Weld Costing

ENGINEERING
Weld Costing
Welder Welding with Protective Clothing Getty Images
John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 1 of 62

WHAT DOES WELDING REALLY COST?
It has been emphasised that the object of any welding operation is to produce
fabrications of the required quality at the minimum cost.
This presupposes that the methods of welding must be technically viable. Thereafter
the final selection of welding process will be based, in the main, on three factors:
availability of equipment
availability of labour, skilled at the required level
operating costs.
In one sense these are all aspects of welding economics.
The question is often asked How much does this weld cost? Usually the questioner
expects the answer to be given in pence/ft. Such a figure could be most misleading
because the cost of welding is always fluid. The actual cost of a particular weld will
depend on a number of factors and will be specific to the fabricating plant in which
the work is done. Any two companies will differ in the cost they attribute to a weld.
The figure adopted will be influenced by production methods, shop planning, type of
work, accountancy systems and so on.
It is better, therefore, to recognise the factors that influence the final cost of welding
rather than be misled by a set of arbitrary figures.
Consider first the fixed costs in a welding operation
Consumables used Consumables cost rate = Consumable cost
+
Capital cost Depreciation rate = Capital cost factor
+
Maintenance time Maintenance cost factor = Maintenance cost
TOTAL FIXED
COST
To this must be added the labour and the overhead charges:

COST CONTROL
Costing can only be as accurate as the data on which it is based. It can be very
expensive to obtain accurate data for welding and it may be difficult to justify the
investment in a full scale work study operation. In these cases there is a temptation
to use approximations or to rely on data which has been collected during
negotiations of pay rates, without checking the validity under production conditions.
Estimates must allow for errors which may result from the use of inaccurate
information.
Costing can only be as accurate as the degree of control exercised over the
welding operation.
Deposition rate
Basic 165%
electrodes
Consider:
Current
The time to deposit a given length of weld will be governed by the deposition rate
and travel speed.
In manual metal arc welding, deposition rate is proportional to the current.
How reproducible is the welders judgement of travel speed?
The cost of welding can be directly related to the volume of weld metal deposited.
Overwelding can play havoc with costing.
How accurately can fit-up and weld size be controlled?
Various incentive schemes are used in the payment of welders? What effect do
these have on production welding rates?
Does the scheme adopted encourage the welder to hide his free time?

In terms of costing, it is of the utmost importance to see welding as part of the
overall fabrication procedure. The interaction of welding with other operations
must be assessed if a true cost is to be established.
For example:
a deep penetration process can reduce the cost of edge preparation
a process which gives a smooth weld surface with minimum excess metal can
reduce subsequent grinding costs where a flat surface is required.
distortion control by weld sequencing may increase the welding time but can
reduce the cost of correction.
short overall penetration or welding times will get the job off the shop floor quicker
an apparently more expensive process which none-the-less welds fast may be

justified if the payment of a penalty for late completion can be avoided.

Finally, it is important to remember the difference between price and cost.
PRICE = COST + PROFIT
Having quoted a price for a job, the profit margin is then at risk, since it depends
critically on the accuracy of the estimate and the control of the costs.
Hence:
Paid time = Arc time + Ancillary time + Free time
For efficient operation, the arc time should be as large a proportion of the total time
as possible, ie the duty cycle should be high.
Two duty cycles can be identified.
Arc time
Duty cycle for welding operation = 100%
Arc time plus ancillary time
Arc time
Overall duty cycle = 100%
Total paid time
The difference between these two will reflect the efficiency of the overall fabrication
procedure. For maximum efficiency they should be equal, in other words, the welder
should have no free time. In reality this is impossible to achieve and often overall
duty cycles as low as 17% are recorded, even though the duty cycle for the welding
operation may be between 30-60%.
It is important, therefore, to look critically at the factors that can influence the overall
duty cycle, eg:
type of work
process
shop loading
delays in the preparation stages
inadequate crane facilities
delays awaiting inspection.
Some of these are illustrated by the following data for welding of longitudinal seams
in steel plate.

Distribution of time between various activities (percentage)
75 mm thick plate 75 mm thick plate
Type of work MMA welding electro-slag welding
Welding (arc time) 34 24
Deslagging 6
Other ancillary work 10 6
Waiting for crane or other
services 17 16
Setting up 4 45
Preheat 14
Free time 15 9
Note that a large proportion of the time for electro-slag welding is devoted to setting
up. This is compensated by vastly greater welding speeds. In the example given
electro-slag welding was five times faster overall than manual metal arc.
To this must be added the labour and the overhead charges:
TOTAL COST
15
TOTAL FIXED
= COST
+ LABOUR COST
OVERHEAD
+ CHARGE
For example: The cost breakdown for welding a typical single U butt joint in
30 mm thick mild steel plate was:
%
Fixed costs 13
Labour 27
Overheads 60
(230% of labour cost) ___
100
Note from this example that:
fixed costs are relatively small (13%)

overheads have been charged as a percentage of the labour cost
the controlling factor is therefore the labour cost (including bonus rates etc).

ANALYSIS OF WELDERS TIME
It is important to recognise the three elements that make up a welders time:
time spent actually welding, ie arc time
time spent carrying out essential work such as deslagging and changing
electrodes, ie ancillary time
time not devoted to the welding operation, for example moving from one job to
another, waiting for work, receiving instructions, visits to toilet and relaxation, ie
free time.
Note: The welder may be required to undertake other tasks not directly associated
with welding. The cost of this time must be allocated against the appropriate
task and not included in free time.
The welder is paid from the moment he clocks on until the time he clocks off.

THE COST OF FABRICATION
The cost of a fabrication is usually the result of decisions and choices made from the
design stage to final inspection and delivery, and in some cases even after
installation. In cases where work is sub-contracted out, estimates must be prepared
by the sub-contractor who will have little or no say in the design but must tender his
estimate to give a competitive quote. He/she must bear in mind a multitude of factors
which, if the incorrect choice is made, may lead, increasingly to a decreasing profit
margin for him/herself.
S/he must first ascertain the class of work s/he is tendering for: exacting work
manufactured to British Standards and codes of practice or ASME, etc, or just
general jobbing work. For general jobbing work, estimates based upon years of
experience may be completed in several hours or days by the general foreman and
costing manager and others. These estimates would be based on total time taken
for marking-out, mechanical cutting, thermal cutting, drilling and machining, welding,
levelling, assembly, testing, handling, painting, etc, plus labour costs (a significant
figure today). Overheads would include gas, electricity, lighting, rates, depreciation
of plant, etc, plus a profit margin.
Cost Factors in Material and Fabrication Selection
Suitability for
Service Requirements of Material Forming Processes Economic Factors
and Joining
Strength Melting point Weldability Cost and

assessment of
Elasticity Thermal and Malleability
labour
electrical
Toughness Ductility
conductivity Cost and availability
Stiffness Castability of material
Expansion
Hardness Machinability Cost of shaping and
Effect of
Fatigue resistance Non-thermal fabrication
temperature
changes methods Handling facilities
Creep resistance
Magnetic Thermal methods Quality control to
Frictional
properties of joining requirements
properties
Heat treatment
Density
It is common for jobbing firms to have a standard figure, constantly being revised, for,
say, cost of weld per metre and the same for thermal cutting and machining, which
gives an inclusive cost based on experience. This figure would be inclusive of details
such as handling time and actual arcing or cutting time with a figure added for
overheads and profit.

Standard data may be obtained from the Welding Institute with respect to welding
costs. Table 2 (on the next page) shows typical deposition rates for electrodes.
However there are factors associated with quoting a price for a job which are
common to both comparatively small jobs and large fabrications weighing several
tonnes built to stringent codes of practice and standards. These may require the
fabricator to make comparisons and evaluate different welding and fabrication
processes, and decisions on whether to buy out components or to invest in new
equipment such as jigs, fixtures and positioners, semi- or fully automatic welding
plant or new thermal or mechanical cutting equipment. If purchased this new
equipment can be paid for over a time period by adding an increment to the quote for
each job.
Essential Factors in Preparing a Quote
1 All drawings should first of all be studied closely, especially specified

tolerances, and clarification sought from clients regarding any ambiguous points
or any changes the fabricator may wish to arrange. Is any site work necessary?
Are any Code or Test Requirements necessary, ovality, qualification tests, etc?
2 Material purchase
Types of section, storage, availability. Checks of material specification, size

and thickness and tolerances. This may affect the choice of cutting and welding
processes and edge preparation, forming and pre- or post-heat required.
3 Number off
This is a very important consideration as it can affect the choice of processes.

For instance with a one-off, it may be more economic to use direct marking,
mma welding, carrying out positional welds to eliminate turning the fabrication
and use of the crane. Where a considerable number are required this may
entail manufacturing templates, and purchasing semi- or fully automatic
equipment for edge preps and welding in addition to the manufacture or
purchase of jigs and fixtures.
4 Preparation by cutting and machining
These preparations will be governed by available welding equipment but in any

case one should aim to deposit the minimum weld required for stated strength
requirement at the lowest cost. Where not specified use procedures which will
avoid distortion as straightening costs money. Similarly the minimum cutting
should be done, ie use long sound mill cut edges where possible and rapid
removal by thermal methods of material, then a final machine skimming to
provide accuracy, etc.
Thermal vee preparations are quicker to produce than machined Us or Js and,

since the increase in volume of weld metal deposited is matched by a
corresponding increase in cost, it can be shown graphically (Fig. 3) which
preparations are the more favourable for increasing thickness.

Table 2: Consumables requirements for various processes
Process Electrode wastage Consumables/100 lb deposited

weld metal
Deposition Stub ends Electrode Shielding
efficiency wire snips Total efficiency Electrode Flux gas
% % % % (lb) (lb) (100 ft3)
Rutile manual electrode 7 70-80 12 32-42 68-58 145-170
Basic manual electrode 8 72 12 40 60 160-170
Iron powder electrode (160% recovery) 7 80 12 32 68 145-155
Mig (dip transfer) 4 93 2 9 91 110 6-1 5
Mig (spray transfer) 3 95 2 7 93 108 2.5-4
Mig (pulsed arc) 2 97 2 5 95 105 3-16
Flux-cored electrodes 5 85 2 17 83 120 2.5-5.5
Open arc (Fusarc) 7 80 1 21 79 126
Open arc (Fusarc CO2) 6 83 1 18 82 122 1.5-7
Submerged-arc (bare wires) 1 99 1 2 98 102 85-100
Submerged-arc (Fusemelt) 5 85 1 16 84 119 172

Fig 3 Theoretical volumes of weld metal for varying
preparation in different plate thicknesses
(After Jubb and Pinfold)
In addition it may be shown by calculation that, if a specified single vee close

butt joint is prepared using a 3.2 mm root face with a 60 inclusive angle, and is
incorrectly machined with a 1.6 mm root face, this produces a 37% increase in
volume of weld metal. Similarly, increasing the inclusive angle increases
volume and cost. Whilst on the same theme, when using fillet welds, the

strength of the joint is proportional to the throat thickness multiplied by the weld
length. Doubling the length of weld doubles the strength and also the cost, but
doubling the size of weld doubles the strength and increased volume and hence
cost four times. Therefore the weld size normally should be as small as
possible with long continuous lengths rather than large weld sizes with
intermittent spaces. Fig 4 shows examples.
Fig 4 Effect of weld size on volume and cost
Stack drilling, solid drilling, stack cutting and multiple cutting especially with
NCC or tape control can considerably reduce time.
5 Handling and arcing time
Reduced handling time can make real savings. This is normally achieved by
using planned fabrication procedures and the use of manipulators to avoid
repetitive turning of the fabrication and provide access for welding, etc. The use
of welding processes which cut out deslagging and electrode changing, etc
increase arcing time to total time. This is usually expressed as a ratio and is
called duty cycle, ie:
Duty cycle:
Arc time
= 100%
Total time
Time the arc is depositing metal (arc time) %

=
Arc time + Handling time + Other time

6 Forming and joining
Forming methods dealt with elsewhere can be critical with respect to joint fit-up
especially with mechanised welding processes. It is better to spend time
obtaining accurate bends, curves and diameters to produce correctly fitting
joints in alignment rather than spend time rectifying distortions and faulty joints.
Skill spent on making accurate templates, coupled with good standards of
workmanship, prove to be more economic in the long run rather than botched
work.
7 Inspection and heat treatment
The method of inspection must be chosen if not specified, and this must be
allowed for in the estimate and quotes obtained for outside inspection service if
not works-based. Similarly if specialised heat treatment is required, ie large
size of fabrication or a very high temperature specified, this must also be
allowed for.
8 Transport to site
This item may concern the fabricator, and clarification must be sought initially to
avoid any subsequent loss of lighterage, ie transport from a boat to the
dockside has resulted in a terrific loss for more than one large company.
Responsibility for route planning and permission for wide loads (low bridges,
narrow roads, etc) or making of site roads, etc, should be checked. Storage on
site and correct painting to avoid corrosion are important items, as are site
assembly, lifting and testing.

DECREASING THE COST OF ARC WELDING
1 PLATE FOR WELDING AND DESIGN
Productivity determines profit, and there are many ways to increase

productivity, some of them simple and some complex, with corresponding levels
of cost.
In any review of fabrication methods with a view to increasing productivity there

are a number of practical economic factors that should be considered before
any change of welding process or investment in new equipment is undertaken.
We look at plate for welding and some fundamental factors to be considered in

design.
Plate
All plates should be checked for both thickness and degree of bowing before
being released for fabrication. Excessive variations in these dimensions can
cause misalignment of welded joints requiring expensive rectification or
deposition of excess weld metal, both of which increase costs.
Some Eastern European steel mills have been known to produce low cost steel
plates varying in thickness by 2 mm above or below a specified thickness of
30 mm, whereas a tolerance of 0.55 mm would be reasonable. In such cases
the additional fabrication costs far outweigh any saving in material cost, so it is
important that material size limits are properly specified in the order.
Planned Cutting
When planning plate cutting the outline of parts should be arranged so as to

ensure the minimum of scrap. An example is shown in Figure 1, where the
shapes are arranged to suit stock plates.
For large scale production such as in shipyards the scrap rate can be reduced
to less than 5% by use of a CAD/CAM automated flame cutting system which
optimises utilisation of plate by nesting of the flame cut profiles. Any large
pieces of scrap should be recorded and stored for future use either in
production or in training or approval testing.
Figure 1 - Nesting of shapes for

economy of cutting,
broken lines indicate
possible guillotine cuts

Design
For cost reduction it is important to design so as to use the minimum of flame

cutting and welding.
Guillotine cuts cost less than flame cuts, and the broken lines in Figure 1
indicate where a guillotine might be used.
Guillotines can cut steel plate up to 20 mm thick depending on the capacity of

the machine. Only straight cuts can be made so straight sided shapes should
be designed for this method of cutting.
Although the weight of weld metal in a fabrication may amount to only 2% of the
total weight, its cost can be 20 or more times the cost of parent metal, and
added to this is the cost of deposition. This emphasises the importance of
reducing the amount of welding and of weld metal as much as possible.
Sometimes a welded joint can be eliminated by bending the plate, or by using a

standard rolled section as shown in Figure 2. Press brakes enable mild steel up
to approximately 6 mm thick to be flanged or pressed into a wide variety of
shapes.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2 - Replace of welds:

(a) By bending: (b) By use of rolled section
Fillet Welds
Fillet welds are notorious for containing excess weld metal, a fault that may
originate in the design office and is often compounded in the fabrication shop.
The waste caused by overwelding is shown in Figure 3, which indicates that if a

leg length of 6 mm is adequate an 8 mm weld represents 57% waste. Apart
from generous weld sizing in the design office, it is not unknown for a fillet weld
to increase progressively in size as the drawing passes down the chain of
command and finally reaches the welder, who adds a bit more for luck. To
ensure that minimum sized fillet welds are produced requires correct detail
design followed by rigorous shop floor supervision and inspection.

Figure 3 The effect of overwelding on fillet welds
Butt Welds
Overwelding may also occur in butt welds by the use of excessive groove
angles. Figure 4 shows that if a 60 included angle is adequate to obtain the
degree of penetration required by the root run, then an increase in the angle by
10 will require 20% additional weld metal.
Excess weld metal above the plate surface occurs if capping runs are too large
and should be restricted to a maximum height of 3 mm.
Figure 4 The effect of included angle on the

excess weld metal in a single V butt weld

2 SELECTING AN EDGE PREPARATION
The volume of weld metal in a butt weld is governed by the groove angle. If the
angle is kept constant at say, 60 then the volume of weld metal depends on the
plate thickness, such that if the thickness is doubled the amount of weld metal
increases by approximately four times. If the singe V is replaced by a 60
double V, then doubling the plate thickness only doubles the amount of weld
metal. Therefore, for plate above about 12 mm it makes sense to use a double
V edge preparation.
Similarly, a single V may be replaced by a single U edge preparation with a

large saving of weld metal.
As well as providing for a minimum of weld metal, the joint preparation must
also meet the following requirements:
a The weld must not be crack sensitive because of its shape.
b For slag forming processes in multipass welds the groove shape must
facilitate slag removal.
c The groove shape, welding position and accessibility must physically

accommodate the electrode welding gun or other equipment.
The above factors require discussion between the design office and the
fabrication shop. Lack of such consultation can lead to severe production
bottlenecks requiring expensive rectification.
The point about crack sensitivity is that the shape of a weld in terms of its width
to depth ratio (W/D) influences the tendency to solidification cracking, which is
minimised if the W/D ratio is between 1 and 1.4.
Figure 5 Solidification cracking

caused by unfavourable W/D ratios
If a deep penetration welding process is used in a narrow angled preparation

the weld depth is larger than its width, ie W/D<1. When this occurs the surface
of the weld may solidify before the centre and shrinkage stresses acting on the
partially solidified weld can cause a crack to form (Figure 5a).

This effect is most pronounced in root runs because, apart from the greater
likelihood of an unfavourable W/D ratio in the root than in subsequent runs,
maximum dilution by parent metal occurs here. In steel weld metal the
consequent increase in carbon content in particular increases the cracking
tendency.
In ill-fitting T joints where the gap is bridged by weld metal the W/D ratio may be
>1.4 and the small weld throat cannot withstand the shrinkage stresses,
resulting in a crack (Figure 5b).
To avoid adverse geometrical factors and to reduce dilution to some extent in

heavily restrained butt joints a U preparation or a compound bevel can be used
(Figure 6).
Figure 6 Single and double U and compound bevel preparations

which give good root run shape and economy of weld metal
An important factor to consider in the choice between V and U or compound

bevels is the cost of edge preparation. A single or double V preparation can be
flame cut whereas U or compound bevels have to be machined, which
increases costs.
A thorough evaluation of the total costs of edge preparation and welding will
show whether machining costs are justified.
3 COST SAVING BY DESIGN
Weld Profile
Having ensured that the most suitable detail design is used, the next step in
saving welding costs is to examine the weld profiles.
Elimination of excess weld metal in butt welds has already been referred to, and
a similar waste of metal can occur with fillet welds.
(a) Mitre fillet weld, no excess (b) Convex fillet weld,

weld metal 10-70% excess weld metal
Figure 7 Fillet weld profiles

A simple example is a single run fillet weld made by manual metal arc welding.
The drawing office visualises this weld as shown in Figure7a, but most welds
have a convex profile and, depending on the welding electrode used and the
welding position, the excess weld metal may amount to 10-70% (Figure b).
Average figures for excess weld metal deposited by different types of electrode
are shown in Table 1 and typical values for CO2 welding are shown in Table 2.
Most of the data in Tables 1 and 2 are taken from TWIs publication Standard
data for arc welding. Variation may occur in these figures depending on the
branch of electrode used and also the welding technique, but one valid
conclusion is that flat position is most efficient in terms of weld metal saving.
A fairly simple calculation will show whether basic covered iron powder
electrodes will justify their additional cost over the non-iron powder type and this
calculation will have to take into account the extra run out length. Whether it
would make economic sense to change to a semi-automatic welding process
such as MIG or flux-cored arc welding would require a more rigorous analysis
including costs of plant investment, depreciation and maintenance.
Excess Weld Metal

Welding Rutile Basic Basic
Position Electrode Electrode Iron Powder
Electrode
150% Recovery
Flat horiz-ver 17 42 10
Vertical-up 44 80
Vertical-down 18 16
Overhead 44 57
Table 1 Average amounts of excess weld metal in single run 6 mm fillet

welds, MMA welding
Welding Excess Weld Metal

Position
Flat 10
Horiz-ver 22
Vertical-up 24
Vertical-down 24
Table 2 Average amounts of excess weld metal in single run 6 mm fillet

welds, CO2 welding

Use of Sub-Assemblies
Consideration should be given to breaking down large units into a number of

sub-assemblies which can be handled easily and on which welding can be
conveniently carried out and inspected. Use of sub-assemblies can contribute
to cost savings because of the following factors:
reduction in handling costs

ease of positioning for welding in the flat position
overall distortion control
ease of pre- and post-weld heat treatment
inspection and repair facilitated.
The order in which the various parts are to be assembled should be carefully
considered and the design arranged so that the weld positions are easily
accessible at each stage of the assembly.
So far this series has shown that increased productivity and therefore additional
profit can be obtained without any increase in investment.
4 WELDING PROCEDURES
The two most important factors that influence welding costs are deposition rates
and duty cycles. Deposition rate is the weight of weld metal deposited per arc
hour and duty cycle is the ratio of arc time to a total time for a welding
operation. High deposition rates plus high duty cycles give minimum costs.
Typical deposition rates for MMA, MIG and FCAW processes are shown in
Figure 1.
A ???
B ???
C ???
D ???
E ???
Figure 1 Typical deposition rates for rutile and

rutile iron powder electrodes, MIG and FCAW

For submerged-arc welding operating from 500-1200 A the deposition rate is 5-
25 kg/hr. It is clear from Figure 1 that the speed of welding increases with
current for all welding processes, but use of the largest electrodes or highest
currents requires welding to be carried out in the flat or horizontal-vertical
position. This objective can be realised by use of positioners and by designing
a fabrication as a number of sub-assemblies welded in the flat position, followed
by welding these together in the flat position.
Figure 2 Use of a positioner for flat position welding
Use of a welding positioner (Figure 2) that can rotate a workpiece through 180
and tilt it by 90 can in some cases enable all the welds to be deposited in the
flat position.
The only delay that the welder faces is waiting while the component is
repositioned, and he may achieve a duty cycle of, say, 5096, ie he spends half
his time actually depositing weld metal.
If he had to wait for a crane to tilt the component into the most favourable
position for welding the duty cycle could possibly fall below 20%.
How to Increase Deposition Rates
Apart from the general rule of arranging for maximum welding in the flat position
there are some simple guidelines for using maximum deposition rates.
The first factor to consider is weld quality. All welding processes have a
maximum deposition rate, depending on the welding position, that will meet the
required quality level that will be measured by visual or non-destructive testing
of the fabrication. Mechanical testing of welding procedure testpieces may also
be required to determine whether strength or toughness requirements are met.
Deposition rates, for example, may be restricted by poor edge preparation,

assembly and fit-up. The tolerance on edge preparations accepted by a
fabrication shop may severely restrict any increase in welding current because
of the possibility of excess penetration where root gaps are a maximum and
root faces a minimum size.
A reduction in edge preparation tolerances may enable a substantial increase in

deposition rates to be achieved.

Other geometrical factors that affect weld costs have been described in Parts 1
and 2 of this series.
There may be metallurgical reasons for limiting deposition rates. For example,
in a steel fabrication, the size of weld runs in a multipass weld may have to be
restricted to meet the impact strength required.
Brief guidelines for increasing deposition rates in arc welding processes are as
follows:
MMA
Use the largest electrodes applicable to the job and welding position. For a
single run flat or horizontal-vertical fillet welds consider use of iron powder
electrodes.
Use vertical-down welding rather than vertical-up if possible.
MIG
Increase welding current but avoid excess penetration in butt joints or undercut
and poor profile in fillet welds.
Vertical-down welding is prone to lack of side wall fusion defects requiring

expensive removal and repair.
For highest welding currents the largest wire diameters are required but for
penetration control and positional welding lower currents and wire diameters
may be necessary. A compromise may have to be made with a medium sized
wire which will avoid having to interrupt welding to change wire reels.
Figure 3 Typical curves showing the effect of

deposition rate and duty cycle on the cost of welding

Flux-Cored Arc
Use highest suitable welding current and maximum electrode extension

compatible with maintenance of effective gas shield.
For self-shielded wires electrode extension can be longer, but if too long the
resistance heated hot wire may wander because of its flexibility.
Submerged-Arc
Deposition rates can be increased considerably by:
use of two wires sharing current

use of two or three wires with multiple power sources
use of DC-ve polarity
increase in electrode extension
addition of metal powders into groove.
5 HOW TO INCREASE DUTY CYCLE
The continuous wireprocesses, MIG (metal inert gas) and FCAW (flux-cored arc
welding), do not require frequent interruptions for changing electrodes and
therefore have an inherently higher duty cycle than MMA (manual metal arc)
welding, but this feature on its own is not sufficient reason to change processes.
Although it may be possible to increase welding speed by 508 or more by

changing welding processes this may not produce any cost savings and could
in fact increase overall costs.
If the average duty cycle in a fabrication shop is 20%, the welders are
depositing weld metal for 12 minutes every hour for a typical welding operating.
For the other 48 minutes every hour they are engaged in other tasks such as
collecting electrodes, setting up components parts, waiting to use the crane,
etc. If the welding speed is increased by 50%, welding will take 8 minutes
which only saves 4 minutes in each hour or approximately 30 minutes a day for
each welder.
Modified Operations
To take advantage of an increase in welding speed, ie in deposition rate, the

whole welding operation may have to be modified to increase the duty cycle. It
is essential to enable the welder to spend more of his time depositing weld
metal.

Furthermore, good organisation will be required along the following lines:
use of semi-skilled labour for handling and assembly of materials, possibly

including tack welding
effective supervision
documented welding procedures including simple written instructions for the
welders
use of jigs and fixture and welding positioners
supply of welding consumables close to work stations
provision of comfortable working conditions in respect of ambient
temperature, ventilation, protective clothing.
If the duty cycle is increased from 20 to 50% the welder in the above example
will spend 30 minutes in every hour depositing weld metal. An increase in
welding speed of 50% will now produce a time saving of 10 minutes every hour.
This amounts to approximately 70 minutes a day assuming that a constant flow
of work is available.
Process Comparison
To determine whether one welding process is more cost effective than another
it is necessary to calculate welding costs, which can then show the relationship
between the cost of weld metal deposited and the duty cycle. This is illustrated
in Figure 1 which compares the cost of weld metal deposited by a 5 mm rutile
electrode and a 2.4 mm diameter flux-cored wire with a CO2 gas shield for a
particular welded fabrication.
Figure 1 Effect of duty cycle on relative costs of MMA

and FCAW processes for a particular fabrication

At duty cycles less than 20% MMA welding is cheaper, but above 20% duty
cycle the FCAW process becomes progressively more economical.
It is sometimes assumed that because of the higher deposition rate of the

FCAW process it should be more economical than MMA welding. But at low
duty cycles eg many short welds, welds made vertically or overhead, welds
with poor access the cost of FCAW equipment and its maintenance assumes
greater significance.
For any welding operation there is a cross over point which indicates the duty
cycle at which MIG or FCAW become more economical than MMA.
If duty cycles can be maintained above about 40% then the semi-automatic
processes give a worthwhile cost saving.

EFFECTS OF FORCES ON MATERIALS
In order to help to appreciate the effect of forces on materials consider Newton's third
law which can be stated as: to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In simple terms this means that every push (or pull) must be matched and balanced
by an equal and opposite push (or pull). It does not matter how the push (or pull)
arises. For example:
Figure 1 Floor reaction
If a person has a mass such that, when standing up, he exerts a force of 850 N on
the floor, then the soles of the feet push downwards on the floor with a push of
850 N. The floor reacts and pushes upwards with a force of 850 N as illustrated in
Figure 1 (a). What happens if the floor does not offer this equal and opposite
reaction? Two alternatives are possible. If the floor is rotten and cannot provide an
equal and opposite reaction, then the person falls through the floor as shown in
Figure 1 (b). If on the other hand the floor produces a reaction greater than the
850 N, then the person becomes airborne, as illustrated in Figure 1 (c). Needless to
say, the first alternative is possible, the second would be a miracle! The concept of
Newton's third law is not restricted to stationary bodies; for example, if a motor cycle
is driven into a wall, the wall may respond by producing enough force to stop the
motorcycle at whatever speed it may be going as shown in Figure 2.

Both these examples serve to illustrate Newton's third law. This law does not say
anything about how the various forces are generated. The push on the floor arises
from the earth's gravitation upon the mass of the person, whilst with the motorcycle
the forces generated are those needed to decelerate the moving mass, ie the
application of Newton's second law.
It is necessary to recognise three basic types of force which occur in engineering.

The three types of force are tensile, compressive and shear.
Figure 2 Newton's third law
Tensile forces
Forces which tend to stretch a material are called tensile forces. A material
subjected to tensile forces is said to be in tension; Figure 3 illustrates a material in
tension. The rope between two tug-of-war teams is in tension. The rope of a crane
lifting an engineering component is in tension. A bolt is put in tension when the nut is
tightened.
Figure 3 Material
subject to tensile forces

In Figure 3 the external or applied forces are shown by single arrows pulling away
from the material to indicate that the material is being stretched, ie it is in tension.
The equal and opposite reactions are produced in the material, and are shown by the
dotted arrows. Figure 4 represents a simple demonstration of the development of
internal forces. Figure 4 (a) depicts two people pulling the arms of a third person.
The natural reaction of the person in the centre is to pull against the applied forces,
that is, to produce an equal and opposite reaction. If the applied forces are
increased until the material cannot produce an equal and opposite reaction then the
material will fail, as illustrated in Figure 4 (b).
Figure 4 Effects of
applied forces
Compressive forces
Forces which tend to compress or squeeze a material are called compressive forces.
A material subjected to compressive forces is said to be in compression. Figure 5
illustrates a material in compression; note that the internal forces push outwards in
this case to produce equal and opposite reactions. The legs of a chair are in
compression when someone sits on the chair. A component gripped between the
jaws of a vice is subjected to compressive forces.
The lines of action of tensile and compressive forces are such that the forces act
normally (ie at 90) to the cross-section of the material. Thus, tensile and
compressive forces are termed normal forces.

Figure 5 Material subjected
to compressive forces
Shear Forces
Forces which tend to cause one face of material to slide over an adjacent face (as
shown in Figure 6), are called shear forces.
Figure 6 Material subjected

to shearing forces
Figure 7 (a) illustrates a rivet subjected to shear forces. If the rivet were to fail due to
the shear forces then Figure 7 (b) illustrates the mode of failure. The forces at the
blades of a pair of scissors cutting paper, or at the blades of a guillotine shearing
machine cutting steel plate, are shearing forces.
Figure 7 Rivet in shear

The shear forces in Figures 6 and 7 act across the area of the material, ie the force
acts in a transverse direction. Thus a shear force is termed a transverse force.
In practice, a material may be subjected to a combination of tensile, compressive-

and shearing forces. However, any study of these more complicated conditions must
be based on an understanding of the effects of tensile, compressive and shearing
forces when they act alone.
How do materials generate the internal forces to oppose the external applied forces?
Human beings and other animals resist mechanical forces by pushing back in an
active way, they tense their muscles and push or pull as the situation requires.
Engineering materials are passive and cannot push back deliberately. They produce
internal resisting forces only in response to externally applied forces which tend to
distort the body. Figure 8 illustrates the distortion taking place in a piece of rubber in
order to generate sufficient internal forces to support externally applied forces. In
Figure 8 (a) the rubber can be considered to be unloaded. If a mass m is attached to
the free end of the piece of rubber then the rubber stretches until it generates internal
forces sufficient to support the mass as shown in Figure 8 (b).
Figure 8 Material in
tension
Figure 9 illustrates a material subjected to compressive forces; in this case the

material contracts thus producing the internal forces required to balance the applied
external forces. Figure10 illustrates the forces in the legs of a chair when a person
sits on it. The chair legs are in compression due to the forces, and contract until they
produce sufficient forces to balance the forces due to the body sitting on the chair.
Figure 9 Material in
compression

Figure 10 Forces in
chair legs
Figure 11 (a) represents a plank spanning a gap. When the plank is used as a
bridge as shown in Figure 11 (b) it deflects and in so doing produces reactions equal
and opposite to the applied force due to the person standing on the plank. In general
terms a body in equilibrium is deflected exactly enough to build up forces which just
counter the external forces applied to it.
Figure 11 Reaction
to a force
Stress
In Figures 3 and 4 each internal force is shown as a single arrow. In actual fact the
whole of the cross-sectional area of the material at any cross-section within the
material helps to produce the internal reactions to the applied forces. In
diagrammatic form the force lines are as shown in Figure 12 (a). The atoms in a
solid are held together by chemical forces or bonds, and when a force is applied to a
material each of these individual chemical bonds offers its own individual resisting
force. The total of all these individual forces is equal to the applied force, and
represents the equal and opposite reaction. The ratio of internal force and cross-
sectional area, that is the force per unit area, is given the name stress.

Figure 12 Internal forces
EFFECT OF LOAD ON ENGINEERING COMPONENTS
Tension, Compression and Shear
When the load applied to a component causes it to extend in the direction of the load,
the material is said to be in direct tension.
When a decrease in length results from the loading, the material is in direct
compression.
When the loading is by equal and opposite forces which tend to cut across the
section resisting the load, the material is said to be in shear.
The behaviour of a component or an assembly under the system of loading depends

not only upon the load values but also upon the component size and the material of
which it is made. It is appropriate at this stage to consider some aspects of the
properties of materials. Our knowledge of material properties is based on the results
of tests developed over many years. One of the most important of these tests is the
tensile test in which the material is loaded to destruction whilst observations are
made of the load and the resulting extension.
Stress and Strain; Elasticity and Rigidity
The intensity of loading in a material is measured by the load transmitted per unit
area of the material and is normally referred to as the stress in the material. If the
value is calculated by dividing the load value by the appropriate area, the result will
be the average stress, and the value is thus assumed to be uniformly distributed over
the whole area.
The distortion of the component due to the load is indicated by the strain induced: it
is measured by the change in size per unit size.
Direct Tensile (or Compressive) Stress
Symbol .
Force value
Calculated from: Stress =
Cross-sectional area

P
From Figure 13 (a) =
A
Figure 13
Units
Newton per square metre N/m2
kilonewton per square metre kN/m2
meganewton per square metre MN/m2
giganewton per square metre GN/m2
A further form, which conveys the concept of stress at a point, uses the area unit of a
square millimetre:
Newton per square millimetre N/mm2

1 N/mm2 106 N/m2 = 1 MN/m2
kilonewton per square millimetre kN/mm2

1 kN/mm2 = 109 N/m2 = 1 GN/m2
Direct Tensile (or Compressive) Strain
Symbol .
Change in length
Calculated from Strain =
Original length
x
From Figure 13 (b) =
l
UnitsBecause the quantity is a ratio of two quantities each having the same unit, it is
not usual for strain to be given any unit.

Relation between Direct Stress and Strain
If the material behaves elastically as the load is gradually increased, then it obeys
Hookes Law. (Robert Hooke originally investigated the behaviour of springs under
load.) Hooke's Law broadly states that:
the deformation produced is directly proportional to the load.
Since stress is proportional to load, and strain is proportional to the deformation, it

follows that:
Stress = Constant Strain
or
Stress
= Constant
Strain
The constant of proportionality is known as the Modulus of Elasticity and is given

the symbol E. Thus:

Modulus of Elasticity = E =

Units Since strain has no unit, the unit of E is the same as that of stress.
Typical (rounded) values for some engineering materials are given in Table 1.
The term Modulus means a constant which indicates the relationship between the
amount of physical effect and the force producing it. The term Elasticity describes
the power which a material has to recover the original shape and size when the
deforming force is removed.
The Modulus of Elasticity thus relates the applied force to the elastic deformation it
produces. When compared with the behaviour of a loaded spring, E can be regarded
as a measure of the linear stiffness of the member (material). Most metals have a
high value of E and strains are small, whereas rubber has a low E and deformation is
large.
Material E GN/m2
Mild steel 200
Cast iron 110
Brass 85 Table 1 Values of modulus of
Aluminium alloy 70 elasticity for some engineering materials
Copper 120

Example 1
A rod, 20 mm diameter and 1.5 m long, is subjected to a tensile force of 31.4 kN.
Determine the stress induced in the material and the resulting extension assuming E
for the material is 200 kN/mm2.
Solution Cross-section area A of the rod is:
1 1
A= d2 = 202 = 314 mm2
4 4
P 31.4
Tensile stress = = = 0.1kN/mm2
A 314
To find the extension it is first necessary to find the strain.

E=

Transposing gives:
0.1
= = = 0.0005
E 200
x
Hence =
l
Transposing gives:
x = l = 1.5 0.0005
ie extension x = 0.00075 m or 0.75 mm (Ans)
Example 2
The component shown in Figure14 is loaded in compression by a force of 50 kN.

Determine the compression of the component assuming E for the material is
85 kN/mm2.
Solution Although each part of the component carries the same load, the stress
in each part will be different because the areas are different, so we
consider the behaviour of the separate parts 1 and 2 and then add the
effects.
It is assumed that at the change of section the stress distribution is uniform. In

practice the distribution at a sudden change of section or shape is very
complex but in this case the assumption produces a negligible error.

Figure 14
Part 1
1
Cross-section area = 402 = 1256 mm2
4
P 50
Compressive stress = = = 0.04 kN/mm2
A1 1256
1 0.04
Compressive strain = = 0.00047
E 85
Compression x1 = l11 = 400 0.00047 = 0.188 mm
Part 2
1
Cross-section area = 202 = 314 mm2
4
P 50
Compressive stress 2 = = = 0.16 kN/mm2
A 2 314
2 0.16
Compressive strain 2 = = 0.001882
E 85
Compression x2 = l22 = 200 0.00182 = 0.376 mm
Total compression x = x1 + x2
= 0.188 + 0.376
= 0.546 mm (Ans)

Shear Stress
Symbol
When the action of the loading is to produce a cutting action (shearing) across the
material section parallel to the force, as illustrated in Figure 15 (a), the material is
said to be in shear.
Figure 15
Calculated from:
Shearing force
Shear stress =
Area resisting shear
P
=
A
Components are in single shear if one area is resisting; or in double shear if two
areas are resisting.
Units As for tensile or compressive stress.
Shear Strain
Symbol
A small portion (unit cube) subjected to a shear stress deforms effectively into a
rhomboid. The strain is defined, for the face shown in Figure 15 (b), as the angle
BAB' in radians.
Shear strain = < BAB'
Unit Radian (non-dimensional).
Relation between Shear Stress and Shear Strain

In a similar manner to tensile loading, a material in shear behaves elastically up to a
certain value of stress. Thus shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain and
hence:
Shear stress
= Constant
Shear strain
The constant of proportionality is known as the Modulus of Rigidity and is given the
symbol G, so that:

Modulus of Rigidity = G =

Unit GN/m2 or kN/mm2
Typical (rounded) values for some engineering materials are given in Table 2.
Material G GN/m2
Mild steel 85
Cast iron 45
Brass 35
Aluminium 30 Table 2 Values of modulus of rigidity for
Copper 50 some engineering materials
Example 3
The knuckle joint, shown in Figure 16, transmits a load of 80 kN.
Calculate the shear stress in the pin.
Figure 16
Solution The pin is in double shear, thus:
1
Area in shear A = 2 202 = 628 mm2
4
P 80
Shear stress = = = 0.127 kN/mm2
A 628

A flanged coupling, as shown in Figure 16 transmits a couple of 5 kN m through 4
bolts on a pitch circle of 200 mm diameter. If the shear stress in each bolt is limited
to 70 N/mm2, calculate a suitable diameter for the bolts.
Figure 17
Solution If P is the shearing force in each bolt, which is at radius r from the axis,
then:
Sum of the moments of each shearing force about the axis = Couple
transmitted
4Pr Couple transmitted
Substituting values:
4PxO.1 = 5
5
P= = 12.5 kN
0.4
The shear stress is limited to 70 n/mm2.
P
=
A
Transposing:
P
A=

Substituting values:
12.5 1000
A= = 178.6 mm2
70
Hence:
d = 15.1 mm (Ans)

FACTOR OF SAFETY
Quoted values of tensile, compressive and shear strengths of various materials are
obtained under ideal static conditions. In service, however, machines are subject to
influences which are difficult to allow for in analytical calculations. These may
include:
a additional shock loading

b slight inaccuracies of manufacture or installation
c environmental conditions
d high risk to human life or damage to other components
e varying frequencies and durations of operations.
The designer must therefore apply a factor of safety to the quoted strength figure
based on expert knowledge of the service conditions which the design will encounter.
For example, for tensile strengths:
Tensile strength
Allowable design stress =
Factor of Safety
In some designs applications it is more suitable to apply the factor of safety to the
fatigue limit, elastic limit or yield stress of the material.
The elastic limit and yield stress are usually determined from the tensile or shear
testing of materials.
Load/Extension Graphs for Materials in Tension and Shear
The observations of load and extension are plotted on a graph to give curves such as
those shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1

Curve 1 is for a brittle material such as cast iron.
Curve 2 is for a mild steel. Note the dip in the curve after C. This double yield is
unique to the lower carbon steels.
Curve 3 is for a material such as aluminium.
Curve 4 is for a material such as brass.
The significant points on the curves are marked by letters:
O A over this portion of the curve load is directly proportional to the extension
produced, and the material behaves elastically.
A marks the limit of proportionality.
B marks the limit of elastic behaviour.
O B is the elastic range.
C marks the point at which some materials, notably mild steel, start to yield, ie
extend appreciably without any increase in load, which results in the
component having a permanent extension "set". Beyond this point, a small
increase of load produces a large increase in extension.
D marks maximum or ultimate load the component can carry and after which
considerable local extension takes place.
E marks the point at which fracture takes place.
B E is the plastic range.
A similar range of curves can be produced when materials are tested in shear,
usually by twisting. The measured quantities are twisting moment and angle of twist.
Typical curves are shown in Figure 2, the salient points being the same as those for
a tensile test.
Figure 2

The designer when determining the dimensions for the various parts of the structure
will not want the material deformed to a level that causes the stress levels to go
beyond point "A", the limit of proportionality on the load extension graph of the
material. To go past this limit is to set the material on the path to destruction as the
material is in the zone of permanent plastic deformation and no elastic recovery is
possible. To ensure that this does not happen the designer makes use of a factor of
safety. The proper application of factors of safety should ensure that the dimensions
of the component parts are such that the stress levels are always below that of the
limit of proportionality.
The factor of safety is often used in the following way to determine the safe working
stress for the design.
Ultimate stress
Safe Working Sress =
Factor of Safety
The designer can estimate the factor of safety by applying the multiple of the
following factors:
1 The ratio between tensile strength and elastic limit for the material used;
generally this value is about 2.
2 The type of loading:
a static loading 1
b live loading 2
c fluctuating loading, giving alternate tensile and compressive stresses 3
3 The system of loading
a gradually applied load 1
b suddenly applied loading 2
c shock loading 3
4 Miscellaneous allowance ie chance of unintentional overload, use of imperfect

material, etc, this factor may vary between 1 and 10.
Example 1
Determine the FOS to be used for a steel clamping bolt where the load is static, but
could be suddenly applied and standard specification material is to be used.
FOS = 2 1 2 1.5 = 6

Example 2
Determine the FOS for a cast iron wheel rim. The load will be static and gradually
applied but the chance of unintentional overload is very high.
FOS = 2 1 1 10 = 20
The FOS must never be low enough to allow the working stress to exceed the limit of
proportionality stress.
Type of Stress
Material
Constant Varying Alternating Shock
Cast iron 4 6 10 15
Mild steel 4 6 8 12
Cast steel 5 6 8 15
Soft alloy 5 6 8 12
Timber 6 10 14 20
Table 1 Approximate Values of Factors of Safety for Different Types of Stress

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIVETED AND WELDED JOINTS
Rivets can be arranged in several different ways, depending upon the stresses taken
by the joint under working conditions. Single, double and treble riveting are the most
common patterns. The pattern or type of riveting refers to the number of rows of
rivets counted from the joint of one plate. In a single lap joint there is one row, in a
single-riveted butt joint there are two rows, one in each plate. A double-riveted butt
joint has four rows, two in each plate. A treble-riveted butt joint has six rows, three in
each plate. See figure 1.
Figure 1
The next diagram (see Figure 2) shows how rivets are used in structural assemblies,
and it will be noted how use is made of rolled steel joists and channel and angle
sections.

Figure 2

The riveting operation can be performed hot or cold. With the use of new riveting
tools the cold method is often used, offering speed and efficiency.
A common method of forming the head on a rivet is by peening. The rivet material is
swaged outwards and downwards into contact with the sides of the hole in which the
rivet is to be assembled. The remainder of the material is swaged into the head
form.
A selection of dimensional terms applied to riveting is as follows as already

mentioned, either lap or butt joints are generally used in riveted joint design. The
gauge line is the centreline through a row of rivets drawn parallel to the joint edge of
the plates. The distance from the edge of the plate to the first gauge line is termed
the edge distance. Pitch is the distance between rivets. Transverse pitch is the
distance between gauge lines.
In order to obtain a correct balance of strength, the material for the rivet should be of
about the same strength as the material to be riveted. The correct choice of rivet
pitch will help to avoid the tearing of the plate between the rivets. As a general
guide, the minimum spacing of rivets is three times the rivet diameter. Enough space
must be left between rivets to allow head-forming operations. However, if the pitch is
too large, buckling of the metal between the rivets may occur. In order to prevent the
shearing, buckling or tearing of the plate between the rivet hole and the edge of the
plate, the edge distance should be a minimum of 1 times the diameter of the hole.
The hole size for a rivet should be as small as possible and yet large enough to
provide speedy insertion of the specified rivet. If the hole is too large, the plates may
bulge or separate and the rivets may bend or become loose because they cannot
expand sufficiently during the riveting operation to fill the hole.
It is advisable to choose a rivet length slightly over-length rather than too short.
There are recommended lengths for the various types of head and also clearances
between hole and rivet. The diameter of the rivet should always be larger than the
thickest plate. However, the rivet should not be larger in diameter than three times
the thickness of the thinnest plate. It must be remembered that a riveted joint cannot
be as strong as a solid sheet or plate.
Fusion Welding by Oxy-acetylene Heat Source
When oxygen and acetylene are mixed together and burned they produce a
temperature of 3500C. Special torches are used to burn the mixture, in order that
the correct ratio between the two gases can be achieved. A flame with equal
volumes of gas is the most widely used. The set-up is illustrated (see Figure 3).
The hand-torch flame is applied to the joint in order to melt the edges of the parent
metal. At the same time a metal filler rod is held in the other hand and applied to the
welding zone. The result is that the end of the filler rod melts into the molten pool.
The flame and rod are advanced along the joint, and the required size of weld is built-
up between the metal parts which are to be joined. Butt joints require the edges of
the plate to be prepared before welding and, in every case, all edges should be
clean. There are various types of filler rods available. For example, mild steel rods
are used when welding mild steel fabrications, whereas cast iron is best welded
using a bronze filler rod and a special flux.

Figure 3 Oxy-acetylene process
Fusion Welding by Metal Arc (Electric Arc Welding)
With this method an electrical circuit is completed when the electrode makes close
contact with the work. A low-voltage high current arc, struck between a metal
electrode (coated with flux) and the materials to be joined, produces a heating at
each end of the arc. The end of the welding rod is thus melted together with the
metals to be joined. The temperature is greater than that produced by the
oxyacetylene flame, and protection from oxidation is afforded by the gas shield
produced by the flux coating on the electrode. The flux forms a molten surface over
the weldpool, and becomes brittle enough to chip away after solidifying. Different
electrode diameters and different currents are used to suit the differing metal
thickness. This method of fusion welding is widely used in industry, because it has
the advantages of low capital and running costs. The set-up is illustrated (see Figure
4).
Figure 4
Electrical arc
welding
Fusion Welding with Gas Shield
1 Tungsten Inert Gas (UG), Argon Arc
With this method an arc is struck between a non-consumable tungsten

electrode, and an external metal rod filler is used. The protection from
contamination, that is, from reaction with atmospheric oxygen, is provided by a
flow of argon. Welds of high quality are obtained.
2 Inert Gas-shielded Metal Arc (MIG), Sigma
With this method a consumable metal electrode is used, without the use of an
external filler rod. With the welding of mild steel by this method, contamination
protection can be provided by using carbon dioxide gas, thus reducing costs.

Resistance Welding
Metals vary in their ability to carry an electric current; steel, for example, offers a
considerable resistance to the passage of an electric current. The production of
domestic appliances and motor car bodies requires a fast, highly productive low-cost
welding method, and resistance welding is widely used. The diagram (see Figure 5)
shows the application of resistance welding.
Figure 5 Resistance welding
The high current is offered small resistance by the copper electrodes, but meets a
large resistance at the interface of the joint. The result is the rapid beating of the joint
at the interface of the two metal sheets, with fusion taking place under pressure. A
spot weld is the result of the process and can be likened to a rivet. Because air is
squeezed out of the contact area, no flux is necessary.
Welding techniques have made great advances during recent years, aiding the mass
production requirements of various industries. Production of welded joints by solid-
phase welding, using friction/pressure, explosive impact and ultrasonic methods, is
now occurring in industry. The success of the components produced in the welding
shop still depends to a large extent on the careful preparation and execution of the
necessary drawings, with the relevant welding symbols.
Fabrication Design Considerations
The engineering designer who decides to fabricate by welding will have to consider
factors other than the basic joining of components. There are, for example, the
location of components in relation to each other, and the transmission of forces due
to the working conditions of the assembly. In terms of load-carrying capacity, the
general layout and the shape and size of welds, together with the properties of parent
and weld metal, will all influence the design. From this it follows that the method of
producing the welds, the quality of workmanship together with possible distortions
and for internal stresses during cooling are further considerations for the designer.
Consider the diagrams outlining the options open to a designer when using welded
construction (see Figures 6 to 9). The first two diagrams show a flanged section, one
of bent form, other of standard angle section, used as a stiffener on a plate
component. Such an arrangement would be necessary for a or riveted stiffener and,
at first glance, one could keep such sections when using a welded construction (see
Figures 6 and 7).

Figure 6
Figure 7
If the maximum stillness is required, then the angle section can be inverted and, in so
doing, the flange is moved away from the neutral axis (see Figure 8). However, the
designer could choose the following method, saving material and/or labour by
disposing with the fanged angle section (see Figure 9). To make full use of the
scope of welded fabrications, the dimensions and shapes of components must be
considered carefully.
Figure 8
Figure 9
The casting process has limitations, particularly with regard to varying wall thickness
and closed box sections, but this is rarely the case with welded fabrications. It is
possible, and it should always be one of the main considerations of the designer, to
achieve a welded structure of low weight value. It may well be that a welded
structure is less heavy than a steel or iron casting when completed, but the cost of
plate actually used to achieve a low weight is of great economic importance. A plate
layout drawing to afford minimum scrap material should be produced (see Figure 10).

Figure 10
In the casting process, inspection holes, lightening holes, gusset and rib shapes are
all automatically achieved. The choice of a welded fabrication entails flame-cutting or
shearing of plates to provide these features. Therefore, it is possible, from the cost
point of view, that the material used in fabrication is not reduced. Again, it is not
always a practical proposition to design a structure without avoiding complicated
features.
There are many instances where bosses are required to be welded to members, to
accommodate bushes or bearings which, in turn, will support shafts. Although Figure
11 names the cheapest and most expensive methods with regard to preparation, it is
the accuracy of location and load-carrying capacity which are of prime importance.
Welding methods can only be applied efficiently if the workforce involved follows
exactly the drawing issued to them. The engineering drawing is the specification
which dictates the fabrication process, and it must contain all the information needed
for correct manufacture.
Figure 11

The following information must be provided, along with that shown in Figure 12:
plate and edge preparation

size and type of welds
welding sequences
assembly procedure
heat treatment
inspection instructions.
Figure 12
To emphasise the point, the plate layout ensures minimum plate requirements and
provides economy of cutting. The size and type of weld should be to British Standard
specification. It may be that only one sequence will ensure correct assembly of
component that distortion may occur during assembly, hence the need, in certain
cases, to provide assembly procedures and welding sequences. If stress-relieving is
required, then the heat treatment must be stated on the drawing.
As with all engineering design decisions, the design approach is all important. There
is, of course, nothing to prevent the designer incorporating a steel casting into a
fabricated structure. It is all a matter of the judgement of the designer who may find
that labour costs can be reduced by using additional material. The technical
requirements of a design will affect design decisions, but the simplicity of fabricated
design features influence the material consumption and, equally important, the labour
costs.
The use of standard sections is of prime importance, and there is a large variety of
shapes and thickness available. Corrugated panels, flats, rounds and rolled steel

sections are typical (see Figure 13). Consideration must also be given to the
available shearing guillotine capacity, which is less costly than flame-cutting or
machining. Remember that the more complicated the structure the more chance
there is of excess scrap or offcut material.
Figure 13
A Few Design Hints
The accompanying diagram (see Figure 14) shows a stiffener fitting into a trough
section. Note the clearance on the stiffener for the bend in the right-hand corner, and
the clearance on the left-hand side to allow a continuous weld along the inside of the
trough for the vertical member.
Figure 14
In certain assemblies a slight deviation from, for instance, the standard butt-weld
specification can help assembly problems by allowing the vertical member to rest on
the horizontal member. Again, a horizontal member is shown resting on a vertical
plate, easing assembly problems, though consideration must be given to the size of
fillet weld required (see Figure 15).

Figure 15
Finally, while a fabrication must be designed to meet service conditions, the

problems of ease of fabrication and accessibility of welds may mean the use of a
series of sub-assemblies. Such a decision may not only aid production of the
complete fabrication, but can facilitate easier transportation and easier site erection.

WELDING TERMS AND SYMBOLS
COMMON WELDING SYMBOLS
Type of weld Sectional representation Symbol
Fillet
Square butt
Single-V butt
Double-V butt
Single-U butt
Double-U butt

COMMON WELDING SYMBOLS (continued)
Single-bevel butt
Double-bevel butt
Single-J butt
Double-J butt
Full penetration butt weld by a welding procedure to be

agreed

Stud
Edge
Seal
Sealing run
Backing strip
Spot
Seam

Mash seam
Stitch
Mash stitch
Projection
Flash
Butt (resistance or
pressure welding)

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ARROW AND POSITION OF WELD SYMBOL
Sketch of Weld Symbolic Representation

EXAMPLES SHOWING ADDITION OF SIZE OF WELD TO THE WELD SYMBOL

EXAMPLES SHOWING USE OF SYMBOLS TO INDICATE COMPOUND WELDS
Sectional
Note: The size of the fillet weld is not stated unless it differs from that
dictated by the edge preparation of the main joint.
Compound weld (fillet superimposed on single-bevel butt weld)
Compound weld (fillet superimposed on single-bevel butt weld)

with fillet weld on root side)
EXAMPLE SHOWING USE OF SYMBOLS FOR WELD ALL ROUND AND WELD
ON SITE

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ARROW
Joint A: W = Arrow side; X = Other side; weld on other side.

Joint B: W = Other side; X = Arrow side; weld on arrow side.
Fig 1 T-joint with one fillet weld
W = Other side of joint A

X = Arrow side of joint A
Y = Arrow side of joint B
Z = Other side of joint B
Arrow 1 has no relation to Arrow 2 as

they refer to different joints.
Fig 2 Cruciform joint with two fillet welds
W = Other side of joint B

X = Arrow side of joint A
Y = Arrow side of joint B
Z = Other side of joint A
Arrow 1 has no relation to Arrow 2 as

they refer to different joints.
Fig 3 Cruciform joint with two fillet welds
Note 1: Compare Figs 2 and 3 and note the effect resulting from the change in the
position of the parts joined.
Note 2: The position of the arrow in these sketches is chosen for purposes of clarity.
Normally it would be placed immediately adjacent to the joint.

Weld Costing

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Weld Costing

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ENGINEERING

Welder Welding with Protective Clothing Getty Images

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 1 of 62

In one sense these are all aspects of welding economics.

Consider first the fixed costs in a welding operation

Consumables used Consumables cost rate = Consumable cost

To this must be added the labour and the overhead charges:

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 3 of 62

In manual metal arc welding, deposition rate is proportional to the current.

How reproducible is the welders judgement of travel speed?

How accurately can fit-up and weld size be controlled?

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 4 of 62

a deep penetration process can reduce the cost of edge preparation

an apparently more expensive process which none-the-less welds fast may be

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 5 of 62

PRICE = COST + PROFIT

Paid time = Arc time + Ancillary time + Free time

Two duty cycles can be identified.

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 6 of 62

To this must be added the labour and the overhead charges:

Note from this example that:

fixed costs are relatively small (13%)

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 7 of 62

It is important to recognise the three elements that make up a welders time:

time spent actually welding, ie arc time

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 8 of 62

Cost Factors in Material and Fabrication Selection

Strength Melting point Weldability Cost and

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 9 of 62

Essential Factors in Preparing a Quote

1 All drawings should first of all be studied closely, especially specified

Types of section, storage, availability. Checks of material specification, size

This is a very important consideration as it can affect the choice of processes.

4 Preparation by cutting and machining

These preparations will be governed by available welding equipment but in any

Thermal vee preparations are quicker to produce than machined Us or Js and,

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 10 of 62

Process Electrode wastage Consumables/100 lb deposited

Rutile manual electrode 7 70-80 12 32-42 68-58 145-170

Basic manual electrode 8 72 12 40 60 160-170

Iron powder electrode (160% recovery) 7 80 12 32 68 145-155

Mig (dip transfer) 4 93 2 9 91 110 6-1 5

Mig (spray transfer) 3 95 2 7 93 108 2.5-4

Mig (pulsed arc) 2 97 2 5 95 105 3-16

Flux-cored electrodes 5 85 2 17 83 120 2.5-5.5

Open arc (Fusarc) 7 80 1 21 79 126

Open arc (Fusarc CO2) 6 83 1 18 82 122 1.5-7

Submerged-arc (bare wires) 1 99 1 2 98 102 85-100

Submerged-arc (Fusemelt) 5 85 1 16 84 119 172

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 11 of 62

In addition it may be shown by calculation that, if a specified single vee close

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 12 of 62

Fig 4 Effect of weld size on volume and cost

5 Handling and arcing time

Time the arc is depositing metal (arc time) %

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 13 of 62

7 Inspection and heat treatment

John Murray, Cost Welding, 25 October 2007 Page 14 of 62

1 PLATE FOR WELDING AND DESIGN

Productivity determines profit, and there are many ways to increase

In any review of fabrication methods with a view to increasing productivity there

We look at plate for welding and some fundamental factors to be considered in

When planning plate cutting the outline of parts should be arranged so as to

Figure 1 - Nesting of shapes for