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Linguistic Landscapes Found in Los Angeles, California

Introduction
This paper will attempt to analyze the recently emerging issue of linguistic
landscapes in the field of sociolinguistics. The concept of linguistic landscapes can be used
in a broad sense to describe the languages present in certain linguistic situations (Gorter,
2006, p.1). In multilingual societies, which are virtually everywhere in our increasingly
connected world, the various languages of the population serve different purposes. For
example, in Los Angeles, California there are 224 different languages spoken including
Korean, Chinese, and Spanish, but English is the most frequently used in linguistic
landscapes (GEOS Languages Plus, 2016). Linguistic landscapes reflect the ideologies and
opinions of the communities they are found in, employing the dominant language in most
cases, but other languages may be used for a specific reason or to target certain audiences.
In previous research, linguistic landscapes in major cities around the world have been
studied to determine the motives behind the use of particular codes and their relationship
to the cultures and hierarchies found in that location. This paper will try to explain the
reasons for these linguistic landscapes and their function in this ever-growing multicultural
society while also trying to relate research collected in different countries and cities to Los
Angeles.
Linguistic Landscapes: Los Angeles
In Los Angeles, much like the rest of the world, English is a lingua franca used by
much of the population. While English is the chosen language in most public spaces such as
signs, billboards, promotional material, as well as in public transportation notices, other
languages can also be spotted all around Los Angeles. For example, in cities where there is
a high concentration of Spanish speakers, signage, advertisements, and even government
forms can be provided in Spanish. This acceptance of Spanish as an increasingly used
language in the Los Angeles area shows up in the linguistic landscapes of the city (see
Figure 1). Dailey, Giles, and Jansma argue that when a language is acculturated into an
outside communitys signs, advertisements, and media, that populations perception of this
language is benefitted and the limitations set on this language community decrease (2006,
p. 28). This integration can bring positive changes to the societys overall view of this
ethnic group, as well as tempt previously accepted attitudes and beliefs towards its
speakers (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2015, p. 86). The ways linguistic landscapes change in a
given area provide evidence as to the perspectives that areas population has regarding the
language speakers and the codes being displayed.
When examining and categorizing samplings of linguistic landscapes it is important
to note that many if not most are not permanent installations. Bus advertisements
constantly move around an urban area, shops and businesses move or shut down, and
billboards are changed every few weeks. The parameters of what a study is observing have
to be well defined and specific from the start. When looking at Figure 2 for example, the
entire wall is the linguistic landscape, not just one of the many signs this business uses to
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advertise their food. In places where multiple languages are used it is very common to see
the same words written in more than one language to target a diverse audiences
(Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2015, p. 87). In Figure 2, Thai and English are both used in the
advertising for the new Thai restaurants grand opening to display different
announcements regarding its opening or what food items can be found there. Bilingual
signs appeal to different cultural groups concentrated in that area. For instance, if this sign
was strictly in Thai, most English speakers in the city would not know what the
restaurants signs say at all and would not bother going inside to find out. On the contrary,
if the signs were strictly in English, the dense Thai population in the area might not be able
to understand the language used or possibly determine the food to be inauthentic. The
decisions behind what language/languages are used on public signs can greatly affect the
success or failure of that particular display at achieving its goals.
The Impact of Linguistic Landscapes
Accuracy plays an important role in linguistic landscapes, especially when it comes
to targeting specific cultural audiences. The language being used, or even more specifically,
what words or phrases are chosen from that language can attract a particular clientele. The
figure from Wardhaugh and Fuller depicting the Turkish grocery market is a good example
of how advertisements can reference a specific culture aspect to target a desired audience

(2015, p. 88).
In this case, the phrase Helal et Pazari displayed on the sign for the market does not
literally translate to say that the food was prepared in accordance with Islamic rules, but
the use of the words elal and pazari demonstrate a knowledge of Islamic culture and rules,
and give the prospective shoppers information regarding the acceptability of the produce
being sold. The language used on signage is not the only component that can appeal to a
variety of consumers. Images, colors, backgrounds, and figures can be used to entice
patrons from various cultures, such as the use of a popular landmark, tourist locations, or
the colors of a countrys flag (see Figure 5).
Since English has been established an international level there is a certain prestige
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that comes along with using it in linguistic landscapes. Many businesses and
advertisements will use English in their promotions to portray an accessible image of
whatever products they are selling. English has become a general symbol of modernity,
progress and globalization in numerous cultures and contexts (Aiestaran, Cenoz, & Gorter,
2010, p. 2). This gradual shift towards domination that the English language has made over
the recent decades can say something about the ideologies held by the stakeholders
involved in the linguistic decisions being made. English is the dominant language in Los
Angeles because it is located in the United States where English is the primary language
used (Lado, 2011, p. 135). In addition, the majority of the populations citizens are speakers
of English, so the language reflects the needs of the community. This transition towards
using English in linguistic landscapes on an international scale even though the majority of
the worlds population has another language as their first, shows the authority English has
gained. As English continues to grow as a leading language of global relations, businesses
have begun to use it in their linguistic landscapes to portray a contemporary persona and
relate to the modern day demands (see Figure 6).
English Language and Regulations
The acceptance of other languages besides English to be spoken in the United States
is a more recent attitude than one might expect. In 1986, Proposition 63 declared English
the official language of California; followed soon after by nine other states. Along with the
passing of these legislations was a push for the state governments towards the
preservation and enhancement of English as the common language of the state (MacKaye,
1990, p. 135). This legislation gave states official support and backing for promoting and
maintaining the dominance of English in their signage, regardless of the increased new
coming language speakers to their larger cities and beyond. This action also referred to as
the English-only Movement was propelled by the increasing desire to limit multilingualism
in America at the time. The rationale behind this push for an official language included the
ideology that a common language would promote open communication as opposed to
bilingualism or multilingualism which drive a wedge into society (MacKaye, 1990, p. 136-
137).
Backhaus discusses an important distinction between signs created by authority
versus signs created by citizens, and how the presence or absence of minority languages
reflects the producers view of the languages speakers (2007, p. 53). For instance the
government may have language policies that are uncompromising when it comes to the use
of the national language on all official public signage, while a more diverse array of
languages may be used on signs generated by private parties. This can cause incongruences
within these areas linguistic landscapes, and these inconsistencies can serve both an
informative and symbolic function (Landry & Bourhis, 1997, p. 25). The incorporation of
multiple languages may reach a broader audience in a community, ideally creating more
business or recognition for the words and ideas the sign is illustrating. Symbolically, these
signs reflect the connection between the languages being used and the power or status they
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hold in the society (see Figure 7). This relationship can be used to study a city's
multicultural relationships as well as provide information about the sociolinguistic context
(Cenoz & Gorter, 2006, p. 67). Not only do linguistic landscapes reflect a regions
perception of a language or languages, it also influences how these languages are viewed
and used. In Los Angeles, the exposure to multiple languages in the expansion of the city,
has created a more inclusive view of languages other than English, such as the numerous
districts that are recognized with public signs (see Figure 4).
The status of a language can come from multiple factors. Government policies that
regulate and control the access and exposure people have to a language can greatly affect
its presence in linguistic landscapes. For example, when more speakers of Spanish began
accumulating in the Los Angeles area, there was a gradual change with more Spanish signs,
stores, and restaurants. Spanish could be found in education, with more language options
and resources being provided, as well as in government forms, such as drivers license
examinations and other tests. The more a language is perceived positively by the society,
the more these attitudes will impact the use of this language in the public space (Roca,
1999, p. 70). These changes to an citys linguistic landscape can be explicitly expressed by
its government or implicitly displayed through forms discussed above (Lado, 2011, p. 135).
With the variety of languages spoken in Los Angeles, explicit adopting of marginalized
languages into governmental publications is less common than it would be in places where
there are just a couple languages used by the citys population. However, since there are so
many established cultural districts in Los Angeles (see Figure 4) the usage of the language
spoken by the majority of that neighborhoods population may be acknowledged on
government and private signs alike (see Figure 3). Although this may give the impression
that all languages are represented and given adequate regard around Los Angeles, there is
still a lack of representation of languages other than English in areas that do not have an
overt cultural community.
Reasons Behind Linguistic Landscapes
While inclusion of other languages can be motivated by accommodation in some
cases, it can also be initiated by an areas desire to attract a certain audience. For example,
Bangkok, Thailand relies heavily on tourism from Australia, Europe, North America, and
other parts of Asia, and is a hub for global air travel, multinational corporations,
international organizations (Huebner, 2006, p. 33). Due to this citys exposure to English-
speaking travelers, both English and Chinese are languages widely seen on public signs.
Particularly in larger cities where people from other cultures are drawn to various tourist
attractions, linguistic landscapes can be used in response to the groups coming in and out.
This form of accommodation is different than for citizens living in an area since it is
stimulated by the citys desire to attract outsiders for business and economic reasons. For
instance, tourists are expected to pay more attention to signs that give them relevant
information regarding destination spots and popular sights to see in the area, while locals
will not give these signs much notice (Aiestaran, Cenoz, & Gorter, 2010, p.1). Therefore,
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signs with this information may be provided in various languages spoken by common
tourists visiting the region, similar to what can be seen in Los Angeles.
Immigration and Cultural Enclaves
This argument leads into a discussion of the many perspectives about immigration,
and how that plays a role in a region's opinion of certain cultures, languages, and their
place in the linguistic landscape. When it comes to English, immigration is less of an
immediate threat to other countries, since some of the current immigration movements
mostly include people moving from less advanced capitalist societies to more advanced
(Nee & Sanders, 2001, p. 386). English has primarily been referred to as a prestige global
language, influential in a sense that it is used as a language of business, international
relations and law, as well as a marker of modernity and popular culture (Wardhaugh &
Fuller, 2015, p. 86). Its prevalence in todays society has less to do with the movement of its
speakers; rather it is a reflection of its worldwide reputation. This use differs from Spanish
or Thai in Los Angeles for example, since the growing use of these languages is indicative of
the growing population of these language speakers, and not because they are being used as
languages of status or business affairs.
Different stances on immigration can be recognized when one leaves a cultural hub
such as a large city. For example, the varieties of languages seen in Los Angeles do not
reflect all of California's citizens views on the growing number of languages spoken in the
state. In the areas surrounding Los Angeles there are fewer ethnic markets, businesses, and
restaurants, as well as government signs written in multiple languages. This is due to the
decreased number of centralized ethnic groups that live in these areas. As discussed
previously in this paper, where an immigrant lives can reflect either necessities; family
connections, monetary restraints, other socioeconomic resources; or a preference to
maintain their own culture and not assimilate to the American way of life. Regardless of the
reasons, it is common for many immigrants to stick to living in urban settings until they
gain economic status and have become accustomed enough to the mainstream
environment to relocate to a more suburban location (Logan, Zhang & Alba, 2002, p. 300).
This transition usually correlates with the individuals ability to understand and speak
English. Therefore the linguistic landscapes of areas outside of the city reflect the general
publics opinion of language by using solely English in the majority of privately and publicly
generated signs. These public displays of language preference therefore influence the
populations beliefs about language and its role in the community.
In observations of the various cultural enclaves found in the Los Angeles area,
including Little Tokyo, Chinatown, Olvera Street, Little Ethiopia, Koreatown, and Little
Armenia, the usage of the respective populations language along with English can be
attributed to high concentrations of certain residents and the everyday use of this shared
language (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2015, p. 87). These ethnic neighborhoods can be shaped
through the newcomers need for affordable housing, family ties, family culture, and help in
finding work (Logan, Zhang & Alba, 2002, p. 299). For some immigrants, these enclaves
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may be a starting point for recent arrivals to gain economic status and become accustomed
to the mainstream environments way of life before finding a more integrated place of
residency. Others might create these ethnic communities as a way to maintain their ethnic
identity, as a preference and not out of necessity or lack of experience. A 2011 article
written about Asian immigrants coming to Los Angeles argues that because most
individuals do not have a choice as to where they can live, preference towards these
locations is less influential in their decisions to spatially assimilate (Nee & Sanders, p. 392).
Whether it is the immigrants choice to live in an ethnic enclave, or they do not have the
means to live anywhere else, their presence generates an interesting combination of the
dominant and subsidiary languages in the form of linguistic landscapes.
Acculturation into a mainstream societys ways of living, including language use and
economic activity, can determine the immigrants likelihood of ending up in an immigrant
enclave or in a majority assimilated area. The previous models of immigration integration
into a society were based on studies done of European immigrants. However, more
recently in the United States and especially in the greater Los Angeles area, almost 80
percent of legal immigrants come from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean (Nee &
Sanders, 2001, p. 387). These groups ability to successfully transition into their new home
greatly depends on their capacity to integrate into the local community and create a
support system. When the dominant culture works to accommodate incoming groups,
multilingual linguistic landscapes are more likely to be present in the area. The bottom line
is that every aspect of culture, immigration, ideologies, and language use, work in a
interrelated cycle to generate the linguistic landscapes of our various human centered
environments.
Conclusion
This paper attempted to analyze the recently researched sociolinguistic topic of
linguistic landscapes and relate it to the immigration from Central America and Asia to the
Los Angeles area. By referencing previous studies, this paper provided and discussed
reasons pertaining to various linguistic landscapes in Los Angeles and cities like it, as well
as a range of possibilities for those linguistic choices. Linguistic landscapes reflect and
influence the perceptions of majority and minority languages present in a societys
community and can be affected by ideologies, legislations, and regulations of the dominant
culture. English has increasingly been viewed as a lingua franca and used for international
affairs all over the world, so its presence in international linguistic landscapes plays a key
role in how it is viewed, as well as its status and prestige on a global scale. Whether or not a
city strives to accommodate its immigrants linguistically plays a large role in their
successful integration into the new environments way of life. All of these factors play a part
in a societys layout, regarding the geographic location of its citizens, as well as the
attitudes and beliefs each culture has on one another. Linguistic landscapes are just
another sociolinguistic component we can research to understand the relationships
between individuals and groups within various multicultural communities.
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