Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1
4.14.2 Weir Height (hw)............................................................................................ 36
4.14.3 Weeping........................................................................................................ 36
4.14.4 Plate Pressure Drop...................................................................................... 39
[40]
4.14.5 Downcomer Design .................................................................................. 42
[41]
4.14.6 Residence Time ........................................................................................ 44
[42]
4.14.7 Entrainment ............................................................................................. 44
4.14.8 Trial Layout................................................................................................... 46
4.14.9 Liquid Flow Arrangement.............................................................................. 48
4.14.10 Hydraulic Gradient...................................................................................... 49
[47]
4.14.11 Actual Plate Efficiency ............................................................................49
4.14.12 Actual Number of Plates............................................................................. 51
4.14.13 Height of Column........................................................................................ 51
5.0 Energy Balance........................................................................................................ 52
5.1.1 Condenser Heat Load (QC).................................................................................52
5.1.2 Condenser Design.............................................................................................. 55
5.1.2.1 Heat Transfer Area and Number of Tubes (NT).............................................55
5.1.2.2 Tube Bundle Diameter (Db) [........................................................................56
5.1.2.3 Length of Condenser.................................................................................... 57
[55]
5.2 Tube Side Coefficient ........................................................................................ 58
[58]
5.3 Shell Side Coefficient ....................................................................................... 59
5.4 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient...................................................................62
5.5 Reboiler Design..................................................................................................... 63
5.5.1 Reboiler Duty.................................................................................................. 63
5.5.2 Kettle Reboiler Design.................................................................................... 64
6.0 Mechanical Design................................................................................................... 67
6.1 Shell Thickness..................................................................................................... 67
[66]
6.2 Skirt Design ................................................................................................... 68
6.3 Heads and Closures........................................................................................... 72
6.4 Material Selection................................................................................................. 72
6.5 Pipe Sizing......................................................................................................... 73
6.5.1 Pipe Sizing at the Feed................................................................................... 74
6.5.2 Pipe Sizing at the Distillate.............................................................................76
6.5.3 Pipe sizing at the bottoms..............................................................................77
6.6 Concept Drawing.................................................................................................. 80
[74]
7.0 Control and Instrumentation ............................................................................... 80
2
7.1.1 Quality Control................................................................................................... 81
7.1.2 Pressure Control................................................................................................. 82
7.1.3 Temperature Control.......................................................................................... 83
7.1.4 Flow Control....................................................................................................... 84
7.1.5 Level Control...................................................................................................... 85
[74]
7.1.6 Alarms and Safety Trips .................................................................................85
[76]
7.1.7 Valve Selection .............................................................................................. 87
7.1.8 Instruments and Controllers..............................................................................88
7.1.9 Pipe Labelling..................................................................................................... 89
8.0 Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)....................................................................91
9.0 Economic Appraisal.................................................................................................. 92
9.1.1 Estimation of Capital Costs................................................................................ 92
[81]
9.1.1.1 Wilsons Method ...................................................................................... 93
[81]
9.1.1.2 Zevnik and Buchanan Method .................................................................95
[81]
9.1.1.3 Bridgewaters Method .............................................................................96
9.1.2 Cost of Raw Materials........................................................................................ 99
9.1.3 Operating Costs............................................................................................... 100
9.1.4 Plant Income.................................................................................................... 101
9.1.5 Cash Flow..................................................................................................... 101
9.2 Breakeven and Profitability Analysis...................................................................104
9.2.1 Amortisation................................................................................................. 104
9.2.3 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return...........................................................106
9.2.4 Return on Investment................................................................................... 108
9.2.5 Analysis of Profitability and Improvements to Profitability............................108
10.0 Economic Optimisation........................................................................................ 109
10.1.1 Potential Changes to the Existing Plant...........Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.1.1.1 Re-define Product Purity............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.1.1.2 Improved Heat Integration.......................................................................110
10.1.1.3 Control System Upgrade..........................................................................111
10.1.2 Divided Wall Column........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
References:.................................................................................................................. 113
3
1.0 Project Objectives
This section of the advanced process design module involves designing a product
distillation column. It is a continuation from the group project which involved the
production of 100000 tonnes per year of Methyl Ethyl Ketone to be located in China.
This report will focus on certain chemical engineering design features including
calculations of length and diameter. Also, it will be important to consider materials of
construction and other characteristics associated with designing a distillation column.
Within this part of the report cost and economical appraisal of designing the distillation
column will be included.
The type of alarms, trips and relief devices which will be used will be included in the
control and instrumentation section of the report. When selecting the types of control
and instrumentation devices for the distillation column it will be important to consider
temperatures and pressures.
A piping and instrumentation drawing will be constructed for the product distillation
column. This will include all alarms, control valves, pressure relief devices and utilities.
This report will also include a Hazard and Operability study (HAZOP). This will be carried
out as a group with the group supervisor. Each member will select a process line and a
HAZOP will be carried out.
Within this report a costing and economic optimisation of the product distillation
column design will also be carried out. The last section of the report includes the
economic appraisal for the process. Within this section the capital costs of the process
will be determined. Standard correlations will be used to determine if the project is
economically feasible. It will identify whether the project should be carried out in the
real world.
4
2.1 Technical Objectives
The report is expected to complete by week 22. In order to meet this deadline technical
objectives will be set. From the Gantt Chart start dates and end dates for each task can
be seen. The following are the technical objectives which have been set:
5
be required to gain sufficient knowledge. It is important that various methods of
research are utilised to ensure that a wide range of information is available.
Build vital organisational and time-management skills whilst working on the
project.
Have complete and clear understanding of how a distillation column operates on
completion of the report.
Improve technical skills by carrying out a HAZOP and constructing a P +ID which
may be useful in future projects.
Proof read all work to correct any errors which may occur and to ensure that
work is of a high standard.
6
7
3.0 Introduction
One of the most important operation in the chemical and petroleum industry is the
separation of liquid mixtures into several components. It is sometimes referred to as
fractional distillation. It is one of the oldest unit operation processes. The technical
publication of distillation was first developed in 1957, however, distillation had been
practiced for many centuries prior to this. Distillation is one of the most common and
widely used separation processes in the chemical industry. However, it is also an
extremely energy intensive process.[1]It requires large amounts of energy for both
cooling and heating. 50% of plants operating costs are produced from distillation. At
present distillation is commonly used in the petroleum, chemical, petrochemical,
beverage and pharmaceutical industries. Distillation is a process which is important in
the development of new products and for the recovery and reuse of volatile liquids. [2]A
great deal of research has been carried out into techniques of distillation due to the
demand for purer products and a persistent requirement of greater efficiency.
Distillation is usually used to separate liquid mixtures into two or more vapour or liquid
products which have different compositions. [1] The separation of liquid mixtures is
dependent on the differences in the volatility between the components. Separation is
[3]There
easier if the relative volatilities are larger. are two major types of distillation, this
includes continuous distillation and batch distillation. [4]In continuous distillation the feed
is supplied continuously. There are usually no interruptions however, problems may
occur with the column or surrounding units. This type is the more common of the two
types of distillation. However, in batch distillation the feed is supplied to the column
batch-wise. The column is charged with a batch and the distillation process is then
carried out. Once the desired task has been achieved the next batch of the feed is then
introduced.[5]
8
3.1 Components of Distillation Columns
The following section is a description of the components required for the operation of a
distillation column. This includes a reboiler and a condenser.
3.1.1Reboiler[5][6]
The main objective of a reboiler in distillation columns is to vaporise a fraction of the
bottom product. They are used to provide the necessary vaporisation required for the
distillation process.[5] There are three principal types of reboilers used in distillation
columns. They are as follows:
1. Forced Circulation Reboiler: the fluid is pumped through the exchanger and the
vapour which is formed is separated at the base of the column. Figure 1 shows a
diagram of a forced circulation reboiler.
9
3. Kettle type: inFigure 2: ThermosyphonReboiler[6] which boiling takes place
on tubes which are immersed in a pool of liquid. In this type of reboiler there is
no circulation of liquid. This type of reboiler is sometimes also called a
submerged bundle reboiler. The bundle may also be stored in the base of the
column in some applications. This helps save the cost of the exchanger shell.
Figure 3 shows a diagram of a kettle type reboiler.
The choice of the reboiler to be used for a given duty will depend on certain factors
including[6]:
1. The nature of the process fluid i.e. the viscosity and propensity to fouling.
2. The operating pressure i.e. vacuum or pressure.
3. The equipment layout.
3.1.2Condenser[7]
A condenser is used in a distillation column to cool and condense the vapour leaving
the top of the column. The vapour is cooled and condensed to its liquid state. The most
common type of condenser used is the horizontal shell-side and vertical tube side. This
means the processor has the option of condensing on either the shell side or the tube
10
side. In condensers the use of cooling water as a medium to cool the substance is of
vital importance.
Condensers are available in a range of designs and in many different sizes. Capital
costs of condensers can be reduced by using a carbon steel shell. There are four
possible condenser configurations which may occur as they. They are as follows:
1. Horizontal in design with condensation occurring in the shell and the cooling
medium in tubes.
2. Horizontal in design with condensation in the tubes.
3. Vertical in design with condensation in the shell.
4. Vertical in design with condensation in the tubes.
A mixture containing Methyl Ethyl Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol is obtained from
the solvent recovery column and this is fed to the product distillation column.
Methyl
Ethyl
Ketone
The product distillation unit will be fed with a Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)/ Secondary
Butyl Alcohol (SBA) mixture. The mixture fed to the product distillation column is
obtained from the distillate of the solvent recovery column. Before the mixture is fed to
the product distillation column, the two streams are firstly mixed in an intermediate
storage holding tank. Within the product distillation column cooling water is utilised,
11
which enters the condenser at 24C and leaves at 40C. In the reboiler steam enters at
140C and at a pressure of 2.0 bar.
There are various stages in the design of a distillation column. They can be divided into
the following steps:
4.3Key Components
Before the design stage of a distillation column the designer must select the key
components which are to be separated. The light key is described as the component
that is desired to be kept out of the bottom product. The heavy key is described as the
component that is desired to be kept out of the top product. Usually it is relatively easy
to determine which the key components are. However, there may be situations in which
close boiling isomers are present so judgement must be used in their selection. The
light key is described as the most volatile component in the bottom product and the
heavy key is described as the least volatile component in the top product. In this case
the light and heavy keys are as follows:
12
4.4Operating Conditions
It is assumed that the process operates at a steady state and the system is ideal. It is
assumed that the inlet temperature of the feed to the column will be at the boiling
point i.e. boiling liquid feed. At this point q=1, assuming that all of the feed to the
column is in liquid phase.
(79.79+99)
=89 C
2
The column will be operated on a continuous basis and will be operated at atmospheric
pressure at 89C (362K).
Packed columns are used for a variety of processes including distillation, gas absorption
and liquid-liquid extraction. In packed bed columns the gas liquid contact is continuous,
however, in plate columns it occurs stage-wise. In packed columns the liquid flows
down the column and over the packed surface and the vapour flows counter-currently
up the column. The adequate operation and performance of a packed column relies
greatly on the maintenance of good liquid and gas distribution throughout the packed
bed. Figure 5shows a diagram of a packed column. Packed distillation columns and
plate columns are similar. However, the difference being that in packed columns the
plates are replaced with packed sections.
13
Figure 5: Schematic Diagram of a Packed Column [11]
They provide a large surface area i.e. to provide a high interfacial area between
the vapour and liquid.
They should have an open structure.
They should promote the uniform distribution of liquid on the packing surface.
They should promote uniform vapour gas flow across the column cross-section.
Various types of packing have been developed with many shapes and sizes to satisfy
the requirements. They are usually divided into two categories:
1. Random Packing
2. Structured Packing
The various types of random and structured packing can be seen in appendix ##.
In distillation columns cross-flow plates are the most common type used. In this type
design the liquid flows across the plate and the vapour flows up through the plate. The
liquid is passed from one plate to the next through vertical channels which are known
as downcomers. Figure 6shows a diagram of a cross-flow plate. In certain occasions
plates may be used which do not have any downcomers. They are known as non-cross-
flow plates. This type of plate may be utilised whena particularly low pressure drop is
required.
14
[13]
Figure 6: Diagram of a Cross-Flow Plate
1. Sieve Plate also sometimes called perforated plate: This type of plate is the
simplest type of cross-flow plate. The vapour passes the holes in the plate
and the liquid is retained on the plate due to the vapour flow. In occasions
when flow rates are low liquid weeps through the holes and this reduces plate
efficiency. Usually the perforations are small holes however, in some cases
larger holes and slots are also made use of.
15
as risers. The risers are enclosed by a cap with a jagged edge or slots. Risers
ensure that a level of liquid is maintained on the tray at all vapour flow-rates.
3. Valve Plate also sometimes called floating cap plate: This type of plate is very
much similar to sieve plates however, the only difference being that they
have large diameter holes which are covered by movable flaps. When the
vapour flow increases the movable flaps lift. Valves plates are able to operate
more efficiently at lower flow rates in comparison to sieve plates. At low flow
rates the valves in the valve plates close.
16
It can be observed from the mass balancein section 4.8that a plate column will be more
suitable. This is because the flow rates in this process are large and these will require a
large diameter. In cases when the diameter is large it is possible to have plates or trays.
When selecting the plate type many factors are considered including cost, capacity,
operating range, efficiency and pressure drop. Of the three types sieve plates are the
cheapest and are satisfactory for most applications. The operating costs of sieve plates
are the pressure drop is lower compared to the other types of plates. For these reasons
the selected type of plate for the distillation column is sieve plates.
4.8Mass Balance
18
17 Product
Distillation
Column
19
17
Previously in the group report it was assumed that hundred percent separation i.e.
complete separation was achieved. However, this is not likely to occur to reality. The
temperature difference between the components is only 20C as Methyl Ethyl Ketone
has a boiling point of 79.79C and Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA) has a boiling point of
99C. The distillate temperature is assumed to be the boiling point of Methyl Ethyl
Ketone i.e. the desired product. A small amount of SBA is assumed to be present in the
distillate. Also, a small quantity of MEK is also present in the bottom product. This
means that the mass balance calculated in the previous report has to be adjusted.
The following table shows the summary of the compositions entering and leaving the
product distillation column before recalculation.
Inlet
Stream: 17
Compone kg/hr kmol/hr wt%
nts
MEK 12276.78 170.27442 89.66
571 04
SBA 1416.086 19.110484 10.34
93 89
Hydrogen
Water
TCE
Total 13692.87 189.3849 100
264 053
[8]
Table 1a: Inlet Flowrates of the product Distillation Column
Outlet
Stream: 18 19
Compone kg/hr kmol/hr wt% kg/hr kmol/hr wt%
nts
MEK 12276.78 170.27442 99.0
571 04
SBA 124.0079 1.6735214 1.00 1292.078 17.43696 100
4 57 99 343
Hydrogen
Water
TCE
Total 12400.79 171.9479 100 1292.078 17.43696 100
365 419 99 343
18
Total Outlet Mass flowrate = 13692.87264 kg/hr
Table 1b: Outlet Flowrates of the Product Distillation Column [8]
The inlet stream to the distillation column does not change. This can be seen from table
2a below:
Inlet
Stream: 17
Compone kg/hr kmol/hr wt%
nts
MEK 12276.78 170.274 90
6
SBA 1416.086 19.110 10
7
Total 13692.87 189.385 100
3
[8]
Table 2a: Inlet Flowrate of the Product Distillation Column
Outlet
Stream: 18 (Distillate) 19 (Bottom Product)
Compone kg/hr wt% kmol/hr wt kg/hr wt Kmol/hr wt
nts % % %
MEK 12140.23 99.0 168.381 99. 13.92 1.0 0.19 1.0
9 0 0 0
SBA 126.030 1.00 1.701 1.0 1416.09 99. 19.11 99.
0 0 0
Total 12266.26 100 170.082 100 1430.00 100 19.30 100
9
Table 2b: Outlet Flowrates of the Product Distillation Column
19
4.9 Vapour Pressure Calculation
To determine the vapour pressure of the components the Antoine equation must be
used. The relative volatility can then be calculated using this information.
B
log 10 ( P )=A [14]
(T +C) Equation 1: Antoine Equation
Where:
The following table shows the Antoine constants, the boiling point and latent heat of
vaporisation for both MEK and SBA.
1150.207
log 10 ( P )=3.9894
(362+(63.904))
log 10 ( P ) = 0.131
P= 100.131
P = 1.35bar
1158.672
log 10 ( P )=4.32943
(362+(104.683))
log 10 ( P ) = -0.1735
20
0.1735
P= 10
P = 0.67 bar
PA
AB=
PB
Where:
A = Light Key
B = Heavy Key
PA 1.35
AB= = =2.015
PB 0.67
AB = 2.015
The reflux ratio is a very important factor in the determination of the number of stages
required for separation. An increase in the reflux ratio reduces the number of stages
required for separation. This leads to a decrease in capital costs, however, operating
costs and service requirements such as steam and water increases. The optimum reflux
ratio will be the ratio at which the annual operating costs are its lowest.
The minimum reflux ratio Rmin is calculated using the Underwood equation. It is
assumed that the feed enters at its boiling point. Therefore q=1.
21
x D AB (1x D )
Rmin =
[ 1
AB1 ]( xF
1x F )
Equation 2: Underwood Equation to calculate the minimum reflux ratio
Where:
Substitute in values:
1 0.99 (1 0.99)
R 2.015
2.015 1 0.90 (1 0.90)
min
Rmin =0.88
It is suggested that for many systems the optimum reflux ratio lies between 1.2 to 1.5
times the minimum reflux ratio.
Therefore:
R= Rminx 1.5
R= 0.88 x 1.5
R= 1.323
22
4.11Fenske Equation and Gilliland Correlation [19]
The Fenske Equation and Gilliland correlation are used together to calculate the number
of theoretical stages. The minimum number of stages required at the total reflux can be
calculated using the Fenske equation. The number of theoretical plates required can
then be estimated using the Gilliland correlation, figure 11. The Gilliland correlation is a
relationship between the reflux ratio, the minimum reflux ratio and the minimum
[18]
number of stages.
( n+1 )m =
log
[( ) ( ) ]
xA
xB D
xB
xA W
log AB
Where:
Substitute in values:
( n+1 )m =
log ([ 0.99
0.01 0.01 ) ]
) (
D
0.99
W
log2.015
( n+1 )m = 13.099
The Gilliland correlation can now be used to calculate the number of theoretical stages.
23
Figure 11: GillilandCorrelation
RR m
the X axis:
R+1
Where:
Substitute in values:
1.320.88
=0.189
1.32+1
From figure 11it can be determined that the curve is intersected at 0.47 when the x-
axis is 0.189.
( n+1 )( 13.099)
=0.46
n+2
Therefore,
n=24.1 24 stages
24
4.12ErbarMaddox Correlation [21]
The ErbarMaddox correlation is a different method which can also be used in the
determination of the number of theoretical plates. This method gives the ratio of
number of stages required to the number at total reflux. It is given as a function of the
reflux ratio with the minimum reflux ratio. Figure 12shows the Erbar-Maddox
correlation.
The following calculations have to be carried out in order to determine the number of
stages:
R
theY axis :
R +1
Where:
Substitute in values:
1.32
=0.57
1.32+1
25
Rm
thelines of constant :
Rm +1
Where:
Substitute in values:
0.88
=0.47
0.88+1
Nm
=0.57
N
Where Nm = 13.099
Therefore, substitute in the values and rearrange to obtain N. Where N is the number of
theoretical plates.
13.099
N= =22.98 23
0.57
The values obtained for the number of plates are only preliminary value. The actual
number of stages cannot be determined at this point as the plate efficiency is not yet
known. The plate efficiency will be calculated at a later stage of the report and that will
be used to calculate the actual number of stages.
26
27
4.13 Column Diameter
The number of stages is not required to calculate the diameter of the column. However,
the liquid and vapour flowrates are required in order to calculate the diameter. The
flowrate is the principal factor in determining the column diameter. It is important that
the vapour velocity is lower than that velocity which would cause entrainment. [23]There
are various steps which will be needed to calculate the column diameter for the
distillation column. A number of calculations will be carried out in this section to
determine the column diameter.
The chosen plate is a sieve plate. Certain specifications have to be put in place in order
to calculate the diameter of the column. The following specifications were made:
1. Lo =RD
2. V = Lo + D
3. L = Lo + qF
4. V = V + (1 q)
Where:
1. Lo = RD
A) Lo = 1.323 x 170.08 = 225.028 kmol/hr
B) Lo = 1.323 x 12266.269 = 16228.274 kg/hr
2. V = Lo + D
A) V = 225.028 + 170.081= 395.109 kmol/hr
B) V = 16228.274 + 12266.269 =28495.543 kg/hr
3. L = Lo + qF
A) L = 225.028 + (1 x 189.385) = 414.413kmol/hr
B) L = 16228.274 + (1 x 13692.873) =29921.147 kg/hr
28
4. V = V + (1 q)
A) V=395.109 + (1 1) = 395.109 kmol/hr
B) V = 28495.543 + (1 1) = 28495.543 kg/hr
PV=nRT[25]
Where:
P: is the Pressure in Pa
V: is the Volume
n: is the number of Moles
R: is the gas constant
T: is the temperature in Kelvin
PV=nRT
nRT
V=
P
M nRT
=
P
MP
=
nRT
M
We know that relative molecular mass , Mr = So therefore :
n
Mr P
=
RT
29
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Vapour Density
P = 101325 Pa
Mr = 72.1
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 362 K
72.1 101325
= =2.427 kg /m3
8314 362
P = 101325 Pa
Mr = 74.1
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 362 K
74.1 101325
= =2.495 kg /m3
8314 362
n
1T
L A* B Tc
[25]
Equation 4: Liquid Density
Where:
30
A B n Critical Operating
Component Temperature Temperature
, Tc(K) (K)
Methyl Ethyl 0.2676 0.251 0.2857 535.5 362
Ketone (MEK) 4
Secondary Butyl 0.2734 0.263 0.2604 536.01 362
Alcohol 5
(SBA)
Table4: Regression Coefficientsfor MEK and SBA [26]
=0.78 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
=0.78 1000 1000 3
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
=780
m3
=0.82 g/mL
Convert to kg/m3
31
g mL L Kg
=0.82 1000 1000 3
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
=820
m3
4.13.4 Flooding
Flooding occurs when the vapour flow is excessive and this causes liquid to beentrained
in the vapour up the column. The excessive vapour flowrate also cause an increase in
pressure and this backs up the liquid in the downcomer. This causes an increase in
liquid holdup on the plate above. The maximum capacity of the column can be reduced
severely depending on the degree of flooding. Flooding can be detected by a sharp
increase in the column differential pressure and a significant decrease in the separation
[27]
efficiency. The following equation is used to calculate the Liquid-Vapour Flow (F LV)
factor.
0 .5
L
FLV * V
V L
[28]
Equation 5: Liquid Vapour Flow Factor
Where:
The Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor will be calculated for both the enriching (Top) section and
the stripping (Bottom) section.
0 .5
L
FLV * V
V L
32
V: Vapour molar flowrate = 395.109 kmol/hr
v: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
L: Liquid Density = 780 kg/m3
Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection
and cleaning. From the calculated F LV the corresponding K1 TOP value can be obtained.
From figure13 it can be seen that the corresponding K 1TOP value is 0.11.
0.5
L' V
FLV *
V ' L
33
V: Vapour molar flowrate = 395.109 kmol/hr
v: Vapour Density = 2.495 kg/m3
L: Liquid Density =820kg/m3
0.5
414.413 2.495
F LV =(395.109
)(
820 )
F LV = 1.048856138 0.055155504
F LV = 0.058
Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection
and cleaning. From the calculated F LV the corresponding K1BOTTOM value can be obtained.
From figure13it can be seen that the corresponding K1BOTTOM value is 0.1.
0.5
L V
U F K1
V
[28]
Equation 7: Flooding Velocity Correlation
Where:
0. 5
V
U F K1 L
V
34
L: Liquid Density = 780 kg/m3
V: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
0.5
0.5
u F BOTTOM =0.1 [
( 8202.495 )
2.495 ]
UF BOTTOM = 1.81 m/s
The flooding condition fixes the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate efficiencies
a higher vapour velocity is required, the velocity will be normally 79-90% of that which
could flooding. In chemical engineering design a flooding velocity between 80-85%
[29]
would be effective.
35
Flowrate in the stripping section (U V,BOTTOM) = 0.8 1.81 =1.448 m/s
To calculate the area for the top and the bottom of the column the maximum
volumetric flowrates are used. The maximum volumetric flowrate is calculated using
the following equation:
V Mr
U max =
3600
Where:
V Mr
U max =
3600
Where:
395.109 72.1
U max =
2.427 3600
36
V Mr
U max =
3600
Where:
395.109 74.1
U max =
2.495 3600
d=
4 A
Where:
d: The diameter
A: Area
Area:
3.260
=2.070 m2
1.575
37
So the diameter is therefore calculated to be:
d=
4 2.070
d = 1.623m
Area:
3.260
=2.251m2
1.448
d=
4 2.251
d = 1.693 m
It can be seen that the both the top and bottom diameter are very similar. However, the
largest diameter is selected to be the column diameter of the entire distillation column,
i.e. Dc = 1.693 m.
From the diameter calculated it can be seen that the diameter is greater than 0.6m.
Therefore, it would be suitable for the column to be designed as a tray design.
d 2c
A c=
4
38
1.693
A c=
4
Ac = 2.251 m2
The Downcomer area (Ad) is taken at 12% of the column area (A c):
Ad = 0.12 2.251 = 0.270 m2
The Hole area (Ah) is taken at 10% of the Active area (Aa):
Ah = 0.1 1.711 = 0.171m2
Ad
theY axis : 100
Ac
Where:
lw
The corresponding value for Dc can now be obtained from figure14. The value
39
[31]
Figure14: Correlation between downcomer area and weir length
4.14.3 Weeping
Weeping occurs when the flowrate in the distillation column is low. Due to this the
pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. As a
result of this, liquid starts to leak through the perforations (holes). Dumping occurs as a
result of excessive weeping. This will mean that the liquid on all the trays will crash
through to the base of the column. This in turn results in a domino effect and the
therefore the column will have to be re-started. Significant pressure drops and reduced
[27]
separation efficiency indicate the presence of weeping. The weep point occurs when
40
liquid leakage through the plate holes becomes excessive. The vapour velocity at the
weep point is the minimum velocity required for stable operation. The vapour flow
velocity at the lowest operating rate must be well above the weep point when
specifying the hole area. The minimum design vapour velocity is given in equation 11.
[32]
[ K 20.90(25.4d h)]
[ uh ]min= 0.5
[ V ]
[32]
Equation11: Minimum Design Vapour Velocity
Where:
[33]
Weeping Check
K2 in equation 11is a constant value. In order to determine K 2 the depth of the crest of
liquid over the weir (how) must first be calculated. The Francis weir formula can be
utilised to find the height of the liquid crest over the weir. The Francis weir formula is
given in equation 12.
2 /3
L
how =750 w
l l w[ ]
Equation12: Francis weir equation[34]
Where:
l : Liquid Density
Firstly, the values required to determine the weir crest must be calculated.
41
29921.147
L' = =8.312 kg/ s
3600
Maximum how:
2 /3
750 [ 8.312
780 1.278 ] =30.840 mm of liquid
Minimum how:
2 /3
750 [ 5.818
780 1.278 ] =24.312mm of liquid
[35]
Figure15: Weep point correlation
Now the minimum design vapour velocity can be calculated from equation 11.
Where:
42
dh: The hole diameter = 5 mm
K2:A constant = 30.7
v: Vapour Density =2.427 kg/m3
0.7 3.260
=13.34 m/s
0.171
It can be seen that the minimum operating rate is well above the weep point.
The pressure drop through the dry plate is calculated using equation 13.
2
u
hd =51 h
Co [ ] v
L
Where:
43
Uh: Maximum vapour velocity through the holes
Co: Orifice coefficient. It is a function of plate thickness, hole diameter and the hole to
perforated area ratio (obtained from figure16).
v: Vapour Density
L: Liquid Density
[38]
Figure16: Discharge Coefficient
3.260
U h= =19.064 m/ s
0.171
To determine Co:
Plate Thickness 5
= =1
Hole Diameter 5
Ah A h 0.171
= =0.1100=10
A p A a 1.711
44
The corresponding Co value can be obtained 0.84
Now the dry plate drop can be determined by substituting into equation 13.
2
hd =51 [ 19.064
0.84
]2.427
780
=81.673mm liquid
Many methods have been developed to estimate the residual head which have been a
function of liquid surface tension, froth density and height. As a result of the correction
term being small the estimation is not justified. However, an equation by Hunt et al
(equation 14)has been proposed to find the residual head.
3
12.5 10
hr =
L
[39]
Equation 14: Residual Head
Where:
h
( w+ how )+h r
ht =h d +
[39]
Equation 15: Total Plate Drop
Where:
45
hw+how: Head of clear liquid on the plate = (50 + 30.840mm)
hr: Residual Head = 16.026 mm
The total plate drop is expressed in terms of millimetres however it can also be given in
pressure units. This is given as follows:
3
Pt =9.81 10 ht L
Where:
46
Figure17: Downcomer Back-up[40]
The head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation is equation 17.
2
hdc =166
[ ]
Lwd
L Am
Where:
hap is the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate. The height is usually
set at 5 to 10mm. In this case it has been set to be 10mm. So:
hap = hw 10 = 50 10 = 40mm
= 0.04m
It can be seen that Ad = 0.270m2. It can therefore be concluded that the smallest value
for Am in this case is equal to Aap. i.e. Am = Aap
47
Substitute the values into equation 17:
2
hdc =166 [
8.312
780 0.051
=7.248 mm]
The downcomer backup can now be calculated:
hb =( hw +h ow ) + ht +h dc
The downcomer back up height should be less than 0.5 times the plate spacing and
weir height for a safer plate design. This is shown below:
1
hbc <
2
[ ( plate spacing ) +hw ]
1
0.266 m< [ 0.6 +0.05 ] =0.325 m
2
It is important to ensure that enough time is allowed in the downcomer for any
entrained vapour to disengage from the liquid stream and prevent the liquid being
carried under the downcomer. A time of at least 3 seconds is recommended.
A d h bc L
t r=
Lwd
Where:
48
Substitute in the values:
It can be seen that the calculated residence time is greater than the recommended
time of least 3 seconds.
Entrainment is a result of high vapour flow rates and refers to the liquid carried up by
vapour to the tray above. It is unfavourable as tray efficiency is reduced. The lower
volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of a higher volatility. High purity
distillates can also become contaminated. In the event of excessive entrainment
[27]
flooding can occur. The correlation developed by Fair (figure18) can be used to
estimate entrainment. It shows the fractional entrainment ()as a function of the liquid-
vapour factor(FLV), with the percentage of flooding as a parameter.
It can be seen from section 4.13.5 that the percentage flooding is taken to be 80%.
FLV = 0.058
49
[42]
Figure18: Correlation to find Fractional Entrainment
Figure19: Relation between angle subtended by chord, chord height and chord length
[44]
50
Obstruction caused by structural members such as support rings and beams and by the
use of calming zones reduces the area available for perforation. Calming zones are
referred to unperforated strips of plate at the inlet and outlet sides of the plate. The
widths of each zone are usually made the same and have recommended values of
below 1.5m, 75mm; above 100mm. For sectional plates the width of the support ring is
usually between 50 to 75mm. It is important to ensure that the support rings do not
enter into the downcomer area. Using figure19the unperforated area can be calculated
[43]
from the plate geometry.
From figure19:
l w 1.278
the x axis= = =0.755
Dc 1.693
3 2
Area of unperforated edge strips = 50 x 10 x 2.323=0.116 m
Total Area for perforations (Ap) = Active Area - Area of unperforated edge strips - area of
the calming zone
Ap = 1.711 0.116 1.328 = 0.267 m2
The distance between the hole centres i.e. the hole pitch should not be less than 2.0
hole diameters. The normal range falls between 2.5 to 4.0 diameters. From the range
the pitch can be selected to give the number of active holes required for the total hole
area. Usually square and equilateral triangular patterns are used. Of these two the
equilateral triangular pattern is preferred. The total hole area as fraction of the
perforated area Ap is expressed in the following equation.
2
Ah
Ap [ ]
d
=0.9 h
lp
51
[43]
Equation 19: The total hole area as a fraction of the perforated area
Ah 0.171
= =0.640
A p 0.267
lp Ah
From figure20below the dh can be determined using the value calculated for Ap
above.
Figure20: Correlation to show the relationship between hole area and pitch [45]
Ah
The value obtained for Ap does not fall within the range. This means that the hole
area is too large. Within the provisional plate design it was originally assumed that the
hole area will be taken as 10% of the active area. However, now we shall assume a hole
area as 3% of the active area:
Ah
Therefore, A p can now be recalculated:
Ah 0.051
= =0.191
A p 0.267
52
lp
The corresponding d h can now be obtained figure20:
lp
=2.25this is accpetable as it is greater than2.0
dh
Therefore,
5 x 103
2
Area of one hole=
53
[46]
Figure21: Graph for selection of liquid-flow arrangement
The liquid flow-rate and column diameter are the factors which determine the choice of
the plate type i.e. reverse, single pass or multiple pass. Figure21can be used to find the
liquid-flow arrangement. [46]
16228.74
Maximum volumetric liquid rate= =5.779 103 m3 /s
3600 780
From figure21it can be seen that a cross flow (single pass)can be used.
Where:
L
D g : Surfacetension=
L uV
L
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number =
L DLK
h w uv v
: Reynolds Number = FA
L
54
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate
uv :Superficial Vapour Velocity=
Area of Column
Area of Holes
FA :Fractional Area=
Area of Column
Ns /m2
4
L: Liquid Viscosity 2.194 10 (calculation shown in appendix ##)
L 0.0213
D g : Surfacetension= = =67.046
L uV 2.194 104 1.448
L 2.194 104
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number = = =74.139
L DLK 780 3.794 109
55
Emv = 0.07 (67.046)0.14 (74.139)0.25 (10537.998)0.08
Emv = 0.776
Therefore, using Van Winkles equation and actual plate efficiency of 77.6% is obtained.
Therefore, the actual number of plates required taking account of the calculated plate
efficiency would be as follows:
24
=30.927 31 Plates
0.776
Hc = (N+1)*Hs+H+plate thickness
Equation 21: Determination of Column Height
Where:
56
Substitution of all values gives a column height of: [(31 + 1) 0.6] +1 + 0.005 =
20.205m ~ 21m
Process streams have kinetic and potential energies; however, they are neglected as
they are small. In all systems a transfer of heat occurs between the inlet and outlet
streams. This is shown in figure22.
[48]
Figure22: Transfer of Energy within a system
Input of energy is provided by two means: from the feed (H f) and the reboiler (Qb).
So: Qb + feed sensible heat Hf
Output of energy occurs from the top (HD) and bottom (HW) products and from the
condenser (QC).
So: QC + top and bottom products sensible heat HD + HW
In order to calculate the condenser and reboiler heat load the following have to be
calculated:
57
Latent Heat of Vaporisation of the Components ( Calculations found in appendix
##)
Specific Heat Capacity ( Calculations found in appendix ##)
12266.269
kg/hr
INPUT = OUTPUT
H V =H D + H L +Qc
Qc =H V H D H L
58
H Lmix =( 189.185 0.99 )+(251.614 0.01) H Lmix = 189.809 J/molK
'
Q C =V [ H L mix +C P mix ] T
Where:
V= 28495.543 kg/hr
= 1754.733 KW
The amount of cooling water required in the condenser will be calculated in this section.
It is assumed that:
It is know that:
Qc =mwater C p water T
The above equation can be rearranged to calculate the amount of cooling water
required. This is as follows:
59
Qc
mwater =
C pwater T
Where:
Cp = 4.187 kj/kg.K
T = From the process description in section 4.1 it can be seen that the cooling water
enters the condenser at 24C (297K) and leaves at 40C (313 K).
6317039.579
mwater = =94295.432kg /hr
4.187 ( 4024 )
60
5.1.2 Condenser Design
This next focuses on the detailed design of the condenser.
There are certain specifications which are put in place in order to carry out the
appropriate calculations. They are as follows:
Firstly the log mean temperature needs to be calculated using the following equation:
( T 1t 2 ) ( T 2t 1 )
T LM =
[ T 1t2 ]
ln
( [ T 2 t1 ] )
[53]
Equation 22: Calculation of log mean temperature
Where:
61
(79.9840 )( 6024 )
T LM = =37.955 C
[ 79.9840 ]
(
ln )
[ 6024 ]
We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is shown
below:
Q
A=
U T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to be
850 W/m2 C.
Therefore;
6317039.579 1000 2
A= =54.391 m
850 37.955 3600
25
Surface Areaof one Tube= ( 1000 ) 5=0.393 m 2
54.391
NT = =138.399=139 tubes
0.393
62
1/ n1
NT
D b=d o
( )
K1 Equation 23: Tube Bundle diameter page [54]
Where:
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are shown
in table 5)
1 /2.291
139
D b=25 ( 0.156 ) =484.774 mm
Db
The number of tubesthe centre row is given by :
Pt
Where:
Therefore:
63
D b 484.774
= =15.513=16 Tubes
Pt 31.25
A
L=
do N t
Where:
54.391
L= =4.982 m
0.025 139
The tube side coefficient is calculated using equation 25 below. The equation has been
adapted from data provided Eagle and Ferguson (1930).
[56]
Equation 25: Tube Side Coefficient
Where:
64
ut: Water Velocity - calculated below
di: Tube inside diameter = 20mm
139
Tubes per Pass= =69.5=70
2
94295.432
Water mass velocity=
( 3600 )
=1190.599 kg/s m 2
0.022
1190.599
Water linear velocity= =1.193 m/ s
998
Choosing the pull through floating head the bundle diametrical clearance is found to be
90.5mm.
65
Shell Diameter (DS) = 484.774 + 90.5 = 575.274 mm
[59]
Figure24: Shell-bundle Clearance
In the shells baffles are used to direct the fluid stream across the tubes. They help to
increase fluid velocity and therefore improve the rate of transfer. Single segmental
baffles are the most common type of baffle used. This type of baffle is show in
figure25.
[60]
Figure25: Segmental Baffle Design
DS 575.274
Choose baffle spacing= = =115.055 mm
5 5
66
Cross flow Area ( A S )= ( 31.2525
31.25 )
575.274 115.055 10 6
=0.0132m 2
28495.543 1 2
MassVelocity ( G S )= =599.654 kg/ m
3600 0.0132
1.27 2 2 1.27
Equivalent Diameter= ( p t 0.785 d o )= ( 31.2520.785 252 ) =24.686 mm
do 25
79.98+60
Mean shell side temperature= =69.99 C
2
The density of MEK has to be calculated at 69.99C. This is shown in appendix ##.
Density of MEK at 69.99C (342.99 K) = 795 kg/m3
The viscosity of MEK has to be calculated at 69.99C. This is shown in appendix ##.
Viscosity of MEK at 69.99C (342.99 K) = 0.2548 MNs/m2
One is also required to calculate the thermal conductivity (K) The calculation is shown
in appendix ##.
The thermal conductivity (K) = 0.188 w/m C
G S d e 599.954 24.686
= = =58125.842=58126
0.2548
67
[61]
Figure26: Shell-Side Heat Transfer Factor
Jh = 2.7 10-3
The shell side heat transfer coefficient without the viscosity correction term is as
follows:
1
0.188
h s= 3
2.7 103 58126 4.0578 3 =1906.365 w/m2 C
24.686 10
68
do
d o ln
1
1
1
di do * 1 d o * 1
U ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi
Where:
U: Overall Coefficient
2
ho:Outside fluid film coefficient = 1906.365 w / m C
0.025
0.025ln
1 1 1 0.020 0.025 1 0.025 1
789.407
U 1906.3655000 2 50 0.020 5000 0.020 5286.993
2
U = 789.407 W /m C
It can be seen that the calculated value for the overall heat transfer coefficient is
different from the assumed value of 850 W/m2 C. So in this case it would be suitable to
assume an overall heat transfer coefficient of 700 W/m 2 C and carry out the
calculations again.
69
5.5Reboiler Design
This section will involve calculating the heat load for the condenser and also a brief
design of the reboiler required for the distillation column.
5.5.1Reboiler Duty
The heat needed in the reboiler can be determined from the overall heat balance over
the distillation column. This is given below in equation 27.
Where:
HD and Hb are the sensible heats of the distillate and bottom product.
In order to determine the reboiler duty the other parameters have to be calculated.
Then the above equation can be rearranged to find the heat required in the reboiler.
They are as follows:
H F =m C p T
Firstly the specific heat capacity (Cp) has to be calculated for Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
and Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA). This is shown in appendix##.The feed inlet to the
distillation column is assumed to be 70 C. The sensible heat of the feed at a basis of
25 C is calculated below.
H B =mC p T
HD = 0
70
Now all the parameters have been found the heat required can now be calculated.
QB = Q C + H D + H B H F
QB = 6317039.579 + 0 + 355253.736 2091312.493 = 4580980.822kj/hr
= 1272.495 kw
Heat losses may occur. Therefore add 10% for heat losses:
QB =1.10 4580980.822 = 5039078.904 kj/hr
= 1399.744 kw
It is assumed that the steam which is supplied to the reboiler is at 2 bar (200 kN/m 2) at
a temperature of approximately 140C. The latent heat of steam is therefore 2144.4
[63]
kj/kg.
QB =S h fg
Where:
QB 5039078.904
S= = =2349.878 kg /hr
h fg 2144.4
In order to carry out the appropriate calculations certain specifications and assumptions
will have to be set. They are as follows:
71
Steam at 2 bar
Overall heat transfer coefficient 900 W/m 2 C
The temperature of the bottom product is assumed to be 98.807 C (371.807 K). From
the steam table it can be determined that the temperature of the steam at 2 bar (200
kN/m2) is 120.23 C (393.23 K).
T Lm =393.23371.807=21.423 C
We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is shown
below:
Q
A=
U T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to be
900 W/m2 C.
Therefore;
5039078.904 1000
A= =72.598 m2
900 21.423 3600
A
Nt=
d o L Equation 28: Number of tubes
Where:
72.598
Nt= =154.058=155
30
(
1000 )
5
72
Square pitch of 1.25do
Therefore pitch (Pt) = 1.5 x 30 = 45 mm
Where:
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are shown
in table 5)
1 /2.291
155
D b=30 ( 0.156 ) =610.062 mm=0.610 m
To calculate the freeboard assume the liquid level as 500mm from the base:
Freeboard = 1220.124 500 = 720.124 mm
720.124
720........124 m
mm
500
1.5mm
m 610.062
1.3 m
mm
73
6.0 Mechanical Design [64]
This section will focus on the mechanical design of the distillation column. The detailed
mechanical design of processing equipment will not be usually carried out by chemical
engineers. It is usually mechanical engineers who are responsible for this. However, in
this section of the report certain aspects of the mechanical design will be investigated
including; shell thickness, skirt design and weight of plates.
In order to carry out the mechanical design certain assumptions and specifications
have to be stated. They are as follows:
Pi D i
e= [65]
2 f Pi Equation 29: Minimum Shell Thickness
74
Where:
corrosion allowance of 2mm should be used. Therefore, the column thickness will be:
e=0.629+2=2.629 mm
From the calculated wall thickness it can be seen that thickness is too small to
withstand the pressure of the column. It is important that the thickness of any vessel is
strong enough to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads.The table below
gives an indication of wall thicknesses of any vessel. The thickness should not be less
than the values stated in the table.
From table 6 it can be seen that with a vessel diameter of 1 to 2m the minimum
thickness should be 7mm. The diameter of this distillation column been calculated and
found to be 1.693m so it is important that the minimum thickness is 7mm.
Certain factors such as size, shape and weight of the vessel will determine the type of
support a vessel uses. Skirt supports are usually used for tall vertical columns. It is
support that the supports are designed to withstand the weight of both the column and
the contents within it. Also, it must be able to withstand other loads such as wind loads.
When designing supports it has to be taken into that there should be ease of access to
75
[66]
the vessel for inspection and maintenance. The skirt support will be made of a
cylindrical shell that is welded to the base of the distillation column. A flange at the
bottom of the skirt will transmit the load to the foundations. When designing the skirt
support it is important that gaps are provided for access and for connecting pipes.The
thickness of the skirt must be sufficient enough to withstand bending moments and the
[66]
dead weight of the column. Figure 28 below shows the two types of skirt designs.
Where:
Bending Stresses
The following equation is used to determine the bending stresses in the skirt support:
4 Ms
bs = [66]
( D s+t s ) t s D s Equation 30: Bending stresses
Where:
Ms: The maximum bending moment elevated at the bottom of the skirt, due to wind,
seismic and eccentric loads
Ds: The diameter of the column , including shell thickness and insulation (calculated
76
below)
ts: is the shell thickness = 7 mm
The diameter of the column including the shell thickness and insulation has to be
calculated. This is calculated as follows: 1.693 + 2 x (7 + 75) x 10 -3 = 1.857 m
From section 4.14.13 it can be seen that height of the column is 21m.
So,
2 2376.96
Bending Moment=21 =524119.68 Nm
2
4 524119.68 103 2
bs = =2.754 N / mm
( 1.857+7 10 ) 7 10 1.857
3 3
The following equation is used to determine the dead weight stresses in the skirt
support:
W
ws = [68]
( D s +t s ) t s Equation 31: Dead weight stresses
Where:
Ms: The maximum bending moment elevated at the bottom of the skirt, due to wind,
seismic and eccentric loads
Ds: The diameter of the column , including shell thickness and insulation (calculated
below)
ts: is the shell thickness = 7 mm
W: Total weight of the vessel and contents (calculated below)
The total weight of column (W)= weight of the shell (w 1) + weight of the plates (w2) +
weight of the insulation (w3)
77
Weight of the Shell (w1):
Where:
Cv: Factor accounts for the weight of the nozzle, for distillation columns = 1.15
Hv: The height of the column = 21m
t: The shell thickness = 7mm
Dm: The diameter of the column including the shell thickness (calculated below)
7
D m=1.693+ ( 1000 )=1.7 m
Substitute the values into equation 32:
The plate area if calculated as follows:
Plate Area= 1.6932=2.251 m2
4
In the distillation column there are 31 plates in total therefore the total weight of the 31
plates is as follows:
= 2.701 31 = 83.731 kN
The volume of insulation has to be calculated. It is specified that the column will be
insulated with 75 mm mineral wool. Therefore, the insulation volume:
78
2
Volume= 1.693 21 0.075=8.377 m
The value for the weight of insulation has to be doubled in order to allow for fittings:
= 2 10683.188 = 21366.376 N = 21.366 kN
The dead weight stresses can now be calculated by substitution into equation 31.
178532
ws = =4.756 N /m m2
( 1700+7 ) 7
Flat plates are usually used as covers for manways and are used as channel covers for
heat exchangers. Formed flat ends are sometimes known as flange-only heads. This
type of head is the cheapest type to manufacture as fabrication costs are low, however,
they are limited to low pressures and small diameter vessels.Torispherical head are the
most commonly used type for vessels with operating pressures up to 15 bar. They can
be used with vessels with higher pressures however; the costs have to be compared
with that of an ellipsoidal head. For pressures over 15 bar ellipsoidal heads would be
the most economical type. The hemispherical head type has the strongest shape and is
able to withstand double the pressure of a torispherical head which is of the same
79
thickness. For the product distillation column the flat head closure would be suitable as
[65]
the column is assumed to operate at atmospheric pressure.
From section 4.16.4 it can be seen that stainless steel has been chosen as the material
to build the pipes. Equation 31has been developed to calculate the optimum diameter
80
for turbulent flow. The following equation can be used to give an estimation of the
economic pipe diameter for normal pipes.
d opt =260 G0.52 0.37 Equation 33: optimum diameter for stainless steel pipes [71]
Where:
G: The flowrate
: The liquid density
The optimum pipe diameter will be calculated for the pipes at the feed, the distillate
and the bottom product. Also, the wall thickness will be calculated for the feed pipe, the
distillate pipe and the bottom product pipe. In order to resist internal pressure the pipe
wall thickness is also calculated which has an allowance for corrosion. Process pipes are
usually considered as thin cylinders. However, in cases such as high-pressure streams
they are considered as thick cylinders. The wall thickness is calculated from equation
[71]
34.
Pd
t= [71]
20 d + P Equation 34: Formula for wall thickness
Where:
P: Internal Pressure
d: Pipe outer diameter (will be calculated for each pipe and calculations are shown
below)
: Design stress at working temperature (obtained from table 8)
81
6.5.1 Pipe Sizing at the Feed
The temperature of the feed inlet to the column is assumed to be 70C (343 K). We are
aware that the feed contains both Methyl Ethyl Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol.
Therefore, the density of the mixture has to be calculated at 343 K. This is shown as
follows:
n
1T
L A* B Tc
0.2 857
1343
0.2676 0.2514 535.5
0.2676 0.25140.8798
=0.794 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
=0.794 1000 1000 3
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
=794
m3
n
1T
L A* B Tc
0.2604
1343
0.2734 0.2635 536.01
82
0.2734 0.26350.8896
=0.835 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
=0.835 1000 1000 3
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
=835
m3
V T =15.462+1.698=17.160 m3 /hr
0.52
13692.873
d opt =260 ( 3600 ) 0.37
( 797 ) =43.968 mm
Using this information the wall thickness can be calculated using equation 34. However,
firstly the design stress has to be calculated using the information provided in table 8
interpolation as follows:
83
165x x150
= =159 N /m m2
50 70 70 100
It is assumed that the feed to the column is not viscous it is a pumped liquid. Therefore,
fromtable 7it can be seen that the velocity falls between the 1-3.0 m/s range. So the
pressure will be:
kPa Pa ( N /m2 )
P=0.5 =500
m m
500 50 103
t= =0.006793 m=6.793 mm
(20 159 )+ 500
n
1T
L A* B Tc
0.28 5 7
1 352.982
0.2676 0.2514 535.5
0.2676 0.25140.8870
=0.786 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
84
g mL L Kg
=0.786 1000 1000 3
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
=786
m3
0.52
12266.269
d opt =260 ( 3600 ) 0.37
( 786 ) =41.74 mm
Using this information the wall thickness can be calculated using equation 34. However,
firstly the design stress has to be calculated using the information provided in table 8
interpolation as follows:
165x x150
= =156 N /m m2
50 79.982 79.982 100
It is assumed that the feed to the column is not viscous it is a pumped liquid. Therefore,
from table 7 it can be seen that the velocity falls between the 1-3.0 m/s range. So the
pressure will be:
kPa Pa ( N /m2 )
P=0.5 =500
m m
500 50 103
t= =0.006906 m=6.906 mm
(20 156 ) +500
85
6.5.3 Pipe sizing at the bottoms
The temperature of the bottom product is assumed to be 98.8 C (371.81 K). The
bottom product contains mainly SBA. So the density will only be calculated for SBA in
this instance. This is shown as follows:
n
1T
L A* B Tc
0. 2 6 0 4
1 371.81
0.2734 0.2635 536.01
0.2734 0.26350.9086
=0.814 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
g mL L Kg
=0.814 1000 1000 3
ml L m 1000 g
Kg
=814
m3
0.52
1430.000
d opt =260 ( 3600 ) ( 814 )
0.37
=13.475 mm
Using this information the wall thickness can be calculated using equation 34. However,
firstly the design stress has to be calculated using the information provided in table
8interpolation as follows:
86
165x x150
= =150 N /m m2
50 98.81 98.81 100
It is assumed that the feed to the column is not viscous it is a pumped liquid. Therefore,
from table 7it can be seen that the velocity falls between the 1-3.0 m/s range. So the
pressure will be:
kPa Pa ( N /m2 )
P=0.5 =500
m m
500 20 103
t= =0.002857 m=2.857 mm
(20 150 )+ 500
Using all the information a data sheet has been constructed for the column, the
condenser and the reboiler. This can be found in appendix##.
87
6.6 Concept Drawing
88
89
7.0 Control and Instrumentation [74]
One of the main priorities of a chemical plant is the safe operation of the process as a
potential disaster could possibly lead to major negative consequences. Therefore,
control and Instrumentation is an essential requirement for all chemical plants. The
design intention is unachievable if the chemical plant lacks control. Control can only be
met when the design intention is safe and any disturbances which may occur are within
bounds which can be predicted. Safe plant operation occurs when the process variable
are within the safe operating limits. Using control and recording instruments
information can be obtained about the process.
Measuring and indicating instruments such as flow meters and pressure indicators are
used to measure the process variables. Process instruments are sometimes linked
together using control valves to form control loops which provide more efficient control
and understanding of the process. The readings are taken to ensure that pressure,
temperature and other variables such as flow are within safe limits. Instruments are
defined as devices or control systems which are designed in a way that maintains a
functional relationship between a prescribed property of a substance and a physical
[74][75]
variable.
Safe plant operation To ensure that process variables are kept within known
safe operating limits. Also, any deviations which may occur are brought to the
attention of operators by the use of alarms. Finally, in dangerous situations
automatic shut-down systems should be put in place.
Production rate The desired product should be produced, i.e. to ensure the
product meet the desired specifications.
Cost it should be aimed to operate at the lowest production cost.
The piping and instrumentation diagram can be seen in figure 42 and in a larger size in
appendix##.
90
higher prices. However, to achieve higher quality products higher operating costs are
incurred so a compromise is required.
For quality control a mixture of both automatic and manual control systems can be
used to achieve the most effective results. For example, on-stream composition
analysers can be installed coming off the distillation column. However, they are rarely
used as they are expensive and they require a great deal of maintenance. It is
important that the analysers are placed in a protected location they cannot simply be
mounted to the distillation column.
The compositions of the distillate and bottom product must be determined externally so
the product purity can be measured continuously. To overcome this, a sample could be
sent off to be tested in the onsite laboratory for analysis. Adjustments can be made
once the results have been obtained from analysis.
91
Figure 29: Pressure Drop Indicator and Controller
Also from figure 30 it can be seen that pressure indicators are located next to each
pump. This measures the pressure in the delivery line. From the indicator operators will
be able to deduce if the pump is operating normally and adequately as the operator as
the pressure in the delivery line can be analysed.
Figure 30: Pressure indicator and Transmitter for the pump delivery line
7.1.3Temperature Control
Usually in distillation columns the feed temperature is not controlled. It is only
controlled if a feed preheater is utilised. Temperature is used as an indication for the
composition of the streams. For monitoring the performance of the column it is
recommended that additional temperature indicating or recording points should be
included up the column. It is advised that temperature sensors are located at the
position in the distillation column where the rate of change of temperature with the
change in composition of the key component is a maximum.
92
From figure 31below it can be seen that in order to maintain and achieve the required
temperature at the bottom of the column a temperature control device has been put in
place. The steam temperature is adjusted to control the temperature of the vapour that
returns from the reboiler. The temperature indicator will detect a temperature rise over
the set point and this will in turn be controlled by the temperature controller. The steam
supply to the reboiler will be either reduced or shut off until the temperature has
returned to the set point. In the case where a drop in temperature is detected then a
signal will be sent to increase the steam supply. We are aware that temperature is used
as an indication of composition. Therefore, in order to obtain the specified purity it is
extremely important to monitor this section of the distillation column.
The other point at where a temperature control loop is used is to measure the
temperature of the cooling water in coming into the condenser. This is used to control
the temperature of the product stream which leaves the condenser. From figure ##it
can be seen that a signal is transmitted along the line to vary the flowrate of the
cooling water into the condenser. The reflux ratio can also be varied to control the
temperature at the top of the column.
93
7.1.4Flow Control
From figure 33 it can be seen that flow control loop is used in the feed stream to the
distillation column. FIC-1 measures the flow rate of the stream entering the column.
Deviations which may occur in the feed line are detected and a signal is sent to the
control value to adjust the flow. The flow rate is regulated either by increasing or
decreasing the flowrate depending on the deviation.
7.1.5Level Control
From the figure34 below it can be seen that a level indicator is attached to the reflux
drum as it is important to maintain the ratio of the distillate to the reflux liquid. In the
event of an increase in the level within the reflux drum it is detected by the level
indicator and a signal is transmitted to the control value (V-16). This will result in the
opening of the valve in order to reduce the flow in the drum until the level return to the
set point.
94
system which are different from the normal set point. Therefore, this will help to
prevent any potential hazards from occurring. In cases when the response of the
operator may be delayed which potentially could lead to the development of a
hazardous situation, instruments can be fitted with trip systems which automatically
prevent the hazard. For example, shut down procedures on pumps and valves to
automatically close. In the event of a deviation a visual or audible alarm can be used to
alert the operator to carry out the appropriate action.
There are three components of an automatic trip system they are as follows:
A sensor monitors the control variable and provides an output signal when the
set value is exceeded.
A link transfers the signal to the actuator and this consists of pneumatic or
electric relays.
The actuator carries out the required action. For example, to close or open a
valve.
Interlock systems are utilised when a fixed sequence of operations has to be followed.
Interlock systems are included in these situations to prevent operators from departing
from the required sequence. For example these types of systems are usually applied in
start-up and shut down procedures. It is possible to incorporate them into the control
[74]
system design or mechanical interlocks can also be used.
Alarms have been included in the P&ID this can be seen in figures 35 and 36below. It
can be seen that the distillation column has a level indicator attached to it with a level
indicator alarm. The alarm has a high level and low level alarm fixed to it. The main
objective of the alarm is to alert operators and to ensure that the level within the
distillation column is not too high or too low.
If the level increases above the set point the alarm sends a warning to the control and
this helps to alert operators. A message is sent to the control room and then the correct
regulatory procedure is carried out to return the level back to the set point. The same
procedure would occur if the level fell below the set point. The procedure may be
automatic or may have to be done manually by the operator.
In the case where the level deviates significantly i.e. high-high limit or low-low limit
operators would be alerted by the alarm. Also, at the same time safety trips would be
used which in turn would cause the automatic shut down of the process.
95
Figure 35: Level Alarm on Distillation Column
It is possible to incorporate a safety trip into a control loop. In some situations it may be
more suitable to separate the trip system from the control loop to increase the
reliability of the control equipment. The control loop and the trip system may be
separated because a fault in the control loop can potentially affect the trip system and
may increase the risk even further.
From figure 36it can be seen thatsafety trips have been fitted to the active pumps. In
the event that a deviation occurs from the set point in the column the pump will shut
down and this prevents the flow from entering into the distillation column. Once the
deviation returns to the set point the pump will be started up again so the flow can
enter the column.
Valves used in chemical plants can be divided into two categories depending on their
function:
1. Shut off valves The main purpose of shut off valves is to close off the flow.
2. Control valves They can be either automatic or manual and their objective is
used to regulate the flow.
Control Valves
96
Selection of control valves is an important factor. It is important that good flow control
is achieved whilst the pressure drop is kept low as possible. Control valves may fail
open this is the position the valves take when power supply failure occurs. Diaphragm
valves are commonly used and this is the type used in this case. This type of valve can
be seen from figure 37 below.
Flanged Valves
Flanged valves can be used for drainage. An example of the type of flanged valve used
in this case is shown in figure 38below.These are generally closed and are in operation
usually during site or unit maintenance.
This type of valve is used to prevent the back-flow of the fluid in the process lie. It is
important that non-return valves have been correctly installed to ensure they are
working adequately, i.e. they should be fitted in the correct orientation. In this case
non-return valves have also been utilised an example of this type of valve is shown in
figure 39 below.
Gated Valves
Gated valves are frequently used for shut off purposes. It is important that a valve
selected for this purpose gives a positive seal in the closed position and minimum
resistance to the flow when the valves are open. Gate valves exist in a wide range of
sizes and it is possible to operate them manually or atomically by the use of a motor.
When gate valves are fully open they have a low pressure drop. When operating gate
valves attention must be paid to ensure they are not operated partially open. This is
because the valve seal can become deformed, so as a result the valve will not seal
97
properly. Below figure 40 shows a diagram of a gate valve which has been frequently
used in the piping and instrumentation diagram.
[77]
Figure 41: Diagram to show Instrument type and location
98
For example, the feed line which 2 inches made out of stainless steel is labelled as
follows:
2 SS 01
99
Figure 17: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Product 100
Distillation Column
101
The line chosen to conduct the HAZOP was the line connecting the feed to the solvent
recovery distillation column. The HAZOP can be seen below in section.......
102
9.0 Economic Appraisal
In this section of the report an economic appraisal will be carried over the Methyl Ethyl
Ketone plant by estimating and calculating the relevant economical factors of the
process plant.
There are many factors which have to be considered to determine whether the proposal
of a plant is worthwhile. A very important factor is the cost required to build the plant
and to determine whether the investment is financially viable.
Using various methods the capital costs of the chemical plant will be calculated. Also, a
cash flow table will be constructed and from this the cost going in and out of the project
during the plant life will be analysed. From the cash flow table the expected targets on
an annual can also be predicted. The breakeven point i.e. the point at which the initial
investment is recovered will then determined.
Wilson Method
Zevnik-Buchanan Method
Bridgewater Method
103
The three methods mentioned above are known as step counting methods as the
capital cost is determined by the number of significant process steps in the overall
process.
AUC = 21 X V0.675
Where:
This is then used to calculate the capital cost from the equation below:
Where:
104
From the AUC calculated above the installation factor (f) can be determined from figure
43below.
[81]
Figure 43: Installation Factor
From Figure 43 it can be seen that the installation factor F is approximately 1.9.
Assuming that the material of construction is stainless steel the materials factor to be
used is 1.3.
From figure 44below the pressure factor is found to be 1.0 as the operating pressure in
the reactor is assumed to be 2.5 bar. A pressure of 2.5 bar is the maximum operating
pressure in the process.
105
[81]
Figure 44: Pressure Factor used for Wilsons Method
Next the temperature factor has to be determined. From figure 45below the
temperature factor is found to be 1.1 as the operating temperature in the reactor is
assumed to be 800K (527C).A temperature of 800K (527C) is the maximum operating
temperature in the process.
[81]
Figure 45: Temperature Factor used for Wilsons Method
Using all of the above information the cost can be calculated as follows:
This method uses the number of process steps rather than the number of plant items. A
process step is defined as a unit operation, unit process or separation unit which has
energy transfer. For plant capacities above 4500t/y the following equation should be
utilised to calculate the capital costs:
106
C( 2000)=7470 N Q 0.6 10x Equation 36: Zevnik and Buchanans Method[81]
Where:
In order to calculate the costs using the above firstly X has to be calculated. This is
shown as follows:
Where:
This method is also based on the step counting method. For plant capacities above
60,000 t/y the following equation should be utilised to calculate the capital costs:
0.675
Q
C( 2000)=1930 N ( )
s Equation37 Bridgewaters Method [81]
Where:
107
[8]
s: Reactor Conversion = 87.57%
Therefore:
0.675
100000
C( 2000)=1930 7 ( 0.8757 ) = 35.04 million
The Wilson method will be used as the initial capital costs. This method has been
selected as it is the middle value of the three calculated capital cost. Bridgewaters
method may be deemed as not reliable as it is too small and Zevnik and Buchanan
method may be too large. So in this case Wilsons method has been selected. Another
justification as to why Wilsons method may be selected is because it accounts for all
the plant items. So this provides a more clearindication on how much the initial cost will
be taking account for all plant items not just the main process steps.
The calculated capital cost is that for 2000 so it is important to find the capital cost for
2012. Also, the proposed plant is to be located in China therefore location factors and
exchange rates have to be taken into account. To determine the capital cost for 2012
inflation rates of both China and Great Britain have to be considered. This is done as
follows:
Table 10 below shows the inflation rate for Great Britain from 2000 to 2012.
108
2006 +2.33% 1.0233
Location factors are only available for the year 2004 so the plant has to be moved in
2004. However, the initial capital cost calculated above is for the year 2000 so this is
where the UK inflation is taken into consideration. So the cost in the UK in the year
2004 will be:
As mentioned above the location factors are only available for 2004. So using the
location factors below the plant has to be moved from UK to China. So the capital cost
in 2004 taking account of location factors is as follows:
[81]
Figure 46: Location Factors for 2004
The location factor for China in 2004 is 0.9. So the capital cost of the proposed plant in
China in 2004 is:
109
It is also important to take into account the exchange rate as the plant is to be built in
China. The exchange rate of Great British Pounds to Chinese Yuan in 2004 was
14.8173. [83]Using the exchange rate the capital cost in 2004 would be as follows:
The next step is to determine the capital cost of theplant for 2012. China inflation rates
from 2004 to 2012 have to be taken into account. This is shown below:
Table 11 below shows the inflation rate for China from 2004 to 2012.
So, therefore the capital cost in 2012 for China is calculated as follows:
110
9.1.2 Cost of Raw Materials
The next step to be determined is the cost of the raw materials which are required for
the process. There are only two raw materials which are required for this process. In
order to determine the total cost of the raw materials the amount required in tonnes
per year will have to be calculated. It is important to remember that in this process 1
year of production is equal to 8064 hours of operation.
Also, it has to be taken into account that the prices of the raw materials obtained are in
dollar per tonne. However, these have to be converted into the Chinese currency i.e.
[85]
Yuan per tonne. For this economic appraisal an exchange rate of $1: 6.30298 be
used. The table below shows the cost of the raw materials:
Raw Cost ($/t) Cost (/t) Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate Total Cost
Material (kg/hr) (kg/yr) (tons/yr) ()
SBA 1080 6807.22 11576.71 93354589. 93354.589 635,485,22
44 44 8.3
TCE 1180 7437.52 2232.14 17999976. 17999.98 133,875,21
96 1.2
Total 769,360,43
6.5
[86][87]
Table 12: Cost of Raw Materials
From table 12 above it can be seen that in order to produce 100000 t/y of Methyl Ethyl
Ketone the total cost of raw materials will be 769.36 million. However, from the mass
[8]
balance produced in the previous report it can be seen that the amount of TCE
entering stream 14 is completely recycled and is used again. So, the cost of TCE can be
ignored and the cost can be included in the start up cost. Therefore, TCE is not
considered as an operating cost. Also, It can be seen from the group project mass
[8]
balance there is a recycle of 1292.08 kg/hr of SBA . This amount can therefore be
deducted from the amount of SBA required. This will help to decrease the cost of raw
materials.
111
insurance and taxes. On the other hand variable operating costs do vary with the level
of production in a plant for example raw materials which may be required.
An estimate of the operating of the costs associated with the Methyl Ethyl Ketone can
be found from the cost of raw materials. From table 13 it can be seen that raw
materials cost represent 31% of the total operating costs. Therefore, the total operating
costs are shown below:
% of Total % of Total
Operating Operating
Operating Cost (/Y) Operating Cost (/Y)
Cost Cost
Cost Cost
Raw 635,485,228 20,499,523.
31 Packaging 1
Materials .3 49
225,494,758 20,499,523.
Labour 11 Shipping 1
.4 49
40,999,046. Depreciati 81,998,093.
Supervision 2 4
98 on 96
40,999,046. Property 20,499,523.
Maintenance 2 1
98 Taxes 49
Plant 20,499,523. 20,499,523.
1 Insurance 1
Supplies 49 49
Royalties 40,999,046. Administra 81,998,093.
2 4
and Patents 98 tion 96
163,996,187 225,494,758
Utilities 8 Sales 11
.9 .4
Payroll 40,999,046. 102,497,617
2 Research 5
Overhead 98 .5
40,999,046. 40,999,046.
Laboratory 2 Finance 2
98 98
Plant 184,495,711
9
Overhead .4
Table 13: Typical Operating Costs [81]
From the above the total operating cost therefore equates to: 2,049,952,349
112
100000 11345.364 = 1,134,536,400
The plant has been assumed to have a plant of 15 years. Also, it is assumed that
construction is split equally over two years with 50% construction in year 0 and 50%
construction in year 1. This therefore, means that production will begin in year 2.
The working capital is paid in the year before operation and is recovered in the final
year of operationwhich is an income to the plant. The working capital is usually
required in the year before production to purchase the initial raw materials to get the
plant running. In this cash flow the working capital will be 10% of the capital cost. The
final income to account for is the scrap value. The scrap value will again be 10% of the
capital cost.
All of the data which has been previously found is bought together in order to construct
a cash flow table. The cash flow table can then be assessed to determine the
profitability of the process.
The following diagram can be produced using the data from the cash flow in Table 14.
Year
113
9.1.6 Payback Time
From figure 47and table 14 the payback time can be determined. The payback time is
the time required to recover the initial costs from the income which is produced by
selling the product.The payback time is also be said to be a measure of how long the
initial investment is at risk of not making a profit. However, in this instance from figure
47it can be seen that the payback time cannot be determined. There is not a point
where the graph crosses the axis. From the graph it can be seen that not there is not a
single year where the plant is making a profit. The payback time cannot be achieved in
this case. Therefore, it can be said that the plant is not profitable as the initial
investment is not recovered over the lifetime of the plant.
114
Cumul
Yea Capital Working Scrap Operatin Incom Net Cash ative
r Cost Capital Value g Cost e Flow NCF
- - -
48247159 48247159 482471
0 0.3 0.3 590.3
- - - -
48247159 96494318. 57896590 106143
1 0.3 05 8.3 7499
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 197685
2 49 36400 9 3448
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 289226
3 49 36400 9 9397
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 380768
4 49 36400 9 5346
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 472310
5 49 36400 9 1295
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 563851
6 49 36400 9 7244
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 655393
7 49 36400 9 3193
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 746934
8 49 36400 9 9142
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 838476
9 49 36400 9 5091
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 930018
10 49 36400 9 1040
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 102155
11 49 36400 9 96989
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 111310
12 49 36400 9 12938
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 120464
13 49 36400 9 28887
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 129618
14 49 36400 9 44836
- - -
20499523 11345 91541594 138772
15 49 36400 9 60785
- - -
96494318. 20499523 11345 81892163 146961
16 05 49 36400 1 82416
- 115
964943 96494318 145996
17 18.05 .05 88097
Table 14: Cash Flow Table for the Methyl Ethyl Ketone Plant
116
9.2 Breakeven and Profitability Analysis
Al the relevant costs and income have now been calculated for 1 years production of
MEK. Now the profitability of the proposed plant has to be determined. There are
various methods which can be used to do this they are as follows:
Amortisation
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return
Return on Investment
9.2.1 Amortisation
The initial capital which is necessary to purchase all required equipment is usually
borrowed from the bank. As the capital is repaid the outstanding loan decreases and
the interest on the initial loan is reduced. The borrowed capital is often repaid on an
amortisation basis. This means that over the life time of the plant a constant annual
repayment is made. The following equation is used to calculate the amortisation rate:
n
Ir (1+r)
A=
(1+r )n1
[81]
Equation 38: Calculation of Amortisation Rate
Where:
A: The annual repayment which includes capital and interest. It is constant over the life
of the loan.
n: The number of years the loan is repaid over. It is usually the lifetime of the plant =
10 years
The following table show the effect of amortisation. Table 15 shows the effect if a loan
was taken out based on the full capital cost.
117
Working Scrap Value Amortisation Operating
Year Capital () () () cost() Income ()
0
1 -96494318.05 -126864724.4
2 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
3 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
4 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
5 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
6 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
7 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
8 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
9 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
10 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
11 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
12 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
13 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
14 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
15 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
16 96494318.05 -126864724.4 -2049952349 11345364
17 96494318.05
Table 15: Cash Flow Table for the Methyl Ethyl Ketone Plant taking account for
amortisation
118
9.2.3 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return
The discounted cash flow rate of return also known as DCFrr is another method which is
used to assess profitability. This method uses the net present value to determine the
profitability. Money which is invested into a project will earn interest. This means that
any sum of money which is spent or any money which arises in the future has an
equivalent value today. [81] This depends on the interest rate assumed and the number
of years. The following equation is used to calculate the present value:
F
P= [81]
( 1+i )n Equation 39: Present Value Calculation
Where:
The net present value is the cumulative present value over the life time of the plant.
The net present value will be calculated for two interest rates; 10% and 20%. The
number of years of the MEK is 15 years. The net present value can then be used to
determine the DCFrr. This is the discount rate which is required to make the net present
value equal zero.
DCFrr
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2,000,000,000
-4,000,000,000
-6,000,000,000
Cumulative Net Present Value -8,000,000,000
-10,000,000,000
-12,000,000,000
-14,000,000,000
-16,000,000,000
Discount Rate
From figure 48 it can be seen that a DCFrr cannot be determined as the graph does not
cross the axis.
119
Cumulati
Net Cash ve NPV at CUM NPV at NPV at CUM NPV at
Flow () NCF() 10% () 10% () 20% () 20% ()
- - -
- 48247159 482471590 482471590 -
482471590.3 0.3 .3 -482471590.3 .3 482471590.3
- - -
- 10614374 526332643 482471590 -
578965908.3 99 .9 -1008804234 .3 964943180.5
- - -
19768534 756542106 635705520
-915415949 48 .6 -1765346341 .1 -1600648701
- - -
28922693 687765551 529754600
-915415949 97 .5 -2453111892 .1 -2130403301
- - -
38076853 625241410 441462166
-915415949 46 .4 -3078353303 .8 -2571865468
- -
47231012 568401282 -
-915415949 95 .2 -3646754585 367885139 -2939750606
- - -
56385172 516728438 306570949
-915415949 44 .4 -4163483023 .1 -3246321556
- -
65539331 469753125 -
-915415949 93 .8 -4633236149 255475791 -3501797347
- - -
74693491 427048296 212896492
-915415949 42 .2 -5060284445 .5 -3714693839
- - -
83847650 388225723 177413743
-915415949 91 .8 -5448510169 .7 -3892107583
- - -
93001810 352932476 147844786
-915415949 40 .2 -5801442645 .4 -4039952369
- - -
10215596 320847705 123203988
-915415949 989 .6 -6122290351 .7 -4163156358
- - -
11131012 291679732 102669990
-915415949 938 .4 -6413970083 .6 -4265826348
- - -
12046428 265163393 85558325.
-915415949 887 .1 -6679133476 48 -4351384674
- - -
12961844 241057630 71298604.
-915415949 836 .1 -6920191106 57 -4422683278
- - -
13877260 219143300 59415503.
-915415949 785 .1 -7139334406 81 -4482098782
-818921631 - - -7317555613 - -4526392528
14696182 178221206 44293745.
120
416 .8 49
-
14599688 19090886. 4349311.9
96494318.05 097 41 -7298464727 53 -4522043216
Table 16: Net Present Value at 10% and 20%
121
9.2.4 Return on Investment
Return on Investment (ROI) is another method which is used to analysis profitability.
ROI is the percentage return of the initial investment over the plant lifetime. This
method takes into account the capital cost, the cumulative net cash flow and the plant
operating life. The following equation is used in order to calculate the ROI.
[81]
Equation 40: Return on Investment
The return on investment is calculated for the return on the initial capital cost is shown
below:
14,599,688,097
15
ROI= 100=100.87
964,943,180.5
It can be seen from the calculation that the ROI is negative. It again shows that the
plant is suffering a major loss. It would be classed as not being worthwhile. It shows
that the plant is not profitable at all. From the ROI achieved it can be said it would be
better to invest in a bank rather than to build the plant. It would be less of a risk to put
the money in a bank rather than to build the plant.
122
It can be seen that the plant is not generating any profit as the operating costs are
vastly greater than the income into the plant. It can therefore be assumed that the
project is not feasible any may not worth be constructing.
Profitability to the plant may be increased if the cost of raw materials was decreased.
The cost of raw materials could be reduced by locating the plant closer to raw
materials. This would mean that costs of transporting the raw materials would also be
decreased.
Also, the plant could negotiate a contract with the supplier in which a discount could be
obtained if the plant was to buy the raw materials in bulk. Therefore, this would
decrease the price of raw materials which would in turn reduce the operating cost.
Another suggestion to improve the profitability of the plant is to increase the selling
price of the product Methyl Ethyl Ketone. If the selling price increases this would in turn
increase the revenue into the project and would slowly decrease the debt. From the first
term project it was seen that there is a large market for MEK in China so it may be
viable to increase the selling of MEK. However, if the selling price is set to high then
there is a threat of competition from rival companies. Also, an increase in income will
also cause an increase in the operating cost therefore; the plant again would still suffer
a major loss.
The cost of the major parts of equipment in a distillation column are the vessel, the
condenser and reboiler. In section 10.1 the costs of the three parts of equipment are
estimated.
123
inflation has to be accounted for. Also, the price has to be converted to Chinese Yuan.
The conversion rate in 2002 from dollars to Yuan was 8.2766.[85] Therefore, the cost in
2002:
$96,0008.2766 = 794,553
Using the inflation rates determined in section 9 the 2012 cost can be calculated. This
is show as follows:
Using the inflation rates determined in section 9 the 2012 cost can be calculated. This
is show as follows:
124
The number of trays in the column can be increased by selecting smaller tray-spacing
or installing more efficient contacting devices. [89]
11.0 Conclusion
This project has been a indication of the level of detail that is involved in the design of
a distillation column. The project has been a major learning experience and has helped
to further develop skills including time management and analytical skills. The report
has expanded my perspective and conception of chemical engineering.
During the design phase it was found that many educated assumptions had to be made
using the data available and in cases were data was not available chemical engineering
knowledge had to be used.
125
12.0 Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure J/kgK
Dc Diameter m
Db Bundle diameter m
di Internal diameter m
do Outer diameter m
Ds Shell diameter m
e Column shell thickness
F Feed mass flow rate kg/s
FLV Liquid-vapour flow factor _
G Vapour mass flow rate kg/s
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
H Height m
jf Friction factor _
jh Heat transfer _
factor
k Thermal conductivity W/mK
KL Thermal conductivity of W/mK
liquid
l Length of tube m
Lo Liquid mass flow in rectifying region kg/s
L Liquid mass flow in stripping region kg/s
N Number of theoretical _
stages
126
Np Number of passes in a tube _
NT Number of tubes _
p Pressure N/m2
p Pitch _
P max Maximum process pressure N/m2
P Saturated vapour pressure N/m2
q Feed condition _
Q Heat transferred per unit W
time
R Reflux ratio _
Rmin Minimum reflux ratio _
S Allowable design stress N/m2
t Thickness of vessel m
T max Maximum process temperature K
TIN, Shell side temperature of process fluid IN,OUT K
TOUT
tIN, tOUT Tube side temperature of service fluid IN,OUT K
u Velocity m/s
uf Flooding velocity m/s
Uo Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
us Shell side velocity m/s
uv Vapour velocity m/s
V Vapour mass flow in the rectifying region kg/s
V* Vapour mass flow rate per unit area kg/m2s
V Vapour mass flow in the stripping kg/s
region
W Bottom mass flow rate kg/s
xf Mole fraction of component in feed _
xHK Mole fraction of heavy key _
xLK Mole fraction of light key _
a, b Relative volatilities of component _
a,b..
L Liquid viscosity kg/ms
L Liquid density kg/m3
V Vapour density kg/m3
Ps Pressure drop in shell N/m2
Pt Pressure drop in tube N/m2
T Temperature difference K
TLM Log mean temperature difference K
Nu Nusselt number
127
Pr Prandtl number
Re Reynolds number
14.0 References
[1]
R.M. PRICE . (1997). RMP Lecture Notes.Available:
http://www.cbu.edu/~rprice/lectures/distill.html#def . Last accessed 08/02/2012 .
[2]
APV. (2008). Distillation Handbook .Available:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/64928779/Distillation-Handbook-10004-01-08-2008-US .
Last accessed 10/02/2012.
[3]
Richardson, J. F. (John Francis) (2007). Chemical Engineering Volume 2. 5th ed.
Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. 542.
[4]
The Distillation Group, Inc. (2002). Distillation.Available:
http://www.distillationgroup.com/distill.htm. Last accessed 01/02/2012.
[5]
M.T.Tham. (1997). Introduction to Distillation.Available:
http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/distil/distiltyp.htm . Last accessed 01/02/2012.
[6]
R K Sinnott (1993). Coulson and Richardson Chemical Engineering Volume 6. 2nd
ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 669-671.
[7]
R K Sinnott (1993). Coulson and Richardson Chemical Engineering Volume 6. 2nd
ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 650
[8]
Alabede T, Badger N, Patel A, Said A (2011). Term One Design Project: Production of
100000 tonnes/year of Methyl Ethyl Ketone
128
[9]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 493.
[10]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 587 - 590.
[11]]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 588 .
[12]
M.T.Tham. (1997). Column Internals . Available:
http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/distil/distilint.htm. Last accessed 05/02/2012.
[13]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 557-560
Green, Don W.; Perry, Robert H. (2008). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (8th
[25]
Edition).. McGraw-Hill.
129
[26]
Yaws, Carl L. (2003). Yaws' handbook of thermodynamic and physical properties of
chemical compounds [electronic resource] : physical, thermodynamic and transport
properties for 5,000 organic chemical compounds / Carl L. Ya. Norwich: Knovel,. E-Book.
[27]
M.T. Tham. (1997). FACTORS AFFECTING DISTILLATION COLUMN OPERATION.
Available: http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/distil/distilop.htm. Last accessed 26/02/2012.
[28]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 568
[29]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 567-568
[30]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 581-582
[31]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 572-573
[32]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 524-525.
[33]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 536
[34]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 525-526
[35]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 571
[36]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 575
[37]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 576, 582
[38]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 576
[39]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 577
[40]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 577-578, 583
[41]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 578-579
[42]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 570
[43]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 572-574 , 584
[44]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 574
130
[45]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 575
[46]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 569
[47]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 552
[48]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 64
[49]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 65
[50]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 594
[51]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 589
[52]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 581
[53]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 598
[54]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 648-649
[55]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 608,610 and 620
[56]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 608
[57]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 871
[58]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 621
[59]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 590
[60]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 651
[61]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 673
[62]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 635-637, 678
[63]
Richardson, J. F. (John Francis) (2007). Chemical engineering. Volume 2, Particle
technology and separation processes / J.F. Richardson with J.H. Harker and J.R.
Backhurst.. 5th ed. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 1140.
131
[64]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages794
[65]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages811-818
[66]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 769-774
[67]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 767
[68]
Gavin Towler, R K Sinnott (2008). Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice
and Economics of Plant and Process Design. Amsterdam: ButterWorth-Heinemann .
Page 597.
[69]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 761
[70]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 284 and 736
[71]
R.K.Sinnott (2005). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages216 - 221
[72]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Page 737
[73]
M.A. Selmon Company. (). Pipe Dimensions Imperial/Metric Pipe Chart. Available:
http://www.maselmon.com/Content.aspx?ContentID=24. Last accessed 10/03/2012
[74]
R.K.Sinnott (1993). Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical
engineering design.. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 197-207
[75]
A. K. Ghosh (2004). Introduction to Instrumentation and Control. New Delhi : PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd. Page 2.[76]Ray Sinnott& Gavin Towler (2009). Chemical Engineering
Design . 5th ed. Oxford : Butterworth- Heinemann. Pages 235-236.
[77]
rocheter.edu. (). P&ID Symbols . Available:
http://www.lle.rochester.edu/media/omega_facility//documents/P&ID.pdf. Last accessed
16/03/2012.
[78]
Mike Lihou . (2001). HAZARD & OPERABILITY STUDIES .
Available:http://www.lihoutech.com/hzp1frm.htm. Last accessed 10/03/2012.
[79]
Dr.J.ADrahun. (2011) Module CE3001 LossPrevention Lecture Notes
[80]
NSW Department of Planning . (2008). HAZOP guidelines . Available:
http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/plansforaction/pdf/hazards/haz_hipap8_rev2008.pdf.
Last accessed 10/03/2012.
[81]
Dr.Brammer. (2011) Module CE3001 ProcessEconomics Lecture Notes
132
[82]
Inflation.eu-Worldwide Inflation Data . (2010). Historic inflation Great Britain - CPI
inflation. Available: http://www.inflation.eu/inflation-rates/great-britain/historic-
inflation/cpi-inflation-great-britain.aspx. Last accessed 17/03/2012.
[83]
X-Rates . (2012). Exchange Rates . Available: http://www.x-rates.com/cgi-
bin/hlookup.cgi. Last accessed 17/03/2012.
[84]
inflation.eu - worldwide inflation data. (2010). Historic inflation China - CPI inflation.
Available: http://www.inflation.eu/inflation-rates/china/historic-inflation/cpi-inflation-
china.aspx. Last accessed 17/03/2012
[85]
X-Rates. (2012). Exchange Rates. Available: http://www.x-rates.com/cgi-
bin/hlookup.cgi. Last accessed 17/03/2012.
133