Methods of Causal

Reasoning and Limitations

of Inductive Techniques
Method of Causal
Reasoning
1. The method of agreement
2. The method of difference
3. The joint method of agreement and
difference
4. The method of residues
5. The method of concomitant variation
Two terms to remember
Circumstances
Phenomena

Example:
Phenomena: Virus Outbreak
Circumstance: Symptoms the cause
Method of Agreement
Rule
A B C D occur together with w x y z
A E F G occur together with w t u v
Therefore, A is the cause (or the effect) of w

NOTE: Only one prior circumstance that all of them

shared.
Method of Agreement
Example:
3 students had a diarrhea after lunch.
The first student had eaten pizza, ice cream, and
crackers.
The second student had eaten fried chicken,
vegetables, and ice cream.
The third student had eaten ice cream, boiled eggs
and pasta.
Method of Agreement
Example:
3 students had a diarrhea after lunch.
The first student had eaten pizza, ice cream, and
crackers.
The second student had eaten fried chicken,
vegetables, and ice cream.
The third student had eaten ice cream, boiled eggs
and pasta.

Answer:
Therefore, Eating ice cream was the cause why
the three students had a diarrhea.
Method of Difference
Rule
A B C D occur together with w x y z
B C D occur together with x y z
Therefore, A is the cause or the effect or an
indispensable part of the cause of w

Note: only one is present in the first instance and

not in the second.
Method of Difference
Example:
2 students went to the clinic after lunch.
The first student had a diarrhea. He had eaten pizza,
ice cream, and crackers.
The second student was fine. He had only eaten fried
chicken and vegetables.
Method of Difference
Example:
2 students went to the clinic after lunch.
The first student had a diarrhea. He had eaten pizza,
ice cream, and crackers.
The second student was fine. He had only eaten fried
chicken and vegetables.

Answer:
Therefore, Eating ice cream was the cause why
the first student had a diarrhea.
Joint Method of Agreement and
Difference
Rule
A B C x y z. A B C x y z.
A D E x t q. B C y z.
Therefore, A is the effect, cause, or indispensable
part of the cause of x.
Joint Method of Agreement and
Difference
Example:
4 students went to the clinic after lunch.
The first student had a diarrhea. He had eaten pizza,
ice cream, and crackers.
The second student had a diarrhea. He had eaten
fried chicken, vegetables, and ice cream
The third student had a diarrhea. He had eaten ice
cream, boiled eggs and pasta
The fourth student was fine. He had eaten steamed
fish and fruits.
Joint Method of Agreement and
Difference
Answer:
Applying the method of agreement, the first,
second and third student had a diarrhea because
of eating ice cream.
Applying the method of difference, the fourth
student did not have a diarrhea because of not
eating ice cream.

Therefore, ice cream is the cause, or the

effect, or the indispensable part of the
cause of diarrhea.
The Method of Residues
Rule
ABCxyz
B is known to be the cause of y
C is known to be the cause of z
Therefore, A is the cause of x.

Note: Whatever remains of the effect must then

have been produced by whatever remains of the
cause.
Method of Residues
Example:
The doctor found out that pizza would cause
allergies and fried chicken would cause headache.
A student (probably the fifth) came in, complaining
about his illness. He had a diarrhea, allergies on his
skin, and headache after taking his lunch. He had
eaten pizza, fried chicken, and ice cream.
Method of Residues
Answer:
Pizza would cause allergies.
The student had eaten pizza which was the
cause of his allergies.
Fried chicken would cause headache.
The student had eaten fried chicken which was
the cause of the headache.
The student had a diarrhea.
The student had eaten ice cream which was
the cause of the diarrhea.
Method of Concomitant
Variation
Rule
ABCxyz
A+ B C x+ y z
Therefore, A and x are causally connected.

Note: There is a direct correlation between the

degree to which the cause occurred and the degree
to which the effect occurred.
Method of Concomitant
Variation
Example:
3 students went to the clinic after lunch.
The first student felt a stomachache. He had eaten
pizza, crackers, and a spoonful of ice cream.
The second student had a diarrhea. He had eaten
fried chicken, vegetables, and a large cup of ice
cream.
The third student was fine. He had eaten boiled
eggs and pasta.
Method of Concomitant
Variation
Example:
3 students went to the clinic after lunch.
The first student felt a stomachache. He had eaten
pizza, crackers, and a spoonful of ice cream.
The second student had a diarrhea. He had eaten
fried chicken, vegetables, and a large cup of ice
cream.
The third student was fine. He had eaten boiled
eggs and pasta.
Answer:
Eating ice cream would still cause diarrhea.
Limitations on Inductive
Techniques
1. In formulating these methods, there is that
assumption in which cases having only one
circumstance in common or other cases
having every circumstance in common save
one.
2. Not sufficient instrument for scientific
discovery.
3. Does not constitute rules of proof
4. Always depend on observed correlations
5. These are instruments for testing hypotheses
Limitations on Inductive
Techniques
The main advantage of inductive reasoning,
and the reason that most of our reasoning is
inductive, is that it works better in
situations when our information is
incomplete.
The main disadvantages of inductive

reasoning are (a) that it cannot guarantee

its conclusions, (b) that it assumes the
uniformity of nature throughout the
universe, and (c) it relies on observation for
information collection.