Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Estudiantes:
Camila Acua
Danitza Carreo
Macarena Court
Running Title: TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO GREEN ECONOMY
NDICE
1. Introduccin 4
2. Descripcin 7
3. Traduccin 8
3.1.2. Aplicacin 15
4. Glosario 44
5. Bibliografa 46
Apndice B: Traduccin
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 2
GREEN ECONOMY
Resumen
texto desarrollado por Christiane Nord, con un micro y macro anlisis del texto
Abstract
This project consists in a translation of the text Green Economy in a Blue World
from English to Spanish; the chosen text was obtained from UNEP (The United
introduces new sustainable projects and suggests new ecological and eco-
text developed by Christiane Nord, with a micro and macro analysis of the text.
In addition, the translation techniques by Vinay and Darbelnet are given, which
are applied and illustrated with examples according to the text. Finally, a
glossary is given with the most relevant terms along with its equivalent in
Renewable Energy
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 4
GREEN ECONOMY
1. Introduccin
Este proyecto incluye una traduccin del texto Green Economy in a Blue
La eleccin del texto a traducir tiene relacin con la cultura meta, es decir, se
medidas para llegar a una economa verde. El texto traducido Green Economy
de la pesquera.
Energa, s.f.).
2014)
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 6
GREEN ECONOMY
Debido a esto se puede evidenciar que Chile se est involucrando cada vez
cuidado.
2. Descripcin
Este proyecto de ttulo abarca, entre otros, la traduccin del texto de ingls a
captulos que son los siguientes: Introduccin, Descripcin, Traduccin (el que
un Glosario y la Bibliografa.
donde se indican las fuentes que se usaron para realizar el proyecto de ttulo.
glosario.
3. Traduccin
leer el texto de forma general para conocer sobre el tema que tratar, buscar
texto, se van presentando problemas ya sea con una palabra o trmino, con el
orden de una oracin o el sentido mismo de esta. Para encontrar una solucin
a los problemas que pueda haber, existen tcnicas que facilitan la labor del
autor.
pretenden entregar la informacin del texto sin alterar el mensaje del texto de
del texto.
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 9
GREEN ECONOMY
tcnicas de traduccin, el que se iniciar con las tcnicas propuestas por Vinay
oblicuas (en Couloun, 2002). Luego del legado dejado por ellos, con el paso del
tiempo, hubo otros autores que desarrollaron sus propias tcnicas basadas en
grupos. El primer grupo se conoce como tcnicas directas, que constan de tres
tcnicas: literal, prstamo y calco. Este grupo busca la semejanza, por lo tanto,
(Gil, 2008).
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 10
GREEN ECONOMY
Segn Vzquez Ayora existe una diferencia entre los procedimientos tcnicos
procedimientos.
Tabla 1
Traduccin literal versus oblicua
Procedimientos Amplificacin
complementarios Explicitacin
Omisin
Compensacin
Otra diferencia en las teoras es que Vzquez Ayora agrega dos nuevas
implcita, por ejemplo una idea que se encuentra incluida pero no especificada
en el resultado, que afecta a zonas menores del texto (en Gil, 2008), es decir,
traduccin y que facilita la comprensin del texto, ya sea por un trmino o por
problemas que necesitan solucin para que haya mejor y mayor comprensin
del texto y debido a las problemticas que podran existir o no, Hurtado
Tabla 2
Tcnicas de traduccin de Hurtado
consecutiva y doblaje.
Amplificacin Se entrega informacin que no se
encuentra en el texto o se amplan
ideas; puede ser una parfrasis
explicativa, nota del traductor, entre
otras.
Calco Se traduce palabra por palabra, ya sea
en el lxico y estructural.
Compensacin Se cambian de lugar elementos
informativos, ya que no se ha podido
reflejar en el lugar original.
Compensacin lingstica Es la sntesis de elementos
lingsticos; se opone a la ampliacin
lingstica.
Creacin discursiva Es una equivalencia en la lengua de
llegada y que no se relaciona con el
texto de partida.
Descripcin Se traduce un trmino que describe su
forma o funcin.
Elisin Se omiten o eliminan informacin de la
lengua de partida en la lengua de
llegada.
Equivalente acuado Se usa trmino o expresin
equivalente (si existe) de la lengua
llegada.
Generalizacin Uso del trmino ms general o neutro
en la lengua de llegada.
Modulacin Cambio de percepcin del mensaje, ya
sea en el lxico o estructural.
Particularizacin Se usa un trmino ms preciso o
concreto en la lengua de llegada
Prstamo Se integra una palabra o expresin de
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 15
GREEN ECONOMY
3.1.2. Aplicacin
Traduccin literal
Desafos y oportunidades
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 16
GREEN ECONOMY
ttulo.
Prstamo
tcnica.
Tabla 3
Ejemplo de prstamo
Ingls Espaol
GRID-Arendal is a collaborating GRID-Arendal es un centro de
centre of the United Nations colaboracin del Programa de
Environment Programme las Naciones Unidas para el
(UNEP). Medio Ambiente.
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 17
GREEN ECONOMY
Tabla 4
Ejemplo de prstamo
Ingls Espaol
The typical cost of transporting a El costo usual para transportar
bottle of whisky from Europe to una botella de whisky desde
China is about US $0.15. Europa a China es de unos US
$0,15.
Calco
los elementos que lo componen (MRS Traducciones, s.f). Esto quiere decir
que son trminos que provienen de una lengua origen que se adoptan en
Tabla 5
Ejemplo de calco
Ingls Espaol
Remarkably, this was the case Cabe destacar que este fue el
even during the cold war years, caso incluso durante los aos
in particular the 1970s and de la Guerra Fra, en
1980s. particular, las dcadas de
1970 y 1980.
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 18
GREEN ECONOMY
Nota: se considera calco a este trmino ya que ha sido adoptado del ingls
Tabla 6
Ejemplo de calco
Ingls Espaol
() Its mission is to () su misin es comunicar
communicate environmental informacin sobre el
information to policy-makers and medioambiente a los
facilitate environmental decision- legisladores y facilitar la toma
making for change. de decisiones sobre el
medioambiente para producir
cambios.
Nota: al contrario del ejemplo anterior, en este caso hay una inversin del
Tabla 7
Ejemplo de calco
Ingls Espaol
Furthermore, given the long lead Adems dado a la extensin
times of marine-energy projects, de los plazos de los proyectos
a long-term vision is necessary. de energa marina, se
necesita una visin a largo
plazo.
Nota: en este caso se utiliz una expresin adoptada por la lengua receptora
Transposicin
esta tcnica.
Tabla 8
Ejemplo de transposicin
Ingls Espaol
(...) and the contribution to the (...) y la contribucin que el
green economy which shipping transporte martimo puede
can make more generally by hacer de manera ms
reducing its CO2 emissions. general a la economa verde a
travs de la reduccin de las
emisiones de CO2.
Nota: este es un caso de transposicin debido a que hubo un cambio
Tabla 9
Ejemplo de transposicin
Ingls Espaol
The WorldFish Center an El WorldFish Center es una
organization dedicated to organizacin que tiene como
reducing poverty and hunger by objetivo disminuir de la
improving fisheries and pobreza y el hambre por medio
aquaculture de mejoras en la industria
pesquera y acucola
Nota: en este ejemplo se aplica el cambio de verbo a sustantivo.
Tabla 10
Ejemplo de transposicin
Ingls Espaol
The value of unrecovered El valor de los recursos de
nutrient resources (waste) that nutrientes no fueron
mostly end up in groundwater recuperados (residuos) y que
and our oceans is on the order of en su mayor parte terminan
US$15 billion per year, en las aguas subterrneas y
underscoring the underlying en nuestros ocanos equivale
financial opportunity. a US $ 15 mil millones por
ao, lo que subraya la
oportunidad financiera
subyacente.
Nota: se realiz un cambio en el trmino por uno que explicara de mejor
sustantivo.
Modulacin
para que la oracin suene mejor a partir de una perspectiva nueva. En las
Tabla 11
Ejemplo de modulacin
Ingls Espaol
The ultimate goal of the shipping La meta principal de la
industry and its regulators is zero industria del transporte
accidents and zero pollution. martimo y de sus reguladores
es de no tener ningn tipo
de accidente ni generar
contaminacin.
Nota: en este caso, se usa una negacin en vez de la palabra cero ya que
Tabla 12
Ejemplo de modulacin
Ingls Espaol
What role do small-scale El rol que tienen las pesqueras
fisheries and aquaculture play? de pequea escala y la
acuicultura.
afirmativa.
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 22
GREEN ECONOMY
Tabla 13
Ejemplo de modulacin
Ingls Espaol
When conventional power is Cuando la energa
replaced by wind- generated convencional se remplaza por
electricity energa elica
Equivalencia
Tabla 14
Ejemplo de equivalencia
Ingls Espaol
The Convention reflects the El convenio refleja las
cradle to grave responsibilities responsabilidades de los
of ship-owners, from the time of a dueos de buques de
ships construction to its final principio a fin", desde el
demolition, and regulates the momento de la construccin
actions which will be required de un buque hasta su
and which should be approved by demolicin final y regula las
ships flag States and authorities acciones que se requieren y
in ship recycling nations. cules se deben aprobar por
los Estados de
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 23
GREEN ECONOMY
Amplificacin
algunos elementos del texto original (Heske, 2013). Esta tcnica se usa
Tabla 15
Ejemplo de amplificacin
Ingls Espaol
To prevent the more traditional Para prevenir las fuentes ms
sources of marine pollution by tradicionales de
ships contaminacin marina que
provienen de los buques
Nota: en este ejemplo hay una extensin del trmino para simplificar la
Tabla 16
Ejemplo de amplificacin
Ingls Espaol
It is, therefore, both IMOs Por ende, tanto el marco
regulatory framework and its normativo de la OMI como su
technical cooperation programa de cooperacin
programme, which contribute to tcnica son los que
sustainable socio-economic contribuyen al desarrollo
development with, for the ITCP, socioeconmico sustentable,
the emphasis on meeting the por el PICT, con el nfasis de
special assistance maritime satisfacer las necesidades
needs of Africa, SIDS and LDC especiales de asistencia
martima en frica, en los
Pequeos Estados Insulares
en Desarrollo (SIDS) y en los
Pases Menos Desarrollados
(LDCs).
Nota: en este caso se aplica esta tcnica ya que en el texto original se
Tabla 17
Ejemplo de amplificacin
Ingls Espaol
()productivity data is often () a menudo, los datos de la
extrapolated from small productividad obtenidos de
experiments and overall analyses pequeos experimentos y
of energy balances, GHG anlisis generales de los
balances and CO2 abatement balances de energa se
potential are lacking (FAO, extrapolan; faltan los balances
2009). de gases de efecto
invernadero (GHC) y el
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 25
GREEN ECONOMY
potencial de reduccin de
dixido de carbono (CO2)
(FAO, 2009).
Nota: se aplica esta tcnica ya que era necesario poder amplificar estas
Omisin
vez de agregar elementos se eliminan con el fin de aclarar las ideas que se
Tabla 18
Ejemplo de omisin
Ingls Espaol
The Green Economy in a Blue En el informe La Economa
World report analyzes how key verde en un mundo azul se
sectors that are interlinked with analiza la forma en que los
the marine and coastal sectores claves se relacionan
environment the blue world con el ambiente marino y
can make the transition towards costero, o sea el mundo azul, y
a Green Economy. la manera en que se
realizara la transicin hacia la
economa verde.
Nota: en este ejemplo se omite el auxiliar can y se utiliza solo el verbo
make.
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 26
GREEN ECONOMY
Adaptacin
existe en la lengua meta y por lo tanto se debe recurrir a otra situacin que
Tabla 19
Ejemplo de adaptacin
Ingls Espaol
Friday 13th Martes 13
Nota: este ejemplo no pertenece al texto del proyecto de ttulo, pero se utiliz
Descripcin
Tabla 20
Ejemplo de descripcin
Ingls Espaol
As the coordinator of this La Organizacin Martima
chapter, the International Internacional, como
Maritime Organization wishes to coordinadora de este captulo,
acknowledge the contribution of desea reconocer la
the International Chamber of contribucin de la Cmara
Shipping, WWF and UN-Oceans. Naviera Internacional (ICS por
sus siglas en ingls), el Fondo
Mundial para la Naturaleza
(WWF) y UN-Oceans (inter
agencia de las Naciones
Unidas)
Nota: en este ejemplo se describe la organizacin debido a que no tiene
Tabla 21
Ejemplo de descripcin
Ingls Espaol
Active demersal fishing gears Los equipos activos de pesca
(dredging and bottom trawling) demersal (peces que viven
are energy-intensive fishing cerca del fondo del mar, un
methods, while passive fishing ejemplo sera rbalos y
gears, such as hook and line, gill congrio), draga (mquina
nets, or traps, require less que recoge productos
energy. marinos) y pesca de arrastre
son mtodos de pesca que
consumen mucha energa y,
por otro lado, estn los
equipos de pesca pasivo en
los que se considera al
anzuelo y sedal, redes de
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 28
GREEN ECONOMY
del texto Green Economy in a Blue World y cmo estos problemas se pudieron
solucionar.
2008). En el caso de la traduccin del texto, no se tuvo que usar esta tcnica a
que traducirlas. De todas las citas que aparecan en el texto, solo una contaba
2016 se tradujo, por lo tanto, existen cuatro aos de desfase del momento en el
recent, currently, current, today, etc. haciendo referencia al ao 2012 como los
separado debido a que ambas son aceptadas por la RAE. Por ello se investig
palabra se dej junta a lo largo del texto, sin embargo, se decidi respetar en
los organismos oficiales por ejemplo el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para
el Medio Ambiente.
efficient y efficiently, ya que constan con dos posibles traducciones que son
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 30
GREEN ECONOMY
problemas para decidir cul era el trmino ms apropiado para el texto. Esta
se hall que tanto eficaz como eficiente tienen el mismo significado, sin
efecto propio o el esperado (Fundu, 2014). Se opt por usar este trmino,
presencia de los trminos billion y trillion, los que suelen confundirse con los
En este anlisis se dar a conocer las tres teoras funcionalistas propuestas por
que cada uno de ellos propuso y el avance que tuvieron las teoras hasta el da
por Nord, la que se considera ms actual y apropiada por lo que se imparte por
mencionar que ella reconoca tres tipos bsicos de textos y argumentaba que
Pym, 2012). Y de acuerdo a esto, ella crea que cada uno de estos tres tipos de
Nida, quien postula dos tipos de equivalencia, y ya en los aos 70s comienza a
desarrollar su teora. Reiss consideraba que existan tres tipos de textos y que
Munday (2001):
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 32
GREEN ECONOMY
referential, the content or topic is the main focus of the communication, and
message, and the text type is expressive. Es decir, el texto expresivo utiliza la
utilizar la forma tradicional del lenguaje sino que una que rompe con este.
appeal to or persuade the reader or receiver of the text to act in a certain way.
The form of language is dialogic, the focus is appellative and Reiss calls this
which supplement the other three functions with visual images, music, etc.; Se
adecuado:
s.f).
Aplicacin:
puede aplicar a Chile ya que cuenta con alguno de los temas que se
Holz-Mnttri fue una traductora finlandesa que alrededor de los aos 80 cre
clientes, cuyo objetivo es reducir los obstculos culturales que impiden que la
que el traductor era el experto y que su rol era asegurarse que el texto fuera
Mnttri:
2012).
contacta con el traductor y que le encarga la traduccin. Por otro lado, distingue
otros procesos anexos adems de traducir, tales como leer el texto, analizar el
propsito y funcin del texto, saber a quin va dirigido el texto, entre otros (en
Tabla 22
Aplicacin de teora funcionalista de Holz-Mnttri
http://www.academia.edu
La teora del Skopos se introdujo en los aos 70s por Vermeer y Reiss.
propsito o funcin.
textos fuentes. Skopos presta ms atencin a los lectores del texto objetivo
(Alam, s.f). Esto quiere decir que debido a que la teora del Skopos se enfoca
traducir.
El papel del texto fuente en la cultura fuente puede ser diferente del
papel del texto objetivo en la cultura objetiva. El texto objetivo debe tener en
texto meta puede variar, sin embargo, el texto meta tiene que ser siempre fiel al
texto origen.
El texto objetivo debe ser fiel al texto fuente, tiene que tener coherencia
llevar a cabo la traduccin sin perder la esencia del mensaje (Alam, s.f).
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 38
GREEN ECONOMY
original.
Munday (2001) agrega que la teora del Skopos permite que el texto se
encargo.
Aplicacin:
slo a partir del texto origen, donde analiza tanto lo intra y extratextual del texto
El modelo de anlisis que crea Nord sobre el texto origen tiene que
traducir.
del texto base tiene que ser interpretada segn el sistema valorativo de la
cultura meta, por ejemplo, un texto que intente crear consciencia sobre el
Dentro de su modelo Nord describe cules son los pasos que hay que
4. Glosario
a las ciencias determinadas (Elies, s.f.). Estos intentaban dar respuestas a las
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 43
GREEN ECONOMY
Cervantes, s.f.).
una misma rea de estudio, el que suele ordenarse de manera alfabtica y que
Esto sirve para relacionar los trminos con el tema del texto, ya que existe la
Ingls Espaol
Aquaculture Acuicultura
Biodiversity Biodiversidad
Biofouling Bioincrustacin
Biofuel Biocombustible
Cabotage Cabotaje
Ecosystem Ecosistema
Environment Medioambiente
Fishery Pesquera
Grants Subvenciones
Habitat Hbitat
Hazards Peligros
Livelihood Subsistencia
Mangrove Manglar
Mariculture Maricultura
Migration Migracin
Taxes Impuestos
Tourism Turismo
5. Bibliografa
http://www.modelismonaval.com
Obtenido de http://www.birmingham.ac.uk
http://biofuelsassociation.com.au
https://traducirenatacama.wordpress.com
de http://www.odepa.cl
http://cvc.cervantes.es
http://vidasintraducibles.blogspot.cl
https://www.cleanenergybc.org
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 47
GREEN ECONOMY
http://www.moldtrans.com
http://www5.uva.es/hermeneus
http://deconceptos.com
http://elies.rediris.es
Obtenido de http://www.epa.vic.gov.au
Obtenido de https://buleria.unileon.es
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States. (s.f). FAO . Obtenido
de http://www.fao.org
Obtenido de http://www.fundeu.es
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 48
GREEN ECONOMY
http://ddd.uab.cat
http://portal.mma.gob.cl
http://www.ademar.cl
http://www.gktoday.in
http://www.globalecolabelling.net
Health and Safety Authority. (s.f.). Health and Safety Authority. Obtenido de
http://www.hsa.ie
Obtenido de http://www.ieo-santander.net
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 49
GREEN ECONOMY
de https://www.isa.org.jm
http://energyinformative.org
de http://www.mangrovegarden.org
Obtenido de https://rua.ua.es
http://traductorpublico.com
http://culturesconnection.com
http://www.energia.gob.cl
http://staff.uny.ac.id
Obtenido de https://www.wto.org
Obtenido de http://www.pnuma.org
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 50
GREEN ECONOMY
http://huitoto.udea.edu.co/TeoriaTraduccion/
Obtenido de http://www.evwind.com
http://bibliotecadigital.univalle.edu.co
sociales/
Obtenido de http://www.unep.org
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (s.f.).
Obtenido de http://www.ifrc.org
TRADUCCIN Y GLOSARIO 51
GREEN ECONOMY
https://www.cbd.int
http://www.traduccion365.com
Obtenido de https://www.iucn.org
UN-OHRLLS. (s.f). United Nations Office of the High Representative for the
http://internationaloffice.hanu.vn/
UNDESA
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
UNEP coordinates United Nations environmental UNDP is the United Nations global development network, an
activities, assisting developing countries in implementing organisation advocating for change and connecting countries
environmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build
as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human a better life. UNDP is on the ground in 177 countries, working
Environment in June 1972. Its mission is to provide leadership with them on their own solutions to global and national
and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they
inspiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to draw on the people of UNDP and its wide range of partners.
improve their quality of life without compromising that of Through its Ocean and Coastal Governance Programme, UNDP
is working in cooperation with many other UN agencies, the
in a Blue World
future generations.
Global Environment Facility, international financial institutions,
regional fisheries organisations and others to improve oceans
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) management and sustain livelihoods at the local, national,
Achieving food security for all to make sure people have regular regional and global scales through effective oceans governance.
access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives
is at the core of all FAO activities, including for fisheries and
aquaculture. FAOs mandate is to raise levels of nutrition, improve IUCN Global Marine Programme
agricultural productivity, better the lives of rural populations and Founded in 1948, The World Conservation Union brings together
contribute to the growth of the world economy. Fisheries and States, government agencies and a diverse range of non-
aquaculture have the capacity if supported and developed governmental organizations in a unique world partnership:
over 1000 members in all, spread across some 140 countries. As
responsibly to contribute significantly to improving the well-
a Union, IUCN seeks to influence, encourage and assist societies
being of poor and disadvantaged communities. The vision
throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of
of FAO for these sectors is a world in which responsible and
nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable
sustainable use of fisheries and aquaculture resources makes
and ecologically sustainable.
an appreciable contribution to human well-being, food security
and poverty alleviation. The FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture
Department, in particular, aims to strengthen global governance
WorldFish Center
and the managerial and technical capacities of members and to
The WorldFish Center an organization dedicated to reducing
lead consensus-building towards improved conservation and
poverty and hunger by improving fisheries and aquaculture. It is
utilisation of aquatic resources.
an international, non-profit research organization that focuses on
the opportunities provided by fisheries and aquaculture to reduce
poverty, hunger and vulnerability in developing countries. The
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) WorldFish Center is one of the 15 members of the Consortium of
IMO is the United Nations (UN) specialised agency with International Agricultural Research Centers supported by the
responsibility for the safety and security of shipping and the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR),
prevention of marine pollution by ships. International shipping is a global partnership that unites the organizations engaged in
the carrier of world trade, transporting around ninety percent of research for sustainable development with the funders of this
global commerce. Being an international industry shipping needs a work. The funders include developing and industrialized country
global regulatory framework in which to operate. IMO, governments, foundations, international and regional organizations.
with its 170 Member States, provides this framework
and has adopted 52 treaties regulating virtually every
technical aspect of ship design and operation, the most GRID-Arendal
important of which concerning the safety of life at GRID-Arendal is a collaborating centre of the United Nations
sea and the protection of the environment today apply on Environment Programme (UNEP). Established in 1989 by the
ninety-nine percent of the worlds merchant fleet. IMO adopts Government of Norway as a Norwegian Foundation, its mission
international shipping regulations but it is the responsibility is to communicate environmental information to policy-makers
of Governments to implement those regulations. IMO has and facilitate environmental decision-making for change. This is
developed an Integrated Technical Co-operation Programme achieved by organizing and transforming available environmental
(ITCP) designed to assist Governments which lack the technical data into credible, science-based information products, delivered
knowledge and resources needed to operate a shipping industry through innovative communication tools and capacity-building
safely and efficiently. services targeting relevant stakeholders.
UNEP promote
environmentally sound practices
UNEP, FAO, IMO, UNDP, IUCN, WorldFish Center, GRID- globally and in our own activities. This
Arendal, 2012, Green Economy in a Blue World
publication is printed on fully recycled paper,
www.unep.org/greeneconomy and www.unep.org/
FSC certified, post-consumer waste and chlorine-
regionalseas free. Inks are vegetable-based and coatings are
water-based. Our distribution policy aims to reduce
2 our carbon footprint.
ISBN: 978-82-7701-104-2
)25(:25'
in a Blue World
A worldwide transition to a low-carbon, resource-efficient Green
Economy will not be possible unless the seas and oceans are a key
Achim Steiner
UN Under-Secretary General
and UNEP Executive Director
3
5
in a Blue World
,1752'8&7,21
in a Blue World
Linwood Pendleton, Director of Ocean and Coastal Policy, Dukes Nicholas Institute has
been the lead author of this chapter. Anne Solgaard, GRID-Arendal, has contributed
the box on Life-cycle thinking. The box on Strategic Environemental Assessments was
provided by Paul Siegel, of WWF.
8
The early part of the 21st century has seen dramatic Our reliance on oceans and coasts
changes in the worlds environmental and Throughout the course of history, humans have
economic well-being. More fish stocks than ever been drawn to coastal areas to enjoy the bounty
before are considered overexploited, depleted or of the sea. As much as 40 per cent of the worlds
recovering (FAO, 2010), and chronic oil spills and population now lives within 100 kilometres of
land-based pollution continue to plague coastal the shoreline (Martnez, et al., 2007) and this
seas1. At the same time, the worlds economy population continues to grow increasing our
has experienced the deepest recession since the reliance and impact on the ocean and coast. Two-
Great Depression; many nations struggle to repay thirds of the worlds megacities are on the coast.
their debts, and income inequality has increased
steadily over the past 20 years (Wade, 2001). As the Much of the worlds economy and the cultures
population continues to grow in these uncertain of many peoples are founded on oceans and
in a Blue World
economic times, the role of environmental coasts. Modern civilization arose along the
capital is likely to become increasingly important coasts and rivers because of access to trade
to maintain and improve social well-being and resources. Today 90 per cent of global
around the globe. This is particularly true of economic trade travels by sea. The sea provides
poor communities that depend directly and many of the raw materials needed to supply the
disproportionately on ecosystems and natural worlds economy, such as minerals, sand and
resources. Despite our current understanding gravel. New sources of minerals and metals are
of the importance of environmental capital, the being explored in the deep sea and the areas
current economic paradigm promotes growth beyond national jurisdiction. In 2011 alone, the
in economic output and consumption with only International Seabed Authority issued four new
limited planning for inevitable increases in the exploration contracts for potential deep-sea
scarcity of environmental capital. mineral extraction. Plans are also underway to
tap the wave, thermal, current and other energy
In 1992 the need for a more sustainable economy potentials of the oceans. The International Panel
emerged as one of the key outcomes of the on Climate Change predicts that ocean energy
United Nations Conference on Environment and could one day be key to meeting the worlds
Development, held in Rio de Janeiro. Twenty years energy demands, but currently the development
later the search for a greener economy continues of ocean energy is still in its early stages.
as the UN convenes a second global Conference
on Sustainable Development (Rio + 20). Only recently, however, have we started to
fully appreciate the economic importance of
To help the world address the
challenges of an economic
transition, the United Nations Estimated ecosystem services value
Environment Programme
launched the Green Economy
series. This effort seeks to
pave a new way which will
align economic development
with the protection or even
improvement of the globes
current environmental capital.
The worlds oceans and coasts
the Blue World are key
components of the planets
environmental capital, and Wetlands
indeed, its economic capital.
The path towards a Green Rock and ice
Tropical forest
Economy must address the
uncertain
unique challenges that face a
data
global economy which relies Temperate and
critically on coastal and ocean Grasslands
Boreal forest Lakes - Ri
ecosystems. Croplands
www.grid.unep.ch/product/publication/
- - - -
- - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
-
and natural capital, Nature, 1998.
- - -
-
- - - -
- - -
- - - -
-
-
download/ew_oildischarge.en.pdf.
- - - -
- - - -
10
World oceans, a cornucopia of goods and services
in a Blue World
O2
O2
O2
O2
O2
O2
O2
CO2
our living seas and coasts. Marine habitats, values to be on the order of trillions of US
species, and ecosystems support natural dollars annually (Costanza, et al., 1997). Nearly
capital and economic flows, together referred three-quarters of this value resides in coastal
to as ecosystem services. Marine and coastal zones (Martnez, et al., 2007). These ecosystem
ecosystems provide many services such as food, services offer a renewable opportunity to meet
wood, fibre and other resources. Mangroves, salt basic human needs, support a healthy and
marshes and sea grasses are natural carbon sinks sustainable economy, and provide jobs for a
(Murray, et al., 2011). Coastal habitats, including growing global population.
coral reefs, also protect homes, communities
and businesses from storms and surges. Seafood continues to be a major economic use
of the living sea. Seafood consumption has hit an
Marine ecosystem services have substantial all-time high with the average person consuming
economic value. While exact figures are still more than 17 kilograms each year with more
debated, attempts to estimate the value of than 80 million tonnes harvested in ocean waters
coastal ecosystem services have found such in 2009 with a value in excess of US$100 billion
annually. Twenty million tonnes
of seafood were harvested from
the rapidly increasing marine
Bilion of US dollars per year
aquaculture sector alone. The
10 000
seafood industrys harvest and
post-harvest sectors support the
9 000 livelihoods of a total of about 540
million people, or eight per cent
8 000
Open ocean of the world population (FAO,
2010). In developing countries,
7 000 almost half of all fishing related
jobs are in small-scale fisheries.
6 000
- -
-
-
11
in a Blue World
and recreation are important reasons why so The need for a greener economy in a
many people chose to live near the sea, either in blue world
primary residences or in second homes. Ocean Harmonizing traditional economic activity and
recreation offers both market and non-market ecosystem-dependent economic values is a
benefits to residents and visitors of the coasts challenge we must address, especially for our
(Pendleton, 2008). Ocean views have been coasts and oceans.
shown to improve peoples well-being and are
an important reason homes near the sea have Persistent environmental pressures, including
higher value (Kildow, 2009). pollution, overharvesting of fisheries, and habitat
Nature provides ecosystem services to little benefit from conserving the services.
both humankind and to individuals, free PES can be a mechanism for overcoming
of cost. However, conserving ecosystem this problem.
services may come at a cost through the
loss of revenue derived from another use. The primary objective of a PES scheme is
In particular, these costs are incurred by not to generate money but to recognize
individuals who own ecosystems such as, the value of ecosystem services and
for example, a forest in a river catchment support their sustainable use. PES schemes
area. Conserving the forest provides a incentivize sellers, or service providers to
range of services, whether it means the change behaviour and encourage them to
supply of clean water or the prevention continue to provide the services, usually
of soil erosion. But these services are by compensating for losses or opportunity
largely unrecognized or invisible values. costs. The buyer, or service beneficiary,
On the other hand, converting the forest may be private (a company selling bottled
to cropland would provide direct benefits drinking water), public (a city supplying
to the landowner and beyond. These drinking water) or other organizations,
benefits may be smaller than the costs of such as an environmental group involved
losing the ecosystem services; but they are in the conservation of forest biodiversity.
more visible and positively accounted for
in prevailing economic models. Further, Source: GRID-Arendal, 2012: Vital Graphics on
Payment for Ecosystem Services Realising Natures
the individual landowner derives relatively Value
12
conversion are driven by growing populations salt marshes may be as high as 2 per cent (Duke, et
in a Blue World
and the growing economic output these al., 2007), (FAO, 2007) & (Duarte, et al., 2008). Today,
populations demand. These pressures have led more than 30 per cent of the worlds fish stocks
to dramatic declines in the ecological state of are overexploited, depleted or recovering from
our coasts and oceans. We are in the throes of depletion, and over 400 oxygen-poor dead zones
an epoch of unprecedented species-loss, the exist in the world (Diaz & Rosenberg, 2008).
emergence of coastal waters which are no longer
safe for swimming or fishing, the loss of shoreline While the current value of our ocean is enormous,
protection by coastal habitats and coral reefs, and it is clear that the ecological and economic
an unprecedented decline in the value of ecosystem productivity of the ocean we know today is only
goods and services. In turn the loss of ecological a fraction of what it could be. Sumaila & Suatoni,
integrity in our oceans and coasts has impacted (2005) estimate that the present value of the
directly on poverty levels and development, fisheries of the United States would be $374
especially in communities traditionally dependent million greater if only 17 seriously depleted
on ecosystem-based economic activities including fish stocks were at their ecologically optimal
fishing, tourism, and harvesting. Lotze, et al., 2006 levels. A World Bank report finds that worldwide
and Halpern, et al., (2008) found that human the lost economic value of overfished stocks is
activities have impacted nearly every ocean and about $50 billion annually (World Bank, 2009). It
coast on Earth. Over time, over 90 per cent of those is likely that other sectors of the ocean economy
species formerly important to humans have been would enjoy similar improvements in economic
lost in coastal seas and estuaries due to human value if marine ecosystems were made more
impacts. During the last decades of the 20th ecologically healthy, robust and resilient.
century, human impacts on coasts and oceans
destroyed 35 per cent of mangroves; 20 per cent of New opportunities for a green
all coral reefs were destroyed and another 20 per economy in a blue world
cent were seriously degraded (MEC, 2005). Current The decline in the ecological health and
rates of annual loss for mangroves, sea grasses and economic productivity of the worlds oceans
13
can be reversed by shifting to a greener, more A framework for a green economy in a
sustainable economic paradigm in which human blue world
well-being and social equity are improved, while Greening the blue economy does not just make
environmental risks and ecological scarcities are environmental sense, it is essential if society is
reduced. Technological advances now permit to find a way of sustaining the three capitals
more profitable industrial output with fewer upon which sustainable economies must be
environmental impacts. Evidence presented in built: economic capital, social capital and
this volume shows that many ocean industries environmental capital. Historically, civilization
and businesses benefit directly from cleaner, was built by converting environmental capital
more ecologically robust marine ecosystems. (forests, marsh lands, and non-renewable
materials) into economic capital (industry). In
Policies and collaborative solutions are the best cases, this new economic capital was,
in a Blue World
emerging which internalize the external costs in turn, used to build new social capital by
of practices which damage the environment. alleviating poverty, providing better education,
Similar programmes reward those who create and building social infrastructure and
external benefits through environmentally- communities. In some places, environmental
sound uses of marine and coastal ecosystems. capital is rebuilding in both absolute terms and
Markets, bilateral agreements and other types in economic value. Higher standards of living,
of payments now provide incentives for better increased productivity and more public capacity
stewardship of ecosystem services (see box on have allowed communities to restore forests,
payment for ecosystem services, PES). rebuild oyster beds, and reduce contamination
of coastal waters to levels not seen in nearly one
Novel sources of funding and public-private hundred years. In many other cases, however,
partnerships are emerging to promote healthier new economic capital has not been reinvested
environments. In the Caribbean new financing in environmental or social capital. Poverty rates
continue to rise in many parts of the world,
mechanisms are being implemented by the
habitat loss and pollution exist at historic levels,
Caribbean Regional Fund for Wastewater
even while standard measures of economic
Management to reduce nutrient pollution in
well-being (gross domestic product) continue
coastal areas. For instance, ocean tourism is the
to grow. The unequal distribution of wealth
foundation of the local economy on the Placencia
continues to increase.
Peninsula. Recognizing the importance of clean
water to sustainable tourism, local private
At a global level, our dwindling environmental
interests and the government have joined forces
capital could make it more and more difficult
to create a Wastewater Revolving Fund.
to find economic substitutes for lost species
and ecosystem services. Technology can only
Governments can do much to promote the
go so far to create man-made replacements
transition to a greener economy. Providing for the essential services provided by marine
enhanced collaboration and coordination and coastal ecosystems (oxygen production,
across agencies, at different scales of (national climate regulation, nutrient cycling, and the
and local) governance and across industrial regulation of the global water cycle). If increases
sectors will lead to more strategic decision in economic and social capital cannot keep
making and efficiency in resources use. Strategic pace with these losses in environmental capital,
Environmental Assessment for example is a global economic well-being will decline. The
sustainable development tool which promotes poor are most likely to be affected.
coherence and coordination between related
and overlapping activities. SEA is based on based Even where economic and social capital
on transparency, stakeholder participation continue to grow incrementally, the resilience
and dialogue and provides a mechanism for and ultimate sustainability of these capitals
conflict avoidance and resolution (see box). is undermined by a decline in the integrity of
More targeted government investment in green ecosystems and environmental processes which
technologies will help industries overcome know no boundaries and cannot be managed in
financial obstacles which sometimes impede isolation. New challenges from climate change,
the creation of environmental technologies. diminishing supplies of freshwater, and the
Governments also can contribute directly demands of a growing world population only
to a greener economy by reforming harmful serve to make more crucial the role of ecosystems
subsidies and policies which encourage waste and environmental capital in sustaining
and pollution. The elimination of subsidies in economic and social well-being. The effects of
the energy, water, agriculture and fisheries climate change will be felt acutely by coastal
sectors could save as much as 1-2 per cent of zones, especially in areas where current levels of
GDP annually (UNEP, 2011). poverty make emigration difficult (MGEC, 2011).
14
in a Blue World
Life-cycle thinking
15
By better understanding the causes of ways to reduce the environmental footprint of
environmental change, society can take steps economic activities on marine and coastal areas
to address and even reverse the decline of and improve the environmental, economic and
environmental capital while also maintaining social sustainability of traditional and emerging
economic and social capital. New approaches ocean-oriented economies economics that can
focus directly on changing the basic elements foster job creation for a growing population. The
of the cycle of environmental degradation: following chapters show how fisheries, tourism
a) the drivers of change human needs and and maritime transport can take steps to reduce
desires, and the activities undertaken to achieve their impact on the marine environment. By
them, b) the pressures these activities create reducing environmental waste, these industries
including the emission of pollutants, wastes and themselves can become more efficient, profitable
greenhouse gases, or the extraction of resources, and sustainable and can contribute directly
in a Blue World
c) the ways in which these pressures impinge to the sustainability and productivity of other
upon the environmental and ecological state of businesses and livelihoods which depend on
our coasts and oceans, and d) the impacts these healthy oceans and coasts. The authors explore
changes in ecosystem-state have on poverty, what it will mean to green emerging ocean
value, and other measures of human wellbeing. economic activities including energy generation,
Life-cycle thinking and more specifically life aquaculture and the mining of deep-sea minerals.
cycle assessment (see box) identifies steps in the Lastly, the volume highlights how greening the
processes of manufacturing, consumption, and agriculture, wastewater and fertilizer industries
waste disposal where environmental impacts could transform the nutrient economy with
can be reduced while improving economic substantial benefits to ocean sustainability.
efficiency and profitability.
Throughout, the report demonstrates that
Towards a Green Economy in a Blue creating a green economy in the blue world
World one that improves human well-being and
Sustainable practices can improve the current social equity, while significantly reducing
and future economic, cultural and societal environmental risks and ecological scarcities
value of oceans and coasts and guarantee these means creating sustainable jobs, lasting
values far into the future. This report highlights economic value and increased social equity.
16
*5((1,1*
60$//6&$/(
),6+(5,(6$1'
$48$&8/785(
in a Blue World
Eddie Allison, WorldFish Centre and Nicole Franz, Carlos Fuentevilla, Lena Westlund and
Rolf Willmann, all Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), authored this chapter. The
contribution of statistical materials from Stefania Vannucci and of valuable comments on
an earlier draft by John Ryder and Doris Soto are gratefully acknowledged.
Reviewers of this chapter were Rashid Sumaila, University of British Columbia, Serge Garcia,
18 Chair of the IUCN Fisheries Expert Group, James Muir, FAO and Meryl Williams, GEF STAP
environmental risks and ecological scarcities. Its
1 Introduction attributes include low carbon emissions, high
The fisheries sector in particular small-scale resource use efficiency and social inclusiveness
fisheries and aquaculture is important in the (UNEP, 2011). The greening of marine fisheries
transition towards a green economy due to its and aquaculture thus implies three main
interconnectivity with and reliance on aquatic dimensions for future sector policy and
ecosystems, and the potential for people investments:
employed in it to act as stewards of the wider ensuring that fish are harvested, grown and
marine environment to a larger extent than they traded with efficient and sustainable use of
already do. natural resources, energy, capital and labour;
ensuring that the economic benefits from
The importance of small-scale fisheries to food
in a Blue World
20
value, locally and to markets around the word. fishers, fish farmers and fish workers sustain, in
in a Blue World
It has been estimated that 52 million people turn, about 0.5 billion people, equivalent to over
are employed in marine small-scale capture 8 per cent of the global population (FAO, 2010)1.
fisheries (and another 56 million in small-scale
inland fisheries) and the small-scale operators About half of all those employed in fisheries
represent 90 per cent of total employment are women, working primarily in post-harvest
in the fisheries sector. Most live in rural areas fish marketing and processing but also found
of developing countries (World Bank, FAO & as entrepreneurs (financiers and providers of
WorldFish Centre, 2010). In addition to all those working capital for the fishing trips), fishers and
formally employed in the sector, small-scale in many auxiliary activities. Women are typically
fishing is often a vital side activity forming responsible for sustaining the fishing household,
an important part of livelihood strategies. including caring for children and community
Although data on employment in aquaculture members. Women hence play an important
is scarce, preliminary estimates indicate that role in household nutrition and womens
the total number of fish farmers in the world subsistence fishing can bring vital protein and
is about 23.4 million (including in both marine other nutrients to poor families. Small-scale
and inland environments), contributing to aquaculture can be especially attractive for
the livelihoods of about 117 million people. rural women in developing countries because
The direct contribution of aquaculture to it often takes place close to the home and
employment is hence lower than fisheries, but can be integrated with other food production
is expected to continue to increase in the next and household activities (World Bank, FAO &
decades (Valderrama, et al., 2010; FAO, 2011c). WorldFish Centre, 2010 and FAO, 2010c).
Altogether, around 180 million people are
directly involved in fisheries and aquaculture 1. In a recent article, Teh & Sumaila (2011) have made an alternative
activities globally, including catching, growing, estimate of the number of fulltime and part-time, direct and indirect,
employment in global marine fisheries of 260 million people ( 6
processing and trading aquatic products. These million).
21
Small- and large-scale fishery compared
Numbers of workers employed in fishing industry Total annual fish catches
Millions Million tons
120 120
110 110
in a Blue World
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
= 1 milion = 1 milion
Source: World Bank - FAO WorldFish Centre, The Hidden Harvests, 2010.
While large-scale fisheries land larger quantities catch is sold in local markets. For developing
of fish, small-scale fisheries tend to contribute countries, it is estimated that over half of the
more directly to food security because their catch for domestic human consumption is
catch is generally destined for direct human produced by the small-scale sector (World
consumption and a greater share of their Bank, FAO & WorldFish Centre, 2010). The sector
22
also contributes to foreign exchange earnings 3 Challenges and opportunities
in a Blue World
through its role in exports. Since 1976, the in small-scale fisheries and
trade of fish and fishery products has increased aquaculture
at an annual rate of 8.3 per cent in value terms
whilst 39 percent of all fisheries and aquaculture A key role of the small-scale fisheries and
production now enters international food and aquaculture sectors is also one of their main
feed product markets (FAO, 2010). challenges: how to continue supplying
products to meet the demands of a growing
Small-scale fisheries and aquaculture can global population who, with increasing wealth,
also act as centres of market-led growth in are demanding more animal-source foods,
often remote rural areas, and as well as the including fish (Delgado, 2003; FAO 2010; Hall
employment and revenue-generation functions et al., 2011). How can ecosystems and the
of the forward and backward linkages within environment be safeguarded and sustainable
the sector, horizontal linkages with other use of aquatic resources be ensured at the
industries can provide the basis for local-level same time as securing equitable social and
growth-engines. For example, the presence of economic development of the people whose
fishers earning a daily or weekly wage in coastal livelihoods depend on these resources? These
areas can provide local markets for agricultural questions relate directly to the key issues in the
produce and support local non-fishery related green economy: environmental sustainability
businesses, such as shops, eating-places, including low carbon emissions resource
lodging and service industries. However, this efficiency and social equity. The opportunities
economic multiplier and growth pole effect is and challenges contained in this sustainability-
largely unquantified, especially in the context efficiency-equity equation centre around how
of developing countries (World Bank, FAO & to promote private and public investments in
WorldFish Centre, 2010 and Allison, 2011). technical and operational innovations and in
overall governance and management reforms
As well as being a rich source of protein, many in order to ensure sustainable and equitable
fish provide vital nutrition and health benefits growth and development of the fisheries and
through provision of minerals, vitamins and aquaculture sectors. The development of new
essential fatty acids. Recent FAO data suggests methodologies approaches and concepts
that fish accounted for 15.7 per cent of the such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)2 (see box
global populations intake of animal protein and in introduction) and indicators for measuring
6.1 per cent of all protein consumed in 2007. Fish green economy benefits offer new avenues
is most important in low income food deficit for action and provide more tools for both
countries (LIFDCs) where it provides at least stakeholders and policymakers.
20 per cent of all animal-source protein perhaps
considerably more due to the underreported 3.1 Issues related to securing
contribution of small scale and subsistence sustainable small-scale fisheries
fisheries (FAO, 2010). In several small island The characteristics of small-scale fisheries
developing states (SIDS), tropical Asian and sub- lend themselves to sustainable development
Saharan African countries (e.g. Maldives, Kiribati, through green growth if the key issues in the
Solomon Islands, Cambodia, Indonesia, Sierra sector as well as in the marine capture fisheries
Leone, Ghana and the Gambia), fish contribute sector as whole are addressed through
50 per cent or more of animal protein (FAO, 2009c; political and economic investments and reform:
Kawarazuka & Bn, 2011) again, probably an malfunctioning governance, lack of attention
underestimate due to underreporting of small- to social equity issues in economic planning;
scale fishery catches. The nutritional value of fishing fleet overcapacity, overfishing and
fish is especially important in countries where destructive fishing practices; and inefficient use
the staple crop such as cassava or plantain is of fuel and other energy inputs.
particularly low in protein and micronutrients. In
these situations, a larger proportion of foods rich Overcapacity in, often subsidized, fishing fleets
in proteins and fats, such as fish, are essential, and a decreasing resource base have reduced
especially in the diets of young children, infants the profitability and economic contribution
and pregnant women (Kurien, 2005; Kawarazuka, of the fisheries sector as a whole (Sumaila, et
2010). With food security defined as access al., 2008). Approximately 32 per cent of the
to sufficient, safe and nutritious food (Rome global stocks are estimated to be overexploited,
Declaration on World Food Security World Food
Summit, 1996), fish and other aquatic products 2. LCA is a methodological framework used to quantify a wide
are therefore a keystone of food security for the range of environmental impacts that occur over the entire life cycle
of a product or process. It allows for comparisons between different
worlds coastal areas. products and production systems (FAO, 2009).
23
depleted or recovering from depletion and a management with addressing social and
further 50 per cent to be fully exploited (FAO, economic development (ICSF, 2007; FAO, 2009b;
2010). It has been estimated that the worlds Allison, et al., 2011).
fishing fleets are double the size they should be
and the potential economic gain from reducing Additional threats to small-scale fisheries
fishing capacity to a sustainable, economically include adverse impacts from other sectors,
optimal level and restoring over-exploited and such as agricultural run-off, waste discharge and
depleted fish stocks is of the order of US$50 eutrophication which can negatively impact
billion per annum (World Bank & FAO, 2009). the ecosystems that communities rely upon.
Considering solely the physical availability of Increasingly, small-scale fisheries also suffer
fish in food supplies, Sirinivasan, et al., (2010) from the effects of climate change, the impact of
have estimated that the undernourishment which on ocean life, productivity, reproduction
in a Blue World
of about 20 million people could have been and food toxicity remains un-assessed (Badjeck,
averted without overfishing. et al., 2010; Sumaila, et al., 2011). Marginalized
communities are also often quite vulnerable
Overfishing also curbs the potential of small- to natural disasters, environmental stress and
scale fisheries to add to income and economic external socio-economic and biological shocks.
growth in coastal areas of developing countries Moreover, small-scale fisheries must also
thereby worsening poverty (FAO, 2005; Bn, compete for access to land and water rights with
et al., 2007). Moreover, overcapacity and over- other sectors, including tourism, construction,
exploitation threaten biodiversity (Pereira, et al., aquaculture and urban development, among
2010), particularly of larger, longer-lived marine others. Scarcity of data on the economic and
organisms that are more vulnerable to depletion social importance of small-scale fisheries
(Norse, et al., 2012), and structurally complex exacerbates the often overall marginalized
habitats such as coral reefs, which are easily position of the sector (FAO, 2011b).
damaged by indiscriminate fishing methods.
In view of this precarious situation in many
While the overcapacity of the large industrial small-scale fisheries, investments in policy
fishing fleets has been well documented (World and governance reform are needed. Recent
Bank & FAO, 2009), they are not the only sources developments present opportunities in this
of overexploitation. If connected to large respect, including the recognition of the
enough markets, small-scale fisheries can also important economic and social roles of small-
deplete high value marine resources (Cinner & scale fisheries by the international community
McClanahan, 2006). Weak governance, the high in forums such as the United Nations Open-
dependence of coastal communities on fishery ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans
resources and the lack of alternative livelihood and the Law of the Sea (United Nations, 2011)
options, lead small-scale fisheries to overexploit and FAOs Committee on Fisheries (COFI)
inshore resources in many parts of the world that recently mandated the development of
(Pomeroy, 2011). international guidelines for securing sustainable
small-scale fisheries (FAO, 2011). Moreover,
Rights to access and use of fisheries resources recent developments in the governance arena in
are often poorly defined, ineffectively enforced, many parts of the world include decentralization
or unfairly distributed. The variability and of resource management responsibilities, the
diversity of small-scale fisheries and their close introduction of co-management arrangements
links with communities make them unsuited (including recognition of traditional authorities,
to traditional top-down command and control management processes and use rights) and the
resource management approaches. Moreover, need for integrated and holistic approaches
poverty in fishery dependent communities such the ecosystem system approach to
is not necessarily linked directly to resource fisheries (EAF). Discussions have also evolved
overexploitation, but rather reflects the lack to include a human rights perspective and the
of wider institutional, political and economic right to secure and just livelihoods, including
advantages in rural (and in some cases urban) social and economic rights, experiences of
poverty (Bn, 2003; Bn, et al., 2007). combining resource governance with social
Marginalization and violation of the rights of development are becoming available and the
fish workers and fishing-dependent people need for holistic and integrated approaches is
sometimes results in a lack of access to public generally accepted (FAO, 2011b).
services, including health and education, a
lack of participation and representation in While governance reform and distributive justice
the policy making process and, in many cases, are key green economy issues from a sectoral
a lack of access to efficient markets or trade. perspective, reducing energy use and carbon
There is hence a need to combine resource footprintin fisheries has synergies with these other
24
areas of reform and could provide opportunities 3.2 Aquaculture growth and
in a Blue World
for fisherfolk though participation in ecosystem development
services markets (including carbon markets) The production of food fish from the aquaculture
as well as benefitting from green technology sector as a whole has grown by an average
efficiency gains. In fishing in general, energy use of 8.3 per cent during the period 1970-2008.
and carbon emissions are closely related because Aquaculture using seawater in ponds and in
of the common use of fossil fuels. The fishing gear the sea accounts for close to a third of the
and its design, which is related to the biology of total production quantity and value. Many high-
the target species, is the main factor determining value finfish, crustaceans and mollusc species
energy consumption per kilogram of fish landed. (abalone, oysters, mussels, clams, cockles and
Active demersal fishing gears (dredging and scallops) are produced in marine aquaculture.
bottom trawling) are energy-intensive fishing With markets for seafood and other marine
methods, while passive fishing gears, such as hook products expanding, well-managed coastal
and line, gill nets, or traps, require less energy. aquaculture and mariculture continue to
Mid-water pelagic fishing also tends to be less offer significant scope for green growth and
fuel consuming than fishing the sea bed (Ziegler, production of animal-source foods produced at
2009; World Bank, FAO & WorldFish Centre, lower levels of CO2 emissions in comparison to
2010). Carbon emissions are also generated from most meat and poultry production systems (Hall,
onboard and onshore cooling systems and from et al., 2011). Aquaculture can also contribute
transportation of fish (Ziegler, 2009). positively to environmental rehabilitation and
mitigating negative impacts of other industries
The distance travelled between fishing grounds and activities at the same time as offering
and ports also influence the amount of fuel alternative and supplementary employment
used and as many fish stocks have declined opportunities for coastal communities but
due to overfishing, fishing vessels often careful planning and good management are
travel further and search longer for the same required (FAO, 2010; FAO, 2011b). Innovative
amount of fish (Tyedmers, 2004; World Bank, aquaculture production systems, including
FAO & WorldFish Centre, 2010; Suuronen, et al., greater use of environmentally friendly feeds
2012). The fuel consumption of fishing fleets and reduced energy use, are also needed.
also increased due to the growing number of
powerful fishing vessels, introduced from the At the same time as responsible aquaculture
1950s to the millennium (Tyedmers, et al., 2005). can generate important environmental
Construction of large vessels has since slowed benefits, such as recovery of depleted wild
(Cochrane & Garcia, 2009) but overall fleet stocks, preservation of wetlands, desalinization
capacity remains too high (see above). Coupled of sodic lands, pest control, weed control, and
with rising fuel prices, fuel hence continues to agricultural and human waste treatment (p.
be a major cost and this has triggered research 33, FAO, 2011c), some forms of aquaculture add
on and development of various energy saving environmental pressures on already suffering
technologies contained in the concept of Low ecosystems. These negative environmental
Impact and Fuel Efficient (LIFE) Fishing. LIFE effects include habitat destruction, effluent
fishing addresses the complex dynamic of discharge, disease and escapes, and high use of
energy consumption and environmental impacts fishmeal and oil in feeds (FAO, 2011c). Feed is key
with the objective of improving the economic in aquaculture production and development
viability and environmental sustainability of and the growth of carnivorous-high value fish
fishing operations. (Suuronen, et al., 2012) aquaculture has an explicit impact on wild
fisheries. In 2006, the shares of fishmeal and fish
Small-scale fisheries more often use passive oil that were utilized in aquaculture production
gear and would hence be likely to be more fuel were 57 per cent and 87 per cent, respectively
efficient than the large-scale sector. However, (FAO, 2011c). If the dependency on fishmeal
due to the great diversity of the subsector, this is and fish oil were reduced, important gains
not a firm rule. Non-motorized vessels continue could be made with regard to profitability,
to be an important part of the sector (see box on environmental impact as well as food and
page 17), particularly though in inland fisheries. nutrition security. This will require innovations
Still, also in small-scale fisheries of developing both in technologies and management. The
countries, fuel tends to constitute an important already high costs and increasing supply limits
part of overall operational costs and the volatility associated with fishmeal and fish oil are likely
of fuel prices is of particular concern in this to continue driving the trend of using crops (in
respect (World Bank, FAO & WorldFish Centre, particular soybean meal) as a substitute. There
2010). Reducing fuel consumption would hence are also concerns that increased use of trash
be doubly beneficial contributing to both fish as feed in aquaculture may divert food fish
environmental and socioeconomic sustainability. from poor population groups. The situation is
25
however ambiguous because aquaculture may Data deficiencies in the aquaculture sector
at the same time provide important livelihood are also a key impediment to successful
opportunities (Hall, et al., 2011). development. As aquaculture diversifies and
the intensification of production processes
For all the potential environmental impacts continues, the need to disaggregate production
of aquaculture, many of its production forms data increases, since the management and
continue to have advantages from a resource governance of aquaculture may differ in
and ecological efficiency perspective over other different production systems. In addition, as
animal food production systems and it has room with small-scale fisheries, data systems must
for further efficiency gains (Hall, et al., 2011; FAO, improve in order to capture the full contribution
2011c). Further technology and production of aquaculture to poverty alleviation and food
system developments will however be needed and nutrition security, as well as any multiplier
in a Blue World
As aquaculture production increases, so do the In order for aquaculture to fulfil its potential to
number of people employed in the sector. The contribute to food and nutrition security, active
sector has an important potential for economic support to growth and private investment
diversification. This includes both employment will be required. Governments will also need
directly at the farm level as well as non-farm to support the sectors development with
opportunities in supply, processing and ensuring that enabling and adequate regulatory
marketing activities. Small-scale aquaculture frameworks are in place and that innovations
that often involves family labour can provide and technological developments compatible
opportunities for women and in this way with green growth take place. An important
contribute to their empowerment (FAO, 2010b; challenge in this sector of rapid development
FAO, 2011c). However, some types of aquaculture, is how to ensure that policies, incentives and
e.g. coastal shrimp culture, have caused socio- institutional structures are in place that promote
economic conflicts because of adverse impacts the desired behaviour of producers and
on the livelihoods of adjacent communities due consumers. In a world of increasing competition
to salinization of soils, water pollution, increased for resources, this includes further application
frequency of flooding and the degradation of the ecosystem approach to aquaculture
or impediment of access to common natural (EAA) and the adoption of better management
resources such as mangroves, grazing land, fresh practices (BMP), for example in dealing with
water aquifers, and fishing grounds. The recent risk to aquaculture development, such as
trends toward automation, mergers, vertical disease management, natural disasters and
integration and increasing labour productivity stock escapement into the wild, some of which
potentially exclude local communities and rural can be managed through development of risk
people. The impacts of increased automation and assessment procedures and insurance markets
intensification on energy consumption and land (Secretan, et al., 2007). Such approaches also
tenure as well as access to water will continue help address cross-sectoral considerations and
to be contentious issues during aquaculture promotion of integrated marine governance
development (FAO, 2011c). and spatial management frameworks.
26
rights based approach to economic, political 2011d; FAO, 2011e) as well as the agreement
in a Blue World
and social development. by COFI to develop a dedicated international
instrument in support of small-scale fisheries
There are a number of policy directions within the framework of the Code of Conduct
and actions that are needed to achieve this for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 2011). The
transition and to address the sustainability- development of this instrument is underway
efficiency-equity dimensions of the green and will further support the recognition of the
economy pathway. Building on the challenges sector. Still, improved information on and better
and opportunities discussed above, this section integration of small-scale fisheries in economies
presents key areas to be addressed: the enabling is required. Policy coherence and enhanced
conditions and investments required in the linkages between small-scale fisheries, sectoral
areas of technology, and policy and governance. policies and strategies as well as national
This includes planning and development processes need to
securing political commitment for support be promoted (FAO, 2011b).
through increased understanding and
recognition of the role and contribution In aquaculture, many challenges remain
of small-scale fisheries and aquaculture to insufficiently assessed or inadequately
poverty alleviation and food and nutrition addressed by current policy frameworks (OECD,
security; 2010). An improved understanding of poverty
and effective resource management are at the
governance reform including the building
centre of the future challenges for sector (FAO,
effective institutions that lead to the
2010c). Aquaculture has increasingly become
adoption of integrated and ecosystem
a means to increase domestic fish supply to
approaches to fisheries and aquaculture with
low-income consumers, develop opportunities
fair and responsible tenure systems to help
for employment, support local economic
turn resource users into resource stewards;
multipliers, and to generate revenue from
support to the development of green trade (Allison, 2011). The emphasis of pro-poor
technology and production systems; and aquaculture development hence appears to
promotion of market-based incentives be shifting away from directly securing food
and industry and consumer awareness- security for the poorest small-holder farmers. It
building to give preference to products from may be that a wider support to the sector, i.e.
sustainable fisheries and aquaculture. to both small-scale and large-scale aquaculture,
is the best strategy for realising its potential as
a contributor to poverty alleviation and food
4.1 Increased recognition of small- and nutrition security (Allison, 2011). Policy
scale fisheries and aquaculture and decision makers need to understand the
The first and most important step for the rapid technological development of the sector
sustainable transition of small-scale fisheries and ensure that regulations and governance
is to recognize their current and potential discourage environmentally, economic and
contribution to poverty alleviation and socially unsustainable practices at the same
food and nutrition security at all levels of time as green growth is promoted (Asche, 2011).
management and government. For small-scale
fisheries to realize this potential they need to be The challenges of transition in the small-scale
incorporated into national development policy fisheries and aquaculture sectors are likely to
with a special emphasis on the structural and be considerable as it requires political will and
institutional causes of poverty in addition to commitment, organizational development
being managed for ecological sustainability and and capacity building in communities and at
economic productivity. national and regional levels. In aquaculture, the
possibilities that the development prospects
In recent decades, the profile of small-scale of the sector offer in the context of poverty
fisheries as well as the awareness of their social alleviation need to be better understood and
and economic role has begun to increase, as explored. For this reason, enabling institutional
demonstrated by the widespread participation conditions and safeguards must be put into
in events such as the Global Conference on Small place to protect poor and vulnerable people
Scale Fisheries: Securing Sustainable Small- and enable them to safely and sustainably
Scale Fisheries: Bringing Together Responsible access and exploit the resources to which they
Fisheries and Social Development, headed by are entitled thus lowering the short-term impact
FAO in October 2008 (FAO, 2009b), subsequent of a transition to a green economy development
regional consultations (FAO, 2010d; FAO, pathway.
27
Size does matter
In one trip the worlds largest fishing trawler produces as much as 7 000 traditional African fishing boats per year
= 10 fishermen
= 10 traditional fishermen
in a Blue World
28
in a Blue World
29
4.2 Governance reform, regulatory success depend on the context and individual
frameworks and institutional characteristics of different fisheries and fishery-
arrangements dependent communities (Cochrane & Garcia,
Policy and governance reform is key to green 2009; FAO, 2011).
growth transition in small-scale fisheries
and aquaculture. Good governance is also In the short term, and to increase success,
fundamental for the implementation of new primary fisheries management could be a first
innovations and technologies further discussed course of action. Borrowing from concepts in
below. Recent decades have shown rapid primary human health care, primary fisheries
innovation in fisheries management, with management seeks to increase social and
governments, market mechanisms and fishers ecological resilience while encouraging food
combining to regulate fishing activities and security and poverty alleviation in small-
in a Blue World
supply chains. This has led to increasing official scale fishing communities. In general terms,
recognition of the customary marine tenure and rather than requiring detailed and expensive
the rights of fishers, fish workers and fishery assessments, primary fisheries management
dependent communities to participate in the that minimizes demands on managerial and
decision making process. There are some success scientific capacity may be adequate in the
stories that include fisheries managed with a short term to move coastal fisheries towards
range of institutional arrangements including a sustainable path (Cochrane, et al., 2011).
community-based systems often centred For longer term management, in a green
around territorial use rights (Christy, 2000) and economy context of sustainability, growth and
state-community partnership arrangements equitable distribution of resource wealth, policy
(Charles, 2005; Gutirrez, et al., 2011). The type frameworks that draw on concepts of wellbeing
of use rights or tenure regime employed and its and on human rights principles and legislation
30
could play an important role. (Sharma, 2009; certain circumstances, be more cost effective, thus
in a Blue World
Allison, et al., 2011; Coulthard, et al., 2011) freeing up resources for other areas3.
31
Accordingly, it is important to consider 4.3 Green technology innovations and
multi-agency multi-sectoral coordination production systems
between government and stakeholders, to Although both small-scale fisheries and
create effective and accepted development aquaculture tend to require lower energy inputs
initiatives. As mentioned above, the inclusion than large-scale fisheries and other animal food
of fishery and aquaculture governance into production systems, new technologies will be
a wider national human rights perspective required to make more efficient use of natural
can potentially lead to an improvement of resources (e.g. fuel, and water, land, energy and
standards of living in fishing and fish farming feed ingredients in aquaculture). Accordingly,
communities while increasing their ability to governments must support and invest technical
manage aquatic resources in the long term and operational innovation that improves
(Allison, et al., 2011). A more specific example efficiency while lowering operational costs,
in a Blue World
of coordinated national strategic planning fuel consumption and biodiversity losses. New
and policy coherence is the need to include technical options need to be supported not only
small-scale fisheries and aquaculture in climate in primary production but throughout the value
change and natural disaster prevention and chain.
adaptation plans (FAO, 2011).
The rise in fuel prices is already leading to
Effective institutional arrangements are needed investment and development of a wide variety of
at all levels local, national as well as regional. alternative fuels and could lead to a substitution
Regional institutions provide the basis for of fossil fuels. Their potential as viable substitutes
coordination among countries in relation to the in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture though
management and conservation of shared and has not been clearly explored. Alternative non-
transboundary resources, development of policy fuel propulsion systems also gain popularity as
advice, dissemination of technology, habitat energy saving complements and substitutes.
Wind energy or a return to manual propulsion
restoration and protection, and to give impetus
with oars or paddles can be a good complement
to structured collaboration among members.
as in the wind-assisted engine-powered
Many fishery resources, including highly
boats that were relatively common during the
valuable tuna resources, are internationally
1970s fuel price crisis. However, the resources
shared stocks, for whose conservation and
reachable by such propulsion methods are
management the effectiveness of Regional
often limited and exploited already. While a
Fisheries Organizations/Arrangements is critical
combination of technologies can lower fuel
for success. The institutional arrangements
consumption in the global small-scale fishing
needed to establish effective and resilient
fleet, the overall impact could be negligible if
management regimes for shared fish stocks
not accompanied by the restoration of depleted
have been examined by various expert groups fish stocks in inshore areas.
and committees during the last decade (FAO,
2002; Munro, 2000; Munro, et al., 2004; Chatham The design and transfer of low impact and fuel
House, 2007; OECD, 2009). For SIDS and other efficient (LIFE) fishing gear and techniques
small countries with limited capacity to govern (such as lighter material to reduce drag, thinner
and influence global decisions, effective regional twines, improving boat shape), can improve the
institutions are key actors in the management sustainability of SSF. Low impact passive gears
and policy-making process. Overall, the key for should be promoted in small-scale fisheries,
effective regional institutions is that member as a fuel efficient (although not always less
states agree with them and support them destructive) alternative to active gears. These
wholeheartedly, through participation as well low impact passive gears include, hook and line,
as funding. traps-nets and pot-fishing, among others. These
are techniques that are already widely used in
At the international level, there is a legislative the small scale fishing sector (Suuronen, et al.,
and policy framework to support national 2012).
and regional structures and fisheries and
aquaculture governance reform in place. The Simple and easy-to-do operational improvements
FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries can also be pursued. For fishing, these include
and its related international agreements and improved engine performance technology and
plans of action inform fisheries and aquaculture maintenance (i.e. by cleaning and maintaining
policies throughout the world (Hosch, et al., engines properly, by exchanging older engines etc.),
2011). The challenge is to provide incentives reducing steaming and towing speeds, cleaning
and adequate resources to implement this hulls regularly, etc). In the post-harvest sector,
framework at the local, national and regional solar power (e.g. solar driers) can be effective for
level. small-scale processing while improved storage and
32
transportation methods (e.g. improved insulation
in a Blue World
materials, efficiency in ice-plants, etc.) can improve
energy efficiency (Suuronen, et al., 2012). Fuel for fish
Energy intensity range for selected fish
In aquaculture, possible innovations and species
developments include those in feed technology
that reduce dependence on energy-expensive Litres per ton, type of gear used and location
and possibly unsustainable fishmeal and fish
oil from wild caught fisheries, increased use of
species that do not require high inputs of feed, 248
Mobile seine,
recycling of waste from other industries to supply Norway
nutrients for algal growth while promoting the 20
Purse seine,
use of algal feed for fish and increased use of Canada HERRINGS
more energy efficient equipment (e.g. efficient
water pumps, LED lights, alternate sources of
electricity, etc.).
33
In the fishnet
Democratic People's
Republic of Korea Faroe
Greenland Papua
Finland Islands Denmark
New Guinea Bangladesh
Namibia
Lithuania Nigeria Brazil
Yemen Portugal Pakistan
Argentina
Ghana
Mauritania Ireland Senegal
Poland New
Vanuatu Australia Zealand
Greece Sri Lanka
Netherlands
in a Blue World
Ecuador
Maldives Latvia Panama Angola South
Arica France
Note: Only countries with catches over 100'000 tonnes are shown.
labelling Fish and Fishery Products from Inland example of which are payments to coastal
Capture Fisheries and Technical Guidelines on communities to preserve mangrove forests.
Aquaculture Certification (FAO, 2011b). The concept is being tested in other fields (e.g.
oil extraction) and applications to fisheries and
While some internationally recognized labels, aquaculture could be tested. A specific example
such as the Marine Stewardship Council of their use is in the conservation of mangrove
(through its Developing World Fisheries forests, which have recently been made
Program), have put forth great efforts to eligible for carbon markets under the Reduced
facilitate the certification requirements of Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation
certain small scale fisheries, the relatively high avoided (REDD+) scheme.
cost of these schemes continues to be an
impediment for many small scale fisheries of For consumers to be willing to pay a premium
developing countries. Still, the expected positive for sustainably and fairly produced products (or
outcomes of eco-labelling, including increased to pay for or contribute to ecosystem services),
profit margins, better conservation and a shift they need to be informed and have access to
of consumer preference towards sustainable information. Awareness raising hence becomes
fisheries cannot be ignored. As long as labels an important component in the context of
and certification schemes are not used as introducing economic incentives for green
barriers to trade and their accessibility to small- growth. This is also related to the discussion
scale fishers and fish farmers is improved, they above on increasing the recognition of the role
should feature prominently in a green economy. and importance of small-scale fisheries and
aquaculture for poverty alleviation and food
Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are and nutrition security and to ensure political
another market-based measure that can promote commitment to the necessary reforms.
sustainability. PES are voluntary transactions
where a well-defined environmental service
is purchased by a service buyer from a service 5 Conclusions
provider, on condition that the provider ensures Fishers and fish-farmers should, given their
that the environmental service is maintained dependence on ecosystem services, be stewards
(Wunder, et al., 2008). The system attempts of the wider marine ecosystem. Greening the
to specifically value the services that an fisheries and aquaculture sectors requires the
ecosystem provides as well as the costs incurred overall recognition of their wider societal roles
by destruction of the ecosystem. With PES, in particular that of small-scale operations
households (or other ecosystem use decision for local economic growth, poverty reduction
makers) are paid to protect the resource, and and food security through a comprehensive
34
in a Blue World
United States China
Norway Indonesia
Morocco
Republic of Korea
Spain
Taiwan
Viet Nam
India Chile
Iceland Mexico
Peru
Japan
Thailand
Russian
Philippines Federation Fish caught by country, 2009
Canada Myanmar
Thousand tonnes
Malaysia
Low income country
Developing country
35
0$5,7,0(
75$163257
in a Blue World
uniform implementation and enforcement of shipping to contribute to green growth and the
the technical standards which enable the safe, transition to a green economy.
secure, efficient and environmentally sound
operation of ships, as well as a level playing-field While there is currently a particular focus on the
without market distortions. urgent need for maritime transport to play its
part in reducing CO2 emissions, it is important to
That operational framework is the driver for understand that, because shipping is indeed a
shippings contribution to, and promotion of, truly major industry, it has the potential to impact
sustainable development and a green economy, on the environment in many other ways (IMO,
which can be summarized in the table below: 2012b). This has required ship operators and
40
in a Blue World
Seaborne oil trade and tanker spills
Billion Tonne - Miles Number of spills
12 000 120
10 000 100
8 000 80
6 000 60
4 000 40
2 000 20
0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Note: number of spills over 7 tonnes are accounted in this chart
Source: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd. (ITOPF)
their regulators to respond to various technical any non-compliance with widely enforced
and political challenges, for the most part very international regulations governing the
effectively, although there is of course always protection of the marine environment, not least
more to be done. To a large extent, however, the International Convention for the Prevention
the importance of environmental protection, of Pollution by Ships (MARPOL) 1973/1978,
and the implementation of green management the importance of environmental protection is
practices, is already a major feature of modern widely inculcated amongst shipping company
international shipping operations, underpinned personnel, both ashore and at sea. Indeed,
by a comprehensive framework of international seafarers serving on merchant ships are required
regulations, mainly developed by governments by IMOs revised International Convention on
at the International Maritime Organization (IMO). the Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) 1978, to
The ultimate goal of the shipping industry undertake environmental awareness training.
and its regulators is zero accidents and zero The safety and security of life at sea, protection of
pollution. Although these goals have not yet the marine environment and over 90 per cent of
been fully achieved, considerable progress the worlds trade depends on the professionalism
has been made, especially in the context of and competence of seafarers. In 1997, IMO
pollution from ships, an achievement all the adopted a resolution setting out its vision,
more impressive when it is considered that the principles and goals for the human element,
total amount of seaborne trade, measured in which is a complex multi-dimensional issue
tonne-miles, has almost doubled since the Rio affecting shipping operations and environmental
Earth Summit in 1992 from 17.54 billion tonne protection and involving the entire spectrum
miles to an estimated 32.74 billion tonne miles, of human activities performed by ships crews,
an increase of around 85 per cent. shore based management, regulatory bodies and
others. All need to co-operate to address human
By way of example, the figure above provides element issues effectively, and environmental
data showing considerable growth in seaborne protection should be integral to the human
oil trade since the mid-1980s, with, nevertheless, element vision and actions.
a significant reduction in the number of
oil spills from ships. This is attributable Until relatively recently, the main pressure on
to a number of leading factors, including the shipping industry, from the environmental
the existence of relevant IMO standards, perspective, has been to develop means of
improving implementation and enforcement reducing its impact on the marine environment
of those standards, heightened environmental through the prevention of pollution of the
awareness within the shipping industry and the oceans and coastlines, especially from damage
application of industry best practices. which might be caused by oil spills, whether
carried as cargoes or bunker fuel. The initial
In this regard, apart from the substantial legal impetus came from the understandable
and commercial penalties confronting shipping outrage which followed several serious oil
companies which might be associated with spills which caused dramatic (albeit temporary)
41
environmental damage to coastlines, as well While protection of the marine environment has
as adversely affecting fisheries and tourist long been a priority for industry and its regulators,
industries. this has always had to be reconciled with the
overriding priority of protecting the safety of life
In the 1970s governments working through at sea. The sea being a very hostile environment,
IMO developed the International Convention marine transportation involves a high degree of
for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships physical risk which has to be managed effectively.
(MARPOL) which contains comprehensive In practice, however, rules and regulations
requirements to prevent pollution which may governing safety also serve to prevent one of
be caused both accidentally and in the course of the major threats to the environment which is oil
routine operations. In response to more recent spills following an accident. More generally, the
shipping incidents, MARPOL now contains strict adherence to correct procedures required
in a Blue World
many additional provisions such as those which to prevent other forms of pollution reinforces the
require oil tankers to have double hulls. need to follow procedures in other areas and the
effective practice of a safety culture.
Significantly MARPOL also includes provisions
covering the prevention of other forms of However, because shipping is an inherently
potential marine pollution from bulk chemicals, international industry, with ships trading between
dangerous goods, sewage and garbage (IMO, different countries, and ship operations involving
2012c). overlapping jurisdictions, between coastal States,
port States, and flag States, there has always been a
More recently, however, the focus of the industry need for the environmental regulation of shipping
and its regulators encouraged by far greater to be developed at the international level, not least
awareness of the importance of environmental though a framework of international conventions
issues amongst all stakeholders has also been adopted by governments at IMO.
on the wider potential impacts which shipping
can have on the environment. In particular, Fortunately, there is a high degree of
there was awareness of the need to address the cooperation between IMO Member States, and
impact on local ecosystems of foreign micro- a well established understanding amongst
organisms imported in ships ballast water; the governments worldwide of the need for
danger to public health and the environment global rules for a global industry. Most IMO
caused by atmospheric pollution from ships conventions governing safety of life at sea and
(in particular air pollutants such as sulphur and pollution prevention including agreements on
nitrogen oxides and particulate matter); and civil liability in the event that things go wrong
the need to reduce shippings CO2 emissions in enjoy a high degree of international ratification
order to contribute to worldwide efforts to stem and enforcement, especially when compared to
climate change. international regulations governing many land-
based industries (IMO, 2012d).
While further possibilities remain with respect
to developing, improving and refining existing In particular, the MARPOL Convention has been
technical, operational and management measures ratified by virtually every maritime country
which might help reduce even more the traditional and is applied, through a combination of
sources of marine pollution, it is probably the flag State inspections and port State control,
need to reduce atmospheric and CO2 emissions to virtually the entire world merchant fleet.
which presents the most obvious challenges MARPOL Annexes I and II (governing prevention
and opportunities with regard to the transition of pollution by oil and chemicals) have been
towards a green economy. That said, recently ratified by over 150 States covering 99 per cent
agreed requirements to dramatically reduce of the world merchant fleet (IMO, 2012e).
sulphur emissions have also created opportunities
for the development of new exhaust scrubbing Governments at IMO recognize its unique role as
technologies as a (legally permitted) alternative to the specialist regulatory agency dealing almost
the use of low sulphur fuels. exclusively with maritime safety and pollution
prevention issues. For the most part, therefore,
Additional potential environmental concerns decisions at IMO affecting international shipping
continue to be identified by governments, NGOs are taken on the basis of their technical merits
and others, such as the potential implications rather than wider political or macroeconomic
of maritime transport for the welfare of considerations. (Remarkably, this was the case
marine mammals, while greater attention has even during the cold war years, in particular the
also been paid to the need to dispose of and 1970s and 1980s.) IMO has accordingly been very
recycle redundant ships in an environmentally well equipped to respond rapidly to demands
sustainable manner (ICS, 2012a). from individual governments, policymakers,
42
opinion formers and society at large,
in a Blue World
to develop new pollution prevention
regulations, or make amendments to Transportation emission
those already adopted.
Grams of CO2 per kilometre per litre
Since the 1990s, increased 600
environmental awareness amongst
maritime transport operators and Airplane
500
their seagoing employees has, in part,
been a consequence of the adoption, 400
implementation and enforcement of the
International Management Code for the 300
Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution
Prevention (the ISM Code), adopted in
200
1993 by IMO. In effect, this introduced
a requirement for shipping companies Cargo Vessel
100 Cargo Vessel
to have a licence to operate which is less than less than
only obtained after they demonstrate, 8 000 dwt
8 000 dwt Truck
through rigorous internal and external 0
audits, that they have adequate
management systems in place, at sea Source: Swedish Network for Transport and the Environment (NTM)
and ashore, to prevent recognized
sources of marine pollution, and to
identify and rectify any deficiencies.
In short, the ISM Code embraces the concept of incentive to find new means of further reducing
continuous improvement with regard to the their fuel consumption and, thus, their CO2
management of pollution prevention by ships (in emissions. These issues are explored in more
addition to the management of safety) (ICS, 2010). detail in section 2.4.3 below (ICS, 2012b).
While safety of life at sea must always be the There are, of course, other potential impacts
first priority, the recognition of the role of Safety on the environment both marine and
Management Systems in preventing marine atmospheric from maritime transport which,
pollution cannot be over-stated as a result of consequently, create green opportunities. In
increased awareness of the essential need to this regard, pollution can take many forms and
protect the environment, given focus by the Rio arise from many different sources including:
Earth Summit in 1992. In particular, the concept Oil, chemical and liquefied gases in bulk;
of continuous improvement with respect to
Antifouling systems;
environmental importance is a significant driver
toward the achievement of a fully sustainable Dangerous goods in bulk and packaged
maritime transport industry operating within form;
the green economy. Sewage;
Garbage;
2.2 Economic, environmental, and Transfer of invasive species through ballast
social issues and opportunities water and biofouling;
As highlighted above, it is probably the challenge
of reducing atmospheric pollution and CO2 Engine exhaust (including sulphur, nitrous
emissions which presents the most obvious oxides and carbon dioxide);
opportunities with regard to the transition Cargo vapour emissions;
towards a green economy. In this respect, and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs);
as shown in the figure above, shipping is already Halons; and
the most environmentally-friendly form of
commercial transport and, with the lowest CO2 Noise.
emissions per tonne/km also, there are significant
opportunities for a modal shift towards maritime To prevent the more traditional sources of marine
transport especially short sea shipping and pollution by ships or mitigate their effects
coastal shipping, away from other land-based following the unfortunate occasion when pollution
transport modes or, even, aviation. still sadly occurs governments at IMO have
adopted a comprehensive international regulatory
In this respect, because marine fuel (bunkers) framework, which is widely enforced. This is made
is one of the largest operating costs for ship- up of no less than 21 global treaty instruments
owners, shipping companies have every which are augmented by technical codes and
43
Large spills from 1970 to 2010
Number of spills
40
35
30
25
20
15
in a Blue World
10
Average
5
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Note: large spills is defined asover 700 tonnes or more Source: ITOPF
guidelines also adopted at IMO and by well- of ship construction and inspection. Significant
established industry guidance on best practice, improvements to construction, maintenance
developed by the industrys highly organized and survey standards, relevant to environmental
international trade associations (ICS, 2012c). protection, have been underwritten by frequent
amendments to the International Convention
The immediate challenge is to build on what, for on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974 (IMO,
the most part, are already significant levels of 2012g). In this regard, in 2010, IMO adopted
ratification and implementation of international important amendments to that Convention to
conventions on pollution prevention by IMO implement new Goal-based Standards (GBS) for
Member States, which the Organization helps the construction of bulk carriers and oil tankers
ensure through a wide range of technical (IMO, 2012h). As a consequence, it is expected
cooperation programmes directed at those that shipbuilding standards will be enhanced so
States within emerging and developing that, with an appropriate level of maintenance
economies (see section 3.1 below). and adequate margins for corrosion, future
ships will be built to remain fit for purpose
Significantly, IMO has developed a Member throughout their typical 25-year life spans.
State Audit Scheme, whereby the performance
of flag, port and coastal States with regard The shipbuilding industry, together with
to the implementation and enforcement of classification societies (international maritime
IMO instruments including those relevant survey organizations and depositories of
to environmental protection is audited, on a industrys technical knowledge, which oversee
voluntary basis, by other IMO Member States, in the construction of ships), is constantly seeking
order to identify possible areas for improvement. to develop new, safer and improved ship
It has also been agreed in principle, by designs (IACS, 2012). In combination with more
governments at IMO, that the Audit Scheme vigorous maintenance and survey standards,
should become mandatory as of 2015 (IMO, and improvements to areas such as navigation
2012f). This, in itself, should considerably improve systems and seafarers training standards, this
uniform implementation and enforcement of IMO has made catastrophic structural failure and the
standards, bringing further improvements to the substantial pollution which can result far less
safety and environmental records of shipping. likely. Continuing improvements in shipbuilding
standards clearly represent major opportunities
In this regard, the most obvious potential source with respect to the green economy.
of serious pollution from ships is the discharge
of oil (cargoes or bunkers) as a result of ship Concerning the discharge of oily water from
losses. However, there has been a dramatic machinery spaces, and accidental spillage of oil
reduction in the number of major oil spills over cargoes and ships bunkers, opportunities also
the last four decades, including since the 1992 exist for the further improvement of equipment
Rio Earth Summit. designs (ICS, 2012d).
A major concern for the shipping industry, and its Similarly, opportunities are also created by the
regulators, is the maintenance of high standards need to develop equipment which treats a ships
44
ballast water in order to meet the requirements One specific area where the environmental
in a Blue World
IMOs International Convention for the Control impact of maritime transport has such wider
and Management of Ships Ballast Water and social implications includes the working
Sediments 2004, which includes technical conditions in ship recycling yards (mostly
standards and requirements to prevent the located in China and the Indian subcontinent).
import of alien marine organisms into local IMOs International Convention for the Safe and
ecosystems (IMO, 2012i). Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships is
specifically intended to help improve health and
Furthermore, radical recent amendments to safety and environmental conditions in recycling
Annex VI of the MARPOL Convention (governing yards (IMO, 2012j). The Convention reflects the
atmospheric pollution) require ships to reduce cradle to grave responsibilities of ship-owners,
the sulphur content of fuel dramatically, to just from the time of a ships construction to its final
0.1 per cent in Emission Control Areas (ECAs) from demolition, and regulates the actions which
2015, and to 0.5 per cent elsewhere (from the will be required and which should be approved
current level of 4.5 per cent outside ECAs) (IMO, by ships flag States and authorities in ship
2012a). However, these new IMO requirements recycling nations (ICS, 2010b). In particular,
to reduce emissions of air pollutants and the Convention requires the preparation and
consequent impacts on the environment and, maintenance of inventories of hazardous
in particular, on the health of populations living materials and the disposal of redundant ships at
on the coastline, also create opportunities for approved facilities.
the development of new exhaust scrubbing
technologies as a (legally permitted) alternative On another front, international shipping is
to the use of low sulphur fuels. making strides to promote the role of women
within the industry, which has historically
2.3 Social challenges and been a preserve of men. Increasing numbers
opportunities of women are, however, being engaged in
From the social perspective, because the various maritime industries, including for
international maritime transport generally service onboard ships (as captains and senior
operates away from land, its direct social officers) and ashore (as managers of shipping
impacts are largely confined to the 1.5 million companies). While this is the outcome of
seafarers it employs, about two-thirds of whom enlightened policies or self-interest on the part
reside in developing countries (ICS, 2010a). In of some stakeholders, the fact remains that
this respect, the shipping industry is probably there are growing numbers of professional
unique in that it has a mandatory framework of associations around the world for women
international employment standards, adopted engaged in shipping (WISTA, 2012). Some of
by the International Labour Organization (ILO), these have been established with specifically-
which is enforced by governments worldwide targeted support from IMO, which has had
and developed on a tripartite basis in agreement a Women in Development programme for
with international representatives of maritime some 20 years, including a dedicated technical
employers and seafarers trade unions (ILO, 2012). assistance programme designed to support
the integration of women from developing
Quite aside from the employment of seafarers, countries in the maritime sector.
shipping also generates considerable
opportunities ashore, be it within governmental 2.4 The economic case for greening
departments (maritime administrations; the maritime transport sector
port authorities; accident investigation units; A distinction should perhaps be made between
maritime training academies; etc.) or the implementing further improvements which
private sector (shipping companies; ship, port to help completely eliminate environmental
and terminal operators; shipbuilding and ship pollution by ships (including atmospheric
repair yards; offshore industries; equipment pollution in the vicinity of coastlines), and the
manufacturers; insurance companies; average contribution to the green economy which
adjusters; freight forwarders, etc.). These shipping can make more generally by reducing
professions too numerous to list make its CO2 emissions.
important contributions to the world economy,
while remittances from seafarers often represent 2.4.1 Description of the maritime sector
notable contributions to the foreign exchange as a business
earnings of nations and to the economies of The international shipping industry is
local communities. International shipping responsible for the carriage of about 90 per
activity, therefore, has a significantly beneficial cent of world trade by volume and is vital
impact on the livelihoods of large numbers of to the functioning of the global economy.
people around the world. Without shipping, intercontinental trade, the
45
World cargo shipping lanes
in a Blue World
Source: adapted from Kaluza, P., et al., The complex network of global cargo ship movements, Carl von Ossietzky Universitat, Germany; dataset refers to 2007.
bulk transport of raw materials and the import/ Container ships carry most of the worlds
export of affordable food and goods would manufactured goods and products, usually
simply not be possible (ICS, 2012). through scheduled liner services.
Bulk carriers are the work-horses of the fleet,
The world merchant fleet is registered in over transporting raw materials such as iron ore
150 nations, and manned by over a million and coal.
seafarers of virtually every nationality. The Tankers transport crude oil, chemicals,
structure of the shipping industry is very petroleum products and natural gas.
international: a ship may be registered in one
country, while the beneficial owner of the vessel Ferries usually perform short journeys for
may be located in another. The cargo carried by a mix of passengers, cars and commercial
a ship will be of economic benefit to a variety of vehicles. Most of these ships are Ro-Ro (roll-
different nations (the value of annual maritime on/roll-off ) ferries, where vehicles can drive
trade is estimated to be around US$2 trillion) straight on and off, making it a speedy and
(UoS, 2012). The crews of most ships comprise easily accessible way to travel.
more than one nationality, which are, quite Cruise ships expanded rapidly during the
commonly, different to that of the flag State and 1980s, leading to a new generation of large
the beneficial owner. and luxurious 'floating hotels'.
Specialist ships include anchor handling and
Shipping is, almost by definition, an inherently supply vessels for the offshore oil industry,
international industry which depends on salvage tugs, ice-breakers and research vessels.
a global regulatory framework to operate
efficiently. If a ship trades from Brisbane The worldwide operation of ships generates an
to Buenos Aires, the same rules need to apply (for estimated annual income in freight rates of over
example, concerning construction, navigation a trillion dollars or almost 2 per cent of the total
or atmospheric emissions) at both ends of the GDP for the global economy.
voyage. Otherwise, there would be chaos and
serious inefficiency. As discussed elsewhere, It is the availability, low cost and efficiency of
a globally uniform regulatory framework is maritime transport which has made possible the
provided very effectively by IMO, the United major shift towards industrial production in Asia
Nations specialized agency charged with the and other emerging economies which, in turn and
regulation of international maritime transport in large part, has been responsible for dramatic
in the pursuit of safe, secure efficient shipping improvements in global living standards.
on clean oceans.
Notwithstanding the recent contraction in trade
Today, there are about 60 000 merchant ships resulting from the economic downturn in 2008,
trading internationally, transporting every the world economy is expected to continue to
kind of cargo. These ships are operated by grow and shipping will need to respond to the
about 10 000 shipping companies (ICS, 2012). demand for its services, unless existing patterns
However, there are variety of sectors and trades of global trade and consumption were to be
with different characteristics. In simple terms: fundamentally transformed.
46
Due to continuous improvements in technology looking at a beyond-compliance sustainability
in a Blue World
and efficiency, maritime transport costs are very framework.
competitive. For example (in 2011) (ICS, 2012e):
The typical cost to the consumer in the The financial liabilities which shipping
United States of transporting crude oil from companies, or ships charterers, may face
the Middle East, in terms of the purchase should they be involved with a serious pollution
price of gasoline at the pump, is about incident such as a major oil spill (even if entirely
US$0.01 a litre. accidental) can potentially amount to millions
if not billions of US dollars. Additionally, the
The typical cost of transporting a tonne of
criminal penalties which can be associated
iron ore by sea from Australia to Europe is
with offences which may actually result with
about US$20.
relatively minor impacts on the environment
The typical cost of transporting a bottle such as the illegal disposal of oil residues, or
of whisky from Europe to China is about garbage at sea can also be very significant and
US$0.15. serve as a deterrent.
Maritime transport operates in a very
unrestricted trade environment. With the At a different level, any technical non-
exception of cabotage restrictions (trade compliance with MARPOL regulations which is
between two ports in the same country), identified during port State control inspections
international shipping enjoys relatively free can result in ships being detained and not
trade without restrictions to market access. permitted to sail, with the ship operator being
The majority of companies (especially in non- subjected to very significant commercial
containerized trades) are small and medium- penalties, as well as damage to its commercial
sized enterprises, and shipping is characterized reputation.
by markets with very high levels of competition
(CRSL, 2012). It should be understood that, following the
establishment and expansion, since the 1980s,
From an environmental perspective, shipping of regional co-operation agreements between
operations have the potential for significant national port State control authorities which
damage and it is IMOs role, with the collaboration share sophisticated databases on the safety
of industry and civil society interests, to develop and inspection records covering virtually the
and introduce measures to minimize all such entire world merchant fleet it is increasingly
impacts. difficult for ships which do not meet acceptable
international standards to operate to ports
Another very important factor in the located in the major trading areas in Europe, the
environmental performance of shipping is the Americas and Asia (IMO, 2012k). Such ships will
role of the shipyards which build the ships used be targeted for inspection by port State control
to conduct world trade, with about 90 per cent officers and detained so that they cannot sail.
of new shipbuilding capacity now located in Asia In this respect, port State control also applies
(China, Japan and Republic of Korea) (UNCTAD, to requirements such as the sulphur content of
2011). Shipyards clearly have an important part fuel and, in advance of the implementation of
to play in introducing new technologies which the stricter international standards which have
will further improve ship construction standards recently been adopted by IMO, port States have
(for example, to help prevent oil spills caused by already announced large financial penalties for
accidents), or which will radically improve fuel non-compliance.
efficiency to reduce CO2 emissions.
With the development of the internet, there has
2.4.2 Incentives for reducing marine been a massive increase in transparency with
pollution regard to information which is widely available
The shipping industry has two strong about the quality of ships, including the extent
economic motivations for maintaining and of their environmental performance, to which
improving its environmental performance. the customers of ships (charterers, shippers and
The first concerns the financial benefits of freight forwarders), as well as insurers of ships and
ensuring full compliance with widely enforced their cargoes, have access. In addition to insisting
international environmental regulations; the on full compliance with relevant international
second concerns the indirect economic benefits regulations concerning the protection of the
derived by companies which have a progressive marine environment (such as IMOs MARPOL
and proactive approach to implementing Convention and ISM Code), customers and
environmental improvements. Shipping also has insurers of shipping companies increasingly
the potential to become greener and initiatives insist that shipping companies meet additional
such as the Sustainable Shipping Initiative are environmental standards, such as those developed
47
by the International Standards Organization (ISO), which contribute to CO2 emissions (ICS, 2012f ).
or else developed independently by charterers These include, inter alia, improved voyage
and insurers themselves. planning; speed management; weather routing;
optimizing engine power; hull maintenance and
In short, shipping companies have a commercial use of different fuel types. These may be termed
imperative to operate with the philosophy that operational measures leading to CO2 emission
the costs of compliance with both mandatory reductions.
and voluntary environmental standards are far
less than the costs of non-compliance, given the In the longer term, however, the shipping
potential and likelihood of being confronted industry is also exploring a number of other
with multimillion US dollar penalties and/or operational measures, including alternative
liabilities which can arise from being involved fuel sources to help reduce CO2 emissions.
in a Blue World
in an environmental incident, whether large or Renewable energy sources, such as wind and
small, unintentional or otherwise. solar power, may have their place in helping
to meet some ancillary requirements, such
2.4.3 Incentives for reducing CO2 as lighting onboard ships. However, they are
emissions not practical for providing sufficient power to
In the future, however, the most significant issue operate ships main engines (the huge physical
regarding the part maritime transport can play size of ships should not be underestimated).
in greening the world economy concerns its
efforts to reduce CO2 emissions. Fuel cells may also be a possibility for new
ships in the very long term, although they are
Because marine fuel (bunkers) is, as previously currently too limited in range to offer a viable
stated, among the largest operating costs solution. Even nuclear propulsion for merchant
for ship-owners, shipping companies have ships is technically possible, although safety and
every incentive to find news means of further security implications, and support infrastructure
reducing their fuel consumption and, thus, costs would require serious consideration.
their emissions of both air pollutants and CO2.
The international shipping industry currently Second generation biofuels might conceivably
consumes about 300 million tonnes of bunkers provide a possible alternative, although there is,
per year (IMO mid-range estimate) (IMO, 2009). of course, considerable public debate about the
The typical price of bunkers used by ships is net environmental costs (and social effects) of
about US$600 per tonne (2011) so, collectively, the wider use of such fuels.
the global shipping industry spends about
US$180 billion a year on bunker fuel. The current assumption, therefore, remains
that ships will continue to burn fossil fuels
The costs for ship operators, in particular, will for the foreseeable future, and that the most
almost certainly be increased even further significant means of reducing CO2 emissions
by the introduction of new mandatory IMO will be achieved by further improvements in
requirements to use low sulphur fuels which, efficiency across the entire transport chain (see
from 2015, in Emission Control Area (ECAs), will also section 3.3.2).
require many ships to burn distillate fuel. This is
currently 50 per cent more expensive than the
heavy fuel oil bunkers which most ships use at 3 Enabling conditions
present. The economic case for greening the
maritime sector by improving fuel efficiency, 3.1 Learning from successful and
reducing consumption and thus cutting carbon unsuccessful international experience
emissions is therefore very clear. The International Maritime Organization, as
the regulator for the shipping industry, has
The various parts of the shipping industry an enviable track record of developing and
ship-owners, shipbuilders and classification adopting global technical standards. The three
societies (the depositories of technical expertise main Conventions adopted by IMO SOLAS,
in the industry) have been actively examining MARPOL and STCW, dealing, respectively, with
a number of ways to reduce CO2 emissions, both safety and security, environmental protection
for new and existing ships, which are primarily and seafarers training standards have all been
linked to reducing fuel consumption. The ratified by virtually all Member States of IMO
shipping industry is therefore confident that, as (IMO, 2012l).
a whole, it can deliver more than a 20 per cent
reduction in emissions per tonne of cargo moved Since its inception, IMO has developed and
per kilometre by 2020, by improving ships adopted no less than 52 conventions dealing
performance with regard to the various factors with all facets of ship operation and protection
48
of the environment from such operations to recognize the importance of building
in a Blue World
(IMO, 2012d). Indeed, no less than 21 of those maritime capacity in achieving the MDGs
instruments deal exclusively with environmental and to ensure that consideration is given
protection, with two other treaties (on salvage to the inclusion of the maritime sector in
and wreck removal having environmental Official Development Assistance (ODA)
benefits also). While the levels of ratification of programmes;
such IMO instruments is not as high as for SOLAS, Member States to voluntarily use the
MARPOL and STCW each of which today covers Maritime Capacity Checklist, and the
99 per cent of the worlds merchant fleet the Maritime Capacity Analysis tool, to analyze
entire body of IMO conventions provides for and assess the levels of maritime capacity
the universally applicable regulations enabling progress in developing maritime capacity
shipping to operate on a level-playing field. over time;
IMOs Technical Cooperation Committee to
From a normative perspective, therefore, there give high priority to those activities, which
is every indication that shipping should and will not only promote the early ratification and
continue to be regulated by IMO, taking account effective implementation of IMO instruments
of technological advances, industry practice and but also contribute to the attainment of the
the needs and aspirations of society at large. MDGs, taking into account the special needs
of the LDCs and SIDS, and the particular
A further enabling mechanism in the maritime maritime transport needs of Africa, and ensure
world is IMOs provision of technical assistance that these needs are reflected in the ITCP; and
to developing countries with the support of
donors, industry and civil society interests to All IMO Member States and international
help them achieve effective implementation organizations concerned to provide and,
and enforcement of global standards onboard as the case may be, increase their financial
their ships, in their ports and along their coasts. and in-kind support for the delivery of the
ITCP individually and through bilateral and
Such support is generated through IMOs multilateral development aid programmes.
Integrated Technical Cooperation Programme It has been shown that IMOs technical cooperation
(ITCP), with the aim to assist developing activities contribute, by promoting effective and
countries build up their human and uniform implementation and enforcement of
institutional capacities for uniform and effective maritime standards, to at least five of the MDGs,
implementation of IMOs regulatory framework namely: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
(IMO, 2012m). By fostering capacity-building in promote gender equality and empower women;
the maritime sector, the ITCP helps countries combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases;
ensure safe, secure and efficient shipping ensure environmental sustainability; and develop
services and protect their waters and coasts a global partnership for development.
from the environmental degradation caused by
ships and other maritime-related activities. To help the foregoing objectives, IMO founded
the World Maritime University in 1983 (Malmo,
It is, therefore, both IMOs regulatory framework Sweden) and, later on, the IMO International
and its technical cooperation programme which Maritime Law Institute (Msida, Malta) and the
contribute to sustainable socio-economic International Maritime Safety, Security and
development with, for the ITCP, the emphasis on Environment Academy (Genoa, Italy), all of which
meeting the special assistance maritime needs have the sole aim of providing advanced training
of Africa, SIDS and LDCs. for men and women involved in maritime
administration, education and management,
In this regard, IMOs highest organ the particularly those from developing countries.
Assembly has adopted several resolutions on
technical cooperation, including A.901(21) on It may be noted that IMO was recently included
IMO and Technical Cooperation in the 2000s in the OECD DAC list of ODA organizations
and A.986(24) on The Importance and Funding and this further emphasizes and recognizes
of Technical Cooperation as a Means to Support IMOs role as an important partner in technical
the United Nations Millennium Declaration and cooperation and development assistance.
Development Goals. Furthermore, resolution
A.1006(25) on The Linkage between the 3.2 Building effective national,
Integrated Technical Co-operation Programme regional and international institutions
and the Millennium Development Goals As discussed above, maritime transport is
requested or encouraged: probably unique as a blue world industry in
Member States and donor organizations that there is already widespread acceptance and
recognition among governments and industry
49
alike that it requires a global regulatory in order to avoid duplication of effort and, in
framework, with rules which are enforced on a particular, opposing regulation of shipping from
uniform and worldwide basis to all ships trading the technical and operational perspective.
internationally, in order, among other objectives,
to minimize pollution and best improve the In this respect, there may be a lack of
sectors environmental performance. In short, understanding within some national
the IMO principle of no more favourable government departments or agencies
treatment between the enforcement of rules concerned with environmental, and/or ocean
which apply to national flag ships, as opposed to issues, about the effective role which IMO plays
visiting ships of different flags, is fully accepted. with respect to the environmental performance
of maritime transport. The efficiency of IMO
For the most part, therefore, the basic enabling as an international regulator, and its ability to
in a Blue World
conditions for the greening of shipping at contribute to the transition of maritime transport
the international level already exist in the into the green economy, would be assisted by
form of IMO. The Organization is, of course, an improving awareness and appreciation of its
intergovernmental, rather than a supra-national, effectiveness amongst other relevant agencies
entity, with a membership of 170 Member and departments which impact on shipping
States. While it is still national laws which give especially those with broader responsibility for
effect to the implementation and enforcement the environment whether at national, regional
of the relevant IMO Conventions, with very or international level.
few and relatively minor exceptions, national
regulations applicable to international shipping 3.3 Building effective regulatory
contain no variations to the substance of the IMO frameworks for the sector
Conventions governing safety or environmental It is again helpful perhaps to make a distinction
protection to which they give effect. between regulation to deliver further
improvements to help eliminate marine
However, while IMO is the principal UN agency pollution by ships (including atmospheric
regulating international maritime transport, pollution in the vicinity of coastlines) and the
other international bodies and can also impact contribution to the green economy which
on shipping too, not least the UN itself, other shipping can make more generally with regard
agencies such as ILO and the London Convention to the reduction of its CO2 emissions.
Secretariats also. In the context of efforts to
confront climate change, this is certainly the case 3.3.1 Regulation of marine and
with respect to the UN Framework Convention atmospheric pollution
on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Cooperation and As discussed above, IMO already has an impressive
coordination among these entities is essential track record of enabling governments to agree
12 000 120
10 000 100
8 000 80
6 000 60
4 000 40
2 000 20
0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Note: number of spills over 7 tonnes are accounted in this chart
Source: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd. (ITOPF)
50
in a Blue World
Projected annual CO2 emissions from the shipping sector
Milion tonnes
3 000
B2-1 A1-B4
Emission reduction by Energy Efficiency
Operational Indicator
Emission reduction by Ship Energy
Efficiency Management Plan
2 500
New emissions after the reduction plans
Notes:
Reduction potential from IMO MARPOL Annex VI measures
SCENARIO A1-B4: high growth, least stringent SEEMP uptake,
2 000 reference fuel price, high waiver uptake
SCENARIO B2-1: low growth, low SEEMP uptake, reference fuel
price and low waiver uptake
1 500
1 000
500
Source: LLoyd Register, NDV, Assessment of IMO Mandated Energy Efficiency Measures for International Shipping.
51
largest segments of the world merchant fleet, which now includes technical measures to
first, and is expected to cover as much as 70 per reduce CO2 from ships is ratified and enforced
cent of emissions from new ships. globally through a combination of flag State
and port State control by IMO Member States.
There is also a requirement for a Ship Energy
Efficiency Management Plan to be carried out With regard to GHGs, in particular, it is generally
and implemented by all ships as from 2013 recognized that the delivery of significant
these being known as operational measures emission reductions by the maritime sector will
(see also section 2.4.3). require that any mandatory measures adopted
are applied on a uniform and global basis to
In order to secure even greater CO2 reductions avoid carbon leakage.
from international shipping, IMO is also
in a Blue World
examining the development of possible Market- Most shipping companies have the freedom
based Measures (MBMs) which could be applied to decide to register their ships with the flag
globally to shipping. In summary, governments State of their choice, including those which,
at IMO have agreed key principles for the under the current Kyoto Protocol, are not Annex
development of regulations on CO2 from ships I nations. Measures to deliver meaningful
so that they will: emission reductions are, thus, much more likely
Effectively reduce CO2 emissions; to be achieved by instruments developed by
Be binding and include all flag states; governments at IMO since only about 35 per
Be cost effective; cent of the world merchant fleet is registered in
Kyoto Annex I countries (ICS, 2012g).
Not distort competition;
Be based on sustainable development The direct Kyoto Protocol concept of common
without restricting trade and growth; but differentiated responsibility (CBDR) cannot
Be goal-based and not prescribe particular be practically applied to shipping without the
methods; danger of significant carbon leakage. The flag
Stimulate technical research and State with which a ship is registered or, indeed,
development in the entire maritime sector; the nationality of the entity operating the ship,
Take into account new technology; can change frequently, especially when ships
are bought and sold.
Be practical, transparent, free of fraud and
easy to administer. IMO has, nevertheless, addressed the CBDR
principle, in the regulations on technical CO2
The international shipping industry also
measures contained in MARPOL Annex VI, by
subscribes to these principles.
providing for governments to provide technical
It is recognized, however, that, with regard to assistance and undertake technology transfers to
reducing shippings CO2 emissions, the situation support developing countries, and by allowing
is more complex than with measures to address some flexibility with respect to the dates when
other sources of pollution from ships transport. the new measures have to be applied.
While IMO is the UN agency responsible for
the protection of the environment from the However, the direct application of the CBDR
impact of maritime transport, it is, of course, the concept i.e. different standards being applied
UNFCCC which addresses the overall obligations according to the flag of the ship would cause
of governments with regard to reducing gross distortion of shipping markets, reduce the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. efficiency of maritime transport and, thus, the
smooth flow of world trade, and would not provide
As already acknowledged by the Kyoto Protocol, for environmental effectiveness. Conversely, the
emissions from international shipping cannot be IMO principle of no more favourable treatment
attributed to any particular national economy. ensures that standards adopted for shipping are
Multilateral collaborative action will be the most applied equally throughout the world, delivering
appropriate means to address emissions from maximum environmental improvement.
the maritime transport sector.
Accordingly, the achievement of further
This is best achieved by governments at the reductions in CO2 emissions will be best pursued
specialist UN agency the IMO which has if nations agree that the development of detailed
a successful track record in the development measures, for the international merchant fleet,
of global regulations governing the shipping should be directed by governments at IMO while
industrys environmental performance. As respecting the outcomes agreed for the sector
previously discussed, the MARPOL Convention under any new UN climate change convention.
52
Comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi) is spreading in the European seas
in a Blue World
BARENTS
Altitudes SEA
in metres
3 000 WHITE
2 000 NORWEGIAN SEA
1 000 SEA
500
200
0
Volga
NORTH
Area of spread of the
comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi SEA
BALTIC
SEA
lga
ARAL
L
Vo
SEA
A
ATLANTIC
Do
ENGLISH
OCEAN
n
CHANNEL
Don
Vo
lga
CASPIAN
BLACK
SEA SEA
ADRIATIC
SEA
AEGAN
SEA
3.3.3 Strengthening the legal framework 30 States which at present have ratified the
to effectively address aquatic invasive Convention represent 26.44 per cent of world
species merchant shipping tonnage and the entry-into-
The diverse and widespread impact of aquatic force conditions are likely to be met in 2012.
invasive species means that they can affect
marine and freshwater ecosystems, and the However, the problem still remains. The rate of
livelihoods and economies which depend upon marine bio-invasions has been reported as being
them, virtually everywhere on earth. Invasive as high as up to one every nine weeks and over
species threaten biodiversity, marine industries 80 per cent of the worlds 232 marine ecoregions
and human health. The global economic impacts reported the presence of invasive species. On
of invasive aquatic species, including through the bright side, a recent Canadian government
disruption to fisheries, fouling of coastal industry study of invasions in the great lakes showed
and infrastructure, and interference with human that, since Canada (and the US) imposed strict
amenity, have been estimated at US$100 billion ballast-water management measures, there has
per year, while the projected response costs been no documented invasion (FAOCS, 2011).
are merely in the range of four per cent of the
impact (Chisholm, 2004). The invasion of the European zebra mussel in the
North American Great Lakes, the Asian golden
Some of the major achievements since the call mussel in the inland waterways of Argentina,
for urgent action from the 1992 Earth Summit Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay threatening the
include the adoption by IMO of the International whole Amazon basin, the comb jellyfish in the
Convention for the Management and Control Black and Caspian Seas are classic examples of
of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments 2004. bio-invasions, mainly mediated through ballast
Substantial progress has also been made in water and hull fouling.
building national capacities to implement
and comply with the Ballast Water Convention The severe economic and ecological impacts
through the two phases of the GEF/UNDP/IMO of these invasions provide some of the starkest
GloBallast programme. case studies of the devastating effects of aquatic
invasive species. Unlike environmental impacts
The Convention will enter into force after from pollution and habitat loss, invasive species
ratification by 30 States, representing 35 per once introduced and established, can rarely if
cent of world merchant shipping tonnage. The ever be reversed and/or eradicated. Without
53
timely and globally coordinated measures A comprehensive international regulatory
and a legally-binding framework applicable framework agreed by governments at IMO,
worldwide, the impact of invasive species will which is widely enforced on a worldwide basis,
only get worse over time. has already done much to reduce various
sources of pollution by shipping both marine
IMOs adoption of an international treaty to and atmospheric augmented more recently
address invasions through ships ballast water by international regulations addressing
paved the way to a global approach and atmospheric pollution and technical means of
demonstrated the effectiveness of Member reducing shippings CO2 emissions.
States working together under the right
auspices. This example should now be followed Nevertheless, the economic, societal,
by a similar response to ships hull fouling, environmental and reputational case for further
in a Blue World
possibly the second most significant vector for greening of the sector is clear and is espoused
aquatic invasions, and by regulatory measures by both IMO, as the sectors global regulator,
to control other means of transferring unwanted and the industry itself, with the aim of:
organisms from one place to another. promoting entry into force of all of IMOs
environmental treaties and their global,
Global efforts need to focus on building the right uniform implementation and enforcement,
legal framework to address aquatic invasions in a principally through the provision of technical
coordinated and consistent manner. Without such assistance;
a focussed, sustained and coordinated approach,
under the aegis of IMO, the significant progress promoting enhanced flag, port and coastal
achieved since Rio 1992 will not be capitalized on, State performance to deliver further
and the global benefits and momentum accrued reductions in pollution caused by ships
so far in addressing one of the greatest threats to through discharges to sea and emissions
the worlds oceans may well be lost. to air, including through the availability of
adequate port reception facilities for ship-
generated wastes;
4 Conclusions and promoting greater energy-efficiency of
recommendations ships, including through the development
Shipping plays a crucial role in international trade of market-based measures, and, as
and the global economy. It operates effectively a consequence, reductions in fuel
in a context of international regulations aimed at consumption and in emissions of both air
ensuring safe, secure and efficient shipping on clean pollutants and greenhouse gases;
oceans one which also generates employment
developing global standards to ensure
opportunities both onboard and ashore.
that the operation of ships using
alternative sources of fuel is both safe and
By so doing, shipping contributes towards
environmentally sound;
the three pillars of sustainable development
and towards a green economy. In this regard, promoting implementation, or development
shipping is an environmentally-friendly form of global standards to prevent and control
of commercial transport and by far the most the transfer of invasive aquatic species
energy-efficient, in particular in terms of CO2 through ships ballast water and the fouling
emissions per tonne/km. of ships hulls, thereby contributing to
protecting and preserving biodiversity and
Maritime transport is already making enhancing human health and the quality of
considerable progress towards the transition to the environment;
a green economy through different initiatives
addressing, through existing and/or future
by the industry and through the enforcement
treaty and other instruments, the technical,
of international regulations adopted by IMO.
operational and environmental aspects of
Further, the Organizations ITCP forms an
the ever-increasing size of ships; and
important tool in assisting developing countries
in the implementation and enforcement of its maintaining international shippings
global technical standards and in the efforts widely-acknowledged position as the most
towards achieving the MDGs. environmentally sound mode of transport.
54
0$5,1(%$6('
5(1(:$%/(
(1(5*<
in a Blue World
Lead authors authors of this chapter were Nadine McCormick and Varun Vats, both from
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
The Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy and Energy Systems Technology (IWES) has
contributed data for Figures. Jochen Bard (IWES) has also reviewed the chapter.
Colleagues and individuals who commented on drafts and provided specific inputs and
advice include Carl Gustaf Lundin, Franois Simard and James Oliver (GMPP, IUCN) and Dan
56
Wilhelmsson, Scientific Coordinator, Department of Zoology, Stockholm University.
1 Introduction: Marine-based However the potential for supplying the energy
renewable energy sector as an needs of these centres is huge. For instance,
important sector of the Green conversion of the wave energy resource alone
Economy could supply a substantial part of the electricity
demand of several countries, in particular
This chapter explores how increasing investments Ireland, the UK, Denmark, Portugal, Spain and
in renewable energy, in the context of climate Norway, especially on islands and in remote
change and green economy policy discussions, areas (EREC, 2011).
could play out in the marine environment. It
will highlight the main drivers before assessing Other renewable energy technologies are more
economic, social and environmental risks advanced in both their development and their
and opportunities associated with the most commercialization. In 2008, marine-based
in a Blue World
1.1 Marine-based renewable energy More than 85 countries around the world
Overview have renewable energy targets in place (UNEP,
Energy is the driver of all economies and access 2011), with countries such as the UK, Canada,
to sustainable energy is a prerequisite for a Portugal, Estonia, France, Italy and Ireland
sustainable economy. The marine environment developing specific targets for marine-based
has traditionally provided energy sources renewable energy, excluding offshore wind
through coastal and deep water oil and gas (IPCC, 2011)1. However, Europe currently leads
reserves. However, investors are increasingly the development of ocean-based energies,
turning to the marine environment as a source particularly for offshore wind, wave and
of clean energy. marine currents, which have seen the most
technological development. This development
The oceans potential for renewable energy is primarily facilitated by strong renewable
resources is vast. The ocean receives more than energy targets through the governments
70 per cent of the Earths available sunlight, and directives (Renewable Energy Directive) and
almost 90 per cent of the worlds wind energy support for research and development, as well
occurs over the ocean (IUCN 2010, Czisch as investments from utility companies who are
2005). In addition to harnessing stronger winds under pressure to increase their share of clean
offshore, ocean sources of renewable energy energy in their portfolio. The best ocean energy
can take many forms, including (IPCC, 2011): resources within European Union Member
Wave States are wave energy and marine currents,
salinity gradient systems are being developed
Tidal (rise and fall)
in Norway and the Netherlands (EREC, 2011).
Tidal (currents)
Ocean currents The figure below shows projections of installed
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) marine energy capacity for selected countries
Salinity gradients (osmosis) from 2012 to 2020. Marine energy sources
included are: tidal barrage, tidal current, wave,
Marine-based biomass (algae) OTEC and osmotic power. South Korea and
France are starting with from a relatively high
The IPCCs Special Report on Renewable Energy installed level. However, the UK, the USA and
Sources (2011), highlights that the technically Portugal are the countries with highest relative
exploitable potential for marine-based increases projected.
renewable is estimated at 7 400 EJ per year;
the figure well exceeding our current energy The global installed wind energy generation
needs. The exploitable potential is limited by the capacity (including offshore and onshore)
need for energy sources to be near population
1. UK: 1300 MW, Portugal: 250 MW, France: 140 MW, Estonia: 100
centres to reduce associated transmission costs, MW, Ireland: 75 MW, Italy: 3 MW electricity generation from marine
as well as on future technology developments. based renewable energy.
58
Future energy provided by the oceans
in a Blue World
United Kingdom
France
Russia
USA
China
Japan
India
increased more than tenfold from 18 000 Little or no convergence has yet occurred, and
MW (end of 2000) to 215 000 MW (June 2011) is unlikely given the range of options for energy
(WWEA). Owing to ongoing improvements in extraction (IPCC, 2011). More than 100 different
turbine efficiency and higher fuel prices, wind marine-based energy technologies are currently
power is becoming economically competitive under development in over 30 countries (IPCC,
with conventional power production (Ris, 2011). The four most dominant energy sources
DTU). are discussed in more detail here.
China, United States, Germany, Spain and 1.2 Offshore wind energy
India are among the countries producing the Offshore wind power is developing rapidly and
largest amount of (offshore and onshore) wind creating economic opportunities in terms of its
energy. According to the Global Wind Energy share of global energy generation. Estimates of
Council (GWEC) Chinas wind market doubled the technical potential for offshore wind energy
every year from 2006 to 2009 in terms of total alone range from 160 to 1 500 million MW in a
installed capacity, and it has been the largest year; when only considering relatively shallow
annual market since 2009. In 2010, China and near-shore applications; greater technical
overtook the United States as the country with potential is available if also considering deeper
the most installed wind energy capacity. China water applications that might rely on floating
wind capacity in 2010 was 41 800 MW where as wind turbine designs (IPCC, 2011).
that of the US in the same year was 40 180 MW
(Financial Times, 2011). Offshore wind energy is highly capital-intensive
when compared to onshore wind energy. The
Marine energy is unique because its potential higher offshore capital costs are due to the
varies depending on the energy source, for which larger structures and the complex logistics of
there are many technology options. For example, installing the towers that are significantly higher
the different concepts for wave energy conversion than onshore. For example, offshore turbines are
can be onshore, near-shore and offshore and rely generally 20 per cent more expensive and towers
on several working principles (oscillating water and foundations cost more than 2.5 times the price
columns). Tidal barrage technologies are adapted of those for a similar onshore project (EWEA, 2009).
to ebb and flood tides. Marine current devices However, the higher initial capital cost of offshore
are less diversified than wave energy devices, but wind energy is compensated by additional benefits
could use a range of working principles and they provided by offshore over onshore wind energy.
can either be rigidly mounted in the seabed, pile- Some of these benefits are listed below:
mounted, semi-submersible with moorings or Greater area available for setting up large
attached to a floating structure. The technology to projects: due to installation at sea, there
harness salinity gradient power uses the osmotic is more space available for offshore wind
pressure differences between salt and fresh water turbines.
or between water bodies of different salinity.
59
Higher consistent wind speed than onshore industry has surged forward in recent years;
locations: wind-speed intensity is steadier and there has been an increase in installed wind-
greater in deeper water, producing higher energy generation capacity from 136 MW at
output per revolution. An increase of about 20 the end of 2000 to 2 300 MW by 2010. This is
per cent in wind speed at some distance from partly spurred by a government requirement
the shore is not uncommon. Moreover wind for electricity companies to source an increasing
is less turbulent at sea than over land which percentage of their supply from renewable and
results in consistent energy generation. partly by the introduction of market incentives,
Close to load centres: offshore wind farms both in terms of output price subsidy and capital
are usually located near to cities and load grants.
centres, minimizing transmission losses.
Favourable to public acceptance: as these Similarly, wind-energy generation capacity
in a Blue World
sites are located far from land they have in the US increased by a factor of 15 over the
less visual impact which helps with public same period from 2 500 MW in 2000 to 40 100
acceptance issues. Moreover, wind turbines MW in 2010 (GWEC, 2010). Wind energy now is
emit a whirring noise which has led to generating around 2 per cent of US electricity
problems people with living nearby. needs; however the potential is much greater.
In 2008, the US Department of Energy released
Project finances dominate the financial structure a report, predicting that wind power could
of the offshore wind-energy sector, because of provide 20 per cent of US electricity by 2030.
the highly predictable nature of wind-farm cash Offshore wind-energy generation is taking off in
flows. Over the past couple of decades, the vast the US, albeit slowly. The Obama administration
majority of commercial wind farms have been has unveiled a plan for fast-tracking offshore
funded through project finance. Project finance wind-energy projects, releasing US$50 million
is essentially a project loan, backed by the cash for R&D in offshore wind energy in the USA
flow of the specific project. Recently, companies (Ecopolitology).
own financing has also become common for
financing wind-farm projects. This means that the The Indian wind-energy sector has an installed
owner of the project provides all the necessary generation capacity of 14 158 MW (March,
financing for the project, and the projects assets 2011), which is ranked fifth highest in terms of
and liabilities are all directly accounted for at wind-power installed capacity in the world. The
company level. Structured finance markets (such majority of this capacity is drawn from onshore
as bond markets) in Europe and North America projects. The offshore wind-power potential for
have also been used, but to a more limited extent India has been estimated as 15 000 MW. A huge
than project finance transactions. potential remains untapped due to the high
capital cost of offshore wind projects and lack
Commercial-scale offshore wind facilities are of the necessary supply chain. Tamil Nadu, a
currently in operation in shallow waters off the southern state in India, will have the distinction
coasts, but further technology development is to have Indias first offshore wind project (EAI).
needed for use in the deeper waters of the high
seas. The highest country level growth rate for wind-
energy generation capacity was seen in China,
Offshore wind, currently around 3 000 MW, in the past decade. The wind-energy generation
has mainly been concentrated in northern capacity in China doubled every year between
European countries, around the North Sea and 2006 and 2009, and it has been the largest wind-
the Baltic Sea. Europes leadership is primarily energy generating country in the world since
attributed to public policy and a thriving wind 2009. There is one operational offshore wind
energy industry. EU legislation mandates farm in China, as of 2011.
significant reductions of carbon emission,
requiring, among other measures, greater The figure below shows the cumulated capacity
usage of renewable energy resources. As of of offshore wind farms in selected European
2011, around 69 wind farms were installed or countries from 2011 to 2020. It can be seen
under construction in the EU. Europe has a total that the total capacity for offshore wind is still
offshore wind-energy generation capacity of limited, but growth rates are high. Offshore
is 3 000 MW (EAI). Other countries worldwide wind farms are installed in large units often in
are also exploring offshore renewable energy the order of hundreds of MW. Presently, higher
including the Japan, USA, India and Eastern and costs and temporary capacity problems in the
Southern Africa (Wilhelmsson, et al., 2010). manufacturing stages, as well as difficulties
with the availability of installation vessels, are
According to the Japanese Wind Energy causing some delays, and hence slow expansion
Association (JWEA), Japans wind-energy growth. Several countries are nevertheless
60
in a Blue World
Development in offshore wind capacity
Europe
Gigawatt
50
10
5
The capacity of 1 nuclear power 1
Other European countries
plant is around 1 Gigawatt
0.5 or less
Source: Frauenhofer Institute for Wind Energy and Energy Systems, 2011.
61
Spots of potential for wave energy harvest
in a Blue World
or through channels. Tidal currents can be observed that annual wave power distribution
harnessed using technologies similar to those is greater on the western coasts of temperate
used for wind-energy conversion (horizontal or countries (IPCC, 2011). For instance in the figure
vertical-axis turbines, also known as cross flow above, offshore average annual wave power
turbines). However, in contrast to atmospheric distribution is highlighted. It can be seen from
airflows the availability of tidal currents can the figure that the largest power levels occur off
be predicted very accurately, as their motion the west coasts of the continents in temperate
corresponds to local tidal conditions. latitudes, where the most energetic winds and
greatest fetch areas occur.
While still in a nascent stage of development,
commercially attractive sites have been Wave energy is predictable, because satellites
identified in the UK, Ireland, Greece, France and can measure waves out in the ocean that will
Italy. Outside Europe, there is potential in the later impact on devices around the coast.
Republic of Korea, China, Canada, Japan, the This predictability will allow for less spinning
Philippines, New Zealand and South America. reserve than is often required to support more
China, for instance, has estimated a tidal power intermittent renewable energy sources (WEC,
current potential of 14 GW (IPCC, 2011) 2007).
Tidal energy has the potential to become a viable Many different wave energy converter types
option for large-scale, base-load generation have been, and continue to be, proposed and
in some countries due to their advantageous tested but they are still at the pre-commercial
location. However, current competitive capacity phase (Holmes & Nielsen, 2010). A very few
when compared to fossil-fuel based energy is pilot projects have been translated into working
still a concern. prototypes, and even fewer into devices which
are sufficiently robust. Some estimate that more
1.4 Wave energy than 50 wave energy devices are at various stages
Wave energy is captured directly from surface of development (IPCC, 2011), often tailored to
waves or from pressure fluctuations below the specific site conditions. They range from small
ocean surface. Wave power varies considerably 10 kW generators standing on the seabed to
in different parts of the world, making it more large floating structures generating 1.5 MW.
economically feasible to harness in some parts
than in others, hence making wave energy a The total theoretical wave energy potential is
region-specific energy source. For example, estimated to be 1 300 million MW/yr (Mrk, et
strong winds variations are observed within the al., 2010), roughly twice the global electricity
band between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, and supply in 2008 (700 million MW/yr). This figure
circumpolar storms near the southern latitudes, is unconstrained by geography, technical
which account for high-energy ocean waves or economic considerations. However the
in those areas (IEA, 2008). Similarly it has been technical potential of wave energy will be
62
substantially lower than this figure and will
in a Blue World
depend on technical developments in wave- Forecast capacity of marine
energy devices. Sims et al., (2007) estimate a
global technical potential of 500 000 MW for
renewable energy types
8
wave energy, assuming that offshore wave- Gigawatt
energy devices have an efficiency of 40 per cent
and are only installed near coastlines.
7
63
taken as a proxy to determine the economic case global installed capacity of selected marine
for the marine-energy technologies discussed here. based renewable energy sources from 2012
To be cost-effective for energy generation and to to 2020. Tidal current has the highest forecast
compete against fossil-fuel based energy, marine- increase followed by wave, based on plans
based renewable energy has to be cost-effective and targets among all the energy technologies
against fossil fuels. When fossil-fuel prices rise, considered. (See section 1 for a more detailed
renewable energy becomes more cost-effective, analysis per energy type.)
and vice versa. This trend can be seen in historical
investments in renewable energy, which have 2.2.2 Economic costs and challenges
coincided with high fossil-fuel prices (IPCC, 2011). The overall fossil-fuel based electricity price
comprises fuel cost, operation and maintenance
2.2.1 Economic opportunities (O&M) costs, capital cost, including planning
in a Blue World
The figure on page 63 provides a forecast for and site work and cost of CO2 emissions (where
64
mandated). The approach in this section is to each of the three components: fuel cost; operation
in a Blue World
determine the price-competitive capacity of and maintenance (O&M) costs and capital cost.
each of the selected marine renewable energies Wind power avoids full fuel and CO2 costs, as well
against fossil-fuel based conventional energy as a considerable portion of the O&M costs of the
sources. The section also discusses costs for displaced conventional power plant. Henceforth,
the latest available reference year. However, it the cost comparison lies within capital costs.
is important to take into account trends in the
costs curves, depending on where the respective The level of avoided capital costs depends on
technologies are on the innovation curve. the extent to which wind-power capacity can
displace investments in new conventional power
The table below provides a rough estimate of plants (combined cycle natural gas power plant),
costs, with the best available data for some of the and thus is directly tied to how economically
primary costs associated with selected marine- viable wind energy is compared with fossil-fuel
energy technologies. These costs are taken from based energy. For instance, in the figure below, a
the IPCC and, in most cases, are based on sparse reference case is depicted to compare the cost of
information due to the lack of peer-reviewed generating wind power with conventional power.
reference data and actual operating experience.
They therefore often reflect estimated costs One economic advantage of wind energy
based on engineering knowledge. compared to conventional energy generation
is the relatively constant, non-fluctuating input
2.2.3 Economics of different marine- costs, compared to fossil-fuel price fluctuations.
based renewable energy sources Although intermittent winds can mean output
Offshore wind energy fluctuations, input prices for wind energy are
When conventional power is replaced by wind- constant at almost zero and hence the final
generated electricity, the costs avoided depend cost of wind energy is independent of input
on the degree to which wind-power substitutes fuel prices. The input resource costs per kWh
Notes: a) Design life estimates are based on expert knowledge. A standard assumption is to set the design lifetime of an ocean
energy device to 20 years;
b) Based on the estimates provided by Callaghan (2006), Previsic (2004) and ETSAP (2010);
c) Tidal barrages resemble hydropower plants, which in general have very long design lives. Tidal barrages are therefore assumed
to have a similar economic design lifetime as large hydropower plants that can safely be set to at least 40 years;
d) Approximate data adapted from the EWEA, 2009 for an offshore wind turbine installed in Europe, between 40 and 180 MW
and reflected in 2005 USD;
e) Data taken from EWEA, (2009), f ) figures are taken from a MIT report and translated into 2005 USD, g) O&M costs do not include
fuel costs, h) IEA (2010)
65
Looking further offshore and in deeper waters
Average distance from shore in kilometres
20
in a Blue World
40
60
80
Source: Frauenhofer Institute for Wind Energy and Energy Systems, 2011.
140
Average water depth in metres
generated by wind power are almost constant structures and the complex logistics of installing
over the lifetime of the turbine, following its the towers. For instance, in Europe, the expected
installation. Hence, even if wind power might average investment costs for a new offshore
currently be more expensive per KWh, it is wind farm are in the range of 2.5-US$2.7 million
economically advantageous in the long run, (2005 ec) per MW. However, these higher costs
since it hedges against an unexpected rise or fall are compensated by a higher total electricity
in prices of fossil fuels, thereby providing more production due to higher offshore wind speeds.
certainty to investors (Awerbuch, 2003). For example, an onshore installation normally
has around 2 000-2 300 full-load hours per year,
A few of the main parameters governing the while for a typical offshore installation this figure
economics of offshore wind farm are: weather reaches more than 3 000 full-load hours per year
and wave conditions; water depth; type of (EWEA, 2009).
foundation used; distance from the coast;
investment costs, such as auxiliary costs for The high capital cost of offshore foundations
foundation and grid connection; operation bounds offshore wind energy to near shore
and maintenance costs; electricity production locations. Most of the capacity has been installed
against average wind speed; turbine lifetime; in relatively shallow waters (under 20 m deep)
and the discount rate of the initial investment. no more than 20 km from the coast in order to
minimize the extra costs of foundations and sea
The initial setup costs for offshore wind are more cables (EWEA, 2009). Most of the recently added
than 50 per cent higher than onshore wind capacity is installed in water depths of up 40
(EWEA, 2009). The higher offshore costs are due metres, as far as 60 kilometres off the coast, as
to associated high initial investments for larger shown in the figure to the left.
66
Tidal energy to adequately judge the economic viability;
in a Blue World
While technologies for tidal range are mature, productivity data is often extrapolated from
tidal stream energy is not at a stage of broad small experiments and overall analyses of energy
deployment and is commercially immature balances, GHG balances and CO2 abatement
when compared to other renewable energies, potential are lacking (FAO, 2009).
particularly wind. The table on page 65 shows
US$4 500-5 000 per KW investment costs for However, co-production of food and/or fuel
tidal range with a 40-year gestation period. The has the potential to increase economic viability
high investment cost and long gestation period and can build on existing experience, with high
associated with tidal energy makes it currently potential in fish farming (FAO, 2009).
less economically feasible when compared to
fossil-fuel based energy. However, government 2.3 Social issues and opportunities
and public agency support for initial investment
costs can improve the economic feasibility of 2.3.1 Employment benefits
tidal energy. Marine based renewable energy creates new
and high return employment opportunities, due
Wave energy to the labour-intensive nature of production.
Cost estimates for energy produced by waves This section here will illustrate the additional
are dependent on physical factors, such as or increased employment benefits of marine
system design, wave-energy power, water based renewable energies, drawing on specific
depth, distance from shore, and ocean floor technology examples.
characteristics. Economic factors, such as
assumptions on discount rate, cost reductions Compared with thermal power generation,
from a maturing technology, and tax incentives, renewable energy has a higher labour intensity
are also critical. and therefore acceleration in the deployment
in the marine-based renewable energy
As a result, the main challenges for implementing sector could provide additional employment
wave power are to reduce the capital costs opportunities (UNEP, 2011). Lack of skilled
of construction, to generate electricity at labour is also one of the potential barriers
competitive prices, and to withstand extreme to deployment of renewable energy (UNEP,
conditions at sea. For example, electricity from 2011). The types and scale of opportunities will
waves is currently estimated to cost seven times vary by national context and energy source.
as much as coal-fired power (Bloomberg, 2010). Marine-based renewable energy also presents
a particularly relevant alternative for maritime
However, in certain remote locations where communities who were formerly reliant on
electricity supplies are expensive wave power fisheries or offshore oil and gas production.
is beginning to look competitive (Andrews & In addition, energy installations can become
Jelley, 2007). This draws on the fact that the tourist attractions in their own right, indirectly
transmission and distribution cost of grid- creating associated tourism and services jobs, as
based electricity in certain places can be higher, seen at La Rance tidal barrage in France (IPCC,
in locations that are farther from electricity 2011).
generation centres, when compared to wave-
power based electricity. Wind energy for example provides both direct and
indirect employment in the areas of wind turbine
Algae-based biofuels manufacturing, R&D, marketing, engineering
Algae-based biofuel development is still in its and specialized wind-energy services. The total
nascent phase. Despite some projections on the estimated direct and indirect jobs in Europe
cost-effectiveness and imminent production in 2009 are approximately 154 000 jobs. These
volumes of algal-based biofuels, there are no jobs range from wind-energy manufacturers,
commercial-scale examples of algae biofuel developers, engineers, project managers, legal
production (FAO, 2009). Some of the identified experts, environmental engineers, consultants,
reasons for economic non-viability of algae financial managers, insurers, R&D experts,
biofuels are: high capital costs; biomass output is constructors, etc. In terms of gender, a survey
still under development (but has high potential); conducted by European Wind Energy Association
and the value of co-products is currently too low shows that men make up 78 per cent of the
to achieve commercial feasibility. workforce, due to the traditional predominance
of men in production chains, construction work
In addition, knowledge gaps exist for algae- and engineering (EWEA, 2009).
based biofuels due to several critical factors.
For instance, due to a lack of industrial-scale Similarly, tidal energy is labour-intensive. For
experiments, there is insufficient knowledge example, the envisaged Severn Barrage tidal
67
power station to be built across the Bristol Marine-based renewable energy offers the
Channel in the UK would have generated around greatest potential for small island developing
8 600 MW during flow and 2 000 MW on average, states, where land is often at a premium.
with a potential of creating a total of 35,000 jobs By developing infrastructure in the marine
during the peak period of construction and a environment, a feasible scale can be achieved,
further 40 000 permanent jobs during the life as well as avoiding conflicts with other land
of the project (DECC, 2010). The plan has now users. Investments are being explored in the
been shelved due to environmental concerns Pacific Islands and the Caribbean (IPCC, 2011).
with destruction of marine habitats and political
preference for nuclear, clean-coal and wind 2.3.3 Interactions with other users
energy. Given safety concerns around infrastructure, the
areas around sites are often rendered no fishing
in a Blue World
Moreover, the ocean wave-energy resource has zones. While this may serve to create benefits
considerable potential for energy production and for biodiversity, it can cause potential conflicts
hence contributing to economic development with other marine users, including tourism,
through employment generation. The countries shipping, extractive industries and fisheries. If
with potential for wave energy such as Scotland not addressed up-front, this conflict can cause
(western coasts), northern Canada, southern delays to potential developments; further
Africa, Australia, and the US (northwestern coasts) increasing investment costs (Wilhelmsson, et al.,
have carried out roadmap scenarios for wave 2010).
energy based on a few pilot projects available, to
determine wave energys approximate potential Governments can also assist in preventing
for job creation. In Scotland, for instance, the latest such conflicts through proactive marine spatial
roadmap developed by the FREDS Marine Energy planning and zoning, ensuring that concessions
Group estimated in 2009 an overall expenditure are granted in zones that avoid ecologically-
of US$3.75 billion to achieve 1 000 MW installed sensitive sites and minimize interaction with
in Scotland by 2020, generating 5 000 direct jobs other marine users.
(Freds Marine Energy Group (Meg), 2009). At EU
level, the European Ocean Energy Association 2.3.4 Environmental risks and
(EU-OEA, 2010) roadmap reference scenario opportunities
projects total installed capacity of 3 600 MW in Any type of energy production even clean
Europe by 2020, leading to investment of around and renewable options can impact on the
8.5 billion a year, which will generate 40 000 local and global environment. When assessing
jobs. Similarly by 2050, achieving 188 000 MW the impacts of marine-based renewable
could lead to an investment of 451 billion a year energy options, it is important to consider
and the creation of about 471 000 jobs (EU-OEA, local impacts in the context of broader, global
2010). impacts. Climate change is an increasing threat
to biodiversity. Energy generated from the
2.3.2 Energy for development oceans can substantially reduce greenhouse
The IPCC (2011) concluded that most theoretical gas emissions, thus combating climate change.
renewable energy potential lies in developing In addition, toxic pollutants associated with, for
countries where demand for sustainable access example, the burning of fossil fuels, or the local
to energy is greatest for development needs. environmental impacts of large hydropower
This is also true for marine-based renewable developments, could be avoided by developing
energy sources. However, due to the current wind power. These global and local advantages
scale and investment requirements for existing must however be balanced against the specific
technologies, it is unlikely that marine-based adverse effects MBRE may exert on the local
renewable energy will be able to serve local marine environment.
community needs; other renewable energy
options, such as solar and biogas, are more Whilst acknowledging that research in this
suitable in both scale and up-front investment. sector is still in its infancy, experience from
other offshore sectors such as oil and gas, and
However, electricity generated from marine- alternatives such as hydropower and onshore
based sources could feed into the national wind indicate that the marine-based renewable
grid of developing countries and help to offset energy options could have significant impacts
increasingly volatile and expensive fossil-fuel on the marine environment. It is important to
imports to power the grid. This is of particular take them into account early in the planning
relevance for oil-importing countries in Africa, and design phase of a development in order to
which spend on average 30 per cent, sometimes reduce the risk of causing conflict with marine
over half, of their export revenues on oil (UNEP, users who depend on the environment (see
2011). above).
68
While the environmental risks and opportunities Threats:
in a Blue World
of different technologies are specific to the Piling noise/construction activities;
source and design as well as the specific site,
Habitat loss for sea ducks and divers;
some general assumptions can be drawn. The
greatest negative impacts are most likely during Migration barriers for birds, sea turtles and
piling, construction and decommissioning due whales;
to noise and habitat loss. During operation, Bird collisions;
moving parts can affect birds, fish and sea Seabed changes;
mammals. But many of the potential negative Navigational hazards/oil spills.
impacts can be avoided if ecologically-sensitive
sites are not developed, and best practice is Opportunities:
employed for design. Furthermore, it is possible Exclusion of other activities, such as trawling;
that the marine environment can benefit from Habitat structuring.
the presence of the energy infrastructure
through the creation of artificial habitat and Tidal energy
the reduction of other adverse activities, like no The impacts of tidal energy infrastructure vary
fishing in the area (Wilhelmsson, et al., 2010). significantly depending on the design employed.
Tidal barrage systems that extract energy from
Marine energy does not directly emit CO2 ranges in tides have similar environmental
during operation; however, GHG emissions impacts as traditional dams (Wilhelmsson, et al.,
may arise from different aspects of the 2010):
lifecycle of ocean energy systems, including
raw material extraction, component Threats:
manufacturing, construction, maintenance and Habitat changes;
decommissioning. A comprehensive review Sedimentation (requiring dredging);
of lifecycle assessment (LCA) suggests that Marine migration barriers;
lifecycle GHG emissions from wave and tidal
Change in estuarine water flow.
energy systems are less than 23 grams CO2 eq
per kWh (IPCC).
Other devices such as tidal fences or individual
turbines may cause fewer negative impacts on
It is difficult to assess the environmental impacts
the marine environment, compared to barrages,
of wave-energy technologies, due to the limited
as their impact is spread out over a larger area.
experience of deployment. The potential effects
Remaining impacts are linked primarily to the
will vary by technology and location, but
effect of moving parts on marine mammals
may include competition for space, noise and (IPCC, 2011).
vibration, electromagnetic fields, disruption
to biota and habitats, water quality changes Wave energy
and possible pollution. For instance, noise and Similar to tidal energy, the impacts of wave-
vibration are likely to be most disruptive during energy technologies are specific to the site
construction and decommissioning, while and type of device. For wave projects, similar
electromagnetic fields around devices and concerns exist with regard to interference with
electrical connection/export cables that connect fish or marine mammal migration (because
arrays to the shore may be problematic to wave systems are closed, entrainment is not an
sharks, skates and rays that use electromagnetic issue), reduction of wave height and release of
fields to navigate and locate prey. Chemical lubricants used within wave systems.
leakage due to abrasion (of paints and anti-
fouling chemicals) and leaks, for example, oil Apart from offshore wind, there are few full-scale
leaks from hydraulic power take-off systems are marine-based renewable energy projects deployed
also potential negative environmental impacts at full scale and as such, relatively little is known
of wave energy (IPCC). about the real impacts of newer technologies.
Therefore, it is important that new developments
2.3.5 Potential risks and opportunities are accompanied by appropriate monitoring
Offshore-wind energy and evaluation as part of environmental impact
Proper planning and management of offshore assessment procedures. Admittedly, this comes
wind farms can help to ensure that population at a cost. The Ocean Renewable Energy Coalition
size and structure of marine life is not significantly (2011) estimates the environmental costs
disturbed and can potentially enhance levels associated with the permitting of small marine
of marine species (Wilhelmsson, et al., 2010). renewable projects (under 1 MW) can make up
However, if not well-managed, significant risks as much as 40 per cent of the overall project cost.
for the marine environment include: However, this investment is still recommended to
69
avoid potential increased costs in the future due to is necessary. This is because policies can help to
re-design and conflict over environmental issues. reduce long-term uncertainty and market risk
Governments can also help by subsidizing the in the sector. The accompanying incentives can
costs of studies, offering funding for information also offset financial risks associated with long
collection and supporting science exchange payback periods and uncertainty (UNEP, 2011).
and collaboration, including in South-South
cooperation. Governments consequently need to lead the
way by establishing and maintaining renewable
The UK has already undertaken strategic energy deployment targets and timelines which
environmental assessments for marine ideally include a specific target for specific
renewable energy, and other European and technologies based on the local marine-energy
North American governments are planning potential. In Europe for example, the EU National
in a Blue World
to undertake such assessments (IPCC, 2011). Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) sets
It is important that strategic environmental ambitious, binding targets for the offshore wind
assessments are carried out to consider how sector (43 000 MW) by 2020. It is crucial that EU
the impacts of marine-based renewable energy Member States abide by these ambitions and
projects combine with the impacts of other users maintain the necessary level of support for 2020
in the marine environment, such as fisheries, in order to provide certainty for investors over
aquaculture, shipping, leisure and tourism as the whole supply chain (EWEA). Non-binding
well as other offshore energy projects. targets have also been set in the UK and Canada,
the US, Portugal and Ireland are following suit.
70
the form of either a fixed price to be paid Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). This can
in a Blue World
for renewable energy production or an build on other initiatives, such as the IEAs Ocean
additional premium on top of the electricity Energy Systems Implementing Agreement
market price paid to RES-E producers. FITs which is tasked with facilitating and coordinating
allow technology specific promotion, as ocean energy research, development and
well as an acknowledgement of future cost demonstration through international co-
reductions by applying dynamic decreasing operation and information exchange. The
tariffs. As they are usually guaranteed for European Marine Energy Centre in Scotland and
a number of years, they are popular and other testing centres allow device developers to
effective with project developers as they share the costs of testing their devices, through
provide long-term certainty and reduce the use of shared infrastructure and permits
market risk (UNEP, 2010). (IPCC, 2011).
It should be noted that these incentive Given the high R&D costs involved, developing
mechanisms are most effective as and when countries are not key players in the marine-
technologies are in a position to be scaled based renewable energy field. However, with
up and more widely deployed, as seen with more than 50 per cent of potential renewable
other forms of renewable energy. Aside from energy expected to be available in developing
offshore wind-energy, these incentives are not countries, North-South collaborations could
as effective for marine-based renewable energy help to speed up the transition. Producing
technologies which are still in the conceptual knowledge products that can be adapted to
or demonstration phase. In this regard, direct local circumstances is another concrete action
funding for research is critical (see below). (Wilhelmsson, et al., 2010).
Governments or public agencies can provide The IEA found that in its 28 member countries,
financial and legislative support for R&D of financial support for renewable energy had
specific marine-energy technologies, and also stagnated over the last 30 years. However,
to assist small and medium scale enterprises to there was a 50 per cent rise in 2009 despite the
set up pilot plants, for which it is hard to raise economic turndown, indicating resurgence in
capital. For example, the European Commissions interest in this sector (UNEP, 2011). However,
Sixth Framework Programme for research and these are not necessarily directed to marine-
technological development provided funding based renewable energy. In 2009 new global
for Spains first grid-connected wave power investment in marine energy (excluding offshore
project, Mutriku (Bloomberg, 2011). Other wind) represented 0.001 per cent of total global
examples include the Marine Renewable investment in renewable energy (Bloomberg,
Proving Fund in the UK, which supports the 2010), reflecting the nascent stage of this sector.
demonstration of two wave and four tidal Finance needs to be tailored to R&D for a range
devices (Carbon Trust, 2011). of relevant option technologies.
Other non-financial options can be used In the early stages of development, public
to support cooperation in this field. This is financial support is needed, both for R&D
particularly important in the early phase and then later to encourage deployment (see
of development where small projects are sections above for examples). Later, private
disproportionately affected by higher planning finance can be mobilized for near-competitive
and transaction costs. International cooperation technologies and demonstration projects.
for example can also be facilitated, such as Public finance mechanisms can encourage the
through the recently established International private sector to complement rather than to
71
Public finance mechanisms across stages of technological development
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
R&D Demonstration Deployment Diffusion Commercial maturity
Public/private
VC funds
Soft loans
Mezzanine debt
R&D
in a Blue World
support
Grants
Loan facilities Carbon
Credit lines
PFMs to engage
Other PFMs institutional investors
Source: UNEP SEFI (2009)
substitute investment (UNEP, 2011) as illustrated as the Clean Development Mechanism. There
in the figure above. are signs that this shift is starting to occur. As
of September 2011, in the UNFCCC database,
As the figure above shows, in the later stages there is one offshore wind project (Shanghai
of technological development private funding Dong Hai Bridge Offshore Wind Farm, China),
plays a crucial, dominant role compared to one tidal energy project registered (Sihwa Tidal
public funding for technological advancement. Power Plant, South Korea), but no wave-energy
A case can be made for the offshore wind-energy initiatives.
example in Europe. Here, Vestas and Siemens
have been the main suppliers to the offshore 3.4 Supply chain and energy
wind market, with Vestas installing 555 MW and infrastructure
Siemens 278 MW in 2010. In terms of utilities Lack of sufficient infrastructure could be a
active in the offshore wind market, Vattenfall and significant barrier to later mass deployment of
E.On installed most new offshore capacity in 2010, marine-based renewable energy technologies
308 MW and 305 MW respectively (GWEC, 2011). (IPCC, 2011). This is linked not only to support
infrastructure in terms of construction-vessels
Once developed on a commercial scale, and equipment, but also to the transmission
marine-based renewable energy technologies, of energy and integration of marine energy
particularly in developing countries, could also into wider energy networks. Similar to other
benefit from multilateral financing systems such renewable energy technologies, energy systems
72
need to take into account wide variability in once certain design decisions had already
in a Blue World
different resources, allowing for flexibility and been taken. This prematurely narrowed the
bulk energy storage. Offshore transmission scope for potential tidal-energy designs, some
networks also need to be established. of which could have inflicted less damage on
the environment but were out of the running
Given economies of scale, regional initiatives (Okeanos, 2011).
should be promoted wherever possible. For
example, the European offshore super-grid Governments can support proactive
is acknowledged as a good example of the engagement of other marine users by
benefits of moving from national to regional undertaking strategic assessments where
scope (UNEP, 2011), and can help address price many developments are planned in a region.
volatility issues linked with offshore wind- An effective consultation process with affected
energy. stakeholders must accompany any larger-
scale project. Governments also need to
Development of affordable installation, undertake proactive strategic marine planning
operation and maintenance strategies for to offer concessions in areas with lower risk
marine-energy devices are priority areas for to ecologically sensitive areas and promote
cost reduction. Initiating support mechanisms synergies with other marine users. The
and framing suitable legislation to establish the European Commission is increasingly involved
required infrastructure facilities is crucial for the in Maritime Spatial Planning, with a view to
long-term commercial success of marine-based planning and regulating all human uses of the
renewable energies. sea, while protecting marine ecosystems to
ensure efficient and sustainable use of marine
3.5 Societal acceptance space and resources in Europe. It is focusing on
Learning from experiences in other offshore marine waters under national jurisdiction and is
environments, and other renewable energy concerned only with planning activities at sea,
technologies, it is important that societal based on sound data and in-depth knowledge
acceptance is nurtured proactively from the of the sea.
beginning, thereby reducing planning time and
associated development costs. 3.6 Legal issues
Offshore activities are subject to the rules of
The social and environmental risks of marine- international law. Under international law
based renewable energy options are being there are different maritime zones each giving
assessed as and when projects are being different rights and obligations to the coastal
deployed. In the meantime, continued and State and other states. The scope of the legal
enhanced monitoring of carefully selected rights of a State to engage in specific offshore
environmental parameters during construction activities or establish an offshore installation
and operation of marine based renewable will depend on the maritime zone in which
energies using environmental impact the activity takes place or the location of the
assessments will be essential components of offshore structure.
early deployment. In time, more reliable and
adequate data will be available on both the In developing marine renewable energy
adverse and potentially positive effects of production governments should carefully
various marine-energy technologies. assess the adequacy of their legal framework.
A particular issue to take into consideration
Proactive engagement of other marine users is the navigational rights of foreign flagged
enables a balanced approach to be taken vessels. Hence, states developing offshore
with coastal communities. Synergies should marine renewable energy infrastructure should
be proposed wherever feasible, such as with ensure the preservation of navigational rights
creating tourism ventures based on the as granted under international law. As marine-
development, or offering employment to based renewable energy parks often create de-
former fishing boat operatives, for example the facto no-fishing, no-navigation and no-trawling
EU Oceans of Tomorrow programme. areas, this highlights the need for developers to
proactively engage with other stakeholders for
Much may be learned from the proposed Severn the development of marine renewable energy.
Estuary Tidal barrage in the UK, which not only Furthermore, in cases where maritime zones
lost the support of the general public but later overlap, governments need to cooperate with
of government by engaging with stakeholders neighbouring States.
73
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Lead authors for the chapter were Andrew Hudson, Head, UNDP Water & Ocean Governance
Programme and Peter Whalley, UNDP Consultant.
metals, etc. to water, land and air. Over the last and/or middle-income) countries on fertilizers
few decades there have been considerable efforts containing nitrogen and phosphorus to
to reverse the historical approach of dumping enhance agricultural productivity has led
wastes, including nutrients, into the oceans and to massive increases in the production and
to reduce the associated degradation of coastal application of fertilizers to farmed land (figure
and ocean water quality and ecosystems. This below). The often inefficient use of this fertilizer
drive for pollution reduction has responded to has led to substantial run-off and releases
human health concerns or preservation of the of nitrogen and phosphorus to waterways
environment to protect, for example, drinking and groundwater, which, combined with
water quality or the wider ecosystem. These comparable losses of nutrients from livestock
improvements have been driven by a combination (manure) operations, and the inadequacy of
of national or regional regulations, economic much of the worlds waste-water treatment, has
and financial instruments, and international resulted in substantial increases in releases of
treaties responding to wider public concerns nutrients both directly to the coastal zone and
and the need for a healthy environment. While via rivers receiving emissions from upstream
many of the identified hazardous or persistent population centres and agriculture. The massive
pollutants are controlled or in the process of increase in anthropogenic reactive nitrogen
being controlled (such as through the Stockholm introduced into the environment, deriving
Convention and Montreal Protocol), the issue principally from the mass production of
of excess reactive nitrogen (and phosphorus) in nitrogen fertilizers, has had significant negative
the environment still needs to be addressed in a environmental consequences (Drinkwater, et al.
coherent and integrated manner. 2009) (Brown, 2011). The link between industrial
agriculture and reactive nitrogen pollution is
Reactive nitrogen and phosphorus are essential well established with impacts on drinking water
to all plant life, both terrestrial and marine (Powlson, et al. 2006) (Galloway, et al. 2008)
and the eutrophication of fresh water
and marine ecosystems, including
Production of nitrogen fertilizer the proliferation of harmful algal
blooms and hypoxic dead zones in
in relation to world population marine ecosystems such as the Black
Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Baltic Sea and
Nitrogen, million tonnes Population, million elsewhere. Eutrophication occurs
when excess nutrient inputs feed
100 6 000 overgrowth of ocean plankton; dying
plankton are consumed by oxygen-
World population
80 5 000 using bacteria which can lead to low
oxygen or hypoxic conditions. This can
have significant negative impacts on
60 4 000
fisheries, food security and livelihoods,
and lead to degradation of habitats
40 3 000 which not only have important
biodiversity values but, in the case for
example of coral reefs, can result in the
20 2 000
loss of natural coastal defences. The
Total Nitrogen
produced relatively recent rapid growth in the
0 1 000 occurrence of ocean hypoxic zones
1850 1900 1950 2000 has resulted from a roughly threefold
Source: Dawson and Hilton, 2011
increase in global loads of reactive
nitrogen to the oceans compared to
78
in a Blue World
Dead zones and fertilizers
Dead zones appear as a consequence of nutrient Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators
input to the oceans. Low levels of oxygen make it database, accessed in October 2011; NASA Earth
difficult for marine creatures to survive. Observatory, data acquired in 2008.
pre-industrial times, from both agricultural run- salts extracted from coal. In 1909, Fritz Haber
off and poorly or untreated sewage. identified a mechanism to produce ammonia
from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen (from
In the US and EU levels of nitrates in groundwater natural gas) at high temperature and pressure.
in some instances are above safe levels and thus This process was industrialized by a chemical
pose a threat to human health (Nolan, et al. 1988). engineer, Carl Bosch, resulting in the Haber-
The removal of nitrates from drinking water Bosch process as it is known today, with about
adds to both the costs and energy demands in 75 per cent devoted to fertilizer production.
treatment. This underscores the importance of
preventing reactive nitrogen from agricultural The rapid increase in the production of reactive
sources from entering groundwater where the nitrogen via the Haber-Bosch process correlates
pollutants can have very long persistence. closely with the increase in world population
from about 2.6 billion in 1950 to over 6 billion in
The production and use of reactive nitrogen- 2000 (figure page 78). Based on the figures from
based artificial fertilizers has had huge global Dawson and Hilton (2011), over 2 billion tonnes
benefits providing food for billions through the of reactive nitrogen was manufactured in that
green revolution. The down side of the increased period.
availability of cheap manufactured nitrogen
fertilizer products has been global environment The enormous increase in artificial fertilizer
problems associated with excess nutrients, production catalyzed by the Haber-Bosch
specifically the problems of eutrophication, process has altered the flow and balance of the
coastal hypoxic zones and nitrate contaminated nitrogen cycle at a global scale, representing a
groundwater. Tracing the formation of eutrophic roughly 150 per cent increase in new reactive
and hypoxic zones across the world shows a nitrogen added annually to the environment
close correlation to the growth of agricultural compared to the pre-industrial period (figure
regions, cities and coastal development (figure page 80). Starting in the 1940s when man-made
above); as of 2011, UNEP had identified over 500 generation of reactive nitrogen was only around
areas of hypoxia globally (UNEP, 2011). 4 Mt/yr, manufacture of reactive nitrogen began
rising at an exponential rate (figure page 78).
Until the early part of the 20th century, the
agriculture sector and many industrial processes While clearly the Haber-Bosch process has
were dependent on limited natural reserves of delivered substantial agricultural productivity
reactive nitrogen, for example from Peruvian and food security benefits in terms of
guano, Chilean saltpetre and ammonium providing cheap nitrogen fertilizers that
79
Unbalancing the cycle
Nitrogen flows, megatonnes
1890 1990
Atmospheric Atmospheric
nitrogen Bacterial nitrogen
Lightning fixation
5 Industrial
combustion
21
15 89 Bacterial
100 Bacterial
Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixation
oxides oxides Bacterial 118
fixation and
haber process
Fires Fires
in a Blue World
6 13
Wild Wild
plants Farms plants Farms
played a fundamental role in catalyzing the that are highly dependent on healthy marine
green revolution, it is also clear that the global ecosystems (fisheries, tourism, human health,
environmental problems and socio-economic etc.), but also in reduced global energy demand
impacts that have resulted are significant; the (and consequential reduction in CO2 emissions),
impacts of excess nitrogen in the EU alone are reduced GHG emissions from farming, and
estimated at 70-320 billion per year (Sutton, et stimulation of innovative new business
al., 2011). In addition, the energy consumption partnerships between the agriculture, waste-
and associated environmental costs for fertilizer water management and fertilizer industries.
production are also significant: including
natural gas consumption, an estimated 1-2
per cent of all global energy is consumed in 2 Challenges and opportunities
the Haber-Bosch process (Smil, 2011), with The global nutrient pollution and ocean hypoxia
substantial associated impacts on greenhouse issue presents a number of significant challenges
gas emissions and climate change. as well as opportunities. Challenges include the
scale of human perturbation of the nutrient
The importance of this chapter cycle; the diversity of both point and non-point
The release of excess reactive nitrogen to the sources from agriculture (fertilizer, manure),
oceans, causing coastal eutrophication and waste water and certain industries; limited
increasingly frequent hypoxia and ecosystem adoption and implementation of available
damage, has become a problem of global scale. and appropriate legal, policy, and institutional
The estimated socio-economic costs of excess mechanisms and economic instruments that
nitrogen in marine and freshwater systems run promote more cyclic use of nutrients; and an
into hundreds of billions of US dollars, from losses only modest level of global political, public
to tourism revenue through degraded coastal and media recognition of the scale and impact,
locations, decimated fisheries and fish resources particularly socio-economic and on livelihoods,
from hypoxia, and habitat degradation. Our of nutrients and hypoxia on ocean ecosystems
current approach to managing nutrients and economies. Conversely, the availability of
represents a huge economic waste tens of a fairly wide range of proven policy, regulatory
billions of dollars per year via a very linear and economic nutrient management tools
approach to nutrient management consisting creates a tremendous global opportunity to
of manufacture/mining, (often inefficient) scale up these approaches. Such a scaling up
use as fertilizer in agriculture, harvesting and would not only incrementally reduce global
sale of crops and livestock, consumption, and nitrogen and phosphorus pollution, begin to
lastly, release of the majority of the nutrients slow down and reverse eutrophication and
via waste-water systems and agricultural run- ocean hypoxia, and restore healthy marine
off of nitrogen and phosphorus to coastal ecosystem-dependent economies and jobs, it
waters. This chapter focuses on the need to would also create opportunities for innovative
address eutrophication and ocean hypoxia by new nutrient efficiency, recovery and reuse
reducing global nitrogen (and phosphorus) business and investment partnerships
pollution through a concerted suite of legal/ between the key involved sectors agriculture,
regulatory, policy, economic/financial and waste-water management and fertilizer
institutional actions at local, national, regional manufacturing. While not precisely known at
and global levels. The benefits would be to present, the potential scale of new business
the wider global ecosystem and the sectors models and opportunities that greening the
80
nutrient economy could generate
in a Blue World
Nitrogen sources to watershed
clearly would run into many tens of
billions of dollars given the breadth
and scale of the concerned sectors exports to the oceans
(see Section 3.2).
Megatonnes of Nitrogen per year
2.1 Ocean nutrient pollution 25
sectors Predicted
Over the last 20 years, significant data
20
and experience in understanding
and addressing the sectoral drivers,
pressures, sources, impacts and 15
response to reactive nitrogen have
been gathered and progress made 10
in trying to address these issues.
The key sectors that are involved
5
include the agriculture, waste-water
management, and fertilizer production
sectors. As shown in the figure to 0
the right for the year 2000, models 1970 2000 2030 GO 2030 AM
indicate that globally, roughly equal Sewage Manure Fertilizer
amounts of reactive nitrogen reach
Agriculture N2 fixation Natural N2 fixation Deposition
the oceans from fertilizer, manure
and (dominantly anthropogenic) Note: GO is Global Orchestration scenario, AM is Adapting Mosaic scenario
81
84 per cent of all municipal water
Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen export and sanitation systems are publicly
vs. privately owned, increasing to 93
by rivers for world regions per cent in the developing world. In
Megatonnes of Nitrogen per year the US, Canada and the EU-15, 62, 67
16 and 85 per cent of sewage receives
1990 secondary or tertiary treatment,
14 respectively. In developed Asia, 67 per
2050
12 cent is treated to primary or secondary
levels, compared with only about 25
10
per cent in Latin America. In the rest
8 of the world only around 5 per cent of
in a Blue World
6
waste water is treated to this extent.
Global needs for urban waste-water
4 treatment and recovery projects are at
2 least US$52 billion per year compared
with current levels of about US$30
0 billion. About US$14 billion per year
North South Africa Europe Northeast East South
America America Asia Asia Asia
of this is spent in developing and
transition countries (UNEP, Executive
Source: Seitzinger et al., 2002
Director, 2004) and rough estimates
suggest that of the roughly US$5
one in every three workers on Earth employed billion per year of development aid committed
in the sector. Due in part to the tremendous to water and sanitation in the developing
increases in productivity of the sector (the green world, only 5 per cent of this has been spent
revolution) due to technological innovation on waste-water treatment. Private sector flows
(fertilizer, irrigation, crop alteration, herbicides/ to waste-water treatment in the developing
pesticides, etc.), agriculture accounts for no world are also seen to be very low and unlikely
more than 5 per cent of global GDP or about to meet more than 5-10 per cent of projected
US$3.58 trillion (nominal) in 2010 (CIA, 2010). investment needs. Per capita costs of sewage
However, in many developing countries, treatment go up roughly tenfold from basic
agriculture represents both the largest employer latrines to tertiary treatment of collected waste
and a sizeable portion of GDP, 20 per cent in low water (figure to the right). The cost to remove
income countries and as much as 50 per cent of nutrients from waste water averages around 1
GDP in some of the worlds poorest countries. per kg N (via denitrification to N2) and 1.5 per
China has the largest agricultural output in the kg P. The traditional northern approach which
world, followed by the EU, India and the US. involves building large sewerage networks
Agriculture today is one of the more widely and technically sophisticated and energy-
subsidized sectors as governments seek to intensive waste-water treatment facilities may
ensure adequate and affordable food supplies be prohibitively expensive for many developing
for their populations; in some cases, these countries and as argued earlier, this end-of-
subsidies can be environmentally damaging pipe approach is inherently inefficient as a
by promoting excess pesticide and fertilizer process. These figures suggest the opportunity
use and inefficient use of water for irrigation. to incentivize, apply and scale up completely
Livestock production occupies 70 per cent of all different waste-water management models for
land used for agriculture. many parts of the developing world at much
lower cost.
Waste-water management
Over the past hundreds of years, waste-water Fertilizer Production
management has been developed and refined As discussed earlier, the invention of the Haber-
with a focus on dealing with larger and larger Bosch process in 1909 was a key milestone
urban developments and associated waste in modern human development as it was a
water volumes. While data at a global level is prime driver in the green revolution starting
limited, recent (2009) estimates (Owen, 2010) are in the 1950s, enabling a rapid increase in the
that around US$83.5 billion is spent annually on productivity of agricultural land, and supplying
waste-water management including: US$29.7 sufficient food products to support significant
billion (treatment), US$15.8 billion (sewerage growth in global population. It is arguable that
rehabilitation) and US$37.8 billion (sewerage fertilizer production and population growth
extension). Levels of treatment vary widely were synergistic drivers that enabled both
across regions and countries. Globally, about to grow exponentially over the last 60 years;
82
with increasing wealth and various
in a Blue World
government and donor programmes
promoting smaller families, The sanitation ladder
fertility rates have fallen to or near
replacement levels in many developed Tertiary wastewater treatment
and increasingly developing countries,
so the global population growth rate Sewer connection and secondary wastewater treatment
has slowed somewhat and world
population is projected to plateau Connection to conventional sewer
83
APNDICE B
LA ECONOMA VERDE
EN UN MUNDO AZUL
UNDESA
Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMA)
generaciones.
(FAO)
las personas tengan acceso regular a alimentos de alta calidad suficiente para
recursos acuticos.
regulatorio global con el que operar. OMI, junto a sus 170 Estados Miembros,
conocimiento tcnico y recursos que son necesarios para operar una industria
espaol)
del Agua y los Ocanos, la PNUD trabaja en conjunto con diferentes agencias
de las Naciones Unidas, por ejemplo Fondo Monetario para el Medio Ambiente,
Naturaleza (UICN)
WorldFish Center
Centro GRID-Arendal
interesados.
Prlogo
No ser posible una transicin hacia la economa verde con menores niveles
de carbono y uso eficiente de recursos a menos que los mares y ocanos sean
que van desde la seguridad alimentaria, la regulacin del clima para el ciclo de
industrias pesqueras.
indirecta.
recursos esenciales.
(O LQIRUPH /D (FRQRPtD YHUGH HQ XQ PXQGR D]XO DQDOL]D cmo los
agricultura.
bsicas.
GRID-Arendal, contribuy en el contenido sobre el concepto del ciclo de la vida. Paul Siegel,
pertenece al Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza (WWF por sus siglas en ingls) y asesor en
probable que el rol del capital ambiental sea cada vez ms importante para
mejore el capital ambiental actual del mundo. Las costas y ocanos del mundo,
o sea el Mundo Azul, son los componentes claves del capital medioambiental
verde debe abordar los desafos nicos que enfrenta la economa global y la
A lo largo de la historia, los humanos se han sentido atrados por las reas
da, el 90 % del comercio global se desplaza por el mar. Este entrega mucha
minerales y metales en las aguas profundas y en reas que van ms all del
(IPCC por sus siglas en ingls) estima que la energa ocenica podra ser clave
en el futuro para satisfacer las demandas de energa del mundo, sin embargo,
etapas.
Sin embargo, se comenz a apreciar completamente la importancia
econmica de los seres vivos marinos y los costeros. El hbitat marino, las
ambos se les conoce como servicios del ecosistema. Los ecosistemas marinos
marinas son sumideros naturales de carbono (Murray,et al., 2011). Los hbitats
partes del valor se encuentra en zonas costeras (Martnez, et al., 2007). Los
mariscos del mar, lo que equivale a un valor superior a los USD 100 mil
millones por ao. Debido al rpido crecimiento del sector acucola, se cultivaron
tantas personas eligen vivir cerca del mar, ya sea en su propio hogar y en
estos costos ocurren debido a individuos que poseen terrenos, tales como un
bosque en una cuenca hidrogrfica. Preservar los bosques entrega una gama
VHUYLFLR D FDPELDU OD FRQGXFWD \ IRPHQWDU OD HQWUHJD GH VHUYLFLRV D ORV TXH
SRUORJHQHUDOVHOHVFRPSHQVDSRUODVSpUGLGDVRFRVWHVGHRSRUWXQLGDG(O
(empresa que vende agua embotellada), una entidad pblica (una ciudad
que estas poblaciones tienen mayor demanda. Estas presiones han llevado a
una poca de plena agona debido a las especies perdidas sin precedentes, el
disminucin sin precedentes del valor de los bienes y servicios del ecosistema.
(2008) descubrieron que las actividades humanas han impactado a casi todos
los ocanos y costas del planeta. A medida que pasa el tiempo, ms del 90 %
de las especies que eran importantes para el ser humano se han perdido en
Durante las ltimas dcadas del siglo XX, los impactos del humano destruyeron
alcanzar el 2 %. (Duke, et al., 2007), (FAO, 2007) & (Duarte, et al., 2008). En el
ms de 400 zonas muertas con poco oxgeno en el mundo (Diaz & Rosenberg,
2008).
solo una fraccin de lo que podra ser. Sumaila & Suatoni (2005) estiman que
de peces sera de alrededor de $50 mil millones anuales (World Bank, 2009).
Es probable que otros sectores que forman parte de la economa del ocano
estables y ms limpios.
del uso respetuoso del ecosistema costero y marino. Los acuerdos bilaterales,
econmico (lo que se est dispuesto a pagar por algo). Los niveles de vida ms
que no se haban visto por cerca de 100 aos. Sin embargo en otros casos el
lejos al crear repuestos hechos por el hombre para los servicios esenciales
regulacin del clima, ciclo de los nutrientes y la regulacin del ciclo del agua a
las necesidades humanas, los deseos y las actividades para alcanzarlos; b) las
estado ecolgico de las costas y ocanos; d) los impactos que tienen estos
especfica el anlisis del ciclo de vida (ver cuadro) identifica los pasos en el
econmica y la rentabilidad.
garantizar estos valores hacia el porvenir. Este informe destaca las maneras
minerales del fondo del mar. Por ltimo, el informe destaca el cmo ecologizar
verde en un mundo azul: una que mejore el bienestar del ser humano y la
Eddie Allison (WorldFish Center), Nicole Franz, Carlos Fuentevilla, Lena Westlund y Rolf Willmann (todos de
Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentacin y la Agricultura, FAO) escribieron este captulo. La
contribucin de material estadstico pertenece a Stefania Vannucci. John Ryder y Doris Soto (ambos de FAO)
realizaron comentarios importantes en un borrador previo y a ambos se les reconoce con gratitud. Quienes
revisaron el captulo fueron Rashid Sumaila (Profesor de la Universidad de Columbia Britnica, Canad), Serge
Garcia (Presidente del Grupo de Expertos de Pesca de UICN), James Muir (FAO) y Meryl Williams (GEF STAP).
1.Introduccin
USD $98,5 millones el ao 2008 (FAO, 2010). Este sector sigue creciendo y
2011b).
La PNUMA define economa verde como una que tiene como resultado
de los recursos e inclusin social (UNEP, 2011). Para ecologizar las pesqueras
y las acucolas, por tanto, implica tres dimensiones para las futuras polticas del
sector e inversin:
sociedad.
sumideros de carbono.
La preocupacin por la eficiencia econmica y la sustentabilidad son temas
$VDPEOHD *HQHUDO GH ODV 1DFLRQHV 8QLGDV HQ (FRQRPtD YHUGH XQ FDPLQR
TXH VXVWHQWD HO GHVDUUROOR HQ OD TXH VH H[SXVR OR VLJXLHQWH 1XHVWUDV
IXWXURVXVWHQWDEOH\ODHUUDGLFDFLyQGHODSREUH]D
reas rurales de los pases en vas de desarrollo (World Bank, FAO &
sector, la pesca de pequea escala es a menudo una actividad vital que forma
acerca a 23,4 millones (en las que se incluye los de mar y terrestres) y que
las pesqueras de pequea escala las que tienden a contribuir con la seguridad
(FAO, 2010)
empleo y de ingresos de los vnculos tanto del pasado como del futuro que
pueden proporcionar la base para los equipos de crecimiento a nivel local. Por
desarrollo (World Bank, FAO & WorldFish Centre, 2010 and Allison, 2011).
(FAO, 2010). En los Pequeos Estados Insulares en Desarrollo (SIDS por sus
2009c; Kawarazuka & Bn, 2011). Sin embargo, es probable que haya una
proportion of foods rich in proteins and fats, such as fish, are essential,
especially in the diets of young children, infants and pregnant women (Kurien,
los peces y los productos marinos son, por lo tanto, la clave de seguridad
el pescado (Delgado, 2003; FAO 2010; Hall et al., 2011). Cmo se puede
medir los beneficios de la economa verde, ofrecen nuevas rutas para la accin
escala
encuentra extinguida costara USD $50 mil millones al ao (World Bank &
compleja tales como los arrecifes de coral, los que se daan fcilmente debido
se ha documentado (World Bank & FAO, 2009), estos no son las nicas
grandes, las pesqueras de pequea escala tambin pueden agotar los recursos
marinos de gran valor (Cinner & McClanahan, 2006). Gobiernos dbiles, la gran
(Pomeroy, 2011).
escala y sus vnculos cercanos con las comunidades no son apropiados para el
los impactos adversos de otros sectores, tales como la escorrenta por tcnicas
forma negativa al ecosistema del que dependen las comunidades. Cada vez
ms, las pesqueras de pequea escala tambin se ven afectadas por los
(FAO,2011b).
de la FAO (COFI por sus siglas en ingls), estipularon que el desarrollo de las
Directrices Voluntarias para asegurar la Pesca Sostenible en Pequea Escala.
ecosistmico pesquero (EEP). Los debates han evolucionado para incluir una
para la economa verde desde una perspectiva sectorial, la reduccin del uso
GHHQHUJtD\ODKXHOODGHFDUERQRGHODVSHVTXHUDVGHSHTXHxDHVFDODWLHQHQ
capturado. Los equipos activos de pesca demersal (peces que viven cerca del
fondo del mar, ejemplo rbalo y congrio) draga (mquina que recoge
productos marinos) y pesca de arrastre- son mtodos de pesca que consumen
mucha energa, mientras que por otro lado estn los equipos de pesca pasivo
menos combustible que pescar en el fondo marino (Ziegler, 2009; World Bank,
para la misma cantidad de peces (Tyedmers, 2004; World Bank, FAO &
desde entonces (Cochrane & Garcia, 2009), sin embargo, las flotas de gran
precios del combustible, este por lo tanto, sigue siendo un costo importante.
2012).
es una preocupacin en este aspecto (World Bank, FAO & WorldFish Centre,
socioeconmica.
podra desviar el pescado para el consumo de los grupos pobres. Sin embargo,
eficiencia (Hall, et al., 2011; FAO, 2011c). Sin embargo, se necesitar mayor
ventajas.
en el rea de cultivo as como tambin en las que no lo son, como por ejemplo
(FAO, 2010b; FAO, 2011c). Sin embargo, algunos tipos de acuicultura, por
ejemplo el cultivo de camarn costero, provocaron conflictos socioeconmico
secuestrar carbono; tales como los manglares, las praderas marinas o zonas
gestin territorial.
econmica.
hecho por Comit de Pesca (COFI por sus siglas en ingls) para desarrollar
eficaz de recursos estn al centro de los futuros desafos para el sector (FAO,
2010c). /D DFXLFXOWXUD VH KD FRQYHUWLGR HQ XQ PpWRGR TXH DXPHQWD HO
ms bajos recursos. Podra ser que un gran respaldo para el sector, es decir
polticas deben entender el rpido desarrollo tecnolgico del sector, velar por
que puedan explotar los recursos a los que tienen permiso, de este modo,
economa verde.
4.2 Reformas de Gobierno, marcos reguladores y acuerdos institucionales
podran ser las correctas en el corto plazo al llevar a las pesqueras hacia un
tenencia podra tener un rol importante (Sharma, 2009; Allison, et al., 2011;
largo plazo debido a las rentas extras de los recursos naturales generadas por
nivel local y asignan a los Derechos de Uso Territorial de la Pesca (TURFs por
conservacin de los recursos (Cochrane & Garcia, 2009 and Gutirrez, et al.,
2011).
actividades de integracin:
medioambiente.
controlar los recursos acuticos a largo plazo (Allison, et al., 2011). Un ejemplo
esto ha sido examinado durante la ltima dcada por varios grupos de expertos
regionales es que los estados miembros concuerden con ellos y los respalden
ser un buen complemento como en los botes con motor asistido por el viento. A
HVWRV ERWHV VH OHV FRQRFLy GXUDQWH OD FULVLV GHO FRPEXVWLEOH GH ORV DxRV V
costeras.
tal como la eficiencia del combustible alternativo a los equipos activos (aunque
como tcnicas del sector pesquero de pequea escala (Suuronen, et al., 2012).
cubierta, entre otros. Despus del cultivo, la energa solar (ejemplo secadores
sucede mientras se fomenta el uso de las algas como alimento para peces y
acucola (RAS por sus siglas en ingls), es tambin una oportunidad para
criaderos, hay que considerar que parte importante deriva an de las semillas
con produccin sustentable, esto pasar a ser un incentivo importante para los
productores y los interesados ya que prestan ms atencin al uso de prcticas
como tambin los costos ocasionados por la destruccin del mismo. Con los
pagos del servicio (PSA), a las familias (u otra forma de tomar decisiones con
respecto al uso del ecosistema) se les paga por proteger el recurso, un ejemplo
de esto son los pagos a las comunidades de la zona costera por conservar los
de manglares, los que se consideran aptos para los mercados de carbono bajo
reformas necesarias.
5 Conclusiones
y las acucolas que tiene los sistemas de tenencia responsable y justo que
indiscriminados de pesca.
regional.
fabricacin y transporte.
TRANSPORTE
MARTIMO
in a Blue World
Economa Verde.
2 Desafos y oportunidades
respuesta.
de manera eficaz, aunque por supuesto siempre hay ms por hacer. Sin bien,
mar. De hecho, a los marineros que prestan servicios en los buques mercantes
gente de mar (STCW por sus siglas en ingls) del 1978, de la OMI. La
gestin en la costa, los cuerpos reguladores y otros. Todos tienen que cooperar
para tratar los asuntos relacionados con el factor humano de manera eficaz y la
factor humano.
causar por los derrames de petrleo, ya sea transportado como carga o como
que provocaron varios derrames de petrleos graves, los que causaron daos
los asuntos ambientales entre las partes interesadas) tambin se han centrado
contenido de azufre.
medioambiente (ICS,2012a).
martimo involucra un alto nivel de riesgo fsico que tiene que manejarse de
gobiernos en la OMI.
alrededor del mundo sobre la necesidad de normas globales para una industria
reguladora especialista que trata casi de manera exclusiva los asuntos sobre la
que este fue el caso incluso durante los aos de la guerra fra, en particular, las
esto trajo como requisito que las compaas de transporte martimo tuvieran de
XQD OLFHQFLD SDUD RSHUDU TXH VROR VH SXHGH REWHQHU OXHJR GH GHPRVWUDU D
(ICS,2010).
la aviacin.
bunker) es uno de los mayores costos para los propietarios de buques y las
compaas de transporte martimo, estos tienen todos los incentivos para
incluyendo:
x Sistemas anti-incrustante
x Aguas residuales
x Basura
bioincrustacin
carbono)
x Clorofluorocarbonos (CFC)
x Haln y
x Ruido
proveniente de los buques o mitigar sus efectos luego que por alguna situacin
2012c).
los Estados Miembros, por medio del cual se examina en una auditora el
forma voluntaria, por otros Estados miembros de la OMI, con el fin de identificar
transporte martimo.
con el fin de cumplir con los requisitos del Convenio internacional para el
control y la gestin del agua de lastre y los sedimentos de los buques del 2004
2012i).
que a partir del 2015 los buques reduzcan de manera drstica el contenido de
azufre en los combustibles a solo 0,1 percentil en las Zonas de Control de las
Emisiones (ECA por sus siglas en ingls) y a 0.5% en cualquier otros lugares
(desde el nivel actual de 4,5% afuera de las ECAs) (OMI, 2012a). Sin embargo,
de azufre.
(OIT, 2012).
SURSLHWDULRV GH EXTXHV GH SULQFLSLR D ILQ GHVGH HO PRPHQWR GH OD
de los buques y por las autoridades en los pases donde se reciclan los buques
sido histricamente un dominio exclusivo del hombre. Sin embargo, cada vez
ms ecolgico
variedad de distintas naciones (el valor del comercio martimo anual se estima
habilitados para que los vehculos puedan ser conducidos para entrar y
salir de este, logrando que sea ms rpido y de fcil acceso para viajar.
flotantes.
hecho posible el gran cambio hacia una produccin industrial en Asia y en otras
los precios del transporte martimo son muy competitivos. Por ejemplo (en el
excepcin de las restricciones de cabotaje (el comercio entre dos puertos dentro
para llevar a cabo el comercio mundial. En el 2012, alrededor del 90% de la nueva
mejorar de manera radical la eficacia del combustible para reducir las emisiones
de CO2.
6XVWHQWDEOHTXHEXVFDXQPDUFRGHVXVWHQWDELOLGDGPiVDOOiGHOFXPSOLPLHQWR
todo accidental), son multas que pueden ascender a millones, si no son miles de
petrleo o de basura en el mar, pueden ser tan significativas como para impedir
que se identifican durante El Control del Estado Rector del Puerto pueden tener
como consecuencia que se detengan los buques y que no se les permita navegar,
adems de que el operador del buque sea sometido a sanciones comerciales muy
Control del Estado Rector del Puerto, los que comparten una compleja base de
toda la flota mercante del mundo, se les hace cada vez ms difcil a los buques
que no cumplen con las normas internacionales acordadas poder operar en los
(OMI, 2012k). Tales buques sern objeto de inspeccin por las autoridades del
Estado Rector del Puerto y se detendrn para que no puedan zarpar. En este
contexto el Control del Estado Rector del Puerto tambin se aplica a las
recientemente por la OMI. El Estado Rector del Puerto ya anunci que habr
(tales como la Convencin MARPOL de la OMI y el Cdigo IGS), los clientes y las
dlares y/o deudas que puedan surgir por estar involucrados en un incidente
combustible bunker que se utiliza por los buques es de unos USD $600 por
tonelada (2011) por lo que, en conjunto, el sector del transporte martimo mundial
Los costos para los operadores de buques, en particular, es casi seguro que
OMI para utilizar combustibles con bajo contenido de azufre, a partir del 2015, en
usaban. Por lo tanto queda muy claro que por la parte econmica para volver ms
maneras para reducir las emisiones de CO2, tanto para los buques nuevos y para
combustible. Por lo tanto, la industria del transporte martimo confa en que, como
un todo, puede reducir a ms de un 20% las emisiones por tonelada de carga
respecto a los diversos factores que contribuyen a las emisiones de CO2 (ICS,
Sin embargo, a largo plazo la industria del transporte martimo est tambin
Las pilas de combustible tambin podran ser una alternativa para los
posible la propulsin nuclear marina para los buques mercantes, a pesar de las
importantes para reducir las emisiones de CO2 se lograrn con nuevas mejoras
3 Condiciones oportunas
normas tcnicas mundiales. Los tres principales convenios adoptados por la OMI
marineros, se han validado por casi todos los Estados Miembros de la OMI (OMI,
2012I).
proteccin del medioambiente, con otros dos tratados (sobre el rescate y el retiro
de los restos que tambin traen beneficios para el medioambiente). Si bien tales
Por lo tanto, desde una perspectiva normativa, todo indica que el transporte
martimo debe seguir y seguir siendo regulado por la OMI, teniendo en cuenta
ayuda a los pases a garantizar que los servicios de transporte martimo sean
con el mar.
Desarrollo. Por otra parte, la resolucin A.1006 (25) sobre la vinculacin entre el
de desarrollo.
FRPRXQDLQGXVWULDGHOPXQGRD]XOHQHOTXH\DH[LVWHXQDDPSOLDDFHSWDFLyQ\
regulatorio global, con normas que se impongan en una base de manera uniforme
imposicin de las normas que se aplican a los buques con banderas nacionales, a
Estados Miembros. Si bien las leyes nacionales son las que conllevan a la
misma, pero tambin otras agencias tales como la Organizacin Internacional del
medio ambiente y/o los asuntos relacionados al ocano, sobre el papel eficaz que
a la transicin del transporte martimo hacia la economa verde podra contar con
Se considera til tal vez hacer una distincin nuevamente entre la regulacin para
ofrecer nuevas mejoras con el fin de ayudar a eliminar la contaminacin del mar
provocada por los buques (incluyendo la contaminacin atmosfrica en las
emisiones de CO2.
daos al medioambiente.
FDEH VHxDODU TXH GHELGR D HO SURFHGLPLHQWR GH PRGLILFDFLyQ WiFLWD GH OD 20,
sealado para los buques nuevos (similar en concepto a las potencias que se
Eficiencia Energtica (EEDI por sus siglas en ingls). Esto establece normas
espera que cubra hasta el 70% de las emisiones de los buques nuevos.
Energtica del Buque (SEEMP por sus siglas en ingls) que se llevar a cabo e
implementar en todos los buques a partir del 2013, stos se conocen como
que debern:
x Ser rentable
x No distorsionar la competencia
crecimiento
principios.
de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climtico de la ONU es, por supuesto,
ms adecuado para abordar las emisiones del sector del transporte martimo.
de las Naciones Unidas, la OMI, que tiene una trayectoria exitosa en el desarrollo
MARPOL, que ahora incluye medidas tcnicas para reducir el CO2 de los buques
abanderamiento y el Control del Estado Rector del Puerto por los Estados
Miembros de la OMI.
que todas las medidas obligatorias adoptadas se apliquen sobre una base
XQLIRUPH\JOREDOSDUDHYLWDUODVIXJDVGHFDUERQR
QDFLRQHV GHO $QH[R , Por lo tanto, las medidas para conseguir una reduccin
significativa de las emisiones son mucho ms fciles de alcanzar por los
del 35 % de la flota mercante mundial est registrada en los pases del Anexo I de
(OFRQFHSWRGLUHFWRGHO3URWRFRORGH.LRWRGHSULQFLSLRGHUHVSRQVDELOLGDG
QDFLRQDOLGDG GH OD HQWLGDG TXH RSHUD HO EXTXH SXHGH FDPELDU GH PDQHUD
tecnologa para apoyar a los pases en vas de desarrollo y al permitir una cierta
flexibilidad respecto a las fechas en que las nuevas medidas deberan aplicarse.
diferentes normas segn la bandera del buque, causara gran distorsin en los
3.3.3 Fortalecimiento del marco legal para abordar de manera eficaz las especies
acuticas invasoras
que pueden afectar tanto a los ecosistemas marinos como los de agua dulce,
millones por ao, mientras que los costos de respuestas estn simplemente en el
cumplir con la Convencin del agua de lastre a travs de las dos fases del
programa Fondo Mundial para el Medio Ambiente(GEF por sus siglas en ingles)
Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (UNDP por sus siglas en
cumplan en el ao 2012.
marinas ha sido tan alto que se han reportado 1 cada nueve semanas y ms del
reciente del gobierno canadiense sobre las invasiones en grandes lagos mostr
una vez que se introducen y establecen, difcilmente pueden ser revertidas y/o
eficacia de los Estados Miembros para trabajar en colaboracin con los auspicios
adecuados. Este ejemplo ahora debe ser seguido con una respuesta similar en
otro.
que trate las invasiones acuticas de manera coordinada y consistente. Sin tal
simplemente no existiran.
4 Conclusiones y recomendaciones
De este modo, el transporte martimo contribuye a los tres pilares del desarrollo
/km.
ejecucin de sus normas tcnicas mundiales y en los esfuerzos para alcanzar los
ODM.
transporte martimo.
una mayor ecologa en el sector est claro y respaldado tanto por la OMI, en su
papel de regulador global del sector, como de la propia industria, con el objetivo
de:
Rector del Puerto y del Estado Ribereo con el fin de ofrecer una mayor
invernadero
vez ms grandes
ENERGA
RENOVABLE
MARINA
in a Blue World
Los autores principales de este captulo fueron Nadine McCormick y Varun Vats, ambos de la
Unin Internacional para la Conservacin de la Naturaleza (UICN).
Dentro de los colegas y personas que hicieron comentarios sobre los borradores y
proporcionaron los aportes y asesoramiento especficos se encuentran: Carl GustafLundin,
Franois Simard y James Oliver (GMPP, UICN) y Dan Wilhelmsson, coordinador cientfico del
Departamento de Zoologa de la Universidad de Estocolmo.
1. Introduccin: el sector de las energas renovables de origen marino como un
hace una evaluacin de las condiciones que permiten respaldar un mayor sector
ocano recibe ms del 70% de la luz solar disponible en la Tierra, y casi el 90%
x Ola
x Mareas (corrientes)
x Corrientes ocenicas
energas renovables marinas se estima en 7400 EJ por ao, la cifra supera con
a la necesidad de que las fuentes de energa tengan que estar cerca de los
las opciones de energa renovable y de estas, la energa elica marina fue lejos la
Adems, hay menos probabilidades de conflicto con otros usuarios que explotan
energas renovables (PNUMA, 2011), pases tales como el Reino Unido, Canad,
las empresas de servicios pblicos que se encuentran bajo presin para aumentar
2011).
La siguiente figura muestra las proyecciones de la capacidad de energa
marina instalada para los pases seleccionados entre el 2012 y el 2020. Las
fuentes de energa marinas incluidas son: los muros de contencin para mareas,
corrientes marinas, olas, energa maremotrmica (OTEC por sus siglas en ingls)
y energa osmtica. Corea del Sur y Francia estn partiendo desde un nivel
instalado relativamente alto. Sin embargo, el Reino Unido, EE.UU. y Portugal son
continua en la eficiencia de las turbinas y las alzas en los precios del combustible,
China, Estados Unidos, Alemania, Espaa e India estn entre los pases que
Consejo Mundial de Energa Elica (GWEC por sus siglas en ingls), el mercado
de energa elica de China se duplic durante todos los aos desde el 2006 al
desde el 2009. En el 2010, China super a Estados Unidos como el pas con ms
la fuente de energa, por lo que hay muchas opciones para la tecnologa. Por
las olas (undimotriz) pueden ser en tierra, cerca de la costa y en alta mar.
mareas. Los dispositivos de corrientes marinas son menos diversos que los
de trabajo y que se podran montar de manera rgida en el fondo del mar, ya sea
azul) utiliza las diferencias de presin osmtica entre la sal y el agua dulce o entre
considera difcil debido a la amplia gama de opciones que existen para extraer
energa global. Las estimaciones del potencial tcnico de solo la energa elica
compara con la energa elica terrestre. Los mayores costos de capital se deben
a que las estructuras son ms grandes y la logstica para instalar las torres, que
ejemplo, las turbinas que se utilizan en alta mar son generalmente un 20% ms
caras y las torres con los cimientos cuestan ms de 2,5 veces el precio de un
proyecto en similar tierra (EWEA, 2009). Sin embargo, el gran costo inicial de la
energa elica marina se compensa por los beneficios adicionales que provee el
nombran a continuacin:
inconsistente.
lejos de la tierra tienen menor impacto visual, lo que ayuda a los problemas
Las finanzas del proyecto superan la estructura financiera del sector de la energa
elica marina, debido la naturaleza predecible de los flujos de caja de los parques
comn que las empresas financien sus propios proyectos de parques elicos.
necesaria para este y que los activos y pasivos del proyecto se contabilizan
proyectos.
de alta mar.
concentrado principalmente en los pases del norte de Europa, alrededor del Mar
carbono, lo que requiere, entre otras medidas, un mayor uso de los recursos de
energa elica marina de 3000 MW (EAI). Otros pases a nivel mundial tambin
subvenciones de capital.
instalada de 14.158 MW (marzo del 2011) esto ocupa el quinto puesto ms alto en
sigue sin aprovecharse debido al alto costo de los proyectos y la falta de cadena
de suministros que se requieren. Tamil Nadu, un estado del sur de la India, ser el
an limitada, pero las tasas de crecimiento son altas. Los parques elicos marinos
predecibles.
Las mareas son ms predecibles que la energa elica y la energa solar, por
agua que maneja las turbinas para generar electricidad. La energa mareomotriz
instalada, con una potencia mxima de 240 MW, generada por sus 24 turbinas
0,4 MW cerca de Murmansk en Rusia, varios lugares en China desde 1977 con un
total de 5 MW y la Presa Sihwa en Corea del Sur (254 MW), que se encuentra
funcionando desde agosto del 2011 (IPCC, 2011 and Ocean Energy Council,
Ocenica, 2012).
Los estudios apuntan a varios otros lugares prometedores, incluyendo
marinas son el flujo de agua que se producen de las subidas y bajadas de las
conocen como turbinas de flujo transversal). Sin embargo, a diferencia del flujo de
marea local.
60 grados de latitud y las tormentas circumpolares cerca de las latitudes del sur,
lo que da cuenta la gran energa de las olas en esas reas (IEA, 2008). De
undimotriz promedio. Se puede ver desde la imagen que los niveles de energa
alcance.
La energa undimotriz es predecible, debido a que los satlites pueden medir
las olas en el ocano que luego impactarn en los dispositivos que se encuentran
(WEC, 2007).
de electricidad mundial del 2008 (700 millones de Mw por ao). Esta cifra no se
pueda reemplazar a una gran parte del uso de petrleo de combustibles fsiles
desafos que se han identificado son los altos costos de capital iniciales para el
2 Desafos y oportunidades
respuesta
actuales sistemas de energa de combustibles fsiles son los que impulsan los
renovable. Dentro del contexto general de las energas renovables, los sistemas
de energa renovable de origen marino se promueven cada vez ms, debido a los
renovable marina tambin se puede considerar una fuerza motriz, por s misma,
FPEIR ms abajo.
Para que la generacin de energa sea rentable y para competir contra la energa
rentable frente a los precios de los combustibles fsiles. Cuando los precios de los
energas renovables que han coincidido con las alzas de los precios de los
los datos ms precisos que se encuentren disponibles para algunos de los costos
operativa real. Por lo tanto, ellos a menudo reflejan los costos estimados en base
ahorrados dependen del nivel en el que la energa elica sustituya a cada uno de
mantenimiento como tambin los costos de capital. La energa elica evita los
de capital.
El nivel de los costos de capital ahorrados depende de la medida en que la
natural). Por lo tanto, est directamente ligado a que tan econmicamente viable
los gastos de los insumos no fluctan en comparacin con las alteraciones de los
elica son constantes en casi cero y por lo tanto el costo final de la energa elica
produccin de los recursos generados por la energa elica (por kWh) son casi
tanto, incluso si actualmente, la energa elica puede ser ms cara por KWh es
(Awerbuch,2003).
distancia de la costa, los costos de inversin, tales como los costos auxiliares
altos que la energa elica terrestre (EWEA, 2009). Los mayores costos de la
energa marina se deben a las altas inversiones iniciales debido a que las
estructuras son ms grandes y la logstica para instalar las torres es ms
USD $ 2,7 millones (2005 ec) por MW. Sin embargo, estos costos elevados se
mientras que para una instalacin tpica marina esta cifra llega a ms de 3.000
en la figura a la izquierda.
Energa mareomotriz
marea que fueron de USD $ 4.500 a 5.000 (por KW) en un perodo de formacin
Sin embargo, con el apoyo del gobierno y de agencias pblicas para los gastos de
mareomotriz.
Energa undimotriz
caractersticas del fondo ocenico. Tambin son cruciales los siguientes factores
undimotriz son lograr reducir los costos de capital para su construccin, generar
olas cueste siete veces ms que la energa trmica de carbn (Bloomberg, 2010).
estuario del ro Severn a travs del canal de Brstol en el Reino Unido. Este habra
Australia y los EE.UU. (costas del noroeste) han llevado a cabo hojas de ruta de
de empleos. Por ejemplo, en Escocia la ltima hoja de ruta hecha por el Grupo de
Energa Marina, FREDS (por sus siglas en ingls) durante el 2009 estiman un
gasto total de USD $ 3,75 millones de dlares para lograr instalar 1.000 MW en
Escocia para el 2020, lo que generara 5.000 puestos de trabajo directos (Fred
Grupo de Energa Marina (Meg), 2009. Al nivel de la UE, la hoja de ruta del
DOFDQ]DU 0: SRGUtD GDU OXJDU D XQD LQYHUVLyQ GH PLO PLOORQHV DO
para las tecnologas existentes, es poco probable que las energas renovables
2011).
tierra. Se est investigando inversiones en las Islas del Pacfico y del Caribe
(IPCC, 2011).
menudo, las reas que rodean estos sitios se dictan como zonas prohibidas para
marinos.
emisiones de GEI, por ende la lucha contra el cambio climtico. Adems, los
estas ventajas tanto globales como locales se deben balancear en contra de los
efectos adversos especficos que la biomasa como energa renovable (MBRE por
causar conflictos con los usuarios marinos que dependen del medioambiente
(vase ms arriba).
debido al ruido y a la prdida del hbitat. Durante el proceso, las piezas mviles
pueden afectar a las aves, peces y mamferos marinos, pero muchos de los
sin embargo, pueden surgir las emisiones de GEI de diferentes fases de los
Una revisin exhaustiva de la evaluacin del ciclo de vida (LCA por sus siglas en
ingls) sugiere que el ciclo de vida de las emisiones de GEI de los sistemas de
kWh (IPCC).
incrustantes) y filtracin, por ejemplo: tambin son posibles las fugas de aceite de
los sistemas de potencia hidrulica y los impactos ambientales negativos de la
Amenazas:
Oportunidades:
Energa Mareomotriz
extraen energa del alcance de las mareas tienen impactos ambientales similares
Amenazas:
x Cambios en el hbitat,
Otros dispositivos, tales como cercas para las mareas o las turbinas
con el efecto que causan las piezas mviles en los mamferos marinos (IPCC,
2011).
Energa undimotriz
renovables marina a gran escala y como tal, se sabe relativamente poco acerca
MW) pueden llegar a ser hasta un 40 % del costo total del proyecto. Sin embargo,
futuro debido a los nuevos diseos y conflictos sobre los asuntos ambientales.
que estas evaluaciones ambientales se lleven a cabo para considerar cmo los
3 Condiciones oportunas
El anlisis precedente ha destacado los beneficios potenciales que puede traer la
se toman medidas dinmicas. Sin tener en cuenta los factores negativos externos,
solo la energa elica marina est cerca de ser competitiva economicamente con
los combustibles fsiles y las fuentes nucleares. Hay muchos retos que hay que
que muchas de las tecnologas an estn en una fase inicial de desarrollo lo que
provoca una alta incertidumbre y los costos asociados al tiempo como tambin a
impulsa por polticas del gobierno, acompaadas por incentivos apropiados y por
marina, se requiere una visin a largo plazo. Esto se debe a que las polticas
pueden ayudar a reducir la incertidumbre a futuro y el riesgo de mercado en el
para el sector de la energa elica marina (43 000 MW) para el 2020. Es
seguridad a los inversionistas sobre toda la cadena de suministro (EWEA por sus
Reino Unido y Canad. Los EE.UU., Portugal e Irlanda estn haciendo lo mismo.
electricidad fueron entre USD$ 1,68 mil millones y USD$ 2,52 mil millones
de dlares en el 2009. Esto comparado con los subsidios de consumo de
2009 y USD$ 558 mil millones en el 2008 (IISD, 2011). Las subenciones
(FIT por sus siglas en ingls), por lo general toma la forma de un precio
pagado a los productores de RES-R (por sus siglas en ingls). FIT permite la
(PNUMA, 2010).
energa elica marina, estos incentivos no son tan eficaces para las tecnologas
establecer plantas nuevas, para las que le resulta difcil reunir el capital. Por
el intercambio de informacin.
Energa Ocenica de la IEA (por sus siglas en ingls), que tiene la tarea de
marinas. Sin embargo, con ms del 50 % del potencial de energa renovable que
3.3 Financiacin
reaparicin del inters por este sector (PNUMA, 2011). Sin embargo, estos no
(Bloomberg, 2010), lo que refleja la etapa inicial de este sector. Las finanzas se
Siemens han sido los principales proveedores del mercado de energa elica
(Central de energa marina de Sihwa, Corea del Sur), pero no hay iniciativas de
energa undimotriz.
energa tienen que tener en cuenta una amplia variabilidad en diferentes recursos,
permitindose flexibilidad y almacenamiento energtico masivo. Se necesitan
regionales siempre que sea posible. Por ejemplo, la red martima europea se
marina.
equilibrado para que se puedan aprovechar por las comunidades costeras. Las
sinergias se deben proponer siempre que sea posible, por ejemplo, con la
estuario del ro Severn en el Reino Unido, que no slo perdi el apoyo del pblico
en general, sino que luego la del gobierno al relacionarse con las partes
interesadas que ya haban tomado ciertas decisiones del diseo. Esto redujo
algunas de las que podran haber hecho menos dao sobre el medioambiente,
eficaz con las partes interesadas afectadas debe acompaar cualquier proyecto
de gran escala. Los gobiernos tambin necesitan llevar a cabo una planificacin
regular todos los usos humanos del mar, mientras se protegen los ecosistemas
marinos para asegurar el uso eficiente y sustentable del espacio marino y los
Las actividades marinas estn sujetas a las normas del derecho internacional.
en el mar.
particular para tener en cuenta son los derechos de navegacin de los buques
extranjeros. Por lo tanto, los Estados que estn desarrollando las infraestructuras
gobiernos deben cooperar con los Estados vecinos, en los casos en que las
4 Conclusiones y recomendaciones
significativa.
para todas las alternativas de energa renovable marinas relevantes con el fin de
Por ltimo, todos los actores del sector de las energas renovables marinas
tienen un rol para garantizar que ellos mantienen de forma proactiva y fomentan la
CONTAMINACIN POR
NUTRIENTES DEL OCENO
PROVENIENTES DE LOS
SECTORES DE LA
in a Blue World
AGRICULTURA,
PRODUCCIN DE
FERTILIZANTES Y DEL
TRATAMIENTO DE AGUA
RESIDUALES
Los principales autores de este captulo fueron Andrew Hudson, Head, UNDPWater &
Ocean Governance Programme y Peter Whalley , UNDP Consultant
El captulo fue revisado por Meryl Williams de GEF STAP.
1 Introduccin: la contaminacin por nutrientes del ocano presenta una
orgnicos, metales, etc.) al agua, a la tierra y al aire. Durante las ltimas dcadas
se han hecho esfuerzos considerables para revertir el enfoque histrico del vertido
por ejemplo, para proteger la calidad del agua potable o el ecosistema en general.
coherente e integrada.
pases desarrollados (y cada vez ms, muchos pases en vas de desarrollo y/o
travs de los ros que reciben las emisiones de las aguas de la poblacin y la
al. 2008) y la eutrofizacin del agua dulce y los ecosistemas marinos, incluyendo
la proliferacin de algas nocivas y la hipoxia "zonas muertas" en los ecosistemas
por lo tanto, produce que haya un crecimiento excesivo del plancton marino, los
plnctones que empiezan a morir son consumidos por las bacterias que usan
oxgeno y estas pueden conducir a bajos niveles del mismo o generar condiciones
hbitats que no slo son importantes para la biodiversidad, pero, por ejemplo en
tratadas.
aguas subterrneas estn por encima de los niveles seguros y por lo tanto es una
amenaza para la salud humana (Nolan, et al., 1988). La eliminacin de nitrato del
proveniente de las fuentes agrcolas para as evitar que entren a las aguas
muestra una estrecha relacin con el crecimiento de las regiones agrcolas, las
haba identificado ms de 500 reas con hipoxia a nivel mundial (UNEP, 2011).
reactivo, por ejemplo, del guano peruano, el salitre chileno y sales de amoniaco
extradas del carbn. En 1909, Fritz Haber desarroll un mecanismo para producir
produccin de fertilizantes.
por el proceso Haber- Bosch ha alterado el flujo y el equilibrio del ciclo del
socioeconmicas que han generado son significativos. Los impactos del exceso
La importancia de este captulo
agua dulce son de mil millones de dlares de prdidas en los ingresos del turismo
por las zonas costeras degradadas, las pesqueras y los recursos pesqueros
regional y global. Los beneficios seran para el ecosistema global y para los
sectores que dependen del bienestar de los ecosistemas marinos (pesca, turismo,
2 Desafos y oportunidades
para comprender y abordar los impulsores sectoriales, las presiones, las fuentes,
2000, los niveles indican que a nivel mundial, prcticamente la misma cantidad de
el anlisis a nivel regional muestra proporciones un tanto diferentes con las aguas
Amrica del Norte para 2050, estos mismos modelos (figura de la pgina 82)
predicen un crecimiento explosivo de las emisiones de frica (200 %), Asia del
Sur (200 %), Sudamrica (200 %) y Asia oriental (100 %) lo que conducira a
("zonas muertas ") y ha surgido como uno de los principales desafos ambientales
nutrientes. Tambin existe una gran evidencia (por ejemplo, en el Mar Negro con
Agricultura
el mayor empleador como una parte considerable del PIB, el 20 % en los pases
del mundo. China tiene la mayor produccin agrcola en el mundo, seguido por la
Unin Europea, la India y los EE.UU. Hoy en da, la agricultura es uno de los
cada vez mayores y en los volmenes asociados de aguas residuales. Si bien los
datos a nivel global son escasos, recientes estimaciones (2009) (Owen, 2010)
mundo slo alrededor del 5 % de las aguas residuales se tratan en esta medida.
comparacin con los niveles actuales que son alrededor de USD$ 30 mil millones.
de las aguas residuales. El flujo del sector privado hacia el tratamiento de aguas
(figura de la derecha). El costo para eliminar los nutrientes del promedio de las
DJXDV UHVLGXDOHV HV GH DO DOUHGHGRU GH SRU FDGD NJ GH 1 D WUDYpV GH OD
GHVLQLWULILFDFLyQD1\GHSRUNJ3(OHQIRTXHWUDGLFLRQDOGHOQRUWHTXH
La produccin de fertilizantes
1909 fue un hito clave en el desarrollo humano moderno ya que fue un principal
revolucin ecolgica.
fertilizantes aumenten a USD$ 150 mil millones por ao para el 2030 y USD$ 227
mil millones para el 2050. Hoy en da, del 40 a 60 % de los rendimientos agrcolas
mundial, pero stas tienden a ser solamente un pequeo porcentaje del volumen
combinarlo con gas nitrgeno y producir amonaco para fertilizantes. El costo del
gas natural por s solo puede constituir hasta el 90 % del costo de la produccin
nitrato de amonio fabricados por el proceso Haber- Bosch (Wood y Cowie, 2004).
un aumento de los costos debido a los altos costos de gas natural importado y a
los altos costos de electricidad relacionados con el comercio de derechos de
transferir a los compradores. Esta carga adicional de los costos de gas natural y
precio de USD$ 15 mil millones por ao, lo que enfatiza la oportunidad financiera
interesadas.
Tres sectores clave, la agricultura, la produccin de fertilizantes y el manejo
USD$ 2.850 mil millones de dlares (2009) (FAO STAT, 2012a) es por lejos el
estima que los tres sectores crezcan considerablemente en los prximos 50 aos,
La mayor parte del trabajo realizado hasta la fecha sobre los costos, beneficios y
La Evaluacin Europea del Nitrgeno (ENA por sus siglas en ingls) (Sutton et al.,
10- PLO PLOORQHV SRU DxR \ D SRUNJ GH 1SRUOR TXH HVWRSURSRUFLRQD
nutrientes en la UE superaran los costos (ya que el costo evitado por kg-N de
cifras y la similitud de las fuentes y los impactos en otras partes del mundo
mucho mayor que la cifra de la UE. Las medidas agrcolas de la UE- 27, tales
Directiva del Marco del Agua), slo han reducido un aporte total de nitrgeno
sobre fertilizantes. Sobre la base del valor econmico del cierre de los bancos de
millones por ao. Adems, el Golfo por s solo es fuente del 72 % de todos los
Chesapeake Bay experiment prdidas de USD$ 640 millones debido a las aguas
un 30 % entre 1994 y 2004. Los costos totales estimados para lograr una
lo que equivale a USD$ 15 mil millones. Los estudios de costos y beneficios para
(pesca, turismo, vivienda, etc.) y la amplia gama de reduccin de los costos por
3 Condiciones propicias
los precios de los bienes y servicios para los que el nitrgeno representa una
adecuadas (que se pueden aplicar a nivel local, nacional, regional y/o niveles
han fallado.
APNDICE C
A continuacin se har un anlisis del texto origen llamado Green Economy in
a Blue World y del texto meta llamado La economa verde en un mundo azul.
del tema, estas teoras (como la del Skopos) dieron pie y fueron base para el
tales como quin es la persona que realiz el texto, quin lo emiti, cmo lo
emiti, cundo, dnde, el por qu y con qu fin. Por otra parte, se encuentra el
microanlisis el que busca analizar los elementos que son parte del texto, tales
Macroanlisis
naciones y a los pueblos para que mejoren su vida sin comprometer la de las
Achim Steiner.
informa y capacita a los pueblos y a las naciones para que puedan mejorar su
para poder reducir los riesgos del cambio climtico. Adems realiza muchas
Center, GRIDArendal.
dirigido el texto. El receptor del texto, en este caso el de origen, son personas o
este texto fue elaborado para poder ser transmitido tanto a naciones, pases y
tambin para poder abordar las sugerencias propuestas con el fin de tomar
acciones y poder mejorar las situaciones actuales en su entorno, sociedad,
pases o naciones.
edicin.
por el director Achim Steiner. En el caso del texto meta el lugar fue en Santiago
de Chile y en el ao 2016.
que este documento tiene dos funciones tanto en el texto origen como en el
manera que se puedan cubrir las necesidades del presente sin comprometer
macroanlisis.
Microanlisis
origen ser la temtica del texto. Este punto es de gran importancia, ya que
que otra.
ver con cualquier informacin que el emisor asume que el receptor ya conoce,
encontramos.
que se trata, se espera que el receptor cuente con ciertos conocimientos del
tema, sin embargo, se encuentra muy bien explicado por lo que cualquier
Tras analizar las presuposiciones del texto meta, cabe sealar que se
texto, son esenciales para que este sea ms dinmico y no se vuelva tedioso.
manera o estilo en que se utiliza el registro formal tpico del idioma ingls. Al
conocida por el receptor. Aun as, cabe destacar que a pesar de los
son aquellas que detallan el diseo del texto, es decir el uso de negritas,
utilizan las negritas para los ttulos manifestando el nfasis para cada prrafo,
la fuente. Estas varan con el fin de! enfatizar algunos puntos en el texto. En el
recurso utilizado por el autor ayuda al lector a hacer distincin entre cada tema,
Para finalizar, se analizar la variable efecto. Esta tiene que ver con el
microanlisis.
Tabla 24
Macroanlisis
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SRQGVULYHUVODNHVDQGWKHRFHDQ
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PRUHWKDQKDOIRIWKHZRUOGVIRRGILVK
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Protocolo de Autorizacin
Santiago, ____________________________.