BEAMS AND COLUMNS

Structural Components
Precast concrete is a versatile structural material and can be used as the structural system of a
building, bridge or other structure. Precast structural systems are comprised of a variety of
shapes and components. Most of these will fall into categories of beams, columns, or walls
(Walls are discussed in theWalls section of the website.) However, since precast is a cast
material, essentially any shape can be manufactured to meet a projects needs. The basic beams
and columns are discussed in this section. Precast structural systems are discussed in Building
Engineering Resources.

Beams
Beams are typically considered structural components and are made in one of three key shapes:

Rectangular

Inverted Tee Beams

L Beams

Beams are horizontal components that support deck members like double tees, hollow-core, and
solid slabs, and sometimes other beams. They can be reinforced with either prestressing strand
or conventional reinforcing bars. This will depend on the spans,loading conditions, and the
producers preferred production methods.
Typical sizes: Practically any size needed to satisfy structural requirements
Typical depths: 16 to 40 in.
Typical widths: 12 to 24 in.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: 10 to 20 in
Finishes: Since beams are cast upright, the bottom, sides, and ledges are cast against a form
and will typically be provided with an "as cast" finish that results in a smooth, hard finish. The
top is troweled by the finishing crew and can be smooth, roughened to simulate the finish of
supported double tees (as in a parking structure), or intentionally roughened to create a bond
with cast-in-place concrete that may be poured on top of it.

Typical shapes: Square or rectangle

Typical sizes: From 12 by 12 in. to 24 by 48 in.
Finishes: Since beams are cast in a horizontal position, three of the four sides are created with
a form. These finishes are very smooth and most often remain "as cast" in the finished
construction although they may have an architectural finish and be exposed to view. The fourth
side is typically troweled to match the other three sides as closely as possible.

Columns
Columns are typically used to support beams and spandrels in applications such as parking
structures and precast concrete structural systems of all types. They typically are designed as
multilevel components ranging from a single story to six levels or more. Sizes and shapes can
vary to satisfy both architectural and structural requirements.
Typical sizes: Sizes can vary as required structurally and to match varying riser sections that
they support.
Typical widths: 16 to 24 in.
Finishes: Typically, three sides will have an "as cast" finish that results in a smooth, hard
finish. The fourth side is troweled by the finishing crew to match the other sides as closely as
possible.

Raker Beams
Raker beams are angled, notched beams that support stadium riser units. They are used
universally in outdoor stadiums and arenas and in many indoor arenas and performing-arts
theaters.
Stadium riser components are discussed under Miscellaneous Components.
WALLS
Precast Concrete
Precast concrete wall systems can be comprised of a variety of shapes, and wall types. Typically,
precast concrete wall systems fall into three basic categories: solid, sandwich and thin-shell.
These can be panelized and erected in either a horizontal or vertical position and used on all
types of structures from residential to commercial, institutional to industrial. Wall panels can be
designed as nonloadbearing or loadbearing, carrying floor and roof loads, as well as lateral
loads.

Solid Walls
Solid wall panel simply refers to walls being made of solid concrete as opposed to including
integral insulation. These wall systems require some form of insulation and an interior
wall/finishing system to complete the building enclosures.

Typical widths: 4 to 15 ft.

Typical heights: 10 to 50 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 4 to 12 in.
Finishes: Since wall panels are cast in a flat orientation, the form side is typically the side that
will be exposed to view in the final construction. This face can be made with virtually any type of
finish. The back face is typically troweled smooth or may have a light broom finish.

Sandwich Walls
Insulated sandwich wall panels can be strictly architectural, strictly structural, or a combination
of both. The difference between typical panels and insulated sandwich wall panels is that the
latter are cast with rigid insulation "sandwiched" between two layers, or wythes, of concrete. The
insulation thickness can vary to create the desired thermal insulating property ("R" value) for
the wall.
 The structural behavior is either:

Composite in which the wythes are connected using ties through the insulation that fully
transfer loads. The structural performance is then based on the full thickness of the panel; or

Non-Composite in which the wythes are connected using ties through the insulation,
which limits performance to the individual capacities of each wythe.

Whether the panel is composite or non-composite depends on the configuration and material
used for the ties. Insulated sandwich wall panels can be designed to be loadbearing and support
floor and roof components. They make an ideal structural element for this purpose, typically by
casting a thicker interior wythe to provide the necessary support. They can also be non-
loadbearing to complete a faade.

Finishes: As with typical wall panels, the panels are cast in a flat orientation, so the form side is
typically the side that will be exposed to view in the final construction. This face can be made
with virtually any type of finish. GFRC panels allow for great aesthetic details and extensions
such as cornices, due to the manufacturing process. The back face is typically troweled smooth,
but is not left exposed. The back-up systems are often used to attach drywall and/or other finish
materials.
Typical widths: 4 to 15 ft.
Typical heights: 8 to 50 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 1.5 to 3 in.

Thin-Shell and GFRC

Thin-shell wall panels consist of a thin, outer-wythe of concrete typically ranging between 1.5
and 3 inches in thickness. This is connected to a "back-up" system, usually constructed of steel
framing or studs, or sometimes concrete. The back-up system is what connects the wall panel to
the structural system of the building and often provides the furring for interior finishes, such as
drywall to be attached. Many of these systems can also incorporate a layer of rigid insulation
between the exterior wythe of concrete and the back-up system.
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC) is a thin-shell system where the exterior wythe of
concrete contains alkali-resistant glass fibers that is typically sprayed into forms. The fibers
increase tensile, flexural and impact strengths.
Both thin-shell systems reduce the weight of the panels relative to other precast wall systems.
Some can also be designed as load-bearing.

Typical shapes: Rectangular with rectangular openings to create openness

Typical sizes: 12 to 16 in. in width greater than the stem-to-stem spacing of the supported
double tees

Lite Walls
Light or "lite" walls are shear walls used in parking structures cast with an opening in their
center to provide visual continuity and to allow daylight or artificial illumination to penetrate
deeper into an interior. The components provide openness and a feeling of security. These
components should not be confused with "light wells," which are internal, open courtyards
designed to provide daylight to the center of parking structures and other buildings.

As with other types of shear walls, lite walls serve as the lateral force-resisting systems in the
structure. They act as cantilever beams, transferring lateral forces acting parallel to the face of
the wall, from the superstructure to the foundation.
 PRECAST FLOOR AND ROOF SYSTEMS
Precast concrete is an inherent structural material and works well for floor and roof systems.
Precast concrete systems can be used as diaphragms to transfer lateral loads in a structure. The
primary roof and floors systems are made up of three basic components.

Double Tees
Named for its shape, double-tees are used primarily as floor and roof deck components for any
type of structure, including parking structures and all types of buildings. They are made either:

Pre-topped using a flange thickness of 4 in., which creates the wearing surface in parking
structures; or

Field- topped with a 2-in. flange, on which a cast-in-place concrete composite topping of
2 to 4 in. is added in the field. For roof construction, there is typically no need to add topping on
the 2 in. flange.
Typical widths: 8, 10, 12, and 15 ft.
Typical depths: 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, and 34 in.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: Floors: 25 to 35 / Roofs: 35 to 40
Finishes: Form side will generally be as cast, resulting in a smooth, hard finish. This
generally remains as is and is not painted, although it can be if desired. The top-of-flange side
will be smoothed for roof construction, left rough if it will receive a field topping or broomed
(either transversally or longitudinally), or circular swirl-finished if it will be used as the wearing
surface in a parking structure.

Hollow-core
Hollow-core slabs are used predominantly for floor and roof deck components for various
structures such as residential, hotel, office buildings, schools, and prisons.

Typical widths: 2, 4, and 8 ft; some precasters offer 10 and 12 ft widths

Typical depths: 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, and 16 in.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: Floors: 30 to 40 / Roofs: 40 to 50

Note: Each producer of hollow-core slabs uses a trademarked process that creates different
shapes to form the voids within the pieces. Information on the key types of hollow-core and the
signature shapes produced by each process can be found in the PCI Design Handbook
7thEdition. Load tables and span charts can be found on the website via the link on the right
under Design Resources.

Solid Slabs
Solid slabs are used as structural deck components similar to hollow-core slabs. They can be
made in a long-line pre-tensioning facility and reinforced with prestressing strand or cast in
individual forms with either prestressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They are
typically cast in the same position as used in the structure.

Sizes can vary to satisfy the structural requirements.

Typical widths: 4 to 12 ft.

Typical spans: 8 to 30 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 4 to 12 in.
Finishes: The form side (bottom) is smooth as cast and typically will remain that way in the
finished construction. When it is an exposed surface, it can remain as is or painted without
additional treatment. The top side is troweled to the desired degree of smoothness or may be
intentionally roughened to receive a cast-in-place concrete topping that will act compositely and
provide additional strength.

MODULAR COMPONENTS
Precasters can produce modular precast concrete units that include a roof, floor, front and back
walls, and two side walls if desired. The modules' key benefit, in addition to the speed with
which these building blocks can be erected on site, come from the precaster being able to outfit
and finish the modules at the plant so they arrive at the site nearly complete.
These units have been used for prison cells for many years, and their use is now being expanded
for school classrooms, hotel and motel rooms, and other applications where relatively small,
repetitive rooms are needed on a rapid schedule.

Prison-cell modules are the predominant method used for constructing justice facilities that
include prisons and jails. These structures can be single- or multi-level structures as high as 10
to 12 stories.
The modules are cast as single- or multi-cell units with as many as four cells in one monolithic
component. The configuration typically includes the inmate cell and a vertical chase between
cells for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing accommodations.

The formwork may be proprietary and is made using steel with mechanisms for adjustment and
functioning to strip the module from the form.

Finishes: Typically, the interior exposed walls are epoxy painted, and the module is outfitted
with as much of the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) accommodations as possible in
the producer's plant. Final fit up is done at the jobsite. Exterior walls can be made with
insulation similar to a sandwich wall panel and can receive virtually any kind of architectural
treatment.

MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS
Precast can be made into essentially any shape needed for a project. This section addresses a few
of the more common shapes or components that do not necessarily fit into one of the primary
categories. Designers are encouraged to discuss a project with a precaster early in the design
process to best find ways to optimize the design.

Stadium Risers
Stadium risers are used to support seating in stadiums, arenas, theaters, and other types of
grandstands. Typically, they are made as single, double, or triple risers with heights cast to
satisfy site lines in the venue. Specifying single, double, or triple risers will depend on the layout
and may be dictated by weights and crane access during construction.
Typical spans: 8 to 50 ft.

Finishes: The bottom and vertical sections of the riser are cast against the form and typically
will remain as cast in the final construction. The top (wearing surface) is typically troweled to
the desired degree.

Typical thicknesses: 6 to 10 in.

Finishes: When cast on edge, the tread and bottom remain as cast and typically will remain as
such in the final construction. When they are cast upside down, the bottom will be troweled to
the desired degree of smoothness and typically will remain exposed to view in the final
construction. Abrasive nosing pieces are often cast into the treads to create a non-slip surface.

Stadium/arena raker beams are discussed under Beams and Columns.

Stairs
Precast concrete stairs are used in any application where a stair tower or individual steps are
required. These modules can provide fast erection and durable access in buildings or parking
structures.
Column Covers
Column covers are usually a major focal point in a structure. These units may be broad or barely
wider than the column itself and run vertically up a structure. They often conceal structural
columns and may completely surround them at the ground level.

They typically are supported by the structural column or the floor and are designed to transfer
no vertical load other than their own weight. The vertical load of each length of column-cover
section is usually supported at one elevation and tied backat the top and bottom to the floors for
lateral load transfer and stability.
Typical shapes: C or U shaped (matching halves cover a structural column)
Typical sizes: One-story tall
Finishes: The exterior three sides of the column cover can be finished in any way desired
similar to an architectural precast concrete panel.

Typical shapes: Square or rectangle

Typical sizes: One or more stories, subject to limitations imposed by weight or hanging

Finishes: Three of the four sides are created with a form, as they are cast in a horizontal
position. They can be finished in a variety of ways, depending on the application and the
architectural purpose.

Mullions
Mullions are thin, often-decorative pieces that fill open space in a building faade. They are
often isolated elements forming a long vertical line, requiring them to be cast perfectly straight
to avoid any visual deformities. To some degree, these variations can be handled by precast
concrete connections with adjustability.

Sizes and shapes can vary to satisfy both architectural and structural requirements.

TRANSPORTATION COMPONENTS
Precast concretes structural and aesthetic versatility, resiliency, accelerated construction and
high degree of quality make it an excellent choice for bridges and other transportation structures
including noise barriers, median barriers and pavement systems. These are comprised of a
variety of shapes and components. This section addresses some of the most common shapes and
components used in the transportation industry. Designers are encouraged to discuss a project
with a precaster early in the design process to find the best ways to optimize the design.
Bridges Superstructure Components
There are several different shapes of beams used throughout the U.S. today for bridges, mostly
determined by a state. Here are an examples of the most common shapes and types:

Flat Slabs
Precast, prestressed flat slabs are used in short span bridges. They typically have spans between
25 and 45 feet between supports. They can have a concrete or asphalt wearing surface cast onto
the structure.

Slab units are Typical widths: 6 to 10 ft.

Typical spans: up to 45 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 12 to 24 in.

Adjacent Boxes
Adjacent box beams contain centric voids and are used to span short to medium distances with
shallow depth superstructure system. They also provide a stay in place formwork for a wearing
surface to be cast onto after installation.
Typical widths: 3 to 4 ft.
Typical spans: 30 to 120 ft.
Typical depths: 27 to 42 in.

Pretensioned Beams
Pretensioned, prestressed beams are the most common precast element used in the bridge
industry today. These are used in medium to long span bridges. The girders are typically placed
and made composite with a deck. The deck may be cast-in-place or precast.

Precast, prestressed concrete beams have been used widely for highway bridges throughout the
United States and the world. The simplest and most economical application for precast concrete
beam bridges is where full-span beams are used in the bridge. The full-span beams have most
often been used as simple spans, although continuity has also been established between spans
using a continuity diaphragm at interior piers and various methods to counter negative
moments.

For simple span, precast, prestressed concrete bridges using conventional materials, the
maximum spans for each standard section type are shown in Chapter 6 of the PCI BDM.
However, the excellent durability and structural performance, low maintenance, and low cost of
bridges using precast, prestressed concrete beams have encouraged designers to find ways to use
them for even longer spans.

Typical flange widths: 1 to 6 ft.

Typical spans: up to 210 ft.
Typical depths: 28 to 120 in.

Extending Span Ranges and Spliced Girders

A number of methods have been identified for extending the typical span ranges of prestressed
concrete beams. These include the use of the following:
 High-strength concrete

Larger strand size or strength

Modified section dimensions

o Widening the web

o Thickening or widening the top flange

o Thickening the bottom flange

o Increasing the section depth (haunch) at interior piers

o Casting the deck with the girder (deck bulb tee)

Lightweight concrete

Post-tensioning

Continuity

Use of pier tables

Of these methods, the use of high-strength concrete, lightweight aggregate concrete and
continuity are growing in popularity.

As designers attempt to use longer full-span beams, limitations on handling and transportation
are encountered. Some of the limitations are imposed by the states regarding the size and weight
of vehicles allowed on highways. Some states limit the maximum transportable length of a beam
to 120 ft and the weight to 70 tons. Other states have allowed precast beams with lengths up to
210 ft and weights in excess of 150 tons to be shipped by truck. Unique haul rigs capable of
expanding their footprint have a capacity of 340 kips. In other cases, the size of the erection
equipment may be limited, either by availability to the contractor or by access to the site. There
are sites where access will not allow long beams to reach the bridge.

When any of these limitations preclude the use of full-span beams, shorter beam segments can
be produced and shipped. These beam segments are then spliced together at or near the jobsite
or in their final location. The splices are located in the spans, away from the piers. The beam
segments are typically post-tensioned for the full length of the bridge unit, which can be either a
simple span or a multiple span continuous unit.

While the introduction of splices and post-tensioning increases the complexity of the
construction and adds cost, precast bridges of this type have been found to be very cost
competitive with other systems and materials. The longest span in a modern spliced beam
bridge in the United States is currently the 325- ft-long river span in a four-span bridge over the
Kentucky River near Gratz, Kentucky. This bridge was originally designed using a steel plate
girder, but was redesigned at the recommendation of the precaster to reduce project costs,
which clearly demonstrates the comparative economy of the spliced concrete beam system.

Typical flange widths: 1 to 4 ft.

Typical spans: up to 325 ft.
Typical depths: 28to 168 in.
Curved Girders
The use of precast concrete, horizontally curved bridge elements is not new to the industry. A
curved monorail guideway at Disneyland was built in the late 1960s and several similar projects
followed in the 1970s and 1980s. These ground-breaking projects were followed by the
Philadelphia, Pa., airport ramp bridge, designed and constructed in 1983. This bridge was the
first application of curved precast concrete girders for roadway bridges. It won the 1985 PCI
Harry H. Edwards Industry Advancement Award that identifies "...ideas and concepts that hold
the potential to move the precast and prestressed concrete industry to the next generation of
technology."

There are two additional publications related to curved girders. In 1988, PCI published a report
on the concept, analysis and design procedures, design alternatives, and fabrication techniques
recommended for horizontally curved precast concrete girders to construct curved bridges
(ABAM, 1988). This report describes a complete design for horizontally curved girders utilizing
closed sections with 5-in.-thick webs and top and bottom flanges. The girders are plant
assembled from 20-ft-long chorded segments and use external post-tensioning (inside the box
girder, but external to the concrete cross section). The second publication is Chapter 12 of the
PCI Bridge Design ManualSkewed and Curved Bridges. It provides a good overview of curved
bridge configurations, curved girder preliminary design, and structural behavior of curved-
girder bridges (PCI, 2011Sects. 12.3, 12.4, and 12.5).

While the use of curved precast concrete girders was successful in each of these applications, the
technology has not been widely accepted as an economic alternate to steel or cast-in-place
concrete construction in the United States until recently. The Park Avenue Bridge in Denver was
built in 1995 and won the 1999 PCI Design Award for long span bridges (PCI Design Award,
1999; McMullen et al., 2008) In 2004, the Arbor Road Bridge was designed and built in
Lancaster County, Neb., and won the 2006 PCI Design Award for medium span bridges (PCI
Design Award, 2006).

Between 2005 and 2010, seven different bridge projects were designed and constructed in
Colorado using plant manufactured curved precast concrete members with standard Colorado
Department of Transportation (CDOT) U-girder cross sections. Several projects, along with
CDOT objectives are described in McMullen et al. 2008. This more widespread use of curved
precast concrete construction in a defined geographical location with standardized sections has
greatly enhanced the economy of the technology. Each project was constructed in a highly urban
environment with curved members supported on modest amounts of temporary shoring (See
Fall 2010 Aspire article). This construction method enabled the owner to minimize traffic and
construction impacts on the travelling public during construction.

Typical widths: 10 to 12 ft.

Typical spans: up to 300 ft.
Typical depths: 72 to 132 in.

Bridge Substructure Components

There are number of different precast substructure elements, including:

Precast End Bents

Precast End Bent Caps are used in small and large structures
Typical widths: 2 to 4 ft.
Typical depths: 36 to 48 in.

Piles and Pile Bent Caps

Precast Pile and Pile Bent Caps are often used for accelerating bridge construction projects.
Typical widths: 2 to 8 ft.
Typical depths: 32 to 76 in.

Water line Pile caps with a CIP column

Similar to Pile bent caps, water line pile caps are designed to simplify dewatering operations and
accelerate construction.
Typical widths: 2 to 8 ft.
Typical depths: 36 to 84 in.

Precast Columns
Precast Columns are often used in bridge structures. Columns come in round and square shapes
depending on manufacturer, and are also available in custom shapes and finishes to meet
project needs.
Typical diameters: 2 to 4 ft.
Typical heights: up to 30 ft.

Pavement Slabs
Precast pavements slabs offer a quick and durable method of replacing pavement and returning
a roadway to service quickly. Slabs are available by select manufactures as both conventional
reinforced and prestressed. Precast construction involves the installation of prefabricated
concrete panels on grade. The panels themselves generally provide the final riding surface for
the finished pavement and do not require an asphalt or cementitious overlay. They are typically
used to replace existing pavement, but can also be used for new construction or to overlay
existing pavement.

Precast panels are generally provided in sizes to match the width of one, two, or three lanes of
the pavement, permitting one or multiple lanes of an existing pavement to be reconstructed at
one time, depending on site clearance constraints. The precast panels are generally oriented
transversely to the roadway centerline, and may also include shoulders. Panels may be
prestressed in both directions. The panels are installed on a prepared base, connected (dowel
bars or post-tensioned) together, and opened to traffic.

Typical widths: 10 to 12 ft.

Typical Lengths: 12 to 36 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 6 to 12 in.

Sound Walls/Noise Barriers

These structures are designed and located to meet requirements for noise abatement. They are
typically constructed with a post and panel configuration. The project noise study will specific if
the system is an absorptive or reflective design. They may include traffic barrier protections
when constructed adjacent to the travel lane. Typically these structures are designed to meet the
wind load requirements of the AASHTO Specification but designers should check state highway
agencies manuals.

Photo and project credit: Creative Form Liners, Inc.

Typical Support widths: 10 to 20 ft.

Typical heights: 12 to 24 ft.