Training Manual

Energy Institute High School

Energy Institute High School

Energy Institute High School

1808 Sampson Street, Houston, TX 77003
Phone: (713)-802-4620 Trisha Litong
Website: http://www.houstonisd.org/energy AP Biology
AP Biology Mein-Johnson
Mein-Johnson Fall 2016
Period 2
Page 2 References
Table of Contents The Parts of the Cell. Retrieved from https://
www.biologycorner.com/APbiology/cellular/notes_cells2.html
Carbohydrates 4
Urry, L. A., et al. (2014). Biology in Focus. Glenview, IL: Pearson
Lipids 5 Education, Inc.

Vander, Sherman, & Luciano. (1998). Disease at the Organelle

Proteins 6 Level, Version 7/e. Retrieved from http://www.mhhe.com/
biosci/ap/vander/student/olc/h-reading10.html.

Hydrolysis & Dehydration Synthesis 7 When Cell Communication Goes Wrong. Retrieved from http://
learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/badcom/.
Intracellular & Extracellular Fluid 8

Hyperglycemia & Hypoglycemia 9

Plasma Membrane 10

Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio 11

Passive & Active Transport 12

Bulk Transport & Homeostasis 13

Cell Signaling 14

Interrupted Signals & Their Effects 15

 References Page 3

Bodily Fluids. Retrieved from http://www.cengage.com/chemistry/

book_content/0495391123_bettelheim/91123_32_Ch32_
Table of Contents
OnlineChapter.pdf. Cellular Organelles 16-
Boundless. (2016, August 8). Fluid Compartments. Retrieved from
https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/ 18
boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/body-fluids-
and-acid-base-balance-26/body-fluids-246/fluid- Organelle Failure 19-
compartments-1208-1206/.
Cohen, B. Treatments and Therapy. Retrieved from http://
www.umdf.org/site/pp.aspx?
20
c=8qKOJ0MvF7LUG&b=7934635.
Bodily Fluid Transport 21-
Cunha, J. P. (2016, July 26). Edema. Retrieved from http://
www.medicinenet.com/edema/
page6.htm#why_do_people_with_kidney_disease_have_p 22
itting_edema.
Transport failure 23-
Davenport, S. G. (2006). Transport Processes. Retrieved from
http://www.mybiologyweb.com/FTP/Transport.pdf.
24
Delgado, A. (2016, February 19). Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT).
Retrieved from http://www.healthline.com/health/deep- References 25-
venous-thrombosis#Treatment4.

James, N. Interstitial Fluid: Definition, Pressure & Composition. Re- 27

trieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/interstitial-
fluid-definition-pressure-
composition.html#transcriptHeader.
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2015, July 7). Cystic fibrosis. Retrieved from
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cystic-
fibrosis/basics/symptoms/con-20013731.

Training Manual
Page 4 Page 25

Carbohydrates References
Function & Structure 10 Symptoms of Kidney Disease. Retrieved from http://
lifeoptions.org/kidneyinfo/ckdinfo.php?page=3.
Carbohydrates are sugars,
made out of monosaccha- (2006). Carbohydrates. Retrieved from http://www.hippocampus.org/
rides, also known as sim- player/
ple sugars. Examples of top-
simple sugars include glu- icText;jsessionid=8AFD3022DA97FF551BBD7F988E2906
cose, fructose, and galac- 4A?topic=163.
tose. The structure in-
cludes a carbon skeleton (2015, February 9). What Is Cancer? Retrieved from https://
that creates a ring shape. www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-
Carbohydrates provide the cancer#how-cancer-arises.
body with energy so that it
can do work. (2015, February 13). Symptoms of Tay-Sachs disease. Retrieved
Carbohydrate Polymers from http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Tay-Sachs-disease/
2 different types of polysaccharides include starch and cellulose. Pages/Symptoms.aspx.
Starch helps store energy in plants, and when animals consume
the plants, they also get energy from starch. The polysaccharide (2015). Passive transport and active transport across a cell mem-
is made up of multiple glucose monomers in a granular struc- brane article. Retrieved from https://
ture. www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-
Cellulose strands make up the strong fibers that strengthen
across-a-cell-membrane/a/passive-transport-and-active-
plants' structures. It is also a polysaccharide made up of glu-
transport-across-a-cell-membrane-article.
cose monomers, however the linkage differs from that of starch.
While starch's glucose monomers point in the same direction,
the glucose monomers in cellulose point in opposing directions. (2016, June 14). Lymph Transport. Retrieved from https://
www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-
anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/lymphatic-system-20/
lymphatic-vessels-192/lymph-transport-958-4522/.

(2016, August 8). Blood Flow Through the Body. Retrieved from
https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-
biology-textbook/the-circulatory-system-40/blood-flow-and
-blood-pressure-regulation-227/blood-flow-through-the-
body-854-12099/.
Page 24
Transport Failure cont.
Kidney Disease
Kidney disease can lead to edema in the tissue. Edema
can be caused when the water content of blood enters
interstitial fluid and swells the surrounding tissue. Wa-
ter is allowed into the blood when there is no albumin, a
protein in the blood, in the kidney to prevent it.
Symptoms of edema include:
>Heavy-feeling legs
>Shortness of breath
>Skin ulcers
Solutions to edema include less salt intake and ACE in-
hibitors such as benazepril and Lisinopril. ACE inhibi-
tors lower blood pressure and make up for the loss of
albumin in the kidney.
Click the link here to view the different types of kidney
disease symptoms: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=mPl_42Gk_mo
Page 5
Lipids
Function & Structure
Lipids are made out of long
chains of fatty acids and glyc-
erol, and they are hydropho-
bic. Their function is to store
energy, and they can store
more than polysaccharides.
Lipid Polymers
3 different types of lipids include fats, steroids, and phospholip-
ids. Fats can be saturated or unsaturated, depending on whether
or not there is a double bond between carbon atoms in the hy-
drocarbon chain of the fatty acid. The main function of fats is to
store energy.
Steroids have a carbon skeleton of four fused rings. Cholesterol
is a type of steroid that helps create other steroids like testos-
terone. Steroids help metabolize carbohydrates.
Finally, phospholipids make up cell membranes by providing the
phospholipid bilayer. They regulate what can go in and out of
the cell. Phospholipids are made up of only two fatty acids and
glycerol.
Page 6 Page 23

Proteins Transport Failure

Function & Structure
Proteins are made up of amino ac-
ids that combine and make poly-
peptides. There are twenty differ-
ent kinds of amino acids. Amino
acids are made up of an amino
group and a carboxyl group. Their
polymers, polypeptides, are three-
dimensional and folded into specif-
ic shapes. While all proteins have
specific functions, some of their functions include speeding up
chemical reactions, transporting molecules, and providing sup-
port for the cell.
Protein Polymers
2 different types of proteins include transport proteins and re-
ceptor proteins. Transport proteins enable molecules, like oxy-
gen, to enter or exit a cell's membrane. Receptor proteins re-
spond to chemical stimuli by transmitting signals inside the cell.
For example, receptors signal to the pancreas to release insulin
to allow glucose to enter the cells. All proteins' structures con-
sist of an amino acid sequence that creates a polypeptide chain
that folds into a distinct 3-D shape.
Thrombosis
When a clot of blood clogs up an artery, blood flow is pre-
vented, causing a decrease of oxygen in different parts of the
body. This condition is called thrombosis.
Symptoms of a specific type of thrombosis, Deep Vein
Thrombosis (DVT), include:
>Swelling of the joints
>Unexpected cramps (Charlie horses)
>Bluish or reddish appearance of the
skin
Solutions to DVT include blood thinners such as heparin.
Heparin prevents blood from clotting, thus decreasing the
risk of getting DVT. Another solution to DVT is compression
stockings which stops swelling of the joints and other re-
gions of the body where it attacks.
Kidney Failure
The kidney is used to filter and eliminate waste in the body
through urine. Kidney failure can be caused by diabetes and
high blood pressure. When this occurs, the organ can no
longer clean the blood.

Symptoms of kidney failure in-

clude:
>Change in urination schedule
>Fatigue
>Skin rash
>Metallic taste

Solutions to kidney failure include hemodialysis, which re-

stores electrolytes and eliminates urea (blood waste).
Page 22 Page 7

Bodily Fluid Transport cont. Hydrolysis & Dehydration Synthesis

Blood Transport Hydrolysis
Blood is an especially important bodily fluid that provides the Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of polymers, as it uses
water molecules to separate them into monomers. For example,
cells with oxygen. Blood is transported through the body in
saliva excretes from the
the circulatory system. Oxygenated blood is pumped away
salivary glands inside the
from the heart, through the aorta, arteries, aterioles, and final- mouth, and is made up of
ly into the capillary beds. From the capillary beds, the blood mostly water. It helps
is dispersed to the body's cells, providing oxygen. Deoxy- break down food so that
genated then flows through the venules, veins, venae cavae, it can be digested and the
and finally back into the heart. nutrients can be used by
the body. This affects the
organs in the digestive
Lymph Transport system. Additionally,
Lymph, located in the interstitial space of tissues, is another hydrolysis can be used to
important bodily fluid. It holds the white blood cells and break up polypeptides
bathes the cells in the into amino acids. This would affect the endocrine system and
body. It is transport- the nervous system because proteins are used to signal from
cell to cell.
ed through the body,
starting from the lym-
Dehydration Synthesis
phatic capillaries to
afferent vessels into Dehydration synthesis is the process of removing water mole-
cules to connect monomers into polymers. Every organ system
lymph nodes. The
is affected by dehy-
lymph is then trans-
dration synthesis,
ported from the
because that is
nodes into efferent how biomolecules
vessels to another are made. For ex-
node or lymph trunk. ample, when glu-
Finally from the cose loses a hydro-
lymph trunk, it makes gen atom and fruc-
it way back into the tose loses a hy-
venae cavae into droxyl group, they
blood circulation. come together to
form the polymer
Click here to learn about the circulatory system (video):
sucrose.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJzJKvkWWDc
Page 8 Page 21

Intracellular & Extracellular Fluid Bodily Fluid Transport

There are two types of bodily fluid --extracellular fluid and intracellu-
lar fluid. Bodily fluid is transported through the body in either active
or passive processes. What separates the two processes is that
active needs energy to occur while passive does not.

Active transport of fluid include:

Primary
Primary active transport us-
es ATP to directly move de-
sired molecules across the
cell's permeable membrane.
Secondary
Secondary active transport
occurs when molecules are
indirectly moved across the
Intracellular Fluid cell's membrane when another fluid is transported.

Cytosol is the intracellular fluid, and it is made of pro-
teins, ions, and organelles dissolved in water. It holds
organelles of the cell in suspension.
Extracellular Fluid
Extracellular fluid is all of the fluid surrounding the cell,
and it is made of blood plasma, interstitial fluid, and
transcellular fluid. Blood plasma holds blood cells in
suspension, and it contains proteins and glucose, so
the levels of sugar in the blood needs to be monitored
in IV fluids. Interstitial fluid bathes the cells of the body
and is found in between tissue spaces. It contains dis-
solved proteins and solutes, such as sugar, electro-
lytes, and hormones. Thus, it is important to make sure
the amount of solutes inside and outside the cell are
balanced and achieve homeostasis. Transcellular fluid
is the measure of total body water, which is usually
about 2.5%.
Passive transport of fluid include:
Osmosis
Osmosis occurs when water is diffused across the plasma
membrane. Water travels through aquaporins, water chan-
nels, found within the membrane. It moves from a high water
concentration to a low water concentration.
Dialysis
Dialysis separates solutes by
the size of their molecules. It
determines which solutes can
enter the selectively permeable
membrane of the cell.
Filtration
In filtration, a driving pressure forces fluid through the filter of a cell.
The cell can filter what molecules can pass through depending on
the size of the pores of its membrane.
Page 20
Organelle Failure Cont.
Mitochondrial Disease
Mitochondrial disease occurs when the mito-
chondria of the cell cease to work. Since the
mitochondria provide the cell with energy, cell
injury and death can ensue. Treatment of mito-
chondrial disease include continuous flow of
glucose into the body. IV fluids such as 5%
dextrose can provide the body energy it is lack-
ing.
Symptoms of mitochondrial disease include:
>Weakness
>Difficulty swallowing
>Slow or poor physical development
>Seizures
>Poor motor control
Page 9
Hyperglycemia & Hypoglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia, also known as high blood sugar, can affect those
who have diabetes. In hyperglycemia, there is too much sugar in
the blood cells, which can lead to hardening of the blood ves-
sels. This can make circulation throughout the body become
difficult and can lead to heart attacks or kidney disease. The
concentration of sugar in the intracellular fluid is higher than the
concentration in the extracellular fluid so IV fluids are needed to
combat it. Half normal saline can prevent hyperglycemia by ex-
panding the blood cells and rehydrating them. Symptoms an
employee should watch for include frequent urination, increased
thirst, high sugar content in the urine, and abdominal pain. All of
these are signs of hyperglycemia.
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia, also known as low blood sugar, also affects
those who have diabetes. There is not enough sugar in the
blood cells which provides the body with energy. An isotonic
solution of 5% dextrose combats hypoglycemia by providing the
cells with the energy they need. Being an isotonic solution, the
osmotic pressure of the intracellular and extracellular fluids on
the cell is equal. Symptoms an employee should watch for in-
clude shakiness, sweatiness, chills, and lack of coordination.
Page 10
Plasma Membrane
Basic Components
The plasma membrane regulates what enters and exits
the cell with selective permeability. It also provides the
cell with a basic structure. Its basic components are
lipids in the form of phospholipids and cholesterol,
proteins, and carbohydrates. The phospholipids and
proteins create the cells barrier but also allow mole-
cules to pass through. Phospholipids come in a pair,
creating a phospholipid bilayer. The proteins help push
molecules through the bilayer, and the carbohydrates
attach to proteins on the outside of the membrane to
create more lipids.
Selective Permeability
The phospholipid bilayer allows nonpolar, hydrophobic
molecules to enter the membrane easily, but it does not
allow polar, hydrophilic molecules to pass through. Ad-
ditionally, transport proteins across the membrane are
specified and determine which molecules are allowed to
enter the cell. All of these components to the mem-
brane result in selective permeability because they reg-
ulate what can or cannot enter the cell. (Shown on pg. 9)
Page 19
Organelle Failure
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis occurs when ion channels of the cellular
membrane do not let water pass through the lung cell.
This disease does not have a cure but half normal saline
can be used to prevent the dehydration that occurs.
Symptoms of cystic fibrosis include:
>Mucus-filled coughs
>Wheezing
>Breathlessness
>Stuffy nose
Tay-Sachs Disease
Tay-Sachs disease occurs when lysosomes swell to
massive proportions due to the build of fat in the nerve
cells. Fat builds up because the cell lacks the enzymes
in the lysosome that would regularly recycle waste.
This disease does not have a cure, but testing for the
gene carrying the disease is advised before conception.
Symptoms of Tay-Sachs include:
>Blindness
>Deafness
>Difficulty swallowing
>Seizures
>Cherry-red spot visible in eye
Page 18
Cellular Organelles cont.
Organelles only found in plant cells:
10. Cell wall
The cell wall is the rigid layer of protection for the
cell, working together with the plasma membrane.
11. Chloroplast
Chloroplasts aid in photosynthesis which converts
energy from the sun into food. Chloroplasts work
together with the mitochondria as the food is bro-
ken down and converted into ATP.
12. Central vacuole
The central vacuole stores and breaks down waste,
and within it, the process of hydrolysis occurs. It
also aids in plant growth when enlarged.
Click here to watch a video comparing plant cells
and animal cells: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=mnWm-RjBKcM
Page 11
Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio
Why do cells need a high surface area-to volume ratio?
Cells require such a high surface area-to-volume ratio
because they need to be able to diffuse necessary raw
materials into themselves. The size of the cell deter-
mines the size of the plasma membrane, which in turn
determines the importation or exportation of molecules
in and out of the cell. The smaller the cell, the surface
area-to-volume ratio raises, and the faster it can diffuse
raw materials into itself. On the other hand, if the cell is
bigger, the surface area-to-volume ration lowers, and it
takes a longer time for raw materials to provide for it.
Click the link here to see a visual explanation of the sur-
face area-to-volume ratio: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=xuG4ZZ1GbzI
Page 12 Page 17

Passive & Active Transport Cellular Organelles cont.

Passive Transport 5. Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus packages and
Passive transport does not require energy to move molecules
across the cellular membrane. This process moves a mole- distributes proteins that enter it from
cule from a high concentration to a low concentration using the endoplasmic reticulum. It also
facilitated diffusion. This allows small molecules with no helps in removing waste from the cell
charge to slip through the concentration gradient easier. If by packaging it in vesicles to be
there is higher concentration outside of the cell, passive transported outside.
transport will work so that the molecules come into the cell
and vice versa, if there is higher concentration inside of the 6. Ribosomes
cell. For passive transport, selective permeability typically Ribosomes aid in protein synthesis
allows only small molecules that have no charge into the cell. and by reading messenger RNA
Active Transport delivered from the nucleus.
Active transport requires energy to move molecules across
7. Lysosomes
the cellular membrane. This process moves a substance
from a low concentration to a high concentration using a
Lysosomes are vesicles used to recycle or-
chemical energy in the form of ATP. The transport goes ganelles and digest particles located in the
against the concentration gradient instead of going with it like vacuoles.
in passive transport.
There are two types of 8. Mitochondrion
active transport: primary The mitochondrion is the powerhouse of
and secondary. Primary the cell because it is where cellular respi-
active transport uses ration occurs and ATP, a form of energy,
chemical energy while is created.
secondary active
transport uses electro-
chemical gradient to
9. Peroxisome
move molecules. For ac- The peroxisome breaks down fatty acids and converts
tive transport, selective them so that the mitochondria can break it down further
permeability allows ener- into water and hydrogen peroxide.
gy to move molecules
that would not regularly enter the cell into it.
Click the link to watch a video about active and passive
transport: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfy92hdaAH0
Page 16 Page 13

Cellular Organelles Bulk Transport & Homeostasis

In a cell, there are multiple organelles that interact with each Endocytosis & Exocytosis
other.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are the two types of bulk
1. Nucleus transport. Endocytosis engulfs molecules into the cell
The nucleus is considered the brain of the cell membrane in three different ways: phagocytosis, pino-
as it includes the cells instructions contained cytosis, and receptor-mediated. Exocytosis releases
in DNA. It interacts with the cytoplasm as it substances out of the cell membrane, such as ridding
delivers instructions to it through messenger waste and releasing proteins. The size of the cell and
RNA. The RNA helps produce ribosomes in the size of the protein channels in its membrane deter-
the cytoplasm, which then can be used to cre- mines what molecules or ions can pass through. This is
ate proteins. how the structure of the cell membrane results in selec-
tive permeability.
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
The ER can be either rough or smooth, and
they help with metabolic processes and mem-
brane synthesis. Ribosomes are found on the
rough ER, and they work together to create
proteins which is later transported to the Golgi
apparatus. The smooth ER contains enzymes,
a type of protein, that aids in hormonal production.

3. Flagellum
The flagellum is what motors the cell, and it is
attached to the cytoplasm of the cell through the
plasma membrane. It works with the cytoskele-
ton during the cell's movement.
Homeostasis
4. Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton provides the cell with structural support
In order to maintain homeostasis, the intracellular and
and works together with the flagellum to give the cell mobili- extracellular conditions are constantly changing.
ty. Transport maintains homeostasis because it allows the
cell to remove waste but also take in nutrients.
Transport plays the role of making sure the cell is in a
stable condition.
Page 14
Cell Signaling
Cells signal each other so that the body can perform its
many tasks. Paracrine signaling occurs in animal cells
by one cell secreting local regulator molecules into the
extracellular fluid and onto neighboring cells. Synaptic
signaling uses electrical signals traveling through the
nerve cells of the nervous system. The nerve cells emit
neurotransmitter molecules across a synapse to alert
the target cell. Both paracrine signaling and synaptic
signaling occur over a short distance. For long dis-
tance signals, hormones are used through endocrine
signaling. Cells release hormone molecules into the
extracellular fluid and they travel through the body by
aid of the circulatory system.
Overall, there are three steps that take place during cell
signaling. They are reception, transduction, and re-
sponse. During reception, the target cell recognizes a
molecule coming into the cell. During transduction, the
signal changes and becomes more specified for the de-
sired cellular response. Finally, during response, the
signal produced triggers a response that causes activi-
ty.
Page 15
Interrupted Signals & Their Effects
Cancer
During autocrine signaling, other cells usually signal their neigh-
bors to stop and enter cell death. However, if these signals are
interrupted or ignored, cancer cells can affect normal cells sur-
rounding it, and a tumor begins to grow. Because cancer cells
are not as specialized or mature as regular cells, they can go un-
noticed by the immune system while harming the rest of the
body.
Diabetes
Cells of the pancreas release insulin, a hormone, that allows glu-
cose to be stored for energy in other cells. However, when pan-
creas' cells signals are interrupted, the insulin signal dies out
and sugar begins to build up in the blood. This can cause high
blood sugar and diabetes. Diabetes can lead to heart attack, kid-
ney disease, and also blindness.
Multiple Sclerosis
During synaptic signaling, nerve cells can
be destroyed and cannot emit signals from
nerve to nerve. This can cause multiple
sclerosis because the brain cannot send
signals to the spinal cord. Symptoms of
multiple sclerosis include blurry vision,
numbness, and weakness in the body.