L4 2014

THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD L4 2013-2014 FILS III E
TYPES OF FINITE ELEMENTS
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR GENERAL MODELING PURPOSE
d ( x, y , z ) = N i i
Classes of continuity
C0 - the unknown function u is continuous across the boundaries between

elements; the first derivatives are continuous over the element but not across the
boundary between elements; the higher order derivatives, if they exist, do not
necessarily have a finite value;
C1 - the unknown function u and its first derivatives are continuous across the
boundaries between elements; the second derivative is not continuous but it is
finite;
...
Cn - the unknown function u and its "nth" order derivatives are continuous across
the boundary between elements.
1
boundary
element
u
elem.i elem.j elements

u
x
Continuity provided by C0 class finite discontinuous but finite
elements across their boundaries

elements
2
u
x 2
not continuous
elements
2
The necessary class of continuity is related to the encountered derivative order

of the unknown function u within the general expression of the variational
principle
u n u u
Ee = F (u , ,... n )dD + G (u , ,...)d
De x x e x
For a given order of derivatives n, the approximate solution converges to the

exact one by reducing the elements size, if the following conditions are
fulfilled:
- the compatibility condition meaning that at the common frontier between

two elements a Cn-1 class of continuity exists;
- the completeness condition meaning that inside the element, a Cn class of
continuity is available.
Stress and stain field problems of (massive) structures are usually C0 class
problems
3
The number of DOF per node depends on the physical meaning of the problem.
The unknown function u can be a scalar (as temperature, hydraulic head) or a
vector with several components (as displacement).
The shape functions are usually polynomials: linear, quadratic, cubic
Linear finite elements
- for the one dimensional space (1D)
u ( x) = a1 + a2 x
- for the two dimensional space (2D)
u ( x, y ) = a1 + a 2 x + a3 y + a 4 xy
- for the three dimensional space (3D)
u ( x, y, z ) = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 z + a5 xy + a6 yz + a7 zx + a8 xyz
4
Examples of 2D finite elements: truss, quadrilateral solid, triangular solid
3 3
2D 2 4
1 2
1 1
2
8
3D 6 4
7
4
5 4 3 3
6 3 1 5
1
1
2 2
2
Examples of 3D finite elements: brick, triangular prism (wedge), pyramid
5
Quadratic finite elements
A higher order polynomial is used to define elements with curved edges (or
faces) and to refine the unknowns distribution over the elements area (or
volume). Midside nodes are placed along the elements edges.
u ( x, y ) = a1 + a 2 x + a3 y + a 4 xy + a5 x 2 + a6 y 2 + a7 xy 2 + a8 x 2 y
. 11
15
2 4 14
7 12 20
3
4 10
16 13
3 8 17 7
8 19
1 6 9
18 3
2 1
1 6
5 5
2
Concluding, the finite elements can be classified by their class of continuity and
their shape functions polynomial order. The first aspect affects the number of
DOF per node while the second one the number of nodes per element.
6
The accuracy of the approximate method is generally enhanced by augmenting

the number of element in the mesh. We say that by augmenting the number of
elements in the mesh (concurrently with elements size reduction) the
approximate solution converges to the exact one.
Shape functions requirements for convergence
Criterion 1 - the shape function should not permit (or cause) element straining
when the nodal displacements correspond to a rigid body movement.
Criterion 2 - the shape functions should lead to a constant strain field over the
elements domain if the nodal loads or displacements are compatible with
constant strains.
Criterion 3 the shape functions should lead to finite strain values on element
boundaries.
7
Completeness requirements for polynomial shape functions
In order to get a monotonically convergence toward the exact solution by

increasing the DOF number, two additional conditions should be fulfilled:
1. The elements compatibility in the mesh meaning that elements remain in
contact at their boundaries (no overlapping or gaps should be
encountered); for thin plane or curved shells also the tangent to the
deformed surface of adjacent elements is common (a C1 class of continuity
is required);
2. No preferential directions for the elements behavior should be defined.
The second condition is equivalent with the completeness criterion: if a

polynomial of order p is used to define the shape functions N, then it must be
a complete polynomial (the terms are defined by the Pascal triangle).
d ( x, y ) = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 xy
d ( x, y ) = a1 + a 2 x + a3 y + a4 xy + a5 x 2 + a6 x 2 y + a7 xy 2 + a8 y 2
8
The significance of the shape functions as complete polynomials: the unknown

values expressed in any point of the element are irrespective of the chosen
coordinate system.
y A (x,y)
(x1,y1)
The same values of the unknowns (as total displacement, principal stress, etc)
turn out for both xOy or x1O1y1 coordinate systems.
9
ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
The displacement of an interior point M(x,y) placed inside the element is

expressed by polynomial functions using real parameters, such as the one
exemplified in lecture 3:
d( x , y ) = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 xy
3
4 3
4
The nodal coordinates and the
displacements are referred to
M (x,y) the global coordinate system
y
1
2
1
2
x
10
General procedure for defining the shape functions in global coordinates:
1 = a1 + a 2 x1 + a3 y1 + a 4 x1 y1 1 1 x1 y1 x1 y1 a1
= a + a x + a y + a x y 1
2 1 2 2 3 2 4 2 2
2 = x2 y2 x2 y 2 a
2 = C a

3 = a1 + a 2 x3 + a3 y 3 + a 4 x3 y 3 3 1 x3 y3 x3 y 3 a3 M
4 = a1 + a 2 x 4 + a3 y 4 + a 4 x 4 y 4
4 1 x4 y4 x4 y 4 a 4
= CM a
CM is called the nodal coordinates matrix
a = CM1
d ( x, y ) = [1 x y xy ] C M 1
N ( x, y ) = [1 x xy ]C M
1
y
11
ELEMENTS IN NATURAL COORDINATES
The process of defining the shape functions in Cartesian coordinates has some
important disadvantages. Occasionally the inverse of [CM] matrix may not
exist, or, for geometrically distorted elements a considerable algebraic difficulty
is encountered when calculating the inverse matrices.
The general properties of shape functions used in the basic relationship
1

d = [N1 N2 ... N n ] 2
...

n
reveal two important characteristics:
- the shape function Ni equals to one for node i and becomes zero for all the
other nodes of the element (Ni = 0 for any node j i);
n
- the criterion of convergence implies N
1
i =1
12
NORMALIZED (NATURAL) COORDINATES
They are defined such that the finite element domain extends between
coordinates 1 and 1 (along all directions of the coordinate system) and has
straight edges, regardless the elements shape and dimensions in the global
coordinate system.
y
4 3
x xc dx
t s= ds =
b
s a a
yc
y yc dy
b
t= dt =
1 a a 2
b a
x
xc
13
The relationships between the natural coordinates (s, t) and global coordinates
(x, y) are given by the following expressions
4
3 4
t 3
(-1,1) (1,1)
s
y
1
1 2
(-1,-1) (1,-1)
x
2
1
x= [(1 s)(1 t ) x1 + (1 + s)(1 t ) x2 + (1 + s)(1 + t ) x3 + (1 s)(1 + t ) x4 ]
4
1
y= [(1 s)(1 t ) y1 + (1 + s)(1 t ) y2 + (1 + s)(1 + t ) y3 + (1 s)(1 + t ) y4 ]
4
14
In a condensed form:
4 4
1
x = Li xi y = Li yi Li = (1 + ssi )(1 + tti ) si , ti = 1
1 1 4
In the 2D space, any quadrilateral element referenced in natural coordinates is

always a square of side 2, called the reference element.
In the 3D space, any hexahedral element referenced in natural coordinates is

always a cube of side 2, called the reference element.
Once the shape functions are known in normalized coordinates, they are
translated into the global coordinates. The expressions occurring at element
level for the characteristic matrix assessment are also transformed.
15
7 (-1,-1,1)
7
8 6
r 8
3 (1,-1,1) r 6
5 (-1,1,1)
s 5
s t
3
4
t
4 2
2 (1,-1,-1) (-1,1,-1)
1
(1,1,-1)
z 1
x y
When building the shape functions in normalized coordinates, the main

properties stated before, as well as the convergence requirements, should be
fulfilled.
16
The shape functions family
A set of shape functions defined in natural coordinates is the so called

serendipity functions family:
- shape functions for the linear element (4 nodes)

1
N1 = (1 s )(1 t )
4
1
N 2 = (1 + s )(1 t )
4

1
N i = (1 + ssi )(1 + tti ) with si, ti = 1
4
Note that Ni = 1 and Nj = 0 for each node i, i j and N i =1
17
- shape functions for the quadratic element (8 nodes)
1
corner nodes: Ni = (1 + ssi )(1 + tti )(ssi + tti 1) with si, ti = 1
4
1
mid-side nodes: N i = (1 s 2 )(1 + tti ) for si = 0, ti = 1
2
1
Ni =
2
(
(1 + ssi ) 1 t 2 ) for si = 1, ti = 0
- shape functions for the cubic element (12 nodes):
1
corner nodes: Ni =
32
[ (
(1 + ssi )(1 + tti ) 10 + s 2 + t 2 )] with si, ti = 1
9
side nodes: Ni =
32
( )
(1 + tti ) 1 s 3 (1 + 9ssi ) for si = 1/3; ti = 1
9
Ni =
32
( )
(1 + ssi ) 1 t 3 (1 + 9tti ) for ti = 1/3; si = 1
18
ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS
The isoparametric elements use de natural coordinate system to define the shape
functions and the numerical integration for the assessment of characteristic
matrices.
For the 2D linear finite element there are:

- two equations defining the quadrilateral geometry in terms of normalized
coordinates
- two equations defining the displacement field by the shape functions, themselves
also expressed in terms of normalized coordinates.
For the linear quadrilateral element in normalized coordinates, the shape

functions and the nodal coordinates transformation functions coalesce.
19
For higher order quadrilaterals with straight edges, only the displacement field
expansion is refined, whereas the geometry remains the same - superparametric
elements.
An element whose geometry is more refined than the unknowns expansion is

called subparametric.
The idea is to use the same shape functions to represent both elements
geometry and the primary unknowns using natural coordinates. The natural
coordinates appear as parameters that define the shape functions, connecting
the geometry with the unknowns.
20
The displacement field expressed in terms of nodal values is:
u ( s, t ) = N1u1 + N 2u2 + N 3u3 + N 4u4

v( s, t ) = N1v1 + N 2v2 + N 3v3 + N 4v4
The coordinates transformation from the global coordinate system (x, y) to the
natural coordinate system (s, t) is given by the same approximate functions:
x( s, t ) = N1 x1 + N 2 x2 + N 3 x3 + N 4 x4
y ( s, t ) = N1 y1 + N 2 y2 + N 3 y3 + N 4 y4
Or, in matrix form

x1
y
x( s, t ) N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 1
y ( s, t ) = 0 ...
N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4
x4
y4
21
One can verify that node i in the natural coordinate system coincide with
node i in the global coordinate system.
As example, for node 1, with s = 1, t = 1 the approximate functions are

N1 = 1, N2 = N3 = N4 = 0, giving x(s1, t1) = x1.
22
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
For strain and stress calculations, the partial derivatives of the shape functions in
the global coordinates (x, y) are required. In order to calculate the element
characteristic matrices and vectors
k = BT EBdV
Ve
r = Te BT 0 dV + Te BT E 0 dV + Te NT fdV + Te NT pd
Ve Ve Ve
the explicit form of integrals are usually not available (or, sometimes, they are
very difficult to explicit). For this reason numerical integration has to be used.
The standard practice is to apply the Gaussian integration, because the procedure
uses a small number of integration points to achieve the desired level of accuracy.
23
One dimensional numerical integration
To find numerically the integral of a function of one variable, the general

expression is
1 n
I= f (s)ds = H
1 1
i f ( si )
f (s)
f ( s2 ), H 2 f ( s1 ), H 1
-1 s2 0 s1 +1 s
l = 2
where si are n selected points in the [-1, 1] interval and Hi are numerical
coefficients depending on n (called integration weights) 24
The Newton - Cotes quadrature, where the si points are selected at equal
intervals.
f(s)
For n = 2 (the trapezes rule)
f ( 1) + f (1)
I= l = f ( 1) + f (1) f(-1) f(+1)
2
-1 0 +1 s
For n = 3 (the one-third rule)
1
I= [ f (1) + 4 f (0) + f (1)]
3
25
The Gaussian quadrature, where the integration points si and the numerical
coefficients Hi are located to aim for a best accuracy.
The first three one-dimensional Gauss rules are:
f (s)ds 2 f (0)
1
- one intergation point
f (s)ds f (1 /
1
3 ) + f (1 / 3) - two intergation points
1
5 8 5
1 f (s)ds 9 f ( 3 / 5 ) + 9 f (0) + 9 f ( 3 / 5 ) - three intergation points
26
The required order of numerical integration

The computing time for numerical integration can be quite significant - especially in
3D analyses, where the BTEB matrices are large.
Therefore, it is important to consider:
- the minimum integration order providing convergence;
- the integration requirement necessary to preserve the same convergence rate
that would result by exact integration.
Assuming a polynomial expression for f(s), for n sampling points there are 2n
unknowns (Hi and si). Hence, a polynomial of (2n - 1) degree can be created
and exactly integrated.
Example: considering an n = 2 sampling (integration) points integration. The

degree of the polynomial expression will be 2n - 1 = 3.
f ( s ) = a0 + a1s + a2 s 2 + a3 s 3
1
I= (a
1
0 )
+ a1s + a2 s 2 + a3 s 3 ds
27
Integrating term by term:
1
a0 ds = a0 (H1 + H 2 ) = 2a0 f(s)
1
1
a sds = a (H s
1
1 1 1 1 + H 2 s2 ) = 0
1
2
a2 s 2
ds = a 2(H 1 s1
2
+ H 2 s 2
2 = ) 3
a2
1 f (s2 ) f ( s1 )
1
3
a s 3
ds = a3 H( s
1 1
3
+ H s 3
2 2 = 0 ) -1 s 2 = 0,577... 0 s1 = 0,577... +1 s
1
Solving the algebraic system

1 1
H1 = H 2 = 1 s1 = s2 =
3 3
1 n 1 1
I = f ( s )ds = H i f ( si ) = 1 f + 1 f
1 1 3 3
28
Two dimensional numerical integration
1 1 n n
I= f ( s, t ) d s d t = H H
1 1 i =1 j =1
i j f ( si , t j )
t
s = 0,577... +1 s = 0,577...
(s2 ,t1 ) (s2 ,t1 )

t = 0,577...
-1 +1
s
t = 0,577...
(s2 ,t 2 ) (s1 ,t1 )
-1
29
INCOMPATIBLE FINITE ELEMENTS

(EXTRA DISPLACEMENT SHAPES)
L
y , t (v ) y , t (v )
x , s (u ) xy x , s (u )
h
M M M M
M ML2 Mh 2
u= st v= 2
(1 s ) + (1 t 2 )
EI 8 EI 8 EI
( ) (
v = 1 s2 + 1 t 2 )
( ) (
d = N i i + 1 s 2 + 1 t 2 ) Ni =
1
(1 + ssi )(1 + tt i )
4
30
The approximation of the unknown displacement function is made in terms of

normalized nodal displacements and the parameters a = [ ] .
T
- and are called non-associated parameters to elements nodes.
- although the shape functions terms a and b provide a correct bending

behavior, they are incompatible modes of deformation:
- the displacement of a certain point on the elements side is not longer
defined only by its nodes;
- the corresponding point belonging to the adjacent element may have a
different displacement.
- gaps or overlapping between adjacent elements may occur, determining the

incompatibility.
31
SUB - STRUCTURING AND MACRO-ELEMENTS
e
i
detail
e external DOF
i internal DOF
Macro - element
The macro-element is in fact a complex element from which the internal degrees
of freedom are removed.
- to reduce computing time for structures which contain repeated geometrical

patterns, especially in non-linear analyses; macro-elements can be created for
those regions which reveal a linear behaviour;
- to solve large problems with limited computer resources 32
The objective is to retain only the external DOF for the solution phase, by eliminating
the internal DOF (the procedure is called static condensation). The assembly of the
global stiffness matrix and the load vector consider only the macro-elements
boundary variables (the DOF associated to nodes located on macro-elements
boundaries). Thus, in the solution process, a considerable computer effort is saved.
nE
E E
= K EE R E K E = k
E 1
E E
e
( )
= K e K ei K i1K Tei e (R e + K ei K i1 R i ) = K e e R e
The total potential energy of the system is divided as follows

n n' m
E = E = E + EE e
1 1 1
- n - the number of regular elements
- m - the number of elements involved in macro-elements assemblies

n' m n' m
K = ke + K
e R = re + R e
1 1 1 1
33
By solving the reduced equation system the external DOF e are calculated.
Returning to macro-element level:
i = K i-1K Tei e + K i1R i
By reassembling E = e + i
The sub-structures analysis involves three distinct steps:

- the definition step: regular elements are condensed into the macro-element, by
choosing the master degrees of freedom in order to define the interface between
the macro-element and its surroundings. The only restriction for elements refers
to their linear behaviour.
- the solution step: the solution is performed using the assembled model, with
regular elements and macro-elements. The result consists in the DOF values of
regular elements and in the master DOF of the macro-elements.
Because no results are available for the internal macro-element DOF,
this solution is called the reduced solution.
- the expansion step: the internal DOF are calculated. An expansion step should
be performed for every macro-element.
34
The master DOF:
- must enable connections to all regular elements or other macro-elements

along its border;
- they should define all the locations for constrains and concentrated loads;
- if the macro-element is used in a dynamic analysis, they characterize its
dynamic behavior.
The bottom-up structuring (suitable for large models):

each macro-element is generated separately in an individual generation step
and then the macro-elements are assembled in the solution step.
The top-down structuring (suitable for small models):

- build the entire model of regular elements, including both macro-elements
and non macro-elements regions;
- perform the generation step for each macro-element, by selecting the
corresponding regular elements from the model and merging then into macro-
elements;
- carry out the solution step;
- perform the expansion step by restoring the full model database and then
expanding each macro-element separately.
35
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR PLATES AND SHELLS
Plates and shells are peculiar forms of three-dimensional solids, very often
encountered in civil engineering structures (slabs/floors, diaphragm walls,
reservoirs, roofs).
Plates - planar shape (slabs/floors)
Shells - curved shape (reservoirs, roofs)
Their main characteristic is the reduced thickness t relative to the structural area.
2 approaches:
- using C1 class elements, based on thin plate theory (see ET manual); in this case
they define the middle plane (or middle surface) of the plate and fulfil some
simplifying assumptions;
- considering plates and shells as special cases of 3D solids, by using quadratic C0
class elements.
36
Basic assumptions for thin plates and shells (C1 class elements) :
- the stresses in the normal direction to the middle plane (surface) z are small
enough to be neglected;
- the normal n to the middle plane (surface) remain straight and normal to the
plane during and after deformation;
- the strains and the stresses have a linear distribution over the thickness;
- the deformations are small vs the geometrical dimensions.
In thin plates theory, the in-plane displacements are usually neglected, while the
deformed shape is completely defined by the normal displacement w (x, y).
For plate elements subjected to pure bending, the in-plane forces are also
disregarded (the membrane effect).
37
m m
xy xy
m m
x
y
q 2
2 mx m y 2 mxy
y (v ) x (u ) + 2 +q=0
m x 2 y 2 xy
y m
x
m m
xy xy
z (w ) - mx and my are the bending moments per unit length
- mxy the twisting moment per unit length
- q is the distributed load per unit area
In the general formulation, the strains are divided into in-plane strains due to bending
(x, y, xy) and strains due to transversal shear effect (xz, yz).
38
Introducing the concepts of generalized strain
2w
0 2
x x 2x
x w
g = y = z 0 =
y y y 2
xy 2

w
y x xy
The stress-strain relationship yields: g = E g
As the conventional strains and stresses have linear distribution along the plates
thickness
12m 12my 12m xy

x = 3 x z y = 3
z xy = 3
z
t t t
39
For an isotropic plate of constant thickness, the equilibrium expression reduces to

the bi-harmonic equation (see ET manual):
4w 4w 4w 12(1 2 )
4
+2 2 2 + 4 +q 3
=0
x x y y Et
The general variational principle can be written as the minimization of total
potential energy associated to bending
1 T 1 T
(min) E = A g g
dA + A sdA A wqdA

2 2
In the case of thin plates (Kirchoff plates), no transverse shear occurs, = 0
1 T
(min) E = A g g dA A wqdA
2
The functional expression contains second order derivatives of the unknown
w(x,y), thus, a C1 class of continuity should be satisfied.
40
A shell element withstands the applied load by both bending and membrane effects
(the membrane effect is the one inducing in-plane stresses, due to the u and v
displacements).
The total potential energy is

1 1
E p = V T dV V dT fdV + V Tg g dV V wqdV
2 2
- the first group of terms defines the deformation energy due to in-plane strains and
stresses;
- the second one the deformation energy due to generalized strains and stresses
(curvature and bending moments/length unit).
y x
y (v ) x (u ) y x
z (w ) z
Fy Fx My Mx
41
The DOF are u and v for the membrane effect and w, x, y for the bending
effect. The finite element solution leads to the total potential energy expression:
1 1
E p ,e = Tmk m m Tmrm + Tb k bb Tb rb
2 2
The energy expression emphasizes that the plane stress displacements are not
affecting those due to the bending effect and vice-versa.
42
C0 class elements 3D solids

Because of the curved geometrical shape of shells, the most suitable option for 3D
solid is the quadratic isoparametric finite element
y x
t
z
Disadvantages:
- relative reduced thickness t versus the other mid-surface dimensions: the global
equation system is bad conditioned;
- the large number of DOF (203 = 60 DOF): the amount of required virtual
memory and computing time;
- the third mid-node placed on the thickness direction violates the basic
hypothesis regarding the straight shape of the normal to the elements mid-
surface.
43
CONTACT ELEMENTS
Due to various reasons, solids which are initially in contact become separated by
gaps, or slide one to each other along contact surfaces. A detailed finite element
model should simulate these effects, in order to emphasize the real behavior of the
structure.
permanent joint permanent joint
crest level
foundation level
block i block j block k
The joints status (open or closed, sliding or sticking) is related to the upstream water
level and the concrete thermal field, being variable in time.
44
When simulating a braced excavation

processes, the retaining structure gap
experiences deformations according to the ground level

excavation level and the position of the
struts. No tension stresses should develop H1 cohesive layer
between the retaining structure and the soil
mass.
strut
sandy layer
The contact between the retaining structure force
and the soil mass may brake at various H2
levels
excavation level
45
POINT TO POINT CONTACT
Allows the maintenance or breaking the physical contact between two surfaces, or
their relative sliding.
z
z x
y
y i
x
Withstands compression along the normal direction to the contact surface and
shear along the tangential direction.
The orientation of the contact (or sliding) surface is given by the initial position of
the nodes which define the finite element (normal to i - j direction).
46
According to Coulomb friction model, two contacting surfaces can carry shear
stresses up to a certain magnitude across their interface, the state being known
as sticking. Once the equivalent shear stress exceeds the limit, the surfaces will
slide relative to each other.
lim = n + c
lim
The element behavior depends on its actual status:

- closed and stuck;
- closed and sliding;
- open.
The initial gap, usually defined by the initial position of nodes i and j, changes
according to the calculated nodal displacements.
47
POINT TO SURFACE CONTACT
When a precise node-to-node contact is never achievable
Contact occurs whenever the contact node k penetrates the target surface i-j
48
SURFACE-TO-SURFACE CONTACT
Surface-to-surface contact elements are used to represent contact and sliding

between a deformable surface and a rigid surface, or between two deformable
surfaces.
49

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THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD L4 2013-2014 FILS III E

TYPES OF FINITE ELEMENTS

FINITE ELEMENTS FOR GENERAL MODELING PURPOSE

C0 - the unknown function u is continuous across the boundaries between

elem.i elem.j elements

Continuity provided by C0 class finite discontinuous but finite

elements across their boundaries

The necessary class of continuity is related to the encountered derivative order

For a given order of derivatives n, the approximate solution converges to the

- the compatibility condition meaning that at the common frontier between

The shape functions are usually polynomials: linear, quadratic, cubic

Linear finite elements

- for the one dimensional space (1D)

Examples of 2D finite elements: truss, quadrilateral solid, triangular solid

Examples of 3D finite elements: brick, triangular prism (wedge), pyramid

Quadratic finite elements

The accuracy of the approximate method is generally enhanced by augmenting

Shape functions requirements for convergence

Completeness requirements for polynomial shape functions

In order to get a monotonically convergence toward the exact solution by

The second condition is equivalent with the completeness criterion: if a

The significance of the shape functions as complete polynomials: the unknown

ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

The displacement of an interior point M(x,y) placed inside the element is

General procedure for defining the shape functions in global coordinates:

ELEMENTS IN NATURAL COORDINATES

The general properties of shape functions used in the basic relationship

NORMALIZED (NATURAL) COORDINATES

In the 2D space, any quadrilateral element referenced in natural coordinates is

In the 3D space, any hexahedral element referenced in natural coordinates is

When building the shape functions in normalized coordinates, the main

The shape functions family

A set of shape functions defined in natural coordinates is the so called

- shape functions for the linear element (4 nodes)

Note that Ni = 1 and Nj = 0 for each node i, i j and N i =1

- shape functions for the quadratic element (8 nodes)

- shape functions for the cubic element (12 nodes):

For the 2D linear finite element there are:

For the linear quadrilateral element in normalized coordinates, the shape

An element whose geometry is more refined than the unknowns expansion is

The displacement field expressed in terms of nodal values is:

u ( s, t ) = N1u1 + N 2u2 + N 3u3 + N 4u4

Or, in matrix form

As example, for node 1, with s = 1, t = 1 the approximate functions are

One dimensional numerical integration

To find numerically the integral of a function of one variable, the general

For n = 3 (the one-third rule)

The first three one-dimensional Gauss rules are:

The required order of numerical integration

Example: considering an n = 2 sampling (integration) points integration. The

Integrating term by term:

Solving the algebraic system

Two dimensional numerical integration

(s2 ,t1 ) (s2 ,t1 )

INCOMPATIBLE FINITE ELEMENTS

The approximation of the unknown displacement function is made in terms of

- and are called non-associated parameters to elements nodes.

- although the shape functions terms a and b provide a correct bending

- gaps or overlapping between adjacent elements may occur, determining the

SUB - STRUCTURING AND MACRO-ELEMENTS

- to reduce computing time for structures which contain repeated geometrical

The total potential energy of the system is divided as follows

- n - the number of regular elements