Beswick-Hillock 1

Introduction

Are you aware of what an electromagnetic field is? The experiment described in

this paper is a study of the nature of electromagnetism. Specifically, it observes the

interactions between the objects required to generate an electromagnetic field. An

electromagnetic field occurs due to electric current and spin magnetic movements of

particles to generate a field of magnetic force. These concepts that were researched so

that the experimenters gain some insight into the applications of electromagnetism in

future research by establishing a basis for knowledge and answering some basic questions

a beginner may have on the subject. Questions in particular that the research should

answer are What is the relationship between different types of cores used for an

electromagnet?, How do these metals affect the strength of the electromagnet?, and

What factors of a magnetic field can be used to manipulate its strength?

The reason this research is important is because of the growing number of ways in

which people interact with the occurrence of an electromagnetic field in their everyday

lives. Electromagnetism is already applied to the usage of small household appliances,

computer wiring, and even wireless communications in the form of radio, phone calls,

and popular programs such as Skype, which take advantage of radio waves, which are the

longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. Further study of this subject may

lead to expansions in the use of electromagnetic fields in those already established areas,

or possibly new ones entirely.

The experiment was done by replicating the same setup for an electromagnetic

field with as few lurking variables as possible, but the metal cores of the magnet were

switched between several metals of varying conductivity to find a greater magnetic field.
 Beswick-Hillock 2

Constants in the experiment would include the type and amount of wire used for the core,

the positions of the materials in the experiment, and the range of current and voltage

measured. All of these things will lead to an educated solution to how an electromagnetic

field works and how it can be expanded upon using the base material. This base

knowledge can later be used by the same or different researchers to attempt to expand the

topic of electromagnetic applications to build off of this more introductory exercise.

 Beswick-Hillock 3

Review of Literature

Electromagnetism is the term used to describe a type of physical interaction that

occurs between particles that are electrically charged. Electromagnetism is derived from

the terms electricity and magnetism. Magnetism, in of itself, is a quality given to certain

materials that pull towards one another under certain circumstances. While all materials

experience this phenomenon to a certain degree, it is most common in metals like iron,

which have consistently powerful magnetic fields. Electricity is the energetic charge an

object carries, related to the flow of its electric charge. Once again, all objects carry an

electric charge; some more than others. Electromagnetism is the use of electric current to

increase the magnetic field of an otherwise negligibly magnetic object.

For starters, electromagnetism primarily occurs due to two main factors: electric

current, and the spin magnetic movements of elementary particles (Magnetic Moment).

Normally, the massive amount of electrons in a material are arranged in a way that their

magnetic moments cancel out. This is caused by electrons pairing with other electrons

with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments. Intrinsic means inherent electron properties

of spin and charge. The electron pairings, themselves, are explained by the Pauli

Exclusion Principle, which states that two identical fermions, which are particles with

half-integer spin cannot occupy the same quantum state at the same time. In more general

terms, no two electrons in an atom can have identical quantum numbers (Nave). In this

scenario, the electrons are arranged in a fashion that negates magnetic moments from

each electron. Even when the electron configuration contains unpaired electrons, it is

likely that various other electrons in the solid will generate magnetic moments that all

point in different and random directions, causing the material to be non-magnetic. It is

 Beswick-Hillock 4

only when each of the electron magnetic moments are lined up that the material can

generate a net total magnetic field, which varies in its potential strength. Additionally, the

strength an electromagnet can be changed through manipulation of the core and the

current through the coil, if a coil is wrapped around a metal core, then it is considered to

be an electromagnet, while if it wrapped around an air core then it is a solenoid

(Electromagnets). A solenoid is a coil used to create a magnetic field and can have

different items inside the coil to strengthen the field (Nave). The term ferromagnetism

refers to a metal that has the ability to rapidly increase the magnetic strength of a solenoid

as a core (Nave).

This means that not all electromagnetic interactions require the same setup as is

used in this experiment, only that the setup used is one of multiple possibilities. When a

DC current, or direct current, is traveling through the coil, it creates a permanent magnet.

That means the magnetic polarity will not change without changing the coil. On the other

hand, using an AC current, or alternating current, will change polarity every half cycle.

This means that for this experiment, a DC current should be used, because the magnetic

field detector would pick up the change in the field and the data would not come out

properly (Electromagnets).
 Beswick-Hillock 5

Figure 1. Electromagnetic Field Diagram

Figure 1 shows a generic image of an electromagnet. The lines represent what

direction the force moves in when and during the time that the field is being generated.

Primarily, the direction and strength of these forces are dependent upon the outer ends of

the charged metal core and coil, labelled here as north pole and south pole. Usually,

the force moves from the north to the south pole, because of the opposing charges on

those ends. They typically move in an elliptical pattern towards their intended

destination, being the south pole in this case. This large oval-like shape is the

electromagnetic field.

It is known that electric charges attract or repel one another. Unlike charges

attract one another, and like ones repel in the same fashion. This is due to the number of

protons and electrons each individual atom has, so they develop either a positive,

negative, or possibly a zero charge (Encyclopedia Britannica Online). Electromagnetism,

in of itself, is also something that happens rarely without tampering or interacting with

the materials. The general point of this research is to test the limits of the electromagnetic
 Beswick-Hillock 6

fields that can be generated from various metals. Is the relation between the current and

strength linear or exponential? Does this relationship vary between various metals? These

are the types of questions the experiment is designed to solve.

In the past, electromagnetism has been found to be a combination of two concepts

with some similarities, which were thought to be unrelated. Today, electromagnetism is

used in our everyday lives. Electromagnetism is the reason small appliances can be

switched on or off at a whim, or how heavy metal can be moved around a scrapyard, via

electromagnetic cranes. Electromagnets can be created by having a metal core, and

winding it with a conductor, such as copper wire. The strength of the electromagnet

depends upon the amount of current passing through the conductor. Also the current can

be easily stopped and started to form an electromagnet and de-energize respectively as

per the need of the work to be performed (Brighthub Engineering). Electricity is

connected to the circuit to power the electromagnet when energized, which generates an

electromagnetic field.

Figure 2. Standard Electromagnetic Field Setup

Above is a commonly used setup for generating an electromagnetic field in most

basic experiments. It typically consists of a screw or nail serving as an iron core covered
 Beswick-Hillock 7

with a copper wire coil connected to both a battery and a switch, which are connected to

one another. This coil is a solenoid, which is a coil used to create a magnetic field and

can have different items inside the coil to strengthen the field (Nave). This allows current

to run in a series through the switch and the core, which causes the core to generate a

small electromagnetic field, granted that the switch is closed when the power is exerted

from the battery.

What this experiment attempts to do is what is stated above in asking questions

such as Is the relation between the current and strength linear or exponential? Does

this relationship vary between various metals? More than anything, it is a conceptual

study meant to give the researchers an in-depth experience with the concepts of

electromagnetism so that the knowledge obtained over the course of the research may be

applied in ways to advance the understanding of this concept in the future.

Due to budget and resource constraints, the metals used in the experiment will be

aluminum, iron, and brass. Copper would be an excellent conductor, and is the most

widely used in the modern world. Unfortunately, it is difficult to find a solid rod of

copper; pipes and wire are much more common. This is an issue because the shape of the

electromagnetic core changes the manner in which the current flows. Ergo, current moves

through a solid bar differently than it would move through a hollow pipe. Silver would

also be an excellent metal to test, being a better conductor than copper by a fair margin,

but any useful amount of silver would quickly become too costly to use in the experiment

(About.com Money).
 Beswick-Hillock 8

Problem Statement

Problem:

To determine if an electromagnetic field is generated, what can be done to

manipulate the output of energy coming from the field? Does the relationship of the

current vs magnetic field slops vary between the metals?

Hypothesis:

If an electromagnets current is strengthened, then the energy generated by the

core will increase exponentially for all metals.

Data Measured:

The data that was measured was the amount of energy generated from the

interaction in either voltage or current, whichever fits better. The material will also vary,

in terms of what was used and in what amounts it is being used, being either different

sizes of batteries, or different varieties of conductive metals.

The independent variable were the material used, and current, in amperes (amps).

The dependent variable was the magnetic field, and what was recorded was the

interaction between the two (the current vs magnetic field slope). There were three

independent trials, and the researchers wanted to see if the metal cores were all the same

or not an ANOVA was deemed to fit. Also, a two-sample t test was also preformed to test

is aluminum and brass are the same or not.

 Beswick-Hillock 9

Experimental Design

Materials:

25ft of 18 Gauge Copper Wire Tape

86.5g Iron Round Rod (11 x 1.1cm) Laptop
50.1g Brass Round Rod (8.4 x 0.9cm) Magnetic Field Detector
47.3g Aluminum Round Rod (25.55 x 0.9cm) 9 Alligator Clip Wires
High Current Sensor (10A Maximum)
DC Regulated Power Supply (Extech Instruments 382213) (Appendix A)
Vernier LabQuest and LabQuest Software (Appendix B)

Procedure:

Before Trials

1. Construct the electromagnet by wrapping copper wire around the correct metal
core until 25 coils of wire are present over the cores end. Each end of the wire
should stick out from the coil for the alligator clips to clamp on to

During Trials

2. Set up the LabQuest software by connecting the device to a laptop via USB cable
and turning it on

3. Attach the alligator clips to the coil. The positive side should be on the end
farthest to the detector. The negative end goes into the positive end of high
current sensor via alligator clip. The negative end of high current sensor goes into
the negative end of the power supply via alligator clip

4. Secure the magnetic field detector to the table with tape applied to at least the end
opposite to the wires and the center of the core. The magnetic field detector
should be parallel to the end of the metal rod closest to the coil

5. Perform the trial by turning the power supply on (See Appendix A for details of
usage). The power supplys voltage should be set to the maximum setting, as does
not matter in the experiment

6. Adjust the current and record the relationship between the current and field
strength on the LoggerPro software (See Appendix B for details of usage)

7. Repeat steps 1 - 8 for 10 sets of trials, or until 30 total data points from trials have
been collected. The three alligator clips should be replaced with another three for
each set
 Beswick-Hillock 10

Diagram:

Figure 3. Experimental Setup

The diagram above is the setup of the materials used during experimental trials.

The main setup will be the metal core with copper wire coil, which will be attached to the

power supply and high current sensor through the use of alligator clips. The measuring

device, the magnetic field detector, will be set parallel to the core at the end where the

coil rests for each tests to replicate the same scenario for each test. Both the core and the

detector will be taped down to the table to prevent the setup from being jostled and

disrupted.
 Beswick-Hillock 11

Data and Observations

Table 1
Slopes of Different Cores of a Current Vs Magnetic Field
Aluminum
Set (mT/a) Brass (mT/a) Iron (mT/a)
1 0.03116 0.02329 0.5330
2 0.04316 0.02254 0.4962
3 0.04866 0.02487 0.5697
4 0.04617 0.0251 0.5793
5 0.03663 0.02395 0.2630
6 0.03753 0.4005
7 0.03576 0.0111 0.2862
8 0.00605 0.02325 0.5284
9 0.03563 0.03086 0.5204
10 0.02654 0.03725 0.6221
11 0.03457 0.04105 0.5526
Average 0.03471 0.02632 0.4864
Standard Deviation 0.01145 0.00837 0.11871

Table 1 shows the data from the three sets of experimental trials. The slopes are in

millitelsas per amp (mT/a) and are completely independent of each other. The

independent, or the x, was current, and the dependent, or the y, was the magnetic field.

There were about one thousand data sets collected per trial per set, all of which were

recorded using the LoggerPro, and used a regression test to find the slope. With each

metal, the slopes are in a general range which is to be expected. However, the variability

of the slope during the trials using iron is much higher than the other slopes. The brass

trial during set 6 is blacked out to show that the data collected for that specific trial is

invalid due to improper set up for that specific trial.

 Beswick-Hillock 12

Table 2
Correlation Coefficient
Set Aluminum Brass Iron
1 0.9982 0.9968 0.9997
2 0.9991 0.9972 0.9992
3 0.9993 0.9940 0.9998
4 0.9992 0.9971 0.9998
5 0.9987 0.9965 0.9996
6 0.9981 0.9997
7 0.9989 0.9899 0.9999
8 0.9993 0.9976 0.9999
9 0.9992 0.9988 0.9999
10 0.9973 0.9988 0.9999
11 0.9986 0.9990 0.9999
Average 0.9987 0.9966 0.9998

Table 2 shows the data from the Correlation Coefficient of experimental trials.

Which is how well the linear fit test fits the specific data for the trial. As with Table 1, the

brass trial is set 6 is invalid, and is blacked out from the data.
 Beswick-Hillock 13

Figure 4. Sample Trial

Figure 4 shows a sample trial of brass set 11. The box shows the slope of the line

and the correlation coefficient. The slope is .04105 mT/a (milliteslas per amp). Meaning

that if one were to increase the current going through the coil with this set up for

aluminum, the magnetic field would increase by .04205 mT. The correlation coefficient

is 0.9990, meaning that is it 99.9% linear.

 Beswick-Hillock 14

Table 3
Experimental Observations
Set Aluminum Brass Iron
Nothing notable. Nothing notable. Nothing notable.
1 Normal test Normal test Normal test
Nothing notable. Nothing notable. Hit wire, noticed
2 Normal test Normal test fluctuation as a result
Nothing notable. Nothing notable. Desk was bumped, No
3 Normal test Normal test difference detected
Normal test. Data took Normal test. Data Normal test. Data took
4 different pattern. took different pattern. different pattern.
Normal test. Data took Normal test. Data Normal test. Data took
5 different pattern. took different pattern. different pattern.
Normal test. Data took Normal test. Data took
6 different pattern. different pattern.
Normal test. Data took Normal test. Data Normal test. Data took
7 different pattern. took different pattern. different pattern.
Normal test. Data took Normal test. Data Normal test. Data took
8 different pattern. took different pattern. different pattern.
Normal test. Data took
different pattern; had no
variance until wires
were swapped, and Normal test. Data Normal test. Data took
9 swapped again. took different pattern. different pattern.
Nothing notable. Nothing notable. Nothing notable.
10 Normal test Normal test Normal test
Nothing notable. Nothing notable. Nothing notable.
11 Normal test Normal test Normal test

Table 3 shows the observations taken during the 11 sets of trials. Anything that

could be considered a lurking variable was noted, such as accidentally making contact

with a wire and moving it slightly, causing a fluctuation in the current, or bumping the

table, which had no noticeable effect on the data. The brass trial during set 6 is blacked

out to show that the data collected for that specific trial is invalid, as mentioned above. It

should also be noted that data sets 4 to 9 took on a slightly different pattern of data. This
 Beswick-Hillock 15

change could be due to the loose-fitting coil wrapped around the core moving slightly out

of place, which could have affected the data. This is plausible because the coil is the only

potentially moving object that affects data that was not taped down. While it did not

visibly or severely affect the ending results of the data, it is still relevant to take note of.
 Beswick-Hillock 16

Data Analysis and Interpretation

During the experiment, data was collected from the use of a LabQuest device and

LoggerPro software. The metals were informally randomized, no particular order that it

was done in. Randomization was done to reduce potential bias that may occur if all of the

same metals were done all at once. The reason that there were eleven sets was that it was

recommended that there were ten sets done, but there was a dud trial due to improper

brass set up, so an extra trial was run. The reason repetition was key was to decrease

variability so the data more resembles the population. Replication was as simple as

repeating the trials while keeping any values that did not need to be changed constant, as

was the case with the voltage dial on the power supply. A control was not necessary since

this was a comparative experiment with the other metals

Figure 5. Distribution of Magnetic Field Vs Current Slopes

 Beswick-Hillock 17

Figure 5 shows the box and whisker plots for the distribution of the data. There are

multiple outliers in brass and aluminum and all the major points are shown above, such as

the quartile ranges, the maximum, minimum, and median. The minimum is the lowest

value of a given metal, and the maximum is the highest value. Excluding outliers, which

are points extremely far beyond where most data lies, all data is present between those

points. The median is the middle post data point. A quartile is halfway between the

median and the maximum or minimum. The data present in the box and whisker plots are

the slopes of the magnetic field and the current graphs.

An ANOVA test determines whether or not three or more samples come from the

same population. Since this experiment had three samples, an ANOVA test would best fit

the data. There are three assumptions that have to be met in an ANOVA test; the first

being that each sample was randomly selected. Since the metals used, one for each set,

was the same and randomly selected, this fits the first assumption. The second

assumption was that each sample comes from a normal population. Since the data was

always linear, and supposed to be roughly the same, this fits the second assumption.

However, for two of the three groups, there were at least one outlier, meaning the

conclusiveness may not be legitimate (refer to Figure 5). The final assumption is that

there was the same standard deviation. Because this indicator is not as reliable, the rule

of thumb was used to determine the results. This rule of thumb states that the largest

sample standard deviation is no more than twice the smallest sample standard deviation.

This assumption was not met as the largest deviation was more than fourteen times as

large. This was to be expected as the iron has much more variation in its data, but this
 Beswick-Hillock 18

was not expected to this degree, or affect the data in this way. The results of this

experiment may be inconclusive due to two of the assumptions not being met.

For an ANOVA test, the null hypothesis states that all population means are

equal; the alternative states that they are not all equal.

: = =

: , ,

Figure 6. Null and Alternative Hypotheses

Figure 6 shows the standard ANOVA hypotheses with the null hypothesis stating that

they are all equal, and the alternative stating that they are not all equal.

To conduct an ANOVA test, a calculated mean square group (MSG) and a mean

square error (MSE) are necessary. In order to calculate the MSG, a weighted mean of all

the data needs to be collected. All calculations are shown in Appendix C.

A TI-nSpire calculator was used to electronically conduct a test and resulted with a p-

value of 4.1734 x 10 , which is very close to zero and extremely far below the -level of
-16

.05. Therefore, the researchers had to reject the ANOVA null hypothesis and say not all

of the populations are equal. Having a p-value this near to zero is taken to mean that there

is almost a zero percent chance that the results would have been calculated this way if the

means of the data were actually all equal to each other. Keeping in mind that not all the

assumptions were met, these results may be inconclusive, despite having an outstanding

p-value. However, this makes sense since the iron distribution is so much larger than the

other, both in spread and in value.

 Beswick-Hillock 19

A two sample t-test was also conducted between brass and aluminum to see if they are

equivalent or not. To do this, the assumptions had to be met, the t-score was calculated,

the new null and alternative hypothesis was established, and the Degrees of Freedom

must have been found. The assumptions of a two-sample t test include that the data

comes from two distinct populations, which they are in this experiment because different

metals were used, that samples are independent from each other, which was also met in

this experiment, that the data comes from a normally distributed population, which as

discussed with the ANOVA test, the data may not have been, and that the entire

population is ten times the sample, which is obviously true because the experiment could

have been conducted 320 times more if time allotted. Due to this, discretion was

exercised with the data. With a two sample t-test, the Degrees of Freedom was found by

taking the value of the smaller sample size and subtracting one from it. In this case the

Degrees of Freedom was nine because the population of brass samples has a size of ten.

The null and alternative hypotheses stated that the aluminum and the brass are equivalent

and not equivalent respectively. All calculations are shown in Appendix C.

: =

Figure 7. Null and Alternative Hypotheses

Figure 7 shows the null and alternative hypotheses. The null stated that the means are

equal and the alternative stated the opposite.

A TI-nSpire calculator was used to electronically conduct a test and resulted with

a p-value of 0.0696, which is not close enough to zero, due to the alpha level used. At the

normal -level of .05, the null hypothesis fails to be rejected because of the p-value is
 Beswick-Hillock 20

above that -level. However, the results may not be entirely accurate due to the fact that

not all the assumptions were met. However, in Figure 5, it is apparent that the populations

are most likely not equal since there is very minimal overlap in the present data.

Conclusion

In this experiment, the slopes of the current vs. magnetic field were measured on a

mT/a (milliTesla/amperage) graph. That was done by using the Logger Pro Software.

Since all the data was linear, the slope encompassed all data that was of any concern,

because that was what was being tested by increasing the current and reading the relative

magnetic field. The analysis used an ANOVA test to compare the magnetic strength of

each the metals data together, resulting in the metals not all being equal, and a two-

sample t-test to compare aluminum and brass due to the distinct similarities in their data,

resulting to be statistically the same.

These results occurred due to the properties of the metals themselves because

some metals have better conductivity than others. Iron is an excellent magnetic core

compared to brass and aluminum. Iron is a better electromagnetic core because its

ferromagnetic property of that core causes the internal magnetic domains of the iron to

line up with the smaller driving magnetic field produced by the current in the solenoid

(Nave). While iron has this property of ferromagnetism, aluminum and brass do not have

it to the extent that iron does, if at all, effectively making them almost useless as a core,

and leaving them simply as useful as a solenoid.

 Beswick-Hillock 21

As a result of the data obtained, the experimenters failed to accept their original

hypothesis, which stated that the relationship would be exponential, not linear. It also

stated that current would be the affecting factor, which was supported by the results.

Problems that arose in the experiment can be attributed to the preciseness of the

materials. That is to say, almost everything that was used during the trials required some

specific placement to give reliable data. For example, the coil attached to the core had to

be on the end of the core closest to the magnetic field detector, which had to be placed

together in parallel to receive the best field readings. If anything were to move during the

trial, the data set could be ruined. To prevent some possible movement, the core and the

field detector were both taped down to the testing table to minimize any test-ruining shift.

However, since the copper wire coils used with the cores were all loose-fitting coils, they

could be moved quite easily. This was totally overlooked and could have led to some

possible skewness in the data, noted by a portion of data that took on a noticeably

different pattern during the second day of testing, and taping down the wires would help

eliminate this.

While this experiment was designed to be a preliminary test to build a knowledge

of electromagnetism for possible future research, it has very little impact on the scientific

community as it currently stands. The potential for future applications may yield

something more significant later on. One detail that would have made this experiment

much better would have been the inclusion of pure copper and silver as electromagnetic

cores. Copper is the most widely used conductor around the world, but it is actually

outclassed by silver in terms of conductibility. The factor that keeps silver from

widespread use is the difficulties encountered in finding large quantities of pure silver,
 Beswick-Hillock 22

and this also makes silver more expensive. Future experiments aimed at finding factors of

conductibility that make other metals that are cheaper than copper more valid conductors

are a possible offshoot, as is the idea of replicating the conductibility of silver without

using that expensive of a material.

Appendix A: Using the Power Supply

Figure 8. DC Regulated Power Supply

To correctly use the DC Regulated Power Supply, plug in the three-prong cord to

an appropriate outlet, and apply the alligator clip wires to the correct spaces. After the

clips are correctly placed on the supply, the high current sensor, and the electromagnetic

core, ensure that the knobs for voltage and current are set to the lowest setting. After this

is checked, flip the switch on the console to turn the device on.
 Beswick-Hillock 23

Appendix B: LabQuest and LoggerPro

In order to set up LoggerPro, connect both the High Current Sensor and the

Magnetic Field Detector to the LabQuest device, which is then connected to the laptop

through the USB cable available in the kit with the LabQuest. Open the LoggerPro

program on the laptop. The graphs and readings on the LabQuest should go blank, and

then appear on the LoggerPro screen with the default graph setup.

Figure 9. LoggerPro Software

 Beswick-Hillock 24

Change the graph setup so that the x-axis measures the current, in amps, and the

y-axis should measure the voltage, in volts.

Appendix C: Calculations for ANOVA and t-Test

1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
=

Figure 10. Weighted Mean Calculation.

In figure 10, the weighted mean is shown how to be calculated. The lower case n

is for the number of trials in that trial, the variable x is the mean in that trial, and the

capital N is for the total number of trials.

11 0.03471 + 10 0.02633 + 11 .4865

= = .1874
32

Figure 11. Weighted Mean Calculation.

Figure 11 shows the calculations performed to calculate the weighted mean of the

experiment.

1 (1 )2 + 2 (2 )2 + 3 (3 )2
=
I1

Figure 12. MSG

Figure 12 shows the calculation for the mean square group. The variable x is the

weighted mean of the ANOVA test, and the I is the number of populations.

11(0.03471 0.1874)2 + 10(0.02633 0.1874)2 + 11(0.4865 0.1874)2

= = .7499
31
 Beswick-Hillock 25

Figure 13. MSG

Figure 13 shows how to calculate the MSG of the ANOVA test for this

experiment. In order to do that, the number of trials is multiplied by the squared

difference of the sample mean and the weighted mean. The test is then repeated for the

rest of the metals and the result is divided by the number of different metals minus one, in

this case being three minus one.

(1 1) 1 2 + (2 1) 2 2 + (3 1) 3 2
=

Figure 14. MSE

Figure 14 shows the calculation of the mean square error. The variable sa is the

standard deviation for a given trial.

(11 1) . 0114522 + (10 1) . 00837222 + (11 1) . 11872322

=

Figure 15. MSE

Figure 15 shows the calculation of the MSE. The MSE is calculated similarly to

the MSG. It is essentially a weighted standard deviation squared mean.

Figure 16. F-statistic

Figure 16 shows the calculation for the F-statistic. It is the MSG divided by MSE.

. 74990
= = 152.2337
. 0049263

Figure 17. F-statistic

As shown in figure 17, the MSG is divided by the MSE to get the F-statistic.
 Beswick-Hillock 26

1
=

Figure 18. The Degrees of Freedom

Figure 18 shows the calculation of the Degrees of Freedom.

31
=
32 3

Figure 19. The Degrees of Freedom

The DoF of the experiment is shown above. In an ANOVA test, the DoF is found

differently: the number of data sets minus one, which is divided by the total number of

data points minus the number of sets present in the numerator.

1 2
=
2 2
( 1 ) + ( 2 )
1 2

Figure 20. Calculation of the t-score

Figure 20 shows how to calculate the t-score value.

0.034710.02633
= 0.011452 0.0083722
=1.9277
( )+( )
11 10

Figure 21. Calculation of the t-score

Figure 21 shows the calculation used to obtain the t-score. In the numerator is the

first mean subtracted by the second mean. In the denominator is the weighted and

squared standard deviation calculated previously with the ANOVA test, but using only

the data from aluminum and brass. The t-score in this experiment was 1.9277.
 Beswick-Hillock 27

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