, or simply thinking about
thinking. Flavell (1979) further mentions that metacognitive awareness consists of
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. The former refers to one's
knowledge of his/her cognitive process in relation to variables which influence the
results of the cognitive process. They are person variable (beliefs that one has
about him/herself or about others as a cognitive processor), task variable
(understanding nature of the task), and strategy variable (understanding of
strategies and their use which facilitates learning). The latter, metacognitive
regulation refers to the management of cognitive process, which helps people
achieve learning objectives. Such management entails planning, monitoring,
evaluating, and manipulating the cognitive process to achieve optimal learning
output.

Metacognition is what learners know about learning, and the techniques which can
lead them to an efficient learning, and an insight to factors that can help or
endanger learning process. According to Wenden (1991), Metacognitive belief can
be put into three categories: person knowledge, task knowledge, and strategy
knowledge (p 34):

Person knowledge refers to general knowledge about how human beings

learn and process information, and individual knowledge of ones own
learning processes. Learners need to understand their own cognitive
capabilities, and to know in which particular areas they are generally
competent and skilful. They need to know how to compensate for
deficiencies. Task knowledge includes knowledge about the nature of the task
and the type of processing demands. Learners need to know the purpose and
the nature of the tasks. Strategy knowledge includes knowledge about both
cognitive and metacognitive strategies and conditional knowledge about
when and where it is appropriate to use strategies.

As Chamot (2004) states, in the language classroom it is important that teachers

tries to develop students own metacognition, as that will help the learners chose
the most appropriate strategies for a given task. What learners need is to be able
to find and apply the most appropriate strategy for a particular task rather than
learning the names and types of the strategies.

Regarding metacognition as thinking about or awareness of learning, it can play a

significant role in learning process. It visualizes a mental link between one and
his/her learning, which if enhanced can provide a more fruitful learning outcome.
When learning process is deeply pondered, carefully organized, or meticulously
manipulated, the task objective is highly expected to be obtained. On the part of
reading, metacognitive awareness can help one, better understand the
mechanisms involved and employed in reading, and provide the readers with
awareness of the ways through which they can use strategies to maximize their
text comprehension.
Strategy training

Considering the advantages of language learning strategies, it seems vital to

foreign /second language teachers to include learner training as an integral part of
their language instruction. As Kinoshita (2003) mentioned language learning
strategy training can increase learners' awareness of learning strategies, provide
them with sufficient practice on strategy use, and help them monitor and assess
their strategy use. Wenden (1991) provided teachers with two general
suggestions. Firstly, teachers should try to gain insight about their students' belief
about language learning, and secondly, teachers should try to provide an
environment in which the language learners can become autonomous. Further,
Wenden (1991) presented some guidelines for strategy training derived from
strategy training research in non-ESL settings. Based on these guidelines strategy
training must have the following characteristics:

Informed: The purpose and importance of training the strategies must be clear for
the learners.

Self-regulation: students should be thought how to regulate their own strategy use,
and know how difficult it is to apply the strategy and how helpful it is.
Contextualization: Strategies should be contextualized in the task, skill, or the
content of the lesson.

Interactive: Strategy should be interactive. According to this mode of training,

learners should be exposed to strategy use and interact with teachers and peers.

Diagnosis: The content of the training should be based on the proficiency of the
learners. Therefore, when a strategy training session is going to start, information
must be picked on which strategies students use and how well they use them.

Conclusion

Based on studies in past half-century, language learning strategies are found to

positively influence language learning in its various aspects. These strategies raise
learners' consciousness and assist them in preventing, predicting, and tackling the
problems in the process of language learning. The learners who use these
strategies can manage their learning anxiety to a reasonable degree, and make
progress in language learning more autonomously. By teaching students these
strategies, the learners can play a more active role in their learning process and
they continuously monitor and assess their learning. The prerequisites for
successful strategy training is to have a comprehensive program for
implementation of strategy based learning in EFL courses. Based on the
importance and role of language learning strategies in the EFL learning progress,
the materials must be developed and teachers must be trained. Further, the EFL
programs which are based on strategy training are recommended to be monitored
and evaluated to avoid strategy overuse or underuse, and to provide accurate
quantitative and qualitative analysis of the influence of the language learning
strategy use on learning achievement. Therefore, by remedial actions which are
based on research results, strategy training can be kept in an optimal status.

References

Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). New
York: Longman.

Chamot, A. U. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching.

Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 1(1). Retrieved June 10, 2009,
from:
http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/archive/v1n12004.htm

Cohen, A. D. (2003). The learner's side of foreign language learning: Where do

styles, strategies, and tasks meet?. International Review of Applied Linguistics in
Language Teaching (Iral), 41, 279-291.

Cook, V. (2001). Second language learning and language teaching. (3rd ed.).
London: Arnold Publishers.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new era of

cognitive development inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.

Kinoshita, K. C. (2003). Integrating language learning strategy instruction into

ESL/EFL lessons. The Internet TESL Journal, 9(4).

Krashen, S.D. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language

learning. London: Prentice-Hall.

Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H., & Todesco, A. (1978). The good language
learner. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Reprinted 1996 by
Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, UK.

O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language

acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should

know. New York: Newburry House.

Oxford, R. L. (2003). Language learning styles and strategies: Concepts and

relationships. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching
(Iral), 41, 271-277.
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Quarterly, 9(1), 41-51.

Wenden, A. (1991). Learner strategy for learner autonomy. London: Prentice- Hall.

Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.