CHAPTER 2

THEORETCIAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents the relevant theories, related literature, related studies,

conceptual framework, hypothesis of the study, definition of terms/variables, and

notes in chapter II.

Relevant Theories

In this part of the chapter, relevant theories for the study is summarized to act as a

guide for the researchers to thoroughly understand composite materials, strength of

materials, machine design and heat transfer.

I. Composite Materials

Composite material is a material made from two or more constituent

materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties that,

when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the

individual components. The new material may be preferred for many

reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter, or

less expensive when compared to traditional materials.

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent

materials. There are two main categories of constituent materials: matrix and

reinforcement.

The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials,

while the reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical

 properties to enhance the matrix properties. Both matrix and reinforcement

are combined to produce new material.

The theory behind composite materials helps the researchers to choose

the suitable components for the project. Sawdust is a good reinforcement

along with the coconut husk and industrial wood glue is a fitting matrix to

bind the solid components. These will give the particle board similar

properties to the conventional counter-type.

II. Strength of Materials

Strength of materials or mechanics of materials deals with the behavior of

solid objects subject to stresses and strains. It deals with the elastic behavior

of loading materials, relationships between externally applied loads and

internal resisting forces associated deformations.

When a load is applied to a body, the body experiences deformation,

small or large. Due to the atomic pattern comprising in the material, the

external load applied is counteracted by an internal resistance called stress.

This stress tends to return the atomic patterns to its original state sans the

applied load. The total resistance is equal to the external load.

It is impossible to directly measure the intensity of this stress, but the

external load and the area to which it is applied can be measured. Stress (s)

can be equated to the external load or applied force (F) per cross-sectional

area (A) perpendicular to the forces as shown in the equation below:

F
S= =
A

Where:

= stress (psi or lbs of force per in2) 1

F = applied force (lbs of force)

 A = cross-sectional area (in2)

Stress can occur in any materials that is subjected to a load or applied

forces. Generally, stresses can be classified in categories: residual

stresses, structural stresses, pressure stresses, flow stresses, thermal

stresses, and fatigue stresses.

Stresses become increasingly important when the material is flawed.

Flaws tend to add additional stress to a material. Additionally, stresses

due to cyclic or unsteady loading can add a more severe effect on the

material. The additional stresses associated with flaws and cyclic loading

may exceed the stress necessary for a material to fail. Stress intensity

within the body of a component is expressed as one of three basic types of

internal load. They are known as tensile, compressive, and shear.

Tensile and compressive stress, mathematically can be regarded as the

positive and negative versions of the same type of loading. But in

mechanical design, tensile and compressive stress are regarded separately

because of the different response of the components to the two stresses;

that way it will be more accurate and safer.

1. Tensile and Compressive Stress

Tensile stress is that type of stress in which the two sections of

material on either side of a stress plane tend to pull apart or elongate.

The force applied to the material is in a stretching action. Compressive

stress, on the other hand, is that type of stress in which the material

experience compression or decrease in volume. The force applied to

the material is in a squeezing action.

 Tensile and compressive stress are called normal stresses because

both stresses act in a direction perpendicular (normal) to the plane

where the load is applied.

P
t =
At

P
c =
Ac

Where:

t = tensile stress (psi or lbs of force per in2)

c = compressive stress (psi or lbs of force per in2)

P = applied force (lbs of force)

At = cross-sectional area (in2)

Ac = cross-sectional area (in2)

2. Bearing Stress

Bearing stress is the stress caused by a force which is

perpendicular to the resisting area. It is the contact pressure between

two separate bodies.

 P
b =
Ab

Where:

b = bearing stress (psi or lbs of force per in2)

P = applied force (lbs of force)

Ab = cross-sectional area (in2)

The formulas for the tensile stress, compressive stress and bending stress

will be used by the researchers to compare the tensile strength, compressive

strength and bending strength of the coconut husk particle board to the

conventional particle board.

III. Machine Design

Machine design is the process of engineering design. A machine is made

up of mechanisms that work together to satisfy the requirements of what the

machine needs to accomplish. Mechanisms can still be used independently,

such as an umbrella, but cannot accomplish what a machine can because a

machine controls energy in addition to motion. Machine design takes into

account kinetics and kinematics, which deal with motion and the forces on an

object in motion. Machine design is applied through a specific process

including determining what the machine needs to do, benchmarking and

defining goals and requirements, brainstorming, evaluating and selecting

 from the different options, creating an in-depth design, creating and testing a

prototype, and finally manufacturing the machine.

The concept of machine design is to help the researchers build a suitable

presser for the manufacturing of the coconut husk particle board. The design

of the presser will only be for the purpose of this study. It will be simple,

substandard in size and relatively easy to build.

Related Literature

I. Sun Drying

Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or

another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. Sun drying

is one of mankind's oldest drying techniques. It was used in ancient Egypt

and Mesopotamia. It is a slow, gentle process whose benefits more than

compensate for its time-intensive nature - especially when compared to

modern mechanical drying methods. Sun drying relies on the sun to allow the

product to be dried like rice grains, coconut husks, fruits, etc. to reach

optimum moisture and quality levels. It is still in use today because it is cheap

and environmentally-friendly.

II. Pulverizing

Pulverization in engineering, is fine crushing of solid

materials. Pulverization is used extensively for the concentration of mineral

products in mining as well as in metallurgy, the chemical industry and

construction.
 Methods of pulverization includes the process of crushing, impact and

grinding; compressive strain and shear are very important in these processes.

In essence pulverization is a process of formation of new surfaces. Under the

influence of external forces,stresses arise, causing microscopic cracks that are

capable of partial closing when the load is removed. A

certain maximum concentration of microscopic cracks per unit volume may

cause at least one large crack, which leads to

the breakup of the piece. The surface-active molecules of the

substance present in the surrounding environment are adsorbed on

the walls of the crack and prevent self-

healing. Where the load on the piece is repeated,these cracks may

give rise to large cracks and so on.

The phenomenon of concentration of the substance on the surface

of the cracks explains the action of softening solutions that promote pulveriza

tion. As the size of the pieces decreases during the pulverization process, their

strength increases, because the small particles have fewer structural defects.

With very fine pulverization, particles of few microns and smaller may form

flakes and concretions because of the forces of molecular cohesion.

In may cases, pulverization is associated with chemical changes on the

surface of the particles. The size distribution of particles in the products of

pulverization is usually regular. The specific surface may serve as a measure

of coarseness, since it is inversely proportional to the average size of the

particles.
 III. Mixing (Process Engineering)

Mixing is a process of thoroughly combining different materials to

produce a homogeneous mix. Mixing is a critical process, since the final

product depends on the mixing performance. Mixing is performed to allow

heat and/or mass transfer to occur between one or more streams, components

or phases. Modern industrial processing almost always involves some form of

mixing.

The type of operation and equipment used during mixing depends on the

state of materials being mixed (liquid, semi-solid, or solid) and the miscibility

of the materials being processed. In this context, the act of mixing may be

synonymous with stirring-, or kneading-processes.

A. Solid-solid Mixing

Solid mixing or solid blending is the operation by which two or

more solid materials are scattered randomly in a mixer among each

other by the random movement of the particles. Solid-solid mixing is

used to homogenize bulk materials.

B. Liquid-liquid Mixing

Liquid mixing is the process of mixing liquids to form another

liquid with a slightly to wholly different properties to that of the

liquids blended. Mixing of liquids that are miscible or at

least soluble in each other occurs frequently in process engineering

(and in everyday life). An everyday example would be the addition of

 milk or cream to tea or coffee. Since both liquids are water-based,

they dissolve easily in one another. The momentum of the liquid

being added is sometimes enough to cause enough turbulence to mix

the two, since the viscosity of both liquids is relatively low. If

necessary, a spoon or paddle could be used to complete the mixing

process. Blending in a more viscous liquid, such as honey, requires

more mixing power per unit volume to achieve the same

homogeneity in the same amount of time.

C. Liquid-solid Mixing

Liquidsolid mixing is the operation by which a percentage

amount of solid and liquid is put in a mixer and are blended together.

Typically, liquid-solid mixing is done to suspend coarse free-flowing

solids, or to break up lumps of fine agglomerated solids.

IV. Hot Pressing

Hot pressing is a high-pressure, low-strain-rate powder metallurgy

process for forming of a powder or powder compact at a temperature high

enough to induce sintering and creep processes. This is achieved by the

simultaneous application of heat and pressure (Hot Pressing).

V. Particle Board

Particle board, also known as particleboard and chipboard, is

an engineered wood product manufactured from wood chips, sawmill

shavings, or even sawdust, and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder,

which is pressed and extruded. Particle board is cheaper, denser and more

uniform than conventional wood and plywood and is substituted for them

when cost is more important than strength and appearance. Particleboard can

be made more attractive by painting or the use of wood veneersonto surfaces

that will be visible. Though it is denser than conventional wood, it is the

lightest and weakest type of fiberboard, except for insulation board.

A major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very prone to expansion

and discoloration due to moisture, particularly when it is not covered

with paint or another sealer. Therefore, it is rarely used outdoors or in places

where there are high levels of moisture, with the exception of some

bathrooms, kitchens and laundries, where it is commonly used as an

underlayment - in its moisture resistant variant - beneath a continuous sheet

of vinyl flooring.

The advantages of using particleboard over veneer core plywood is it is

more stable, (unless it gets wet), much cheaper to buy, and somewhat more

convenient to use.

Particleboard is manufactured by mixing wood particles with resin and

forming the mix into a sheet. There are several types of resins that are

commonly used. Formaldehyde based resins are the best performing when

considering cost and ease of use. Urea Melamine resins or phenol

formaldehyde resin are used to offer water resistance.

Once the resin has been mixed with the particles, the liquid mixture is

made into a sheet. A weighing device notes the weight.The sheets formed are

then hot-compressed under pressures between two and three mega

 pascals and temperatures between 140 C and 220 C. This process sets and

hardens the glue.The boards are then cooled, trimmed and sanded.

Related Studies

In a study conducted by Beckwith (2008) it was found that coir provides a good

wide range of workable strengths and stiffness properties when compared with

synthetic fibers. It is noted that coir fibers has low density, low tensile strength, low

tensile modulus and high range of elongation. A review by Saira Taj et al (2005)

backed-up the presented study about the chemical composition and mechanical

properties of coir fibers suggesting the same as stated by Beckwith (2008).

The potential of the coir fibers to become products that are as equally good as

other end products that use natural fibers makes it doable for industrial development.

According to Craig M. Clemons (2005) it is the balancing of significant reinforcing

potential at low cost and low density that makes natural fibers like coir attractive to

industries.

A lucid study conducted by Farin et al (2012) proved the possible end product

using water hyacinth as raw material.

 However, ton the downside, the performance of the end product of composite

fabrication is affected by the moisture content of the natural fibers. Hence, natural

fibers must be dried before or during processing, otherwise processes that are

insensitive to moisture must be used.

Craig M. Clemons and Daniel F. Caulfield (2005) places emphasis on the effects

of moisture content on the performance of end products that uses natural fibers.