Cellular Telephony

Past
Present
Future

CIS 651: MOBILE

APPLICATION
PROGRAMMING
The Journey to 5G and beyond
ABSTRACT:

Communication abilities with people on the move have remarkably evolved since Guglielmo Marconis 1897-
first demonstration of contact with English Channel sailing ships. With each passing generational leap in
Mobile Communications Systems deployment, the unified solution of communication with mobility has
redefined and revolutionized the way people communicate by ensuring connectivity on the go, anywhere and
everywhere. In a relatively short span of time, wireless access technologies have evolved and reached its fourth
generation (4G) with hand in hand research readying itself for the deployment of the fifth generation (5G)
technology.

INTRODUCTION:

Cellular Telephony more commonly known as Mobile Telephony is nothing more that the concept that
provisions phones with telephone services keeping in mind the aspect of mobility as against fixed location
concept of the olden days. The evolution of Cellular Telephony saw its upgrades in the form of Generations, as
may be seen:

Figure 2

GENERATIONAL JOURNEY TO 5G

The first generation (1G) provided for the basic mobile voice requirements, while the deployment of second
generation (2G) introduced capacity and coverage. To follow, the third generation (3G) opened the gates for a
true mobile broadband experience in addition to higher speeds of data rates whilst the fourth generation (4G)
aims to provide wide range access of telecommunication services which included mobile services which were
supported by advanced deployments of fixed and mobile networks along with mobility applications and wide
range of data rates in multiuser environments. Lastly, the fifth generation (5G) aims at integrating not just
people (as were in the prior four generations) but also creating a meshed network that connects both things and
people in unison. (Amit Kumar) (Sharma)
Though the evolution in the Mobile world occurred in Generations, the scope of transition between the
technologies created much confusion in the minds of people due to the simultaneous developments and
implementations of the same in the different parts of the world. Keeping this in mind, I have tried to simplify
the matter by providing a little insight about the technologies that were and are being implemented world over
through Generational deployments by broadly categorizing the same as:
Past
Past-Present
Present-Future
Future

PAST
Somewhere along the lines of deployment of the 1979, Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) in Tokyo,
Japan and Nordic Mobile Telephones (NMT) and Total Access Communication Systems (TACS) in 1980 in
Europe, the United States launched the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in 1982. (Amit Kumar)
(Ainscough)

These were all the First Generation (1G) systems which used Analog Transmission for speech services.
(Analog Transmission is a method of conveying information in the form of continuous signals by varying
amplitude, frequency or phase)

AMPS was based on FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access) technology and it allocated a 40MHz
bandwidth offering 832 channels with a data rate of 10kbps within the 800-900 MHZ frequency range.
FDMA is a technique where in users an individually allocated one or more frequency bands or channels.

Fi
gure 3 Figure 4 Figure
5

AMPS PHONE FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS N-AMPS PHONE

A later revised implementation of AMPS was the N-AMPS (Narrowband AMPS) which differed from AMPS
only in terms of its bandwidth (BW =10 kHz) and antenna orientation-now of directional type as against the
Omni directional antennas. Its capacity was thrice that of AMPS and in operated in the 800MHz band. It was an
interim type technology developed by Motorola. Its technology lay somewhere between the analog and digital
world of deployment

TACS used the 900MHz band of frequency operation. In its initial implementation, TACS phones were vehicle
mounted, however later mobile units were also developed.
Both the NTT and TACS lacked the functionality to operate between countries however; they were equipped to
provide handoff and roaming capabilities (within country).

Some of the other 1G technologies included paging systems, cordless phones, mobile satellite systems etc.
Depending on the type of service, paging systems were used to send brief messages to subscribers in numeric or
alphanumeric form to notify them of the need to call a specific telephone number or be redirected to a particular
location to receive further instructions. Cordless Telephone Systems used full duplex communication (two way
simultaneous communications) to communicate back and forth voice messages. Traditional Cellular Telephone
Systems consisted of three basic components in its infrastructure:

Mobile Stations (hand held personal units or installed in vehicles)

Base Stations (BTS) and
Mobile Switching Centres (MSC)

A simple representation of the same may be depicted as follows:

Figure 6

CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEM

As seen the MSC (more commonly referred to as the MTSO- Mobile Telephone Switching Office)
connects all mobiles to the PSTN- Public Switched Telephone Network. The Base stations are all centred
about the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) defined within cell boundaries (hexagonal shaped) to take control
of all handoff operations thereby ensuring free mobility between mobile vehicular entities crossing over
boundaries.
(Handoff is the concept whereby mobile stations are transferred from one base station to another so as to
ensure call connectivity even beyond cell boundaries.
A Transceiver is a device capable of transmitting and receiving radio signals simultaneously)

Major Service Providers very much involved with the 1G Phone were Nokia, Motorola etc.
 Figure 7 Figure 8

TACS PHONE NOKIA AND MOTOROLA 1G PHONES

An annual growth of nearly 20 million subscribers was recorded with the introduction of 1G phone in 1990.

Though the advent of mobility proved advantageous to the mobile world, the 1G technology failed in many
aspects when looked into closely. Some of the limitations and disadvantages of 1G was that:

i) It was making use of a less effect mean of transmission being based on analog technology- using
analog signals as compared to digital signals.
ii) Significantly slower and restricted by distance limitations.
iii) Easily suffered interference problems and hence was difficult to use.

All of these reasons and the urge to cope with growing number of users forced technology to take the next step
forward by researching and deploying 2G systems.

In comparison to first-generation systems, the second-generation (2G) systems used digital multiple access
technology, such as TDMA (time division multiple access) and CDMA (code division multiple access).

The TDMA technique shared the same frequency channel amongst many users by providing each user a
different time slot. This helped cater to the growing subscriptions to some extent. Alternatively, CDMA allowed
users to share the same band of frequencies based on a special coding scheme technique whereby the
transmitters were assigned codes. This further helped quantize the number of subscribers increasing at an
exponential rate.
 Figure 9 Figure 10

TDMA CDMA

Some of the other 2G Cellular Systems included digital-AMPS (D-AMPS) and Personal Digital
Communications (PDC).
A variation of AMPS which uses 3-timeslot variation of TDMA is the Digital AMPS. Its infrastructure is so
built that it can operate on either analogue-AMPS phones or digital AMPS phones. Both are operational in the
800MHz band.
PDCs were defined by RCR of Japan in April 1991.
PCS (Personal Communication Services) are the 1900MHz operated devices in Canada, Mexico and USA.

In the view of deploying these researched technologies, the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
was deployed in Europe in the 1990s so as to provide a single unified standard. The main objective behind
unifying a standard for deployment was to enable seamless services by means of international roaming
throughout Europe. The implementation of GSM followed a set of standards called GSM Specifications that
contained evolutionary phase by phase deployment and can be seen as:

Figure 11

GSM EVOLUTIONARY CONCEPT

A basic architectural representation of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) may be as seen:

Figure 12

GSM ARCHITECTURE

The main elements of a GSM system as may be seen include:

a) BSS (Base Station Subsystem) in which there are
i) BTS (Base Transceiver Station) and a
ii) BSC (Base Station Controllers);
b) NSS (Network Switching Subsystem), in which there is
i) MSC (Mobile Switching Centre);
c) VLR (Visitor Location Register);
d) HLR (Home Location Register);
e) AC (Authentication Centre) and
f) EIR (Equipment Identity Register). (Amit Kumar)

The GSM Architecture and working is based on GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying) scheme.

The working of GSM in its simplest or slightly modified structure forms the basis of operation for the
generations to follow. Following 2G deployment, parallel deployments ran around in the different parts of the
world. Whilst the European and Asian Mobile Markets were busy researching and deploying GSM architecture,
the Western world was adopting a whole different cdmaOne type technology. Since during the same point of
time, some service providers had took the leap of researching on the third generation (3G) of deployment of
services, an interim generation was called to be named.

Prior to the evolution to a Packet Switched environment, smaller deployments of High Speed Circuit Switched
Data (HSCSD) were also seen. Data rates offered by HSCSD (57.6kbps) were much better in comparison to
what GSM technology offered (9.6kbps). However the inabilities and the high competency of offering more
feasible solutions at affordable rates so as to maintain a steady pace of growth amongst the subscribers adding
caused closure to research and development in Circuit Switched Technology thereby redirecting all efforts and
concentration to a newer form of Packet Switched implementation.

The GPRS technology was up for grabs from the very time of its implementation and deployment because of its
luring offer feature of 115kbps data rate. In addition, the affordability of the service and the not much to modify
from a GSM implementation proved an advantageous strategy in ensuring the sales of GPRS enabled phones
within markets all across the world however with the European and Asian markets more dominant.

A GSM based, 2.5G- GPRS architecture representation may be shown as follows:

Figure 14

GPRS ARCHITECTURE

The transition into the 2.5G world began with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). GPRS is a radio
technology for GSM networks that transitioned from 2G by making additions like adapting to packet-switching
protocols, shorter ISP connection setup times, and the possibility to charge by the amount of data sent, rather
than connection time. (Amit Kumar)
(Packet switching is a technique whereby the information sent in the form of voice or data is broken into
packets of a few Kbytes size, which are then routed between different destinations based on addressing data
within each packet by the networks involved). (Amit Kumar)

One of the most striking advantages of 2.5 G was the optimized use of network resources whilst handling
packets within a network. Also the support for flexible data transmission rates alongside continuous connection
to the network proved beneficial to this Generation of deployment. (Amit Kumar)

The addition of two platforms called:

Voice Mail Service (VMS) and the
Short Message Service Centre (SMSC) may be regarded as the next advancements in GSM.
These were basically Value Added Services (VAS) which provided GSM system operators with the
opportunities to come up with a whole new range of intelligent services thereby enhancing the performance of
the existing technology by providing Fraud Management and prepaid like services. (Amit Kumar)

The deployment of cdmaOne in the Western world saw operators strive to make provisions for delivering wide
range of not just voice but also data services via various media considerations thereby suiting a complex mix f
user demands using the same network. The cdmaOne technology was deployed in two phases IS-95 A and IS-
95 B. The latter was only an improvised and more sophisticated approach of the preceding with additional
features that helped in driving the sales of cdmaOne phones to newer heights. Some of the highlights of
cdmaOne were the hard handoff algorithms in multiuser environments alongside soft handoff implementations
to make the technology more feasible and affordable. The diagram to follow showcases cdmaOne architectural
implementation:

Figure 14

cdmaOne ARCHITECTURE

The functionality of the blocks in cdmaOne are very much similar to those in the GSM architecture.
Though cdmaOne networks werent precisely the first providers to offer data access, the network was primarily
designed to accommodate data. However this factor still did not mark the worldwide recognition to this
technological development and hence, an implementation called cdma2000 was implemented so as to promote
the worldwide frequency band to a higher degree of recognition in addition to supporting higher data rates. The
implementation of cdma2000 was categorized n two phases bearing a primary difference in the bandwidth and
resulting throughput speed i.e. peak data rate capability. Adapting most of its functionality from the previously
deployment cdmaOne network, with a little tweaking around with the upgrades of the devices involved, a
cdma2000 network architecture was derived in the year 2000 (hence the name). The diagrammatic
representation of the same is as follows:

Figure 15

cdma2000 ARCHITECTURE

As can be seen, the revised network architecture implemented in 2000 was a much more sophisticated structure
as compared to the 1995 deployment. cdma2000 marked the deployment of the first 3G (third generation)
technology which gained recognition world over thereby substantially contributing to the exponentially
increasing subscriber rate.

Some of the key Service Providers and Manufacturers: Nokia, Motorola, LG, Samsung etc.
 Figure 16

cdmaOne & cdma2000 PHONES

PAST-PRESENT

With the onset of 3G technologies providing a layout for not just voice but also data, need was felt to upgrade
to a technology that having capabilities of providing reliable faster speed delivery services. In a triumphant
effort of research, the deployment of EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) marked the use of
sophisticated coding schemes over the internet thereby ensuring high data rate speeds of up to 384kbps
double that of what GPRS was offering. As to go with the change in implementations of the GSM architecture a
recorded minimal change was attributed whilst implementing EDGE as it was a TDMA, enhanced GSM
upgrade. Deployment of EDGE marked the birth of 3G!

Whilst cdma2000 was an American variant of deployment, the European market implemented a similar
architecture and called it IMT2000 (named by International Telecommunication Union (ITU)). An organization
called 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) continually strived in implementing IMT2000 and based its
implementation on what the European markets called UMTS (Universal Terrestrial Mobile System) whose air
interface was based on W-CDMA. Another key noting difference between the two very similar technologies
lied in the upgrade to a higher downlink speed of 2Mbps and an uplink speed of 384kbps. (Amit Kumar)

The representation to follow the below mentioned description is that of the UMTS Architecture.

The main components of the UMTS architecture included:

a) BS (Base Station) or node B,
b)RNC (Radio Network Controller), besides the
c)WMSC (Wideband CDMA Mobile Switching Centre) and
d) SGSN/GGSN.
 Figure 17

UMTS ARCHITECTURE

Besides achieving greater network capacity through improved spectral efficiency this variant of 3G technology
also made provisions for services to include wide-area wireless voice telephony, video calls, and broadband
wireless data, in an all-mobile environment. In addition features like HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) data
transmission with capabilities to deliver speeds of 5.8 Mbps on the uplink and up to 14.4 Mbps on the downlink
were also seen gaining much recognition and research. (Amit Kumar)

Some of the leading Service Providers and Manufacturers of 3G phones are: Verizon Wireless, SK Telecom,
DoCoMo, Blackberry, and Hutchinson etc.

Fig
ure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22

VERIZON WIRELESS SK TELECOM DoCoMo BLACKBERRY HUTCHINSON

Another UMTS based enhanced 3G technology deployed to provide higher data speed rates and curtail the
exponentially growing capacity of subscription is HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access). As of 2013,
HSDPA supports downlink speed of as high as 42.3 Mbps. This technology was also referred to as dubbed
3.5G/3G+ / turbo 3G.

Hand in hand upgrades were seen to have been made in the wireless telecommunication broadband area with
the birth of HSPA+ (Evolved High Speed Packet Access). One of the first releases of definition for this standard
was seen in 3GPPs (3rd Generation Partnership Project) release 7 which stated that the speeds offered by
deployment of HSPA+ would provide end users the satisfaction of use which was comparable to the newly
deployed fourth generation (4G) LTE (Long Term Evolution) networks.

Leading US service providers providing HSPA+ services included AT&T and T-mobile.

Whilst most service providers like Verizon Wireless, AT&T, and T-mobile begun full scale research by diving
into the realms of LTE networks, Sprint was the only US service provider who chose to stray the LTE path and
begin a new research trying to work their way through WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access) The initial implementation of WiMAX yielded data rates of 30-40 Mbps equivalency with latest 2011
updates that housed 1Gbps speed. Though WiMAX was seen as a last mile wireless delivery of broadband
access and an alternative to DSL and cables, the large scale deployment of the same has been a pretty delayed
event. In comparison to Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity), WiMAX has a much large coverage area (as shown).

Figure 23

WiMAX in comparison to Wi-Fi

One of the most recent deployments and implementations being marketed in the mobile world is the fourth
generation (4G) LTE standard which is based on GSM/EDGE & UMTS/HSPA network technologies. The
first definition with specifications for this standard was seen in 3GPPs release 8 document series with minor
modifications and enhancements in release 9. It is much anticipated that LTE will form the true basis of a
standardized mobile standard world over. Full fledged deployments in almost all parts of the world have created
much stir in the minds of not just tech savvy users but also service providers and equipment manufacturers. A
diagrammatic representation of the architecture is as seen:

Figure 24

LTE ARCHITECTURE
Some of the highlights in the 4G LTE specifications included:
1) High data rates at high speeds supporting bit rates with speeds comparable to a person walking past a bullet
train. Uplink: 50Mbps, Downlink: 100Mbps (Voice Communications) and UL: 100Mbps, DL: 1Gbps (Data)

2) Reduced Gigabyte costs High Capacity Systems.

3) Reduced latency Quick response time systems.

4) Optimized Packet Switching Ideal to support VoIP and data

5) Cost Efficient Planning Minimum frequency planning, maximum 2G/3G spectrum reusability, bandwidth
flexibility.

PRESENT-FUTURE

The fourth Generation standard, aims at providing users with the ease of flexibility and freedom to choose a
desired service provider with reasonable quality of service at an affordable price anytime, anywhere- on the go.
Though the onset of 4G technology marketing begun way back in 2010, implementation statistics reveal that a
4G mobile communication system mass market will be in full fledge deployment by the end of this year or
latest by the start of next year.

Figure 25

4G LTE SUBSCRIPTION PREDICTIONS

Exponentially increasing growth of user demands and the emergence of new technologies in the mobile world
have triggered minds of not just researchers but also to come up with a comprehensive manifestation of the
fourth generation (4G) mobile communication system. (Amit Kumar)

Another future prospect is an enhanced LTE upgrade called LTE Advanced which primarily targets to reach and
surpass the ITU requirements. Some of the considerations worth looking for whilst designing the infrastructure
of LTE Advanced would include:

i) Should be compatible with first release LTE equipment,

 ii) Should share frequency bands with first release LTE.

Both these considerations quite clearly lay emphasis on the backward compatibility of LTE Advanced with its
previously deployed standard thereby striving to create a closely meshed Macro Communication Network. The
closely meshed network primarily arises when Pico nets merge to form Micro nets which intern combine to
form bigger sized Macro nets. An illustration of the same is as follows:

Figure 26

LTE Advanced IMPLEMENTATION

An optimization of heterogeneous networks with a mix of macro cells with low power nodes like Pico cells,
Femto cells and new relay nodes alongside the advanced topology networks, proves to be the most beneficial
and important aspect of LTE Advanced. Besides providing very high data rates, LTE Advanced will implement
the introduction of multicarrier which will basically enhance the capabilities of the standard to use ultra wide
bandwidth of around 100MHz spectrum. Apart from the multiple access schemes included in LTE Advanced:
enhanced multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) channel transmission techniques coordinated multipoint
(CoMP) transmission/reception. (Sharma)

FUTURE
The Fifth Generation in my opinion will envision a Smarter Communicative World!

The future of the wireless industry is being shaped and designed right now with the most recent deployments of
4G LTE systems. In the view of making a word a more comfortable, less expensive, effective and pleasurable
experience IoT (Internet of Things) and M2M (Machine to Machine Communications) aim at researching on
existing technology and up scaling it to greater heights. Machine to Machine Communication is just a practical
approach at implementing Internet of Things which envisions Earth as a smarter planet. Alongside the
automobile industry seems to be fast catching up with the pace of developments in the wireless industry with its
research and development in the field of automated cars! Other contributing factors include Big Data,
Virtualization and Cloud Computing. (Ainscough)

In addition, some of the developments Id like to see in near future would be, not having to remember what is
over in my fridge back home whilst I am at work, remembering to put lights on/off when not in use, not having
to remember to brew coffee once I am up, not keeping track of whether or not my grandma took her pills on
time etc. However, the challenge I see that will arise is to accommodate and cater to the needs of so many
individuals on limited band of allocation in IPv6. Also, another factor of grave concern are the security aspects
(besides the networking ones being faced at present) of how to assure secrecy of the information being
accessed. But it must be noted that, all these concerns will one by one be eliminated during the successful
completion of phases of deployment which begin in full swing this year onwards.

The Fourth Generation network that is being deployed currently will encompass all systems from various
networks, public to private; operator-driven broadband networks to personal areas; and ad hoc networks such
that it will interoperate with 2G and 3G systems, as well as with digital (broadband) broadcasting systems. In
addition, 4G systems will be a fully IP-based wireless Internet which will provide access to wide range of
telecommunication services, including advanced mobile services, supported by mobile and fixed networks,
which are increasingly packet based, along with a support for low to high mobility applications and wide range
of data rates, in accordance with service demands in multiuser environment.
The Fifth Generation of network will ensure functioning and interoperability between all developed fields of
technology whereby wireless transfer of information will help save tons of time whilst communicating.

Talking about the list major traffic contributors to 5G systems to be deployed would include:

Major Contributors: Wireless Cloud

Banking Computing

Big
Data

Internet of
Things

Connected
Cars

Figure 27

In specific an insight on the two most significant contributors of 5G traffic include:

 A) The Internet of Things
B) Machine to Machine Communication

The Internet of Things (IoT) has been recently gaining a lot of traction in the cyber landscape as of late. With
advancements in technology starting from the beginning of the 21 century, manufacturers have really been able
to bring this once very novel concept into fruition. Advancements from leading technologists, service providers,
and consumer manufacturers have truly developed what has turned into a model, concept, and vision for the
future. As with any new technology, there have also been some major concerns around this breakthrough
concept. Concerns have been around capacity, privacy, morality, and crime. There are sincere concerns that the
Internet of Things as a system has the capacity to ruin some core principles of society and culture. Developers
and technologists are looking at ways to alleviate some of the concerns through incorporating the necessary
mitigating measures within their software. However, there are some great benefits of adopting the internet of
things into everyday lifestyles and this is much of the reason why it has had so much success across various
industries around the world. Like most revolutions, productivity is a huge claimed benefit of incorporating the
Internet of things into products. Personalization is another major benefit of the Internet of things because its
ability to constantly adapt to what the user is doing and how other users are being affected and in turn affecting
another is brought upfront. While protection is a concern, there are also many protective benefits that the IoT
can offer. As of right now the internet of things is still in a very novice state. Devices have begun to be
incorporated with the internet of things. However, it is in no way close to its full capacity at the moment. There
are some tools, theories and concepts that technologists and economists believe will help us achieve this IoT
concept.

Concerns
There are serious concerns about how Internet of Things will affect most parts of our lives. A huge
concern is obviously around privacy. As the regulatory environment continues to increase around technology, it
is people's hope that security will continue to improve for the benefit of the consumer and business. However, if
the past is a good indicator of the future as it often is, it seems highly unlikely that hacking by individual groups
and governments are going nowhere. This leaves some technologists and many consumers nervous about
storing even more insurmountable amounts of personal information into cyber-space waiting for hackers to
take. Of course we expect protection to get more sophisticated, but good hackers are constantly exploring every
nook and cranny for a possible way in. While Internet of things is gaining popularity with applications that
really don't require much personal information, there are concerns that people are going to have trouble
adopting a technology that requires so much personal information to be fully functional especially when it
appears that some of the most coveted top-security institutions seem to be having huge cyber-security issues
because of their constant security breaches.

Another major disadvantage of Internet of things is its high reliance on technology. Many households
already have a number of devices that connect them to various resources, but based on the internet of things
everything will be connected under one huge system with a lot of small sub-systems. The issue arises around if
one of these critical systems were to simply stop working, it could be crippling to not just an industry or nation
but ultimately the world taking into consideration a fully meshed network that closely links the world together.
Based on the internet of things systems, a catastrophic event could bring the world to a standstill and because
everyones lives revolve around this system, people won't know how to function in case of a break in
connection to technology. Of course many people think redundancy is the answer, but there are a couple of
problems around this that raise significant concerns. One major problem is that there can only be limited
redundancy to maintain critical infrastructure. Secondly, nations already have problems agreeing about policies;
for example: imagine trying to get each nation to allow other nations to store redundant communications
systems on their soil without tampering with their nations information and technology. Not to pinpoint,
however for US and China this is going to be a nightmare. Also with a system as powerful as this, the slightest
glitch can throw appointment of and alter major business decisions completely.

A huge concern that must be taken into consideration is the huge job loss that will be created as a result
of Internet of Things. Automation has already had a devastating effect on the job market look of Upstate New
York. The areas still has not fully recovered from the economic strains that it has had to face over the last 50
years when various companies began moving out. This will hit manufacturing and service work the hardest
because of the concept of Internet of things. No longer will inventory managers be necessary because under the
idea of internet of things, it will know how much over any given item is on hand at any given time. If a system
such as this is to be implemented, governments will need to look into creating alternative solutions for the
people whose jobs will be replaced because vast expansion of the Internet of Things could have a devastating
effect on the economy.

Another disadvantage found with the Internet of Things is the potential privacy violations. Because the
machines around us will be in constant communication about what we are doing, people are concerned about
who will have access to that information. While this vast amount of information could greatly help businesses
in a number of facets, it also has the potential to really be invasive on individuals right to privacy as guaranteed
to them by the constitution. This right is forgone not because consent was given, but with the Internet of Things
the information simply exists in the space, hope secure, but definitely private from everyone's viewing pleasure.
Contracts are currently built with rules that basically say content posted here is owned by x company and they
reserve the right to use information how they choose.

Another major issue posing a threat for consumers revolves around price, and how it will affect the
Internet of Things. Items initially will be quite expensive which early adopters will obviously be more than
happy to pay. However, it is expected that people are going to update certain items often. For example, a
refrigerator bought today is expected to last in a household for 15 years. Based on projects about the Internet of
Things, this refrigerator is going to be highly antiquated by 2030 and definitely will not be communicating with
the Internet of Things infrastructure that maybe in place at the moment. On that same note, most people cannot
afford to go out and upgrade every appliance and object in their house at once so that they can adopt the latest
and greatest technology of the moment. For many households, some of the major objects that are supposed to
be incorporated in the internet of things system are items for which people save over time to buy maybe one at
time or as a set. With this in mind, it will be very difficult for people to buy appliances and furniture for an
entire house and keep it updated accordingly. A huge challenge for manufacturers and service providers
revolves around creating a system that provides longevity and value to consumers so that they are willing to
spend the money for such a pricey concept or changing the consumer mindset to a state that makes this constant
updating of appliances and equipment normal and affordable.

Advantages
There are many opportunities that Internet of Things offer to all people involved, especially when it is
implemented as a full robust system. One of the biggest hopes is that some of this can already be seen around
with a primary goal of increased productivity. Technologists estimate that society loses approximately $135
billion in lost productivity, and if solutions like the Internet of Things is not developed then naturally that
number is only expected to increase. An increase in productivity is essential for global growth and that is why
companies are constantly looking for various methods to improve and cut costs, and here is the solution that in
theory should make them the most efficient and as productive as possible. This extends beyond just companies
because the internet of things as theory works as a whole unit and accordingly should improve overall
functionality of personal lifestyles. There are many futurists who determine that the overall concept of Internet
of Things will ultimately run the world in the background.
 Another revealed advantage of the Internet of Things is its acclaimed personalization factor and the
opportunities that lie in this space. It is believed that because these devices are constantly communicating, every
user experience will be catered to every other user in that instance. As technology evolves and people upgrade
all the parts and equipment that revolved around them, it is believed that this system will understand our being
better than we will and react in accordance to the different occurrences that happen in our daily lives. The
Internet of Things can potentially weave technology in every aspect of our lives to cater to or perceive our
every whim and fancy.

Another huge opportunity benefit of the Internet of things revolves around protection. This concept has
multiple facets that play into the future of the Internet of Things. Some of the concepts are more obvious while
others are more obscure. Around protection one of the more clear benefits that the Internet of Things can
provide is safety. This is because data is constantly being transmitted about our whereabouts, and this data will
most definitely be allowed to be viewed by the police with appropriate documentation. Accordingly, because
our objects are tracking us, it can be expected that if a crime was committed not only will your house know it,
but the appropriate authorities will know it was well, and the information trail as to when the criminal leaves
will be very long and obvious enough for the police to track. It is also a hope that because the data will be so
clear and evident, this will deter more obvious petty crimes that still occur. A not so obvious aspect of the
protection revolves around the information that the government and various organizations collect about
individuals and how they use that information to help better society. A big component in the internet of things is
about how big constant data is going to be fed to be able to tell us more about how we behave, act, and how
various human habits affect, unlike as how it was in times when none of this was known. These studies will not
be a small scale and will not depend on user cooperation. This will help researchers get hard concrete data
about human-equipment interaction, human behaviour, etc. The information gathered from these studies can
potentially help humanity solve lifelong problems that have been puzzling scientist for generations.

The Future
As of now the future of the Internet of things is very bright simply because society has just recently
seen partial pieces of Kevin Ashton's vision come into fruition. There have been new technology releases
where there is two way communication between a device and controller or device and a cell phone that people
are using in their everyday lives. With the small improvements, one can foresee that like any other concept or
invention, such innovations will only continue to grow. It is not hard to believe that one day all of our devices
and objects that may or may not have a chipset in them now will one day be communicating every minute detail
as it relates to us. The future of Internet of things I believe rests on a couple of key goals. One of which is
getting large consumer manufacturers to adopt the technology in its inception rather than after it has been
launched because it shows innovation and that this is truly the technology of the future. Another major enforced
accomplishment is standardizing the communication standard across mediums and platforms so that no matter
what the device is and who it is made by, it can still be used universally as many objects are now. Some may
argue that standards may stifle innovation of a concept like the Internet of Things, but it is arguable that if even
the most basic standards are not established then it could create confusion for the future consumers who will
ultimately be the driver force behind the proliferation of the Internet of Things.

Machine to Machine Communication (M2M Comm) is a broad term, which refers to technologies that allow
both wireless and wired systems to communicate with other devices of the same type. The process of
communication begins from a single device (example-a sensor or measuring meter) trying to access a
parametric (example- temperature/ humidity or in other instances an event: depending on the application for it
being devised) which in turn is relayed through a network (wired/wireless/hybrid) to an application that
translates the parameters into meaningful information. However, not always is the communication involving
just one or two devices, it can be as big as an environment by itself where in communication is amongst several
devices. The idea behind moving to the age of M2M Communication is because, all interconnected wireless
networks are serving to improve production and efficiency.. This is just one perspective that talks of the eased
out machinery communication aspects. In real life, M2M Communication can be a constituent an innate part
of almost any system, network, and environment. It can be incorporated in everything we do everyday to
sustain life, work, live. Concisely, M2M Communication is a medium by which we can stay connected by being
closely linked into a very well defined complex meshed network, ultimately making this world indeed not just a
smaller place to live in, but also ensure lifes easier to live in it. (Kreuzer) (Ashton)

Today, M2M modules are much more sophisticated and come with an array of capabilities like onboard global
positioning (GPS) technology, flexible land grid array surface mounting, embedded M2M optimized smart
cards known as MIMs or M2M identification modules, and embedded Java, an important enabling technology
to accelerate the Internet of Things (IOT). Example - OnStars system of Communication. Statistics reveal that
by 2014, the German market is expected to record a deployment figure of approximately 500 million M2M
smart cards, with the main growth driver consumer electronics segment being: tracking and tracing.

Figure 28

STATISTICS

Technicalities
Talking of its hardware component manufacturers, some of the names include Quake Globe, AT&T, Verizon,
Sprint, T-Mobile, DigiInternational, Telefonica etc. Often M2M communications are used for remote
monitoring. For Example, in product restocking a vending machine can message the distributor when a
particular item is running low. This proves to be an important aspect of warehouse management, remote
control, robotics, traffic control, logistic services, supply chain management, fleet management and
telemedicine. It forms the basis for a concept known as the Internet of Things (IoT).

Benefits:
Benefits of M2M Communication could include the following:
a) Imagine for a moment, a bathroom mirror not only communicating the daily news and weather
forecast, but current traffic condition which helps estimate travel time to the office.
b) A watch that picks up ones body mineral levels by sensing the skin and suggests what you should
select from the menu for lunch.
c) Or upon leaving the office, ones home heating system receives an alert and automatically modulates
the rooms temperature in accordance or just before pulling in, the garage door opens.
Better still, while still on the road, one could turn on or off the lights at home by simply using a smart
phone.
d) On another note, ones home entertainment system starts playing just the right music to match ones
mood which it decided on based on your heart rate measured- capturing starts just as you enter the house.
e) Or perhaps in an unfamiliar town whilst looking for a restaurant, the navigation system pops up
notifications as what you could eat, or drink and where.
f) Taking ones imagination to a higher level and also taking into consideration the ongoing aspects of
development in M2M communication, times not totoo far since when a car could drive you independently to
any place by self automatingself-automating itself to find directions, find parking spots etc.

Implementation Challenges:
Some of this may sound like a futuristic fantasy, but in reality on a closer look and deeper thought, these
technologies already exist. The key enabler is a concept called machine-to-machine communication. There
already is a car that drives without a driver and just a simple smart phone that is connected to it.M2M enables
communication not only between different machines but also between machines and people. Such
communications are accomplished by a remote network of machines relaying information to a central hub for
analysis. (Kreuzer)

Advantages:
Speaking of advantages, Speed is probably the most striking feature that has accentuated developers and
enthusiast to move into this age of M2M Communication. In many cases, time is of the essence in
communication. Fortunately, communication technologies allow you to pass along messages at lightning speed.
This makes it easier to prevent major mistakes because of distance. Everyone can be in sync at once. Within the
next few years, more machines will be connected via Internet than by humans. This indeed plays a significant
role in adding value to business and consumers.

Scope:
M2M will far surpass human communication in scope, value, and sheer numbers with more connected
machines. Fixed or mobile objects such as security cameras, cars and industrial machinery can be connected
with M2M technology. This enables objects to send and receive information to each other and to central
management systems, autonomously and often in real time, opening up a whole new world of opportunities for
business agility and efficiency. (Ashton)

Disadvantages:
Talking of the disadvantages, human communication with machines will significantly see
diminishing results as nothing will quite require humans to communicate. It will be a
robotic world where in humans would seek prioritizing utmost luxury of simply making
most of their time for purposes that please each. On another note, Lack of Context
currently another amongst the few known disadvantages, M2M communication brings.
For example: when one texts or emails, there's no vocal tone and thus no facial
expressions to look for. As such, it is easy to misread a message that is intended to be
sarcastic or not understand the severity of a situation. This can lead to major
misunderstandings. Another disadvantage is accessibility to ones life through a single
device. In case of theft of the device like a smart phone illegal people can gain access
to homes, data on cloud and everything connected with that device.

Future:
Envisioning an automated M2M Communicative environment for the future,
We are not too far from the age where in wireless charging would be possible on the go
through a Wi-Fi connection- so as to ensure 24*7*365 running smart phones. A world
wherein, distant dwellers could touch, feel the presence of their near and dear ones
without actually travelling thousands of miles but rather, sensing the other through a
phone. A world where all that would need to be carried would be a smart phone! A world
where smart phones would not be the only form of carrying authentic, confidential data-
but rather, wearable devices in different shapes phones be soon available thus suiting
ones personal choice and convenience. A world where, chips be embedded into bodies
with the sole purpose of tracking and ensuring personnel security

Future Role of Service Providers

Service providers see machine-to-machine technologies as an opportunity to grow, in a market where the
penetration of wireless cellular communication is more than 100% in the United States. The four leading US
service providers: Verizon Wireless, Sprint, AT&T, T-Mobile are trying their best, to offer better capabilities to
their customers in different markets and some of them are developing innovation centres to create more
applications and get a position ahead of their competitors.

Though various analysis carried out about the future role of services providers in the scope of this expository
paper only the four major companies (US service providers) are taken into consideration: Verizon Wireless,
Sprint, AT&T and T-Mobile.

Verizon Wireless
In order to take advantage of machine-to-machine and other technologies, Verizon Wireless has established
Innovation Centres located in San Francisco and Boston that inspire, enable and showcase new innovations that
take advantage of the companys 4G LTE network.

The idea of the Innovation Centres is to help companies that work in different areas develop breakthroughs in
non-traditional devices by going much beyond the realms of smart phones, tablets, services, and applications
thereby taking advantage of the 3G and 4G LTE networks that Verizon Wireless has provided and plans to
provide. An interesting aspect of the Innovation Centres is that Verizon Wireless has realized that the future is
much more than smart phones and that is why the centres try to reach several goals, from bringing wireless
capabilities to non-traditional devices such as smart phones and tablets to creating game-changing mobile
applications and everything in between. Companies interested in working with Verizon Wireless in the Centres
can apply to in their webpage despite of their size or market they work in or fame for that matter: whether they
are start-ups or well established companies. Verizon Wireless Innovation Centres provide a win-win scenario
for the both parties involved because on one hand, Verizon earns money for the data traffic that will go through
its networks and at the other, Verizon Wirelesses partners will address their technological needs and offer
innovative products to their customers. Another advantage for Partners is that they do not need to have
experience with wireless technologies since they can rely on the engineers at Verizon Wireless. Partners just
need to have the idea of what they want to achieve (a device or an application) or a specialized solution and the
partnership will start working from there.

Some of the current work of Verizon Wireless in machine-to-machine technologies includes Verizon Telematics
that aggregates best in-class wireless services into adaptable solutions that can be tailored to different platforms.
The way Telematics works allows interconnectivity between multiple content providers, call centres and
hardware platforms. There are four main aspects that Verizon Telematics address: In-Drive, LifeComm,
NetworkFleet and White Label products. (Verizon Wireless)

In-Drive includes automotive data services that offer value not only to insurance and data industries but
also to end consumers. In-Drives features enable third-party data aggregators and insurance companies to more
effectively price their products and create highly tailored services based on actual driving behaviour; also
customers have the ability to personalize driving zones and even receive notifications when their vehicles
depart and arrive at a specified location. Customers can access this real time location-based data through a
customized website, mobile application, and mail or text message. (Verizon Wireless)

LifeComm refers to a Mobile Personal Emergency Response System (MPERS) that consists of a simple-
to-use wearable cellular device that fits naturally into the users everyday life. These devices differ from
traditional landline PERS devices that only work within close range of home-based receiving units because
LifeComm offers the ability to travel away from the home while staying connected. (Verizon Wireless)

NetworkFleet works with fleet managers to provide them with accurate, real-time data to optimize
operational efficiency. It also offers some features that can be of great help to fleet companies, for example GPS
tracking, remote diagnostics, preventive maintenance and reporting to confirm deliveries, improve driver safety
and monitor vehicle performance. (Verizon Wireless)

White Label products work with vehicles as well and revolve mainly around five categories: Safety and
Security, Navigation, Convenience, Infotainment and Diagnostics. Safety and Security includes automatic crash
notification, emergency calling, and stolen vehicle location and roadside assistance. Navigation includes the
integration of real-time traffic data, a list of up-to-date Points of Interest (POI) and current maps. Convenience
provides functionalities like remote access to the vehicle. Infotainment provides access to music and personal
information of the customers such as sports, weather, news, gas prices and traffic on demand among others.
Diagnostics include communications regarding the vehicle's systems status, maintenance reminders, and user
maintenance scheduling with dealers. (Verizon Wireless)

The future of Verizon Wireless will include their efforts to take advantage of M2M technologies to earn more
money now that the wireless cellular penetration is more that 100% in the United States. All of the work made
in the car industry makes us think that the service provider will continue its path to incorporate more services
related to vehicles. Verizon has also shown interest in the healthcare market and it is presumable that it will
invest more on this field producing new applications. However, it is obvious that the company will not only
work with vehicles and in healthcare because with its Innovation Centres it is covering a wide variety of
markets and are open to work with more companies. All in all, the future of Verizon Wireless focus will be
limited only by the creativity of innovators.

T-Mobile
T-Mobile along with the other major service providers wants to earn profits from the implementation and
development of the new machine-to-machine technologies. The company started to work with M2M in 2005
and their focus is a little different from its competitors because they want to be perceived as the easiest option
to do business with. T-Mobile claims that due to its expertise in the field, the service provider has helped people
change their lives by aiding them to be more productive at home, increase their efficiency at work, and simplify
their everyday life. Additional features that T-Mobile offers their customers are:
 A streamlined process that enables device certification

Flexible billing

Flexible and aggressive rate plans

A data network that supports GSM, GPRS and 4G technologies

Multiple SIM configurations

Engineering support and dedicated sales

Automated activation in real time and SIM management

T-Mobile has been working in the vehicle industry to offer M2M services. One of its partnerships is with Audi
and RACO Wireless to offer Audi Connect. Audi Connect lets users have access to news, weather, and also fuel
prices. At the same time the technology turns the vehicle into a secure mobile Wi-Fi hotspot that allows
passengers access to the Internet. T-Mobile does not share much information about their M2M offerings. T-
Mobile wants customers to directly contact the company through email to get a more personalized experience.
In our opinion, the focus of the company is hurting their future success with M2M because its competitors are
offering a wide variety of services across multiple markets so customers are able to have a clearer idea about
who to work with and why. In conclusion, T-Mobile indeed is falling behind. (Kreuzer) (T-mobile)

Sprint

Just like Verizon Wireless, the future role of Sprint will be trying to make profit out of the growth of machine-
to-machine technologies. In order to achieve this purpose, Sprint tries to get companies to partner with them to
make their traffic go through its network thus providing income to the company. The service provider created
the Sprint M2M Collaboration Center located near Silicon Valley in Burlingame, California. The Collaboration
Center is an actual working laboratory where customers work side by side with an extensive team of experts to
make M2M ideas commercially viable. (Sprint)

The focus of Sprint when working with machine-to-machine technologies revolves around three main points:
open platform, network leadership, and great execution.

The open platform includes two parts: the Open Device Initiative that accelerates the process of
identifying, testing and deploying devices for a more rapid implementation of M2M business models, and Open
Business Models where Sprint can help create a business model that is the best fit for each customer. (Sprint)

Sprints network leadership refers to the providers innovative network evolution blueprint that is
designed to further enhance voice quality and data speeds by consolidating multiple network technologies into
one seamless network. Sprint also claims that it was the first wireless 4G service from a national carrier in the
United States, but we know that this was an arbitrary decision because Sprint does not really provide 4G
services according to the International Telecommunications Unit. When referring to its network, Sprint also
adds that it is the No. 1 wireless provider of GPS solutions, this leadership has assisted companies with
transportation and logistics needs for many years. Sprint networks utilize CDMA both for 2G (1xRTT) and 3G
wireless networks along with a growing 4G LTE network. (Sprint)

Related to M2M execution, Sprint talks about its dedicated, certified and trusted professionals that are
capable of providing M2M solutions and guidance; the Sprint Command Center which is responsible for
providing M2M business customers with unprecedented network control, and a comprehensive device
management platform; and the service provider also offers specialized industry solutions engineering teams and
distribution, branding, billing and customer care services. (Sprint)

Some of the fields where Sprint has been working with for M2M technologies and will most probably work in
near future include Sprint Velocity,-a Connected Vehicle Platform built specifically for automakers. The service
is designed to provide the foundation for all of the connected vehicle functionality with the agility to evolve
with the development of upcoming technologies. Velocity is designed to be open and flexible and offers various
connectivity options and back office support, like billing. Another field where Sprint has been working with
M2M technology is in healthcare solutions that are being used to monitor patients suffering from diabetes,
cardiac arrhythmia and chronic diseases remotely, GPS tracking is also applied.

For M2M applications that require low bandwidth requirements, Sprint will use its 2G network and the provider
claims that its 2G service will continue to be supported. Some of the applications that use Sprints 2G network
include many connected smart meters for utilities and many Telematics applications used by transportation
companies. As 2G networks are slower than new technologies like 3G or 4G, M2M customers that decide to
work with them will have to pay less for the service. It is interesting how Sprint besides offering partnerships to
develop M2M applications with different markets and across a variety of markets, the company also offers
support for distribution, branding and billing customers. In our opinion these offerings will definitely make
Sprint a good partner to work with machine-to-machine technologies.

AT&T

The case of AT&T is interesting because it remains the leader in the United States M2M communication market
with respect to the number of M2M connections. In 2012, it held a share of 48.1 percent of the market. This
inevitably shows that AT&T is doing something right about the dealing of M2M technologies. However, as has
happened before in the fast-pace changing environment of wireless telecommunications, a company can be the
leader now but can be lose its leadership in the future if its competitors offer customers better services. The
number of connected devices in AT&T network is 15.2 million and growing. The increase in number of M2M
customers over 2012 for AT&T is 38%. AT&T just like its competitors wants to attract new customers to make
use of its wireless cellular networks to move data and voice traffic. The companys focus is on helping to lead
the emergence of the real-time, adaptive enterprise. One of the most important AT&Ts goals right now is to
help drive wireless capabilities into a wide variety of devices beyond traditional handsets, therefore allowing its
business customers to reduce operational costs and enable new revenue opportunities.

Additionally, AT&T tries to capture the attention of new customers offering businesses the following benefits:

Identification and adaptation of M2M solutions to the business needs

Improvement of the performance of business processes

Introduction of new services

Enhancement of profitability
 Improvement of service quality

Making customer relationships stronger

Some of the services that had made AT&T so popular among companies include integrating M2M devices into
digital billboards, allowing changes based on time and enabling global updates to be performed from a central
location. Additionally, M2M devices are being embedded into traditional and electric vehicles to enable the
owner to monitor and control vehicle settings, plan journeys, locate charging stations and heat or cool the car.
M2M can also be applied to automakers and other manufacturers because they have the ability to monitor,
control and connect complex systems that link individual machine components on the plant floor with advanced
control systems. (AT&T)

AT&T has found also development in the healthcare area because M2M platforms can be developed to support
chronic disease management, general wellness and fitness, and help the elderly who choose to remain living in
their own homes. Moreover, the pharmaceutical supply chain continues to evolve and will require M2M for a
more efficient distribution of its products around the world. For AT&T the top 5 industries that are working
with M2M technologies nowadays are manufacturing, healthcare, transportation, construction and energy.
AT&T is most likely expected to work in these 5 environments in the future but it would be a mistake for them
not to try to operate in other markets that may be more innovative. The company will have to take some risks in
order to catch the interest of new partners. (AT&T)

Conclusion

In conclusion, the last few years have witnessed a phenomenal growth in the wireless industry and the ever
increasing demands of users have triggered researchers and industries to come up with a comprehensive
manifestation of the up-coming fourth generation (4G) and fifth generation (5G) mobile communication
system. The history of mobile communications shows attempts made to reduce a number of Technologies to a
single global standard- and this effort has seen to result fruitful with the deployment of LTE technology.
Last but not the least a highlight of the Generation Evolution in Cellular Telephony can quite simply be put
down as:
The first generation (1G) fulfilled the basic mobile voice, while the second generation (2G) introduced capacity
and coverage. It was followed by the third generation (3G), which strived for data at higher speeds to open the
gates for truly mobile broadband experience, which further is in its state of realization by the deployment of
fourth generation (4G) and implementation of fifth generation (5G) technology. (Amit Kumar) (Ainscough)
(Sharma)

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Name
Figure 1 http://mielmagz.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/1011389.jpg
Figure 2 http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/sites/digital-agenda/files/Mobile%20communications
%201G-5G%20infographics%20LANDSCAPE%20400px.jpg
Figure 3 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/DynaTAC8000X.jpg/245px-
DynaTAC8000X.jpg
Figure 4 http://www.ryancomm.net/sitebuilder/images/FDMA-370x241.jpg
Figure 5 http://cnet3.cbsistatic.com/hub/i/r/2010/05/06/19eb46c0-2052-4644-a0a1-
4e5f8d4ddee6/thumbnail/170x128/cd04f5bc94f1f0f013dc453345eabbc4/nokia-282-cellular-
phone-amps-namps.jpg
Figure 6 http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
Mpzcy1SWMmQ/UZniSoFHdvI/AAAAAAAAAE8/hNnJrzc_xFI/s400/cellular+sys.gif
Figure 7 En.wikipedia.org
Figure 8 https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcTrs6askrlGyz9_7KtmL6TxQdDFDL-iA35NG2DXs1nX-XJgGyk54w
Figure 9 https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcTIi5SmghYoT398UL3tlILrQP3N3CfklqF6xyt1zMk1JfmDaIBy
Figure 10 www.bingimages.com
Figure 11 http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-DPzdkrrkQT4/UT7hlS-
ZbgI/AAAAAAAACto/F09RC4uNWYU/s1600/GSM+Phases.png
Figure 12 http://rcrlte.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/gsm_e2_jpg.jpeg
Figure 13 http://www.tutorialspoint.com/images/gprs-architecture.gif
Figure 14 (Larsson)
Figure 15 Communication23.blogspot.com
Figure 16 (P and SriVidya)
Figure 17 http://ru6.cti.gr/ru6/images/mbms_architecture.jpg
Figure 18 Verizon Wireless website
Figure 19 SK Telecom Website
Figure 20 DoCoMo Website
Figure 21 Blackberry Website
Figure 22 Hutchinson Website
Figure 23 https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcRxDcb3CoL5cCv46y1qQouYtIuQOFcuox-J68slqq5P0Ih9zavEhw
Figure 24 https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcT5rJKLl1BygNmYJCfTVbRcCKQESZkEiprJRcgkRtOZKHxb-ExUFw
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Figure 26 (ITU Paves the Way for Next-Generation 4G Mobile Broadband Technologies)
Figure 27 Various Google Images
Figure 28 Info metrics Research