DESCARTES, R: Discourse on Method, PART I was then in Germany, where he had been

attracted by the desire to know the wars which had not yet completed. When the
army returned after witnessing the coronation of the emperor, the onset of winte
r forced me to stop at a barracks in which, not finding any conversation to dist
ract my attention and, moreover, having no worries or passions fortunately haunt
ed me, sat all day in a warm room where they enjoyed looking at my reflection. O
ne of the first was what made me ponder the fact that often there is so much per
fection in works composed of many elements and carried out by other masters such
as exists in those who have been killed by one. Thus, it is easy to see that bu
ildings constructed under way and under the direction of a single architect are
usually more beautiful and better prepared than those who have been reformed und
er the leadership of several, using them in old foundations that had been raised
to other purposes. So it is with these old cities, having been in its infancy b
ut small towns, have become big cities over time. These generally are poorly dra
wn, especially compared to those other cities that an engineer designed as dicta
ted his fantasy about a plain. For while considering each of the buildings alone
is so much beauty of art, or even more than in the cities drawn by an engineer,
however, to see how their buildings are located, a small one next to a big one,
and how their streets are uneven and curves, could be argued that the accident
was not the wish of a man governed by reason, which conducted the drawing of suc
h plans. And when you consider that officers have always existed for the care of
individual buildings, to contribute to public ornament, easily understand how d
ifficult it is, working on others made by other men, analyze perfect. Similarly,
I imagined that the people who from a wild state have gradually evolved into mo
re civilized states, developing their laws to the extent they have been forced b
y the crimes and disputes which arose between them, are not as politically organ
ized as those who from the time they have met the constitution have been observe
d by a prudent legislator. It is equally true that the government of true religi
on, whose laws have been given only by God, is incomparably better regulated tha
n any other. But just talking about human affairs, I think that if Sparta was on
ce flourishing not due to the kindness of every one of its laws, as many were tr
uly strange and even contrary to good morals, but that they were prepared by one
man, being ordered to the same end. Similarly, he considered that science expos
ed in the books, at least those whose reasons alone are likely and that lack of
shows, having been composed and gradually thickened with the views of many diffe
rent people, are not so close to the truth as the simple reason that a man of go
od sense can naturally make in relation to those things that occur. And I also t
hought that it is almost impossible that our judgments can be so devoid of preju
dice or likely to be as solid as they would have been if we had from birth been
in possession of full use of our
reason and we had guided exclusively by it, because as we are all children befor
e they become men, it has been necessary for years we were ruled by our desires
and preceptors, when some were often contrary to the other and probably neither
the one nor the other advised us the best. Truth is that we never see that shot
down all the houses in a village with the sole purpose of reconstructing differe
ntly and contribute to greater improvement of its streets, but if it is known th
at many people order the demolition of their houses built of new and is also kno
wn that sometimes are forced to do so when their houses threaten ruin as their f
oundations are not firm. For similarity with that persuaded me that it would be
unreasonable for someone planned reform a state, changing everything from the gr
ound up, and slaughtered for reorder, so with all the sciences or to the order e
stablished schools to teach them. But in relation to all those opinions which ha
d hitherto been believed by me€judged that it could not try something better th
an honestly engage removing them either to move to better ones or believe the sa
me, but after they had been adjusted by the level of reason. I came to believe s
trongly that in this way would be correct to run my life much better than if I j
ust build on old foundations, and I rely only on those principles that had left
me in my youth to persuade without having come to examine whether they were true
. Although I am aware of the existence of various difficulties related to this
project, I thought, however, were not insoluble or comparable to those that aris
e when trying to reform small public affairs. These large political bodies can h
ardly be erected again after they have fallen, can hardly be contained when they
arrived to crack and falls are necessarily violent. In addition, in connection
with its imperfections, if any, as the only diversity that exists between them i
s quite sufficient to ensure that they do, are of course highly mitigated by the
use, indeed, by this means have been avoided or gradually corrected many to not
be met so as effectively by human prudence. Finally, these imperfections are al
most always more bearable for a people accustomed to them what would be their ch
ange; happens with this as with the highway: meandering between the mountains an
d gradually become so smooth and be as comfortable to use force that is far bett
er to travel by them trying to follow the straightest path, rock climbing and go
ing down to the cliffs. It is therefore not in any way approve of these light an
d restless characters who never cease to constantly devise some new reform when
they have not been called to the administration of public affairs not by birth o
r by their social position. And if he thought there was the slightest reason in
this paper for which I could assume in favor of this madness, I would be very an
gry because he had been released. My desire has never gone beyond the attempt to
reform my own opinions and to build on a foundation entirely personal. And if m
y work has come to please me enough, to give here an example of it, do not prete
nd to advise anyone to copy. Those whom God has honored their gifts may be highe
r projects, but I fear, however, that this is too bold for many. The decision to
get rid of all opinions previously integrated within our belief, is not a task
that must be undertaken by each man. On the contrary, the world seems to be comp
osed mainly of two types of people for whom that purpose is not appropriate in a
ny way. On the one hand, those who estimated more capable than they really are,
can not prevent the precipitation in their judgments they can no longer be grant
ed the necessary time
to drive his thoughts. As a result of this defect, if they have once taken the l
iberty to doubt the principles which have been departing from the common path, t
hey will never find the path needed to advance straight, staying in the lifetime
error. On the other hand there are those who, having the sufficient reason or m
odesty, to find that they are less able to distinguish the true from the false t
han other men who can be trained, must rather be content to follow the views of
those who try to achieve by themselves better ones. No doubt it was one of the l
atter if he had not known more than a single teacher or had not been informed of
the differences that have always existed between the opinions of the most learn
ed. But having known since college that I could not imagine anything so strange
and difficult to understand who has not been said by any of the philosophers, ha
ving been informed by my travels to all those whose sentiments are very contrary
to ours, they should not be judged as barbarians or savages, but many of them u
se reason as well or better than us, having reflected on how different it would
become a man with the same ingenuity was brought from his childhood in French or
German instead of have been among the Chinese or cannibals, and especially how
even in the fashions of our clothes we see that what we like maybe ten years ago
and make nice again another ten, can, however, seem ridiculous and extravagant
in present moment, so that more seem to be custom and example that persuade us n
ot knowing anything right;€having regard to the end that the majority of votes
is not worth at all to decide on the truth of controversial issues, then most li
kely it is that only a man discovers that the whole people could not choose any
person whose opinions I think that should be preferred over those of another and
for all that I was obliged to undertake for myself the driving task. But like a
man who walks alone in the dark, I resolved to move as slowly and to use such r
estraint in all things but very little progress, at least I would look to the be
st of fall. On the other hand, I did not start completely reject some of the vie
ws that had been slipping during another stage of my life in my beliefs without
being assimilated into the virtue of reason, until he had spent enough time to c
omplete the project undertaken and to investigate the true method to get knowled
ge of all things that my spirit was capable. He had studied a bit, being younger
, the logic of the parties of the philosophy of mathematics analysis of geometry
and algebra. Three arts or sciences should contribute something to my purpose.
But having considered, I realized that in connection with logic, its syllogisms
and most of its rules do more to explain to other matters already known, or, aga
in, as with the art of Lully, to speak without trial of those ignore that to get
to know them. And while the logic contains many real and very suitable provisio
ns must, however, mixed with those many others who are either harmful or unneces
sary, so it is very difficult to separate like taking a Diana or a Minerva from
a block of not yet worked marble. Similarly, in relation to the analysis of anci
ent or modern algebra, besides which are not very abstract but matters seem to l
ack any use, the first is so limited to the consideration of figures that can no
t exercise understanding not overstrain the imagination. The second is less subj
ect to
certain rules and figures that has become confused and obscure art capable of di
storting the ingenuity rather than a science that favors their development. All
this was the reason why he thought it was necessary to investigate other methods
, absorbing the advantages of these three, was free of defects. And as the multi
tude of laws often used to vices such that a state is best governed when there a
re no more than a few laws that are carefully observed, in the same way, instead
of the large number of precepts of which is made of logic, I felt it had enough
with the following four as long as they take a firm and constant resolution not
to break even once compliance. The first was to not accept anything as true if
it had not been known clearly as such. That is, should carefully avoid precipita
tion and prevention, admitting my judgments solely on what is presented so clear
ly and distinctly to my mind who had no reason to doubt it. The second required
to divide each one of the difficulties to consider in so many places as possible
and necessary to resolve them more easily. The third required lead my thoughts
in order starting with the simplest objects and more easily knowable to ascend s
lowly, gradually, to the knowledge of the most complex, even if an order between
those who do not naturally precede to one others. According to the last of thes
e provisions should be made counts as complete and reviews so broad that it coul
d be sure not to miss anything. The long chains for simple and easy, by means of
which geometers usually quite hit the most difficult demonstrations, had given
me the chance to imagine that all that can be subject to the knowledge of men ar
e intertwined in the same way and refraining from any real support as it is and
not always maintaining the order necessary to deduce from each other, there can
be some so remote from our knowledge that we can not finally know or so hidden t
hat we can not come to recognize . Not meant for me a great difficulty to decide
which was necessary to undertake the study: before I knew it must be because th
e simplest and most easily knowable. And whereas among those who have sought the
truth in the sciences, mathematicians have established only a few shows, that i
s, some certain and evident reasons,€no doubt that should start the same as the
y were discussed. I did not expect to achieve a unit which habituarÍan exceptin
g my wit to consider carefully the truth and not settle for false reasons. But t
herefore I did not have the desire to know all the particular sciences commonly
known as mathematics, seeing as though their objects are different, however, the
y still have in common that they do not consider anything but the various possib
le relationships and proportions that exist between them, I thought I had a grea
t interest to examine only the proportions in general and in relation to those s
ubjects that would serve to give you greater knowledge. Moreover, without in any
way to link them to better apply them to all those who saw fit. Thereafter, hav
ing noted that to analyze such proportions would ever need to consider each one
in particular and sometimes withhold or should only include several together in
my memory, he felt that to better analyze them in
particular, should assume that arose between the lines as they found nothing sim
pler or that could represent more distinction to my imagination and senses, but
to retain or consider a number together, it was necessary that would be dissemin
ated through some figures, as brief as possible. By this means the best we colle
ct is given in geometric analysis and algebra, editing, simultaneously, the shor
tcomings of one by the other procedures. And indeed, the exact observance of the
se few precepts he had chosen, I provided such a facility to resolve all issues
addressed by these two sciences, that in two or three months I spent in its cons
ideration, having started with the most simple and more general, being, at once,
every truth that was a useful rule in order to reach other truths, not only got
to complete the analysis of issues on another occasion had judged very difficul
t, but I thought, when this study concluded that such issues could determine in
what ways and how far it was possible to achieve solutions which did not. In whi
ch does not appear to be overly vain if one considers that having no more than a
true knowledge of everything, that it has known how much can be known. So a chi
ld instructed in arithmetic, having made a sum as the relevant rules can be sure
of having achieved everything that human ingenuity is capable as it relates to
the amount that he examines. For the method that teaches us to follow the true o
rder and true list of all the circumstances of what is researched, contains ever
ything which gives certainty to the rules of arithmetic. But what gave me more p
leasure to this method was that following it was safe to use in all my reason, i
f not an entirely perfect, at least as best as I could. Moreover, I realized tha
t the practice of my wits gradually accustomed himself to conceive a more clear
and distinct objects and since he had not confined to any particular field, I pr
omised to use to apply with equal difficulties of other sciences as well as he h
ad done with Algebra. This is not to say that it intends to examine all the diff
iculties that arise in the first place, because this would have been contrary to
the prescribed method. But habiéndome warned that its principles should be tak
en of philosophy, in which there was any way, thought it was necessary first of
all trying to establish. And since it was the most important thing in the world
and it was a subject in which precipitation and prevent defects were the most to
fear, I thought I should not attempt such a task until they had a maturity grea
ter than that it has twenty-three, who was my age, and until he had spent a long
time before preparing both uprooting of my mind all the bad reviews and making
a collection of experiences that should be the subject of my arguments, as exerc
ised, provided the method I had prescribed to consolidate its growing use.
PART FOUR I do not know if I should linger with the first meditations have taken
place there, they are so metaphysical and so rare, that will not be to everyone
's taste. And yet, in order to be able to comment on the soundness of the founda
tions I have established, I am
somehow compelled to refer to them. He had long warned that, in connection with
the customs,€is necessary in some cases very uncertain opinions as if they were
undeniable, as I noted above. But since he wanted to surrender only to the purs
uit of truth, he felt that it was necessary to make all the contrary and to reje
ct as absolutely false everything in which I could imagine the least doubt, in o
rder to determine whether, after doing this , would not be something in my belie
f that was wholly indubitable. Thus, given that our senses sometimes mislead us,
I decided to assume that there was anything that would make it as we imagine. A
nd since there are men who make mistakes in reasoning on matters related to the
simplest matters of geometry and acting in paralogisms, judging me, like any oth
er was subject to error, rejected as false all the reasons which had previously
admitted demonstrations. And finally, it considered that even the thoughts we ha
ve when awake can assault during sleep, but none in such a condition is true, I
resolved to pretend that everything hitherto achieved my spirit were no more tru
e than the illusions of my dreams. But immediately afterwards I noticed that, wh
ile thus wished to think that everything was false, it was absolutely necessary
that I, who believed, was something. And realizing that this truth: I think, the
refore I am, was so firm and so sure that all the extravagant suppositions of th
e skeptics were not able to shake it, I thought I could accept it without scrupl
e as the first principle of philosophy I inquired . Later, looking hard at what
I was, and seeing that he could pretend that it had no body and there was no wor
ld or any place where I found, but therefore could not pretend that I was not, b
ut on the contrary, only after I thought to doubt about the truth of other thing
s, was still very evident and certainly I was, while, if only he had ceased to t
hink, though the rest of what he had imagined been true, had no reason to believ
e that I had been, I came to know from this that was a substance whose essence o
r nature lies not only in thinking that such a substance to exist, no need of an
y place or depend on anything material. So that this self, that is, the soul, by
which I am what I am, is entirely distinct from the body, easier to learn it, a
nd though the body were not, it would still be all that is. Examine these issues
, reflecting in general on all that is required to affirm that a statement is tr
ue and certain, then, because you have to identify one that met such a condition
, thought should also know what this certainty. And having noticed that there is
nothing I think, therefore I am sure that I speak the truth, unless I see very
clearly that you must be thinking, I reasoned that he could accept the general r
ule that the things we conceive very clearly and distinctly are all true, howeve
r, there are only some difficulty in correctly identifying those which are disti
nctly conceive. Then, reflecting on that I doubted, and that consequently my bei
ng was not as clearly understood omniperfecto was a greater perfection to know t
hat the doubt, I began to inquire where he had learned to think of anything more
perfect than I was, I met with evidence that it must be under some kind that wa
s really perfect. In connection with the thoughts that possessed beings that exi
st outside of me, such as heaven, earth, light, heat and a thousand others found
no difficulty in knowing where they came from because not recorded anything in
such thoughts
ments that make me seem superior to me, he could estimate that if they were true
, were dependent on my nature, while it has some perfection, if they were not, w
ho came from nothing, that is, that was because there were defects in me. But he
could not say the same about the idea of a being more perfect than mine, since
it originated from something clearly nothing was impossible and since there is a
reluctance to lower in the more perfect it is a consequence and depending on le
ss perfect, that there where something comes from nothing, I concluded that this
idea could not come from myself. Subtracted so that only the alternative that h
ad been induced in me by a nature that really would be more perfect than it was
mine and also to take into itself all the perfections of which I could have some
idea, ie ,€to explain with a word that was God. To this he added that, since I
knew some perfections which had absolutely was not the only person who was (let
me use freely the terms of the school), but that was necessarily there must be
other more perfect and which depended which I had purchased everything he had. W
ell if there was one and independently of any other being, so that I had had for
myself what little they partook of the perfect, could have, for the same reason
, have for myself what I knew I needed and, Thus, infinite, eternal, immutable,
omniscient, omnipotent and, in short, possess all the perfections which I could
understand that they were in God. Then following the arguments just done, to kno
w the nature of God to the extent that it is possible to mine, but should consid
er all those things you found in me any idea whether or not supposed to possess
perfection, he was sure that none of those ideas that indicate there were imperf
ections, but all the others. So I realized that doubt, inconstancy, sadness, and
the like can not be in God, for myself I would highly pleased to see me free of
them. In addition, several things had no idea and body sensitive, for though to
assume that dreaming and that everything he saw or imagined was false, however,
could not deny that these ideas were truly in my thoughts. But since I had know
n very clearly that the intelligent nature is distinct from the body, considerin
g that all dependence and composition indicates that this is clearly a defect, I
reasoned thus could not be a perfection of God to be composed of two natures an
d that consequently he was not on the contrary, I thought that if there were bod
ies in the world or some intelligence or other natures that were not totally per
fect, her being should depend on his power so that no such natures could survive
without him even for a moment. Later I wanted to explore other truths and havin
g been proposed to geometry, which he conceived as a continuous body or a space
indefinitely extended in length, width and height or depth, divisible into sever
al parts, which could make various shapes and magnitudes, as well as be moved an
d moved in all directions, as geometers assume that in purpose, I reviewed some
of the simplest demonstrations. And having noted that this great certainty that
the world attaches to them, no basis but are conceived with evidence, following
the rule that I stated earlier, I noticed that there was nothing in them to assu
re me of the existence of their subject. Thus, for example, felt it right that i
f a triangle, then it was that its three angles must be equal to two right angle
s, but such reasoning is not assured me that any triangle existed in the world.
By contrast, consider again the idea he had of a Perfect Being, I found that the
re was covered by the very same way as in the triangle is comprised of its three
angles are equal to two right angles or in the an area that every part equidist
ant from the center and includ-
so it more clearly. And, therefore, is at least as true that God, the Perfect Be
ing, is or may be there as any demonstration of geometry. But what motivates tha
t there are many people convinced that there is great difficulty in knowing and
also in understanding the nature of his soul, is never raised his thinking about
sensible things and are so much accustomed to disregard any question that may n
ot be able to imagine (think of itself as related to material things), that ever
ything that is not imaginable seems to them unintelligible. Which is quite evide
nt in the maxim that the philosophers themselves as a true advocate in the schoo
ls, that there is nothing in the understanding that has not previously impressed
the senses. Indeed, the ideas of God and the soul never impressed the senses an
d I think that those who wish to use their imagination to understand them, do th
e same thing if they wanted to use their eyes to hear sounds or feel the smell.
There is still another difference: the sense of sight does not ensure less of th
e truth of its objects that make the smell or hearing, while neither our imagina
tion nor our senses can make sure anything if our understanding not intervene. I
n short, if there are still men who are not sufficiently persuaded of the existe
nce of God and of his soul by virtue of the reasons given by me€I want you to k
now that all other things, on which they think to be safe, such as having a body
, the existence of stars, a land and the like, are less certain. Well, even if y
ou have a moral assurance of the existence of such things, which is such that, u
nless it is the sin of extravagance, there is no doubt the same, however, unless
they are small because of lack of when it is a metaphysical certitude, one can
not deny that it is reason enough to not be entirely safe to have found it equal
ly impossible to imagine, being asleep, you have another body, which are other s
tars and other land , without there being any such beings. So how do we know tha
t thoughts are taken into the dream more false than others, because often no les
s vibrancy and clarity?. And although the mills better able to study this issue
as they please, I can not give any reason that is sufficient to dispel this doub
t, if not presuppose the existence of God. Well, first, even above what I consid
ered a rule (namely, that it clearly and distinctly conceived is true) is invali
d only if God exists, is a perfect and everything that is in us comes from him.
From this it follows that our ideas or notions, being real people that come from
God, so far as they are clear and distinct, but can not be true. So, although w
e have some that often contain false, this can not only come from those in which
something is confused and obscure, since in this part of nothing, ie not presen
t in us but because we are not completely perfect. It is clear that there is les
s reluctance to defend the falsity or imperfection, as such, come from God, who
exists to defend that truth or perfection comes from nowhere. But unless we know
that everything that exists in us real and true proceeds from a perfect and inf
inite, were clear and distinct our ideas, we would not have any reason to assure
us that such ideas had the perfection of being true.
Therefore, after the knowledge of God and the soul have convinced us of the cert
ainty of this rule, it is easy to see that the dreams we imagine when we sleep,
should not in any way make us doubt the truth of the thoughts we have when we ar
e awake. Well, if happen, even sleeping, which had a very different idea, for ex
ample, that a geometer achieved a new show, would not prevent her dream was true
. And with regard to the most common error of our dreams, consisting of various
objects represent the same manner as that obtained by the external senses, it is
irrelevant which gives us occasion to distrust the truth of such ideas, they ma
y lead us to error without sleep as often happens to those suffering from jaundi
ce see everything yellow or when the stars or other bodies too far seem much sma
ller than they actually possess. Well, well, we are in a state of wakefulness or
sleep, but we must never let ourselves be persuaded by the evidence of our reas
on. And it should be noted that I say, our reason and our imagination or our sen
ses, because although we see the sun very clearly why we should not judge but la
cking the size to what we see and we can easily imagine some clearly a lion's he
ad attached to the body of a goat without the need to conclude that there is a f
antasy world, as reason tells us that what we see or imagine in this way is true
. On the other hand tells us that all our ideas or notions must have some basis
of truth, it would not be possible for God who is supremely perfect and true, th
ey exist in us without. And because our reasonings are never so clear nor comple
te during sleep as during wakefulness, but sometimes your images as much or more
vivid and clear, the reason also tells us that our thoughts can not be all true
, because we omniperfectos are not, so there really must be infallible in those
that we are awake rather than those we have while we dream.