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Cannabis, commonly known as marijuana, has been long under the attack of policy
makers, but is the decision to make cannabis illegal rightly justified? Is it truly in a countrys best
interest to place a prohibition on cannabis? The topic of cannabis is extensive, complex, and
controversial but the fact of cannabis healing power is undeniable (Rtsch, 2001). So why is it
When assessing the history of hemp (not to be confused it Cannabis) in America, it did
written on cannabis paper (ibid.). Until the 1800s most of the textiles produced contained hemp.
Hemp containing virtually no THC, was generally accepted as a staple natural resource in a
variety of industries.
The dawn of the early 20th century marks noteworthy political decisions that continue to
have repercussions today. Yellow press depicted Black and Mexican people as frenzied beasts
who smoke marijuana and became ruthlessly violent (Miller, 2003). For the purpose of alienating
ethnic minorities, the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act established federal government control and
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prohibited marijuana possession without a special tax stamp, but the treasury department did not
The most impactful period of the war on marijuana came during Richard Nixons
presidency. The Nixon White House tapes prove the modern war on drug was rooted from selfish
prejudice as well as misinformation (Nixon Tapes, 1971). The Shafer Report indicated that
marijuana was essentially harmless, which Nixon knowingly ignored (ibid.). Perhaps Nixons
opposition to delegalize marijuana was simply a cover story for a different political agenda.
Woodstock was also in full force with anti-Vietnam War hippies smoking weed. Even though
they waged peace, Nixon saw the criminalizing of marijuana as a way of abolishing the protests.
This lead to the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 that classified drugs into five
categories. Marijuana was placed under Schedule I for having a high potential for abuse, no
currently accepted medical use, and lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or substance
under medical supervision (Public Law 91-513, 1970, p.1247). Other Schedule I substances
include Heroin, LSD, and MDMA, however it is noteworthy that Methamphetamine is classified
under Schedule II (ibid.) implying it is subtly less harmful. Ultimately a war on marijuana was
The United States currently experience the highest rate of imprisonment in the world and
has reached an over occupancy level of 102.7% (World Prison Brief, 2013). Figure 2 displays
marijuana occupies about 45% of drug abuse crime in comparison the aggregate crime of heroin,
cocaine, heroin/cocaine derivatives, synthetic drugs, manufactured drugs, and other dangerous
nonnarcotic drugs (about 55%). In 2014 alone there were an estimated 701,000 marijuana-
specific arrests, making it the most criminalized drug (FBI, Uniform Crime Report, 2014). It also
rivals the aggregate number of arrests for murder, rape, and robbery (ibid.), making marijuana
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arrests annually cost
perspective that showcases the ritual healing, tradition, and therapeutic emplotment of cannabis
The beginning of cannabis use is estimated to be 1000 years BCE in India (Mikuriya,
1969). The use of cannabis plays an important role in folk medicine, strongly influenced by
Ayurvedic practices. The extensive use is correlated with religion, which appoins sacred values
to the plant. The earliest written references of cannabis in India date to the Atharva Veda, a
collection of sacred texts that reference cannabis as one of five sacred plants, noting its as a
source of happiness, donator of joy and bringer of freedom. Cannabis is regarded as a gift from
the gods (Schultes et al., 2001) and is integrated in numerous religious rituals (Zuardi, 2006).
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Ayurvedic medicine, tied to Hindu mythology, embodies the countrys eternal faith and
mysticism (Russo, 2005, p. 1). The name combines the words life and knowledge in
Sanskrit, intertwining the core values in the medical practices. From a Western physician point
of view, it is astonishing that a viable medical regime existed 3000 years ago and is still
practiced since its inception. Ayurveda pursues the balance of three functional elements
(doshas) that are in the human body: (1) Vata or Vayu (ether or air), (2) Pitta (fire and water),
and (3) Kapha (phlegm or water and earth) (Russo, 2005). Equilibrium of the three elements is
associated with good health, therefore, illness or disease is explained as an imbalance (Russo,
2005). Ayurvedic medicine is more concerned with the maintenance of health in comparison to
the treatment of disease (Anthamatten & Hazen, 2012). The healing or therapy combines moral
concerns, like Karma, with religious and ritual mantras, magic, diet, and prescriptive regimens
consisting of herbal therapy (Anthamatten & Hazen, 2012; Russo, 2005). There is an abundance
of over 700 medicinal plants used, with cannabis remaining a critical entity.
Despite the influx of Western medicine, Ayurvedic medicine remains widely practiced
in India today (Anthamatten & Hazen, 2012). A study concerning the use of bhang (a special
preparation of cannabis) in the holy city of Varanasi, concluded its popularity across
socioeconomic strata. It noted prevalence in the higher educated, working class, and
businessmen (Chaturvedi et al., 1991). Among the 100 subjects, 90% affirmed improvements in
sleep with the absence of daytime fatigue (Russo, 2005). The individuals who ranged between
thirty to forty years old reported improvement of bowel habits, gastrointestinal disorders, and/or
insomnia. The smoke is ingested to treat stomachaches and the hemp ashes from holy men
(sahus) or yogis chilams are even regarded as a magical medicine to treat nervous diseases,
ingestion, and gonorrhea (Rtsch, 2001). Charas is used to treat acute mania, anemia, periodic
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headaches, cramps, migraines, malaria, imbecility, whooping cough, asthma, nervous vomiting,
its bottom is held in the right hand and the left hand also supports it. The passage between the
index finger and the thumb of the right hand is used in taking puffs from the pipe (Hasan, 1975,
p. 242).
Another aspect of the ritual is the offering to Shiva, one of three deities in Hinduism
(ibid.), which is performed in a high-pitched voice when a man says, Jai Shankar, Kata Lage na
Kankar (Hasan, 1975). By performing this offer, he secures his place in the smoking party
with the knowledge that the great god Creator-Destroyer relished the smoke and will not harm
the members throats (Hasan, 1975, p.242). The use of cannabis in Indian clearly has uses in
To legalize marijuana
Right here in Jamaica
I'm say it cure glaucoma
I man a de Bush Doctor
Only cure for asthma
Peter Tosh (Musician), Bush Doctor, 1979
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Jamaica was claimed in 1494 by Christopher Columbus after conquering the native Tano
people. By 1655 the British colonized the area and most of the Tano population were ill from
poor nutrition, famine, and forced labor. Jamaica was under British rule until the mid-1800s and
is responsible for the mass shipment of African slaves. Despite the abolishment of slavery in
1810, slavery continued in Jamaica until the slaves rebelled and emancipation was approved in
1838. Plantation owners now needed new workers to toil the land, resulting in the import of
indentured servants from India. The Indian laborers are responsible for bringing over the first
seedlings of cannabis, thus sparking the ganja movement. By the 1920s the black consciousness
movement, known as Rastafari, came to Jamaica and coincided when ganja was an integral
part of society. It was created under the belief that their single God, Jah, would free them from
Babylon, the suppressed culture implemented by both whites and blacks (Rtsch, 2001). The
Rastafarian culture embedded cannabis within its religion and has been an integral part ever
since.
India continues to have a lasting impact on Jamaican cannabis, which is apparent from
the plants common name ganja. Ganja is the Hindi word from Sanskrit meaning hemp or
hemp resin. The Jamican folk health-care system has strong ties to religion (Payne-Jackson &
Alleyne, 2004). Similar to the people of India, Rastas smoke and honor Shiva for they see ganja
as a gift from god. Rastas view it as a natural substance that facilitates peace and harmony
among its people by promoting social healing (Edmonds, 2012). It also assists psychological
supporting the person to break through false consciousness to discover the true divine self
(Edmonds, 2012, p.55). In order to obtain the benefits, the majority of Rastas meditate daily and
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smoke ganja. Each ritual act is performed to make the participant establish a closer connection
The use of ganja also has a communal element and is smoked during ceremonies, which
is called djamba or diamba (Edmonds, 2012). Whenever two or more Rastas come together
their smoking has a ritual element, offering a prayer before lighting the plant. During the
smoking session conversations stem from questions of morality to whatever topic enters to the
forefront of their mind. The smoking plant, usually rolled in a spliff, is passed around the circle
in a clockwise fashion, however during times of war, travels in the opposite direction. Rastas
also utilize a chalice during solemn occasions. The pipe consists of three different pieces, a
chamber for preparing ganja, a water chamber, and a mouthpiece. The individual inhales the
smoke into their lungs via the mouthpiece and exhales it out the nostrils. There is also a tradition
of using a special suru board for the preparation of the ganja substance. In addition, some
traditional Rastas hold a strict patriarchy, excluding women from smoking with men. This shows
that the use of ganja is merely for ritual rather than drug abuse.
While the Rasta have close ties to Africa, much of their medicine is also influenced by
the Indian Ayurvedic medicine. Ganja is regarded as the cure-all plant and brings health to the
people and grants them the strength to carry out their daily work (Rastch, 2001). It is said that an
spiritual, mental, and physical health (Rtsch, 2001, p139). In Rasta medicine it is
implemented similar to how the United States use aspirin (Kitzinger, 1971). The cannabis can be
use in an ointment as a painkiller (Comitas 1975:121) or a poultice for open wounds and internal
injuries (Rtsch, 2001). A study also found that Rastas exhibit glaucoma significantly less often
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than others (West, 1991). By using cannabis to battle disease and illness, it produces courage and
strength to the people (Rtsch, 2001) and is not use to recreationally get high.
Sometimes marijuana is the only thing that works [I]t is irresponsible not to provide the best
care we can as a medical community, care that could involve marijuana. We have been terribly
and systematically misled for nearly 70 years in the United States, and I apologize for my own
role in that. Dr. Sanjay Gupta, Neurosurgeon
properties from the cannabinoid FIGURE 4: Diagram of the brain that shows the areas in the
brain CBD effect (CITE)
receptors in the brainstem, limbic, and
Charlotte was just three months when her eyes began to flicker, perhaps showing the first
signs of epilepsy (Young, 2013). The movements lasted thirty minutes and her parents rushed to
the hospital. Paige, her mother, said that the doctors were not diagnosing the condition as
epilepsy, for the MRI, EEG, and spinal tap (costing a million-dollars) did not reveal an
abnormality. A week passed and Charlotte began to seize again, however this time it was longer.
Her seizures ranged from two to four hours followed by repeated hospitalization over the next
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few months, but no diagnosis was provided. The doctors thought it was something she would
intractable epilepsy, meaning it is not treatable with normal medication (ibid.). Despite this
diagnosis, Charlotte was on seven different drugs that were heavy-duty and addictive, such as
barbiturates and benzodiazepines. They provided some relief, however the seizures managed to
prevail. When Charlotte was two, Paige noticed a significant cognitive decline in comparison to
her twin brother. They considered medicine from anti-seizure drugs for dogs to specialized
French medication. They were quickly running out of possible solutions. They ultimately settled
on a ketogenic diet that a Dravet specialist prescribed, but that provided more problems. Her
immune system declined, behavioral changes arose, and bone loss began. After two years of the
Matt, Charlottes father, began scouring the internet in hopes for an effective solution. He
found just that, a true success story. A video surfaced about a little boy with Dravet Syndrome
who was successfully treated with cannabis. The strain of cannabis had a low dose of
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the psychoactive ingredient but was high in cannabidiol
(CBD), the medicinal ingredient with no psychoactivity. Scientists believe CBD quiets the
excessive electrical and chemical activity in the brain that causes seizures (Young, 2013).
Charlotte, now five years-old, was having 300 grand mal seizures a week and lost complete
ability to eat, talk, and walk. Additionally, her heart had physically stopped countless times.
They even signed a do-not-resuscitate order, figuratively they said goodbye to their little girl.
Paige concluded there was essentially nothing else the hospital could provide.
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[JHBX9]-[ANTH3057]-[Essay 1]-[18/12/2015, 23:59]-[Joseph Calabrese]-[3,120 words]
In their state of Colorado, under Amendment 20, a medical marijuana program is
available and Charlotte would be the youngest to apply. After calling and calling despite the
constant reply of no, no, no, no, no, Dr. Maraget Gedde and Dr. Alan Shakelford signed off
with an initial reluctance (ibid.). After continuing to jump through hoops to obtain the low THC,
high CBD cannabis, they finally got it for $800 per ounce. It is important to note that the strains
low THC content does not get her so called high. After converting the cannabis to oil, they
administered it to Charlotte and there were no seizures for the first hour, when she would
normally have upwards of three or four. Then another hour passed by, nothing. She had no
seizures for an entire week. Today, Charlotte has returned to a thriving six-year-old who can
walk, ride a bike, feed herself, and make new cognitive connections. She receives a dose of three
to four milligrams of oil per pound of body mass, which has stopped the onset of seizures.
Treatment was so effective it inspired the growers to name to the strain in her honor, Charlottes
Web. Charlottes journey in an all-too-common story for patients suffering from so-called
Conclusion
This essay is meant to present an argument that recognizes the use of cannabis within the
guidelines of history, religious tradition, ritual healing, and therapeutic emplotment. It is also
meant the raise questions in regard to its current illegal status at the federal level in the United
States. One of the main reason hemp is illegal is because it would put most papermills out of
business, therefore logging companies wanted it to remain illegal (CITE). Cannabis is an integral
part of human history and as species we have lived with it legal longer than illegal. The initial
regulations seem to root from selfishness and racism, calling for a separation from the ethnic
minorities. The law may be rooted in fiction from a policy conceived in ignorance (Bonnie
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[JHBX9]-[ANTH3057]-[Essay 1]-[18/12/2015, 23:59]-[Joseph Calabrese]-[3,120 words]
& Whitebread, 1970, p. 971). To come to a clear conclusion it is imperative to understand the
role of this plant in history. The healing and medicinal elements of cannabis were misconstrued,
exposing the negative elements. When pharmaceutical drugs are not administered properly,
detrimental effects ensue and marijuana can offer a feasible alterative. Rather than searching for
reasons to eliminate its use, we should be implementing positive efforts that individuals, like
We must understand the diversity in which cannabis is implemented for healing and
building comunitas. Instead of approaching cannabis with a holistic open-mind the War on
Drugs has proven to be stubbornly ethnocentric in its understandings and politically self-serving
and racist in its application (Calabrese, 2013). The concept of prohibition has been ever-present
in society and continues to fail. Prohibition can even be found in the bible when the serpent told
Adam and Eve not to eat from the tree of knowledge (Genesis 2:17). They disregarded Gods
orders and picked from the tree anyway. If prohibition for two individuals failed, how is a
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