Anglo-Norman language

Anglo-Norman, also known as Anglo-Norman French, Dieu et mon droit was rst used by Richard I in 1198
is a variety of the langues d'ol that was used in England and adopted as the royal motto of England in the time
and, to a lesser extent, elsewhere in the British Isles during of Henry VI. The motto appears below the shield of the
the Anglo-Norman period.[2] Royal Coat of Arms.
When William the Conqueror led the Norman invasion
of England in 1066, he, his nobles, and many of his fol-
lowers from Normandy, but also those from northern and 1 Use and development
western France, spoke a range of Ol dialects (Northern
French dialects). One of these was Norman. Other fol-
The literature of the Anglo-Norman period forms the ref-
lowers spoke varieties of the Picard language or western
erence point for subsequent literature in the Norman lan-
French. This amalgam developed into the unique insular
guage, especially in the 19th century Norman literary re-
dialect now known as Anglo-Norman French, which was
vival and even into the 20th century in the case of An-
commonly used for literary and eventually administrative
dr Duponts pope cotentine. The languages and litera-
purposes from the 12th until the 15th century. It is dif-
tures of the Channel Islands are sometimes referred to as
cult to know much about what was actually spoken, as
Anglo-Norman, but that usage, derived from the French
what is known about the dialect is restricted to what was
les anglo-normandes, is wrong: the Channel Islanders
written, but it is clear that Anglo-Norman, was to a large
spoke and still speak a variety of Norman, not Anglo-
extent, the spoken language of the higher social strata in
Norman.
medieval England.
Anglo-Norman was never the main administrative lan-
It was spoken in the law courts, schools, and universities
guage of England: Latin was the major language of
and, in due course, in at least some sections of the gen-
record in legal and other ocial documents for most of
try and the growing bourgeoisie. Private and commer-
the medieval period. However, from the late 12th cen-
cial correspondence was carried out in Anglo-Norman or
tury to the early 15th century, Anglo-Norman French and
Anglo-French from the 13th to the 15th century though
Anglo-French were much used in law reports, charters,
its spelling forms were often displaced by continental
ordinances, ocial correspondence, and trade at all lev-
spellings. Social classes other than the nobility became
els; they were the language of the King, his court and the
keen to learn French: manuscripts containing materi-
upper class. There is evidence, too, that foreign words
als for instructing non-native speakers still exist, dating
(Latin, Greek, Italian, Arabic, Spanish) often entered En-
mostly from the late 14th century onwards.
glish via Anglo-Norman.
Although Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French were even-
The language of later documents adopted some of the
tually eclipsed by modern English, they had been used
changes ongoing in continental French and lost many of
widely enough to inuence English vocabulary perma-
its original dialectal characteristics, so Anglo-French re-
nently. Thus, many original Germanic words, cognates of
mained (in at least some respects and at least at some
which can still be found in Nordic, German and Dutch,
social levels) part of the dialect continuum of modern
have been lost or, as more often occurs, they exist along-
French, often with distinctive spellings. Over time, the
side synonyms of Anglo-Norman French origin. Gram-
use of Anglo-French expanded into the elds of law, ad-
matically, Anglo-Norman had little lasting impact on En-
ministration, commerce, and science, in all of which a
glish although it is still evident in ocial and legal terms
rich documentary legacy survives, indicative of the vital-
where the ordinary sequence of noun and adjective is re-
ity and importance of the language.
versed, for example attorney general: the spelling is En-
glish but the word order (noun then adjective) is French.By the late 15th century, however, what remained of in-
Other such examples are heir apparent, court martial, andsular French had become heavily anglicised: see Law
body politic.[3] French. It continued to be known as Norman French
until the end of the 19th century even though, philologi-
The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom still fea-
cally, there was nothing Norman about it.[4]
tures in French the mottos of both the British Monarch,
Dieu et mon droit (God and my right) and the Order of One notable survival of inuence on the political sys-
the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense (Shamed be he who tem is the use of certain Anglo-French set phrases in
thinks evil of it). the Parliament of the United Kingdom for some en-
dorsements to bills and the granting of Royal Assent to

1
2 2 TRILINGUALISM IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND

legislation.[5][6] These set phrases include: probably owes something to this history of bilingualism
in writing.
Soit baille aux Communes (Let it be sent to the Around the same time, as a shift took place in France to-
Commons, on a bill sent by the House of Lords to wards using Parisian French as a language of record in the
the House of Commons) mid-13th century, Anglo-Norman French also became
a language of record in England though Latin retained
A ceste Bille (avecque une amendement/avecque des
its pre-eminence for matters of permanent record. From
amendemens) les Communes sont assentus (To this
around this point onwards, considerable variation begins
Bill (with an amendment/with amendments) the
to be apparent in Anglo-French, which ranges from the
Commons have assented, on a bill passed by the
very local (and most anglicized) to a level of language
House of Commons and returned to the House of
which approximates to and is sometimes indistinguish-
Lords)
able from varieties of continental French. Thus, typically,
A cette amendement/ces amendemens les Seigneurs local records are rather dierent from continental French,
sont assentus (To this amendment/these amend- with diplomatic and international trade documents clos-
[7]
ments the Lords have assented, on an amended bill est to the emerging continental norm. English remained
returned by the House of Commons to the House of the vernacular of the common people throughout this pe-
Lords, where the amendments were accepted) riod.

Ceste Bille est remise aux Communes avecque une

Raison/des Raisons (This Bill is returned to the 2.1 Language of the king and his court
Commons with a reason/with reasons, when the
House of Lords disagrees with amendments made
French was the language of the king and his court until the
by the House of Commons)
end of the 14th century. During this period, marriages
Le Roy/La Reyne le veult (The King/Queen wills it, with French princesses reinforced the French status in the
Royal Assent for a public bill) royal family. Nevertheless, during the 13th century, in-
termarriages with English people became more frequent.
Le Roy/La Reyne remercie ses bons sujets, accepte French became progressively a second language among
leur benevolence et ainsi le veult (The King/Queen the upper classes. Moreover, with the Hundred Years
thanks his/her good subjects, accepts their bounty, War and the growing spirit of English nationalism, the
and wills it so, Royal Assent for a supply bill) status of French diminished.
Soit fait comme il est dsir (Let it be done as it is French was the mother tongue of the English king un-
desired, Royal Assent for a private bill) til Henry IV (13991413). He was the rst to take the
oath in English, and his son, Henry V (14131422), was
Le Roy/La Reyne savisera (The King/Queen will the rst to write in English. By the end of the 15th cen-
consider it, if Royal Assent is withheld) tury, French became the second language of a cultivated
elite.[8]
The exact spelling of these phrases has varied over the
years; for example, savisera has been spelled as suvisera
and sadvisera, and Reyne as Raine. 2.2 Language of the royal charters and leg-
Among important writers of the Anglo-Norman cultural islation
commonwealth is Marie de France.
From the conquest (1066) until the end of the 13th cen-
tury, Latin was the language of all ocial written docu-
2 Trilingualism in Medieval Eng- ments, and Norman French was almost exclusively used
as a spoken language. Nevertheless, some important doc-
land uments had their ocial Norman translation, such as the
Magna Carta signed in 1215. The rst ocial document
Much of the earliest recorded French is in fact Anglo- written in Anglo-Norman was a statute promulgated by
Norman French. In Northern France, almost nothing the king in 1275. Thus, from the 13th century, Anglo-
was at that time being recorded in the vernacular because Norman became used in ocial documents, such as those
Latin was the language of the nobility, education, and the that were marked by the private seal of the king whereas
Roman Catholic Church, and was thus used for the pur- the documents sealed by the Lord Chancellor were writ-
pose of records. Latin did not disappear in medieval Eng- ten in Latin until the end of the Middle Ages. English
land either: it was used by the Church, the royal govern- became the language of Parliament and of legislation in
ment and much local administration, as it had been be- the 15th century, half a century after it had become the
fore 1066, in parallel with Anglo-Saxon. The early adop- language of the king and of most of the English upper
tion of Anglo-Norman as a written and literary language classes.[8]
 3

2.3 Language of administration and jus- eventually become Parisian French in terms of grammar,
tice pronunciation and vocabulary. Before the signature of
the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterts in 1539 and long af-
During the 12th century, development of the admin- terward in practice, French was not standardised as an of-
istrative and judicial institutions took place. Because cial administrative language of the kingdom of France.
the king and the lawyers at the time normally used Middle English was heavily inuenced by Anglo-Norman
Norman French, it also became the language of these and, later, Anglo-French. W. Rothwell has called Anglo-
institutions.[8] French 'the missing link' because many etymological
dictionaries seem to ignore the contribution of that lan-
2.3.1 In the royal and local courts guage in English and because Anglo-Norman and Anglo-
French can explain the transmission of words from
From the 12th century until the 15th century, the courts French into English and ll the void left by the absence
used three languages. Latin was used for writing, Nor- of documentary records [10]
of English (in the main) between
man French was the main oral language during trials, and 1066 and c. 1380.
English was used in less formal exchanges between the Anglo-Norman morphology and pronunciation can be de-
judge, the lawyer, the complainant or the witnesses. The duced from its heritage in English. Mostly, it is done in
judge gave his sentence orally in Norman, which was then comparison with continental Central French. English has
written in Latin. Only in the lowest level of the manorial many doublets as a result of this contrast:
courts were trials entirely in English.
During the 15th century, English became the main spo- warranty - guarantee
ken language, but Latin and French continued to be ex-
warden - guardian
clusively used in ocial legal documents until the begin-
ning of the 18th century. Nevertheless, the Norman lan- catch - chase (see below)
guage used in England changed from the end of the 15th
century into Law French. This variety of French was a Compare also:
technical language, with a specic vocabulary, where En-
glish words were used to describe everyday experience,
wage (Anglo-Norman) - gage (French)
and French grammatical rules and morphology gradually
declined, with confusion of genders and the adding of s wait - guetter (French, Old French guaitier)
to form all plurals. Law French was banished from the
courts of the common law in 1731, almost three centuries war (from Anglo-Norman werre) - guerre (French)
after the king ceased speaking primarily French.
wicket (Anglo-Norman) - guichet (French, from
Norman)
2.4 Language of the people
The palatalization of velar consonants before the front
Though the great mass of ordinary people spoke Middle vowel produced dierent results in Norman to the cen-
English, French, because of its prestigious status, spread tral langue d'ol dialects that developed into French. En-
as a second language, encouraged by its long-standing glish therefore, for example, has fashion from Norman
use in the school system as a medium of instruction fchoun as opposed to Modern French faon (both de-
through which Latin was taught. In the courts, the mem- veloping from Latin factio, factinem).
bers of the jury, who represented the population, had The palatalization of velar consonants before /a/ that af-
to know French in order to understand the plea of the fected the development of French did not occur in Nor-
lawyer. French was used by the merchant middle class as man dialects north of the Joret line. English has therefore
a language of business communication, especially when inherited words that retain a velar plosive where French
it traded with the continent, and several churches used has a fricative:
French to communicate with lay people.[8] A small but
important number of documents survive associated with Other words such as captain, kennel and canvas exemplify
the Jews of medieval England, some featuring Anglo- how Norman retained a /k/ sound from Latin that was not
Norman written in Hebrew script, typically in the form retained in French.
of glosses to the Hebrew scriptures.[9] However, Anglo-Norman also acted as a conduit for
French words to enter England; for example, challenge
clearly displays a form of French origin, rather than the
3 Characteristics Norman calenge.
There were also vowel dierences: compare Anglo-
As a langue d'ol, Anglo-Norman developed collater- Norman profound with Parisian French profond, soun
ally to the central Gallo-Romance dialects which would 'sound' with son, round with rond. The former
4 5 INFLUENCE OF ANGLO-NORMAN FRENCH ON ENGLISH

words were originally pronounced something like 'pro- re, referring to the time in the evening when all res had
foond', 'soond', 'roond' respectively (compare the simi- to be covered. The word glamour is derived, unglam-
larly denasalised vowels of modern Norman), but later orously, from Anglo-Norman grammeire, the same word
developed their modern pronunciation in English. which gives us modern grammar; glamour meant rst
Since many words established in Anglo-Norman from book learning and then the most glamorous form of book
French via the intermediary of Norman were not subject learning, magic or magic spell in Medieval times.
to the processes of sound change that continued in parts The inuence of Anglo-Norman was very asymmetric:
of the continent, English sometimes preserves earlier pro- very little inuence from English was carried over into
nunciations. For example, 'ch' used to be /t/ in Medieval the continental possessions of the Anglo-Norman kings.
French; Modern French has //, but English has preserved Some administrative terms survived in some parts of
the older sound (in words like chamber, chain, chase and mainland Normandy: forlenc (from furrow, compare
exchequer). furlong) in the Cotentin Peninsula and Bessin, and a gen-
Similarly, 'j' had an older /d/ sound, which it still has in eral use of the word acre for land measurement in Nor-
English and some dialects of modern Norman, but it has mandy until metrication in the 19th century, but these
developed into // in Modern French. words are probably linguistic traces of Saxon or Anglo-
Scandinavian settlements between the 4th and the 10th
The word veil retains the /ei/ (as does modern Norman in centuries in Normandy. Otherwise the direct inuence of
vaile and lasi) that in French has been replaced by /w/ English in mainland Norman (such as smogler - to smug-
voile, loisir. gle) is from direct contact in later centuries with English,
The word mushroom preserves a hush sibilant in rather than Anglo-Norman.
mousseron not recorded in French orthography, as does
cushion for coussin. Conversely, the pronunciation of the
word sugar resembles Norman chucre even if the spelling
is closer to French sucre. It is possible that the original
4 Literature
sound was an apical sibilant, like the Basque s, which is
halfway between a hissing sibilant and a hushing sibilant. See also: Anglo-Norman literature
The doublets catch and chase, both derived from Low
Latin *captiare. Catch demonstrate a Norman develop- When the Normans invaded England, Anglo-Saxon liter-
ment while chase is the French equivalent imported with ature had reached a very high level of development. The
a dierent meaning. important Benedictine monasteries both wrote chroni-
cles and guarded other works in Old English. However,
Distinctions in meaning between Anglo-Norman and
with the arrival of the Norman, Anglo-Saxon literature
French have led to many faux amis (words having sim-
came to an end and literature written in Britain was in
ilar form but dierent meanings) in Modern English and
Latin or Anglo-Norman. The Plantagenet kings encour-
Modern French.
aged this Anglo-Norman literature. Nevertheless, from
Since although a Romance language, Norman contains a the beginning of the 14th century, some authors chose to
signicant amount of lexical material from Norse, some write in English, but it is only during the late 14th cen-
of the words introduced into England as part of Anglo- tury that English literature was at its best, with Georey
Norman were of Germanic origin. Indeed, sometimes Chaucer. The authors of that period were inuenced by
one can identify cognates such as ock (Germanic in En- the works of contemporary French writers whose lan-
glish existing prior to the Conquest) and loquet (Ger- guage was prestigious. Chaucer is considered to be the
manic in Norman). The case of the word mug demon- father of the English language and the creator of English
strates that in instances, Anglo-Norman may have rein- as a literary language.[8]
forced certain Scandinavian elements already present in
English. Mug had been introduced into northern English
dialects by Viking settlement. The same word had been
established in Normandy by the Normans (Norsemen) 5 Inuence of Anglo-Norman
and was then brought over after the Conquest and estab- French on English
lished rstly in southern English dialects. It is, therefore,
argued that the word mug in English shows some of the
complicated Germanic heritage of Anglo-Norman. The major Norman-French inuence on English can still
be seen in todays vocabulary. An enormous number of
Many expressions used in English today have their ori- Norman-French words came into the language, and about
gin in Anglo-Norman (such as the expression before- three-quarters of them are still used today. Very often,
hand derives from Anglo-Norman avaunt-main), as the Norman-French word supplanted the Anglo-Saxon
do many modern words with interesting etymologies. term, or both words would co-exist but with slightly dif-
Mortgage, for example, literally meant death-wage in ferent nuances: for example, m ox (describing the ani-
Anglo-Norman. Curfew (fr. couvre-feu) meant cover- mal) and beef (describing the meat). In other cases, the
 5

the village of Brittas (from the Norman bretesche, board-

ing, planking) and the element Pallas (Irish pails, from
Norman paleis, boundary fence": cf. palisade, The

Ge

es
Pale).[12] Others exist with English or Irish roots, such as

rm

m
er om
na
an
Castletownroche, which combines the English Castletown

op Fr
ic
k
ee and the Norman Roche, meaning rock.
Gr

pr
ther Only a handful of Hiberno-Norman-French texts survive,
o wn/O
Unkn most notably the chanson de geste, The Song of Der-
mot and the Earl (early 13th century) and the Statutes of
Kilkenny (1366).[13]
tin F r
La An (in en
gl clu c
o - de h
Fr
en s
ch
) 7 See also
Anglo-Norman literature

Anglo-Norman Text Society

About 28% of English vocabulary comes from French, including Law French
Anglo-French (green).

Norman-French word was adopted to signify a new real-
ity, such as judge, castle, warranty.[8]
In general, the Norman-French borrowings concerned
the elds of culture, aristocratic life, politics and reli-
gion, and war whereas the English words were used to
describe everyday experience. When the Normans ar-
rived in England, their copyists wrote English as they
heard it, without realising the peculiarities of the relation-
ship between Anglo-Saxon pronunciation and spelling
and so the spelling changed. There appeared dierent re-
gional Modern-English written dialects, the one that the
king chose in the 15th century becoming the standard
variety.[8]
In some remote areas, agricultural terms used by the ru-
ral workers may have been derived from Norman French.
An example is the Cumbrian term sturdy for diseased
sheep that walk in circles, derived from etourdi meaning
giddy.[11]
6 Inuence of Anglo-Norman in
Ireland
The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in the late
12th century and led to Anglo-Norman control of much
of the island. Norman-speaking administrators arrived
to rule over the Angevin Empire's new territory. Sev-
eral Norman words became Irish words, including house-
hold terms: garsn (from Norman garun, boy); cta
(cote, cloak); hata (hatte, hat); gairdn (gardin, gar-
den); and terms relating to justice (Irish giists, bar-
das (corporation), cirt (court)). Place-names in Nor-
man are few, but there is Buttevant (from the motto of
the Barry family: Boutez en Avant, Push to the Fore),
8 Notes
[1] Nordho, Sebastian; Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel,
Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). Anglo-
Norman. Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology.
[2] For a wide-ranging introduction to the language and its
uses, see Anglo-French and the AND by William Roth-
well
[3] Amended version of: Crystal, David. The Cambridge En-
cyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1995.
[4] Pollock and Maitland, p. 87 note 3.
[5] Bennion, Francis. "Modern Royal Assent Procedure at
Westminister" (Word document). New Law Journal. Re-
trieved on 18 November 2007.
[6] Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Pro-
ceedings of the House of Lords. United Kingdom Parlia-
ment. Archived from the original on 21 November 2007.
Retrieved 2007-11-18.
[7] see Lusignan 2005; Trotter 2009,
[8] Lusignan, Serge. La langue des rois au Moyen ge: Le
franais en France et en Angleterre. Paris: Presses Uni-
versitaires de France, 2004.
[9] Fuderman
[10] Rothwell, W. (1991), The missing link in English ety-
mology: Anglo-French, Medium Aevum, 60, 173-96.
[11] Rollinson, William Life and Tradition in the Lake District
Dalesman 1987 p.82 ISBN 0852068859
[12]
[13]
6 10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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tact in the British Isles, Tbingen.
VAN ACKER, Marieke (2010), La transition Latin
/ langues romanes et la notion de diglossie, ZrP
126, 1-38.*VIDESOTT, Paul (2013), Les dbuts
du franais la Chancellerie royale: analyse scrip-
tologique des chartes de Philippe III (1270-1285),
RLiR 77, 3-50.
VISING, Johan (1923), Anglo Norman Language
and Literature, London.
VLKER, Harald (2000), Chartes luxembour-
geoises du XIIIe sicle: Scripta rgionale, locale ou
individuelle?, in: Actes du XXIIe Congrs Inter-
national de Linguistique et de Philologie Romanes,
Bruxelles, 2329 juillet 1998, Tbingen, Niemeyer,
2000, 5, 159-166.
WEINER, Edmund S.C. (2000), Medieval multi-
lingualism and the revision of the OED. In TROT-
TER (2000a), 169-174.
WOGAN-BROWNE, Jocelyn et al. (eds.) (2009),
Language and Culture in Medieval Britain: the
French of England c.1100-c.1500, York: York Me-
dieval Press/Boydell & Brewer.
WOLEDGE, Brian (1970), Un scribe champenois
devant un texte normand: Guiot copiste de Wace, in:
Mlanges de langue et de littrature du Moyen ge
et de la Renaissance oerts Jean Frappier, Genve,
Droz, 2, 1139-1154.
WRIGHT, Laura (1996), Sources of London En-
glish: Medieval Thames Vocabulary. Oxford.
WEST, Jakob (1979), La dialectalisation de la
Gallo-Romania. tudes phonologiques, Berne,
Francke.
WEST, Jakob (2001), Sind Schreibdialekte pho-
nologisch interpretierbar? in: Holtus/Rapp/Vlker
(2001), 37-51.
WEST, Jakob (2003), Le rapport entre la langue
parle et la langue crite: les scriptae dans le do-
maine dol et le domaine doc, in: Goyens/Verbeke
(2003), 51-70.**
11 External links
The Anglo-Norman hub contains articles and corpus
texts, and includes:
 13

The Revised Anglo-Norman Dictionary (A-

N), with the entries from the rst edition, for
O-Z freely available online.

The Anglo-Norman Text Society publishes a wide

range of works written in Anglo-Norman

The Anglo-Norman Correspondence Corpus at

Birmingham City University

Psalterium (Psalter of Queen Isabella of England)".

World Digital Library (in Anglo-Norman).
14 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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