TOPIC 1- LIFESTYLE, HEALTH & RISK

WATER
H-Bonds creates adhesive affect- high mp/bp relative to similar sized
molecules
Excellent solvent- dipole allows ionic substances to be dissolved- polar
substances also dissolve
Carries non-polar substances as COLLOIDS (solute particles bigger than
solvent)
Insoluble particles form EMULSIONS (droplets of one liquid held in another) or
SUSPENSIONS (solid + liquid particles separate out if constantly moved)
High surface tension- like covered by skin- no interact between air and water
itself-h bonds pull down and together.
Amphoteric- acts as Ph buffer as is proton donor H+ or acceptor OH-
High latent heat of evaporation- evaporation takes a lot of energy so cools as
evaporates
Thermally stable due to high specific heat capacity
Creates cohesion (important in plants section T4)

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- higher metabolic rate of many mammals etc means that diffusion is too slow
to meet needs, as SA/V ratio is small- thus mass transport systems are used to
maximise efficiency. In some animals their needs are met by simple diffusion
such as amoeba with a large SA/V ratio diffusion is efficient and effective.

BLOOD
Plasma- main component largely water and dissolved substances
Erythrocytes- red blood cells- biconcave discs no nucleus more room for
haemoglobin and O2
Leukocytes- white blood cells- can squeeze and change shape, have nucleus +
colourless cytoplasm
Platelets- fragments of other cells, involved in clot formation.

BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries- blood away from heart- to lungs = pulmonary artery to be
oxygenated- to body via aorta or head/neck via aorta and carotid arteries.
Small lumen, large amount collagen and elastic fibres to allow to return to
shape when expands. No valves, smooth endothelial lining- prevent friction.
Arteries most at risk from damage due to high blood pressure and recoil.
Veins- blood back towards heart- pulmonary vein from lungs (oxygenated)-
inferior vena cava and superior vena cava from body. Have valves to prevent
back flow as is at lower pressure than arteries. Large lumen to act as blood
reservoir and some but less elastic and collagen fibres.
Capillaries- network that links arteries and veins, 1 cell thick and very thin,
RBC pass through, nutrients out into network and waste (CO2 etc) returned to
red blood cell. Blood pressure low through network- blood flows from arteries-
arterioles to capillary network to venules and veins.

THE HEART
 Superior Vena Cava vein-carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to
right atrium.
Pulmonary Veins carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
Right Atrium blood collection chamber of the heart, it has a thin walled
structure
Left Atrium this receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary
veins.
Right Ventricle this receives blood from
the right atrium and pumps it in to the
pulmonary artery.
Inferior Vena Cava - carries de-
oxygenated blood from the lower body
into the right atrium of the heart.
Aorta largest artery in the body -brings
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body
in the systemic circulation.
Cardiac Muscle these muscle cells push
blood from the atria to the ventricles to
the blood vessels of the circulatory
system.
Pulmonary Arteries this carries blood from the heart the lungs.
When the muscles of the atria walls contract it forces the remaining blood in to
the ventricles. The walls of the ventricles contract as they fill with blood, the
increased blood pressure closes the atrioventricular valves preventing
backflow of blood in to the atria. As the atrioventricular valves are closed the
pressure increases opening the semi lunar valves and pushing the blood in to
the pulmonary artery and aorta.
Atrioventricular Valves these are located
between the atrium and the ventricle on both sides. They
prevent backflow of blood in to the atria as the closure of
these valves ensures that the blood will flow in to the
pulmonary artery or aorta.
Semi-Lunar Valves these are in the aorta and
pulmonary artery , they prevent backflow of blood in to
the ventricles.
The sinoatrial top of the right atrium-create
regular waves of electrical activity to atria allowing
contraction- prevent spreading by insulating fibrous
tissue

CARDIAC CYCLE
Diastole + systole.
Diastole- atria / ventricles relax- blood into atrium- atrioventricular valves
open- blood into ventricles- semi lunar is closed.
Systole- ventricles contract- atrioventricular closes, semi lunar opens blood to
aorta or pulmonary artery

INTRINSIC RHYTHM
early embryo cells begin to rhythmically contract long before muscle forms-
via electrical excitation at 60bpm.

CARDIOVASCULAR CENTER IN BRAIN

Controls heart- as nerves speed the heart or slow down- dependant on CO2
levels in blood- nerve control provides quick reactions- hormones also affect
heart rate but generally slower.

CORONARY ARTERIES
Feed myocardial (heart muscle) above aortic valve from aorta so received
straight away and quickly.

BLOOD PRESSURE
Measured by SPHYGMOMANOMETER (automatic one or cuff + mercury
manometer and stethoscope)
BP = systolic bp / diastolic bp e.g. 120/80
Hypertension- high blood pressure (140/90) (can be caused by narrowed
arteries)
Hypotension- low blood pressure (90/60) (can be caused by weak heart)

DRUGS FOR LOWERING BLOOD PRESSURE-

ANTIHYPERTENSIVES
Diuretics- increased volume of urine- lower blood volume- lower blood
pressure (SE nausea)
Beta blockers- block hearts response to hormones such as adrenaline that
speed heart up (SE diabetes link)
Sympathetic Nerve Inhibitors- block sympathetic nerves- these get arteries
to constrict, by blocking keeps arteries dilated so blood pressure is kept low
(SE cough)
ACE Inhibitors- hormone angiotensin causes blood vessels to constrict so
inhibitors prevent these being made thus vessels are not constricted. (SE
impaired kidney function)

Treatment of CVD involved antihypertensives (lower bp), reducing of

cholesterol (statins), anticoagulants- (less likely atheroma to form), and
platelet inhibitors

Statins-block enzyme in liver that makes cholesterol (SE nausea, constipation

or rare inflammation reactions- can encourage a not healthy diet, create
attitude that no need to eat well as statins prevent cholesterol build up)
Anticoagulants- e.g. Warfarin, prevent risk of clot formation by thinning
blood- (SE uncontrolled bleeding)
Platelet inhibitors e.g. Aspirin- makes platelets less sticky (SE irritation
to stomach lining cause stomach bleeding)

CVD- CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Results from coronary arteries narrowed with fatty deposits- narrowing
reduces flow and can starve heart muscle of oxygen- also one blood clot
(thrombosis) increases likelihood of another

Blood clotting as a process is important- prevents bleeding to death and

entrance of pathogens.
But clot in vessels is the problem-
Damage to vessel- exposes collagen fibres- platelets from blood stick- the
platelets release thromboplastin- in presence of calcium ions and vitamin K
thromboplastin converts prothrombin to thrombin- this converts soluble
 fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin that creates a mesh-like network of fibres
trapping cells + debris to = a clot.

Cascade =
Damage to lining- increased likelihood of clot- if clot occurs, inflammatory
response- cholesterol builds up = atheroma- build up of calcium, salts and
platelets = plaque formation- narrows artery- raises blood pressure- increased
likelihood of damage.

Clot can lead to aneurysm, plaque causes blood build up behind- artery
bulges, can rupture artery
Artherosclerosis- process as above but calcium plaque causes loss of elasticity
in artery walls- less able to cope with recoil damage more likely.

What increases likelihood of artery damage and why-

Smoking- nicotine intake results in adrenaline production- heart rate faster, BP
increases
- toxins in smoke irritate endothelial lining, greater risk of damage
Obesity- greater strain on heart, also association between obesity and raised
blood pressure/ had diet
Inactivity- exercise makes heart stronger so can pump more blood with each
beat.
High cholesterol/ fatty died- large amounts cholesterol in blood stream
increases risk of clot
Family history- suggested genetic links
High Blood Pressure.
Age- with ageing elasticity and width of arteries deteriorates
Gender- oestrogen in women offers some protection from CVD

Treatments- anticoagulants, antihypertensives, statins (see above)

Risk can be reduced by changing lifestyle choices such as smoking or bad diet

Risk- can be actual, as suggested by studies, or perceived-that is altered by

an individuals personal experiences and perceptions.
Risk is the probability of the occurrence of a unwanted event or outcome- but
correlation does not imply causation. Epidemiologists conduct research to
access risk factors;
Types of study =
Cohort- many people, long time period, categorised according to who has/
doesnt have condition- risk factors accessed e.g. Munster Heart Study (see
below) in cholesterol.
Case-control studies- group with condition and control group- past history
researched- important to match case/control groups in terms of age/ gender-
independent variables are controlled

Good study- valid/ reliable data, representative of whole population- lack bias-
variables controlled as much as possible- standardised measurement/ other
techniques- sample size- while large sample size is generally best- if only tiny
% have disease small group individuals suffering best representative than
large sample with one or two sufferers.
CARBOHYDRATES
All composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Three main groups- monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

Monosaccharides- single sugar molecules containing 1 Oxygen atom and 2 Hydrogen

atoms for each Carbon.
(C H2 O)n (n= number of sugars) e.g. Triose (n=3) C3H6O3
Disaccharides are two joined monosacs.
Joined in a condensation reaction-H2O released
Link between two monosacs is covalent bond called glycosidic bond
(C6 H10 O5)n
Glucose+ Fructose = Sucrose (stored in plants e.g. sugar beet/cane)
Glucose+ Galactose= Lactose (main carbohydrate of milk)
Glucose+ Glucose= Maltose (found in germinating seeds e.g. barley)
Made of many monosacs joined with glycosidic bonds- many condensation reactions-
lots H2O released.
3-10 monosacs = oligosaccharides
11+ monosacs= polysaccharides
No sweet taste
Can form compact molecules, ideal for storage in cells.
Glycosidic bonds broken in hydrolysis reaction.
Not very water soluble- dont interfere cellular functions/ disrupt osmotic balance.

Starch important energy store in plants- sugar from photosyn. are converted to
starch- insoluble & compact- but can be rapidly broken down
Starch= long chains glucose- but is mixture of AMYLOSE and AMYLOPECTIN

AMYLOSE- unbranched polymer- spirals- more compact with length. Comprised 200-
5000 glucose molecules. Only released by enzymes working from each end of
amylase molecule.

AMYLOPECTIN- Polymer of glucose molecules- but branched. Lots of terminal ends-

break quickly when energy is required.

The combination of both in starch explains why starchy foods e.g. pasta are good for
exercise. AMYLOPEC releases glucose for cellular respiration rapidly. AMYLOSE
provides longer term energy to keep going.
TYPICAL STARCH GRAIN IN PLANT CELL IS 75% AMYLOPEC- rest AMYLOSE.

Glycogen- like starch but + branches- quick breakdown.

AMYLOSE, AMYLOPECTIN AND GLYCOGEN ALL MADE GLUCOSE MOLECULES IN CHAINS

Carbon in glycosidic bond determines which is involved.
Amylose- only glycosidic bonds carbon 1 and 4 *1,4-glycosidic bonds* = straight
Amylopectin- Some 1,4 but few 1,6-glycosidic bonds = branching
Starch = combination of straight chain amylose and branched Amylopectin.
Glycogen= More 1,6 bonds than 1,4 bonds.

To be good store, bonds in carbohydrates need to be broken to release single sugars

for cells to use. Glycosidic bond between monosaccharides split by hydrolysis-
opposite condensation- water required/ added to bond. Hydrolysis takes place in
digestion/ in muscle and liver cells.

LIPIDS
Fatty acids + glycerol (3 fatty acids : glycerol= triglyceride)
Act as energy source but also have functions such as protective around
organs, also waterproofing fur/ feathers, insulating properties- the fatty sheath
around nerves.
Lipids dissolve in organic solvents- insoluble in water so dont affect cellular
osmotic balance.
Fats are solid at room t, oils are liquid (if unsaturated double bonds= kinks in
chain- weaker IM bonds)
Fatty acid(s) + glycerol join by condensation reaction between carboxyl group
on fatty acids and hydroxyl group on glycerol= ester bond so reaction =
esterification.
Lipid + protein = lipoprotein lipid + phosphate group= phospholipids
(phosphate attaches to glycerol= hydrophilic head, lipid tails of fatty acids=
hydrophobic)

CHOLESTEROL
Using to form cell membranes- cant dissolve in blood- found in all body cells
and among lipids- they have be transported via lipoprotein carriers;
LDL (low-density lipoprotein) major cholesterol carrier, excess LDL increases
risk plaque/ atheroma- reduces the cholesterol absorption from blood.
HDL- (high-density lipoprotein) transports lipids/ unsaturated fats to liver to be
broken down / removed. HDL acts to reduce cholesterol- thus is considered
good cholesterol
High cholesterol- increase risk of CHD as clots ability to form increases due to
large amount cholesterol in blood- treatment for high cholesterol = Statins
(block enzyme in liver responsible for making the cholesterol)
Munster Heart Study- around 11,000 tested for between 4-14 years, aged
between 36-65.

BMI
Body mass index= mass (kg) / height(m) 2
Under 21= UW 21-25=Good 26-30= OW 31+ Obese
Basic energy requirement = weight (kg) X 4 (4 is human basic energy
requirement per kg)
BMR- basal metabolic rate = basic energy requirement x24
Total energy need = BMR + daily activity uses

CORE PRACTICALS FOR UNIT

Daphnia- affect of caffeine on heartbeat
Immobilise daphnia via cotton wool strands on cavity slide-
Set up microscope- include beaker of water as heat sink from light for
microscope
Put daphnia slide under- control- dash on piece of paper for each heart beat
for 30 seconds- x2 for bpm. Add caffeine sample- repeat

Vitamin C- content of fruit juices

Filter fruit juice sample- add to burette, add to 1cm3 of DCPIP until DCPIP is
colourless- greater volume of liquid less vitamin C-repeat with other juices
ensure thorough cleaning
Problems can occur with judging when DCPIP has decolourised and potential to
read burette wrong- vitamin C containing juice added 1 drop at time- so only
to 1 drop accuracy.
 TOPIC 2- GENES AND HEALTH
PROTEINS
Protein monomer is an amino acid.
Amino acids have carboxylic group, hydrogen atom, amino group (NH2) and
variable R group.
Central carbon= alpha carbon
Primary protein structure is formation of polypeptide chain= many amino
acids joined via condensation reactions to form peptide bonds
Secondary Structure interactions between charged amino/ carboxylic
groups form alpha helix or beta pleated sheet
Tertiary structure further folding to = 3D shape due to ionic bonds of ionised
R groups and further hydrophobic interactions = h bonds, covalent bonds,
disulphide bridges and polar interactions
Quaternary structure two or more polypeptide chains held by h bonds

Globular proteins- complex tertiary + sometimes quaternary structure to form

enzymes etc
Fibrous proteins little or no tertiary structure- parallel polypeptide chains
cross link to form fibres e.g. keratin in nails.
Conjugated proteins- protein joined to a prosthetic group e.g. glycoproteins
are proteins conjugated with a carbohydrate prosthetic group (holds water
well- synovial fluids/ mucus function) Lipoproteins- proteins + lipid prosthetic
group

CATALYSTS
Speed up reactions- enzymes are biological catalysts that work intracellular or
extracellular.
Enzymes are globular proteins- specific shape including a specific active site-
only certain shaped molecules can fit into the active site- (substrate)= lock
and key hypothesis or if active site is induced to change shape by substrate=
induced fit theory. Both end up with enzyme-substrate complex- charged
groups attract distorting the substrate by aiding bond breakage and formation-
products released from active site- enzyme/ active site are unchanged and can
accept another substrate molecule.
Anabolic reactions- build up new chemicals
Catabolic reactions- break down
Combination= metabolism
Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy needed
When enzymes are denatured (due to heat/ pH etc) tertiary structure is lost
due breaking of H bonds etc- when this happens rate of reaction declines as
enzyme stops functioning

CELL MEMBRANES
phospholipids bilayer- phosphate
prosthetic group attached to glycerol
of lipid. Glycerol and phosphate=
hydrophilic head, lipid tails are
hydrophobic fatty acids. Chemical
pass through layer by carrier/channel
proteins- fat-soluble organic
molecules and small molecules e.g.
water can pass through.
Cholesterol regulates fluidity.
Glycoproteins- function in cell signalling, recognition and binding
Carrier proteins- specific to molecules, transport via active transport. Channel
proteins- facilitated diffusion. Receptors bind to hormones.
Facilitated diffusion carrier proteins carry large water-soluble substances
Diffusion- small, lipid-soluble substances pass through down concentration
gradient
Facilitated diffusion- via channel proteins- polar water soluble substances
down conc. gradient
Active Transport- water-soluble substances again concentration gradient needs
carrier protein and ATP.
Osmosis- water moves down water potential gradient.

Rate of diffusion is affected by surface area, concentration gradient,

temperature and distance
Temperature increase- permeability increases

The cell membrane is described to be fluid because of its hydrophobic integral

components such as lipids and membrane proteins that move laterally or
sideways throughout the membrane.

The membrane is depicted as mosaic because like a mosaic that is made up of

many different parts the cell membrane, components such as glycoproteins
are scattered throughout the membrane.

DNA STRUCTURE

Nucleic acids- information molecules of cells.

DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid.
RNA- ribonucleic acid
DNA/RNA- polymers monomers are nucleotides/ mononucleotides.
Each mononucleotide- 3 parts- pentose (5 CARBON) sugar, phosphate group
and a nitrogen containing base.
Pentose Sug. In RNA- ribose, DNA- deoxyribose- (one less oxygen)

Nitrogen-containing bases found in nucleic acids-

PURINES- 2 Nitrogen ringsADENINE, GUANINE
PYRIMIDINES- 1 Nitrogen ring- CYTOSINE, THYMINE
DNA- 4 base combo- 1 PURINE TO ONE PYRIMIDINES A-T G-C
RNA purine base same but thymine is replaced by Uracil.

DEOXYRIBOSE has OH, off carbon on bottom left pentagon corner, and H on
bottom right, RIBOSE has both OH.
Phosphate group- makes nucleic acids acidic
Sugar, Base and phosphate joined by CONDENSATION REACTIONS- loss 2 H20
molecules.
Mononucleotides linked by condensation reaction- polynucleotide strands.
 Sugar from one bonds to phosphate in another= hydroxyl group at one end
and phosphate at other.
RNA- forms singular polynuc. Strands- folded to shapes or remain thread.
DNA- two strands twisted around each other, one upside down.
Sugar/phosphate= backbone
Inwards= bases = spiralled DNA.
Two strands DNA held Hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs.
5 strand and 3 strand- deps on which carbon of pentagon bonds are.
DNA code- triplet code.
3 base pairs= a codon.
Same amino acid can be made of different codons e.g. Ser = AGA or AGG.

DNA REPLICATION- provide DNA for daughter cells

- DNA unwinds and DNA Helicase causes strands to split ( H bonds break)
- Exposed bases attract free nucleotides-
- H bonds form between complementary pairs DNA polymerase and DNA ligase
join nucleotides
- Two identical daughter strands formed- 4 strands from 2.
SEMI CONSERVATIVE REPLICATION-
Theory of Meselson and Stahl
DNA cultured on heavy N15 (when centrifuged is low in test tube as is dense)
When DNA cultured on light N14- (centrifuged is high as not very dense)
By moving one cultured DNA sample to lighter/ heavier base- when
centrifuged is in middle= 1 heavy strand and one light strand must be semi
conservative

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS- give instructions for making a certain protein

TRANSCRIPTION- makes mRNA strand.
B bonds between base pairs split- DNA unwinds to = a sense and antisense
strand- antisense used as template- complementary bases of ribonucleotides
pair with antisense template strand but uracil replaced thymine- RNA
polymerase joins ribonucleotides to form a singular mRNA.
TRANSLATION - mRNA strand leaves nucleus via nuclear pores (DNA too large)
here lines up along ribosome- tRNA brings free nucleotides from cytoplasm
and lines up along mRNA- these amino acids join via peptide bonds to = the
polypeptide chain

DNA MUTATIONS
Replication, translation and transcription all involved reading, copying and
pairing of bases- plenty of opportunities for error. Single codon changed or
misread amino acid polypeptide chain is altered- this is a mutation- can have
no noticeable functional significance but can affect whole organism- many
mutations occur during meiosis so genetic material of gametes contains
mutations. When somatic (body) cells have mutations- specific enzymes
remove faulty area- acts as scissors.
Point mutation- change in gene itself- miscopying nucleotides
Chromosomal mutation- change in position of gene on chromosome
Gene deletion- loss of gene
Duplication- gene or gene sequence repeated
Inversion- genes wrong way round
Translocation- different genes in different chromosomes swapped/ muddled
Whole- chromosome mutation- entire chromosome lost- or duplicated (Downs
syndrome 3 copies chromosome 21 instead of 2)
 Some mutations beneficial, some insignificant, some damaging.
Mutagens increase rate or mutation or trigger it such as parts of
Electromagnetic spectrum.

CFTR MUTATION- cystic fibrosis

Normal functioning CFTR protein- enables sodium channel- Na+ and CL- ions
enter cell- CL- via chlorine pump on Basal side via active transport. BUT when
CFTR not functioning- blocks sodium channel so ions cant leave- thus water
moves via osmosis into the cell- so it is not with mucus that as a result is salty
and thick- builds up in airways- blocks air flow to alveoli- cilia cant move out of
system. Pathogens get trapped in mucus- ideal conditions for infection to
develop. Dehydrated cells loose anti-bacterial properties.
Mucus blocks pancreatic duct- enzymes to digest food cant reach intestine-
trapped in pancreas, can begin to digest pancreas thus damaging it. Mucus
blocks cervix in women. Sweat is salty and more concentrated- reabsorption of
salts does not occur- salts lost.
Treatments-
Physiotherapy- means to remove mucus from airways manually by massage
twice a day
Take enzymes with food so they can be digested
Antibiotic medication (usually inhalers) - prevent pathogens caught in mucus
causing infection
Fertility treatments like IVF
Transplants
Gene therapy

GENE THERAPY- inserting normal allele of a gene into cells to replace a faulty
allele caused by a inherited disorder. Can be done on early embryo (illegal in
UK currently) or in the affected body
part- somatic therapy

SOMATIC THERAPY
-identify gene involved e.g. for CF on
chromosome 7
- make copies of normal allele- insert
into vector (usually viruses and
liposomes)
- use the vector to insert the allele
into the target cells.
After insertion the normal allele into
the genome the target cell can make
it- make CFTR function thus allow
normal chloride movement- but faulty gene still in gametes- so can be passed
on.
Only around 25% normal chloride function resumes
Effect is temporary as cells die- and new cells have DNA with faulty gene
Use of virus vectors have side effects
Hard to deliver, especially with liposomes 1 in 1000 genes reached an
epithelial cell.

Genetic disorders cant be cured- thus avoidance and early treatment are
important for potential parents-
- not have child if will have condition,
- treatment straight after birth- reduce impacts later
- genetically screen new born to know- but sometimes false negatives occur due
to sheer variety of mutations that cause harm etc.
- PIGD- pre-implantation genetic diagnosis- embryos from IVF tested before
implanted
- Prenatal DNA testing can allow choice if baby has condition;

AMNIOCENTESIS- syringe through stomach- amniotic fluid taken and cultured

and tested- foetus must be around 15 weeks--- termination more traumatic,
risk miscarriage
CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING- syringe through vagina takes sample of
embryonic tissue from placenta- can be done at 8-10 week foetus and results
can be gained next day- no need to culture.
Factors to be considered
-risk of miscarriage- risk to foetus
-abortion if positive for mutation
-cost of bringing up disabled child
-mental and emotional trauma of disabled child or abortion
-being prepared
ETHICS
-basic right to life- duty to provide that right
-utilitarianism (maximising good)
- best choice for yourself