4.

7 Konsentrasi Tegangan

In Sec. 4.1 , it was pointed out that when an axial force is applied to a
member, it creates a complex stress distribution within the localized
region of the point of load application. Not only do complex stress
distributions arise just under a concentrated loading, they can also arise
at sections where the members cross-sectional area changes. For
example, consider the bar in Fig. 420 a , which is subjected to an axial
force P . Here the once horizontal and vertical grid lines deflect into an
irregular pattern around the hole centered in the bar. The maximum
normal stress in the bar occurs on section a a , which is taken through
the bars smallest cross-sectional area. Provided the material behaves in
a linear-elastic manner, the stress distribution acting on this section can
be determined either from a mathematical analysis, using the theory of
elasticity, or experimentally by measuring the strain normal to section
a a and then calculating the stress using Hookes law, s = EP.
Regardless of the method used, the general shape of the stress
distribution will be like that shown in Fig. 420 b . In a similar manner, if
the bar has a reduction in its cross section, achieved using shoulder
fillets as in Fig. 421 a , then again the maximum normal stress in the bar
will occur at the smallest cross-sectional area, section a a , and the stress
distribution will look like that shown in Fig. 421 b .
In both of these cases, force equilibrium requires the magnitude of
the resultant force developed by the stress distribution to be equal to P .

This integral graphically represents the total volume under each of the
stress-distribution diagrams shown in Fig. 420 b or Fig. 421 b . The
resultant P must act through the centroid of each volume .
In engineering practice, the actual stress distributions in Fig. 420 b and
Fig. 421 b do not have to be determined. Instead, only the maximum stress
at these sections must be known, and the member is then designed to
resist this stress when the axial load P is applied. Specific values of this
maximum normal stress can be determined by experimental methods or
by advanced mathematical techniques using the theory of elasticity. The
results of these investigations are usually reported in graphical form using
a stress-concentration factor K . We define K as a ratio of the maximum
stress to the average normal stress acting at the cross section

Provided K is known, and the average normal stress has been calculated
from savg = P>A, where A is the smallest cross-sectional area,
then the maximum normal stress at the cross section is
smax = K(P>A).
Stress concentrations are also responsible for many failures of
structural members or mechanical elements subjected to fatigue
loadings . For these cases, a stress concentration will cause the material
to crack if the stress exceeds the materials endurance limit, whether or
not the material is ductile or brittle. Here, the material localized at the
tip of the crack remains in a brittle state , and so the crack continues to
grow, leading to a progressive fracture. As a result, one must seek ways
to limit the amount of damage that can be caused by fatigue.
4.9 Tegangan Sisa
If an axially loaded member or group of such members forms a
statically indeterminate system that can support both tensile and
compressive loads, then excessive external loadings, which cause
yielding of the material, will create residual stresses in the members
when the loads are removed. The reason for this has to do with the
elastic recovery of the material that occurs during unloading. To show
this, consider a prismatic member made from an elastoplastic material
having the stressstrain diagram shown in Fig. 427 . If an axial load
produces a stress sY in the material and a corresponding strain PC,
then when the load is removed , the material will respond elastically and
follow the line CD in order to recover some of the strain. A recovery
to zero stress at point O! will be possible only if the member is statically
determinate, since the support reactions for the member must be zero
when the load is removed. Under these circumstances the member will
be permanently deformed so that the permanent set or strain in the
member is PO!.
If the member is statically indeterminate , however, removal of the
external load will cause the support forces to respond to the elastic
recovery CD . Since these forces will constrain the member from full
recovery, they will induce residual stresses in the member. To solve a
problem of this kind, the complete cycle of loading and then unloading
of the member can be considered as the superposition of a positive load
(loading) on a negative load (unloading). The loading, O to C , results in a
plastic stress distribution, whereas the unloading, along CD , results only
in an elastic stress distribution. Superposition requires the loads to
cancel; however, the stress distributions will not cancel, and so residual
stresses will remain.