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Fundamental aspects of fault location

algorithms used in distance protection


V. Cook, B.Sc, Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.E.E.
Indexing terms: Fault location, Power system protection, Transmission lines

Abstract: The paper considers fundamental problems involved in the precise location of faults on high-voltage
transmission lines. The influence of pre-fault load on the distance-to-fault measurement problem is analysed and
a new method of accounting for load effects is presented. Two of the algorithms considered are precise, contain-
ing no simplifying assumptions and their overall accuracy is limited only by the accuracy of digital impedance
relays at both ends of the protected circuit. A third algorithm presents a new approach to the fault location
problem, which requires digital impedance relays at one end only of a transmission line. The procedures
described are applicable to any system arrangement and are suitable for a wide range of fault resistance values.

List of symbols = magnitude ratio of relay currents, given


y|;/r|
= sending end of protected circuit x = magnitude ratio of source impedances,
= receiving end of protected circuit given by | ZB/ZA \
V = input voltage signals to faulted-phase
v
r a = 1/+120 0
relays at ends A and B, respectively
(loaded system)
V V 1 Introduction
r y
= input voltage signals to faulted-phase
ro > TO
relays at ends A and B, respectively Problems associated with estimating fault locations on
(unloaded system) transmission lines have been of interest to power system
Ir, I'r = input current signals to faulted-phase protection engineers for many years. Analogue approaches
relays at ends A and B, respectively have usually been relied upon to specify the zone of pro-
(loaded system) tection within which a fault lies, with separate equipment
ho > Ko input current signals to faulted-phase being used to estimate the actual location of a fault in
relays at ends A and B, respectively terms of line length. Earlier attempts have assumed a
(unloaded system) transmission line energised from one end only, so that the
PPS, NPS, ZPS = positive, negative, zero phase sequence, presence of fault resistance does not prevent a reasonably
respectively accurate estimate being made, based on reactance mea-
~ PPS, NPS, ZPS impedances, respec- surement. However, it is generally accepted that such pro-
A0
tively, of source at end A cedures result in excessive errors when dealing with
= PPS, NPS, ZPS impedances, respec- resistive faults on loaded high-voltage interconnectors,
tively, of source at end B where fault current infeeds from both line ends are not in
= PPS, ZPS impedances, respectively, of phase.
protected circuit Accuracy in establishing the location of a fault is of par-
= ZPS mutual impedance of double ticular importance in the application of distance protection
circuit line schemes and also in improving post-fault procedures
= impedances presented to faulted-phase linked with line inspection and maintenance/repair work
relays (loaded system) at ends A and B, programmes. Extensive use has been made of analogue
respectively devices to establish the effective zone 1 and zone 2 reach
= impedances presented to faulted-phase values. The presence of pre-fault load current and fault
relays (unloaded system) at ends A and resistance inevitably lead to underreaching and in some
B, respectively cases overreaching errors [1]. The use of digital pro-
= pre-fault voltage at fault location cedures, as outlined in this paper, can incorporate compen-
F
= pre-fault voltage of phase 'a' (loaded sating procedures to delineate more accurately the zonal
system) boundaries. This leads to a general improvement in protec-
= pre-fault current of phase 'a' tion performance and a more efficient line patrol pro-
= pre-fault impedance seen at relay loca- gramme. In those cases where a transmission line crosses a
tion, given by VJlL difficult terrain, far more effective use can be made of a
= per unit distance from relay to fault helicopter service in establishing trouble spots due to vege-
= fault resistance tation faults or excessive conductor sagging. Thus, greater
CD, = complex coefficients used to express Vr accuracy in fault location leads to an efficient post-fault
and lr in terms of VL and IL service and an improvement in continuity of supply.
^1? ^ 2 ' ^ 0 = current distribution factors in the In view of the large number of variables present, the
sequence networks problem of accurate fault location appears, at first, to be
/ ,2>, / *0 = total sequence currents at fault location intractable. The influential and unknown parameters are
(unloaded system) distance to fault, fault resistance, magnitude and argument
of impedances on both sides of the fault location. The
Paper 4789C (PI 1), first received 18th February and in revised form 6th May 1986
problem is further complicated by the influence of pre-fault
The author is with the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Uni- load current (exporting and importing cases) and by the
versity College, Newport Road, Cardiff OF2 1TA, United Kingdom wide range of fault conditions which may arise in practice.
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. US, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986 359
Several papers have been published in recent years on for m > me, 62 is positive
fault location procedures for high voltage lines [2-7]. m = me, 92 is zero
Sachdev and Agarwal [2] have put forward a new and
interesting approach, in which use is made of local digital m < me, 62 is negative
impedance and relay current data plus corresponding data
from the remote end. Their procedure should result in a It may be shown that me is given by
precise estimate of fault location, but appreciable errors me = 1/(1 + x)
are reported [2] for certain locations.
Other schemes [3-7] rely only on the use of local relay- where x = ZB/ZA
ing signals and thus enjoy the advantage of not requiring a Fig. 2 gives typical impedance phasors presented to a
data link. However, some of these schemes leave certain faulted phase relay at end A of Fig. 1. It is seen that for
issues unresolved and it is these problems that the present
paper addresses. Considerable attention is given to the
influence of pre-fault load current in a system subjected to
resistive faults, as this is a major source of measurement
error. The well established analytical procedures to deal
with such cases, as given in References 8 and 1, are not
easy to apply in fault location algorithms and are not gen-
erally well understood.
The present paper establishes a new and much simpler Fig. 2 Typical impedance phasors presented to faulted phase relay
approach, which should lead to a better understanding of (phase-to-phase fault)
distance protection performance. The compensation pro- am > me, 92 positive
b m = me, 02 zero
cedure put forward for the effects of pre-fault load, enables cm <me,62 negative
further progress to be made in the development of fault (OP) = Z, = mZL + 0.5RF/C2
location algorithms.
Two of the algorithms considered in this paper involve
the use of a data link and the typical results presented are m> me (Fig. 2a), reactance type measurement gives rise to
free from the errors quoted in Reference 2. A third algo- overreaching, whereas for m < me (Fig. 2c) underreaching
rithm is given which relies on the use of local signals only, takes place.
and presents a new approach with improved measurement The magnitude and argument of a current distribution
accuracy. factor has an important influence on the apparent fault
location P in the R - X diagram. A faulted phase digital
2 Difficulties in fault location procedures impedance relay is presented with an impedance represent-
ed by (O~P) in Fig. 2, and this known impedance is a func-
2.1 Current distribution factor tion of three unknown parameters
Fig. 1 shows a single-circuit interconnector with distance (i) distance to fault m
protection equipment at ends A and B. When an unloaded (ii) fault resistance RF
(iii) magnitude and argument of current distribution
factor(s)
Section 5 considers an algorithm based on the use of
impedance data from one end only of the protected circuit.
Fig. 1 Single-circuit interconnector with resistance fault at F
This requires an assumed value of remote end source
system is faulted at location F, the faulted-phase relay at impedance, which is then used to determine the argument
end A is presented with an impedance [1] of kr, rather than its magnitude. Such a procedure results
in smaller errors being introduced into the fault location
algorithm.
The complex coefficient kr is a function of network current 2.2 Influence of pre-fault load current
distribution factors, fault location and type of short-circuit. When considering the influence of pre-fault load on the
In terms of a phase-to-phase fault, kr is given by performance of distance protection and fault location algo-
kr = 0.5/C2 rithms, it is helpful to make a direct comparison between
faults on unloaded systems and those on loaded systems.
where In making this comparison, it is desirable to start from a
C2 = (Z - m)ZL)/(ZA2 + ZB2 + ZL) (2) common base, to avoid too many extraneous variables. A
B2 suitable reference point is to assume that the pre-fault
As kr is generally a complex coefficient, the fault resistance voltage at the fault location (VF) is the same in both cases.
RF appears as a complex impedance which may be either The system voltages and currents at a relay location P
inductive or capacitive. Some authors [6, 7] assume equal are, respectively, VPo and IFo for the unloaded case and VP
X/R ratios throughout the system giving kr as a real and IF for the loaded case, where
number. Reference 3 uses assumed values of source imped-
ances to calculate current distribution factors. This may IF = IFo + kLIL (3)
introduce an appreciable error in the magnitude of kr and 1/ 1/ Lr 1 7 (4)
thereby generate errors in the calculation of fault location.
The current distribution factor given by eqn. 2 has an IL is the pre-fault load current in phase a and the complex
argument 62 which is a function of the fault location and coefficient kL takes the values 1, a2, a for phases a, b and c,
the X/R ratios of sources A and B. Defining me as the per respectively. Using eqns. 3 and 4, it may be seen that for a
unit distance to a fault location which results in 92 being loaded system, the relay voltage signal Vr (derived from VP)
zero, as well as the current signal Ir (derived from IF) contain

360 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986


component signals that are influenced by pre-fault load current distribution factor. Table 1 gives equations for the
current. impedances seen at both ends of the interconnector shown
Many References [3, 5, 6] refer to the need for pre-fault in Fig. 1.
load current compensation to eliminate an important
source of error in fault location algorithms. These Refer- Table 1 : Impedances presented to faulted phase relays on a
ences appear to rely only on a compensation routine for single-circuit interconnector (unloaded system)
the relay current signal. This approximation is understand- Fault End A End B
able, as the required voltage compensation is more difficult condition Z'
to achieve, as it is a function of the unknown distance-to- 3-phase (1 ~m)ZL +/? f /(1 - C , )
L F/,
fault parameter m. The present paper shows how this diffi- Phase-to-phase mZL + 0.5RF/C2 (1 -m)ZL + 0.5/?f/(1 -C2)
culty may be overcome. Phase-to-earth mZL + 3RF/C" (1 - m)ZL + 3/?/,/(2(1 - C2)
Considering a resistive fault at F in Fig. 1, the faulted- + (1 - C0)ZL0/ZL)
phase relay is presented with an impedance Z r given by
(Or\) in Fig. 3. The corresponding impedance for the
3.2 Loaded systems
The influence of system load on measured impedance has
ix / been considered by several authors [1, 8-10]. The relay
-locus of Z r signals Vr and Ir are usually expressed in terms of healthy
/
/ system signals VL and IL, i.e.
h
~~r
L r?"
c

L "

X Az, Bz, C., Dz are complex coefficients, whose values


depend upon the type of fault and the relay element con-
0 R sidered. This procedure leads to impedance locus diagrams
[1], the centre and radius of each circular locus being
expressed in terms of the Az, Bz, Cz, Dz, coefficients.
Fig. 3 Impedance seen by measuring element (BC)for a resistive b c
The above approach leads to complications when
fault on a loaded system dealing with fault location algorithms and a simpler more
(OP) = Zro (OPX) = Zr direct approach is presented in this paper. The method
starts with the equations for the no-load case given in
unloaded case is Zro (i.e. phasor OP). Thus the loaded case Table 1, and introduces compensating factors to account
introduces an additional error component in the measured for the presence of pre-fault load.
impedance, given by the phasor PPV Assuming the load From Table 1, the impedances seen by the faulted phase
impedance ZLL (as seen from the relay location) to be of relay at end A are given by
constant magnitude and variable power factor angle, the Zro=VJIro = mZL + kroRF (5)
locus of P is the circular arc shown in Fig. 3. The appar-
ent fault location (point Px) moves around the circular arc where
in a clockwise sense as the power factor of the load lags
kr0 = 1/Ci for 3-phase short circuits
more [1]. At unity power factor, the position of Pl is
obtained from kro = 0.5/C2 for phase-to-phase short circuits
angle (LPlP) = (180 - 0,) kro = 3/(2C2 + C o ZL0/ZL) for phase to earth short
circuits
where 9^ = arg (ZA2 + RJ2C2) In generalised form, the voltage and current signals to the
The magnitude of LpJPPl in Fig. 3 is a scalar quantity k phase-fault elements are
(k> 1), which decreases as the pre-fault load current
increases [1]. Thus an increase in load gives rise to an K=Vro + K2P(<x2-<x)ILmZL (6)
increase in the impedance phasor PP^ which corresponds 2
/ = Iro + K2P(<x - a)/ L (7)
to an increase in the error component of the impedance
seen by a faulted phase relay. where
A complete compensation scheme for pre-fault load K2P = a for measuring element (AB)
current needs to account for the shift in the apparent fault
location from P in Fig. 3 (no load case) to Pv Having K2P = 1 for measuring element (BC)
achieved this, it is then necessary to deal with the error in
K2P = a2 for measuring element (CA)
impedance measurement introduced by fault resistance
and a non-homogeneous system. In so doing, it is possible The corresponding equations for the earth-fault relay ele-
to establish the true fault location in the R - X diagram, ments are
given by point F in Fig. 3.
K2EILmZL (8)
3 Impedances presented to faulted phase relays =h (9)
where
3.1 Unloaded system
The impedance presented to a faulted phase relay at one K2E = 1 for measuring element (AE)
end of a protected circuit is equal to the PPS impedance of
K2E = a2 for measuring element (BE)
the line up to the fault location, plus an error term pro-
portional to fault resistance RP and the appropriate K2E = a for measuring element (CE)
1EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986 361
Eliminating the coefficient of (mZL) in eqns. 6 and 8, it may where, from Table 1,
be shown that for both phase and earth faults,
k'ro = 1/(1 Cx) for three-phase short-circuits
K = Vro + (/, - Iro)mZL (10)
k'r0 = 0.5/(1 C2) for phase-to-phase
Z, = VJlr = mZL + kro short-circuits
where k^lO^ = ljlro i.e. k'ro = 3/(2(1 - C2) + (1 - C0)ZL0/ZL) for
Zr = mZL + krLRF (11) phase-to-earth short-circuits
where krL = kjk^ To simplify the equations for Z'r, the receiving-end current
Eqn. 11 gives the impedance seen by a faulted-phase ratio {I'Jl'ro) in eqn. 14 needs to be expressed in terms of
relay for a fault on a loaded system. It corresponds directly the sending-end current ration (Ir/Iro). The coefficient of RF
to eqn. 5 for the unloaded system and suggests a simple in eqn. 14 may be shown to be
procedure to account for pre-fault load.
(a) 3-phase short circuit
This is achieved by replacing the complex coefficient kr0
in eqn. 5 by the corresponding coefficient krL for the KJWro) = V(i - CMiJ)
loaded case, as in eqn. 11. The procedure is illustrated in
Fig. 4, which considers the case of exporting power at end = 1/(1 - ClL) where ClL = C.k^
(b) phase-to-phase short-circuit
line impedance
k'Jil'r/I'ro) = 0-5/(1 - C 2 (/ r //J)
jX
= 0.5/(1 - C2L)
where C2L = C2 k^d^
(c) phase-to-earth short-circuit
- c 2 (/ r // ro ))
- c0(ir/i,0))zLO/zL-]
- C2L) + (1 - C0L)ZL0/ZL-]
where C0L = Co kxj0Y
Table 2 summarises the impedances presented to
faulted-phase relays for shunt faults on a loaded system.
Comparing the equations given in Tables 1 and 2, it is seen
Fig. 4 Typical impedance phasor diagram showing the influence of pre-
that the influence of pre-fault load current may be conve-
fault load on the impedance seen by a faulted phase relay during a phase-to-
phase fault
niently taken into account by modifying the network
ot = mZL FP = RF/2C2 FPt = current distribution factors. The sequence factors Cx, C2
and C o for the unloaded case are replaced by distribution
factors CiL, C2L and C0L, respectively, where
A in Figure 1. Thus, the apparent fault location changes
from point P for the no-load case, to point Pl for the ClL = .10. =CAIJIro) (15)
loaded case. (16)
This simple interpretation is used in Section 5.3 in
developing a suitable algorithm which contains com- (17)
pensation for pre-fault load current.
When analysing the case of importing power at end A, 3.3 Accounting for parallel lines
Ir lags lro and the measured impedance becomes If the protected transmission line is one circuit of a double-
circuit line, parallel line compensation may be applied to
Z r = ynZL + krnRF/kJ Oi (12) ensure correct distance-to-fault measurement on the
When considering the performance of relays at the recei- faulted circuit during earth faults. The additional compen-
ving end of the protected circuit, eqn. 10 becomes sating signal is given by
(13) (Zmo/ZL) x ZPS current in healthy parallel circuit

Z'r = V'JI'r When the system is unloaded, the impedance seen at the
sending-end of a protected circuit for a phase-to-earth
= Z'J(K/Ko) + (1 - Ko/m ~ m)ZL fault is
= (1 -m)ZL + k'rLRF Z r = mZL + 3RF/[2C2 + Co ZL0/ZL + Co (18)
where k'rL = k'J(I'r/I'ro) (14) where C'o Io = ZPS current in parallel circuit.

Table 2: Impedances presented to faulted phase relays on a single-circuit intercon-


nector (loaded system)
Fault condition End A End B

Three-phase mZL + RF/CiL (1 ,L)


Phase-to-phase mZL + 0.bRF/C2L (1 -C2L)
Phase-to-earth mZL + 3RF/(2C2L + C0L ZLQ/ZL) (1 - m)ZL +

362 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986


The faulted phase relay at the receiving end is presented and phase-to-earth short-circuits. Double phase-to-earth
with an impedance faults should be treated on a phase-to-phase basis, to
avoid impedance measurement problems associated with
Z; = (1 - m)ZL + 3i?F/[2(l - C2) the lagging phase earth fault relay.
+ (1 - C0)ZL0/ZL - C'o ZJZJ (19)
4.3 Method 2: linear algorithm
The procedure given in Section 3.2 is again used to estab- A simplification of the quadratic algorithm is possible if
lish impedance equations for earth faults on a loaded relay current magnitudes are also available at the two line
system. The corresponding impedance functions are ends. This method requires a knowledge of faulted phase
Z, = mZL + 3RF/[2C2L + C0LZL0/ZL impedance Zr and relay current magnitude Ir at end A,
together with the corresponding values Z'r and I'r at end B.
(20) Fig. 5 gives a typical impedance phasor diagram
; = (1 - m)ZL - C2L)
+ (1 - C0L)ZL0/ZL - C0L ZJZL-\ (21)
where C2L, C0L are given by eqns. 16, 17 and
C'oL = C'okl/01 = Co(Ir/Iro) (22)
Thus the simple procedure given at the end of Section 3.2
to account for the effect of pre-fault load current, is applic-
able also to double-circuit interconnectors.

4 Algorithms using data from both ends


4.1 Introduction
A fault location algorithm using impedance data from
both ends of the protected circuit has been put forward by
Sachdev and Agarwal [2]. Their method requires the
knowledge of a measured impedance and a relay current
magnitude at both ends of the line and the availability of a
data link to interchange this information between line Fig. 5 Typical impedance phasor diagram showing components in
ends. Such a procedure should give very accurate results, impedance measurement
but the authors report appreciable errors when the relay
currents at both line ends are approximately equal.
The present Section gives two algorithms which give showing the error components in impedance measurement
accurate fault location when a data communication link is at both ends of the protected circuit i.e.
available. The first method requires only the measured
impedance at each line end and generates a quadratic {FP1) = krLRF at end A (27)
equation involving the unknown parameter m. The second (FP2) = k'rL RF at end B (28)
method requires two impedances and two relay currents,
as in Reference 2, but the developed algorithm is consider- where k'rL = k'J(I'r/rro)
ably simpler and easier to apply. It is shown in Section 10 that
4.2 Method 1: quadratic algorithm 0a = arg (Z r + Z; - ZL) = 9'2 - 0 2
Section 10 gives details of a fault location algorithm based therefore
on the measured faulted phase impedance at each end of a
protected circuit. The unknown distance to fault m (in per angle (P2FP3) = 0'2 - 9a = 92
unit) is obtained from a solution of the quadratic equation
therefore
Qm2 + Sm+T = 0 (23)
angle (FP3Pl) = 92
where
Triangles (CFP) and (CPlP3) are thus similar (three equal
Q = ZL sin {29L - 9J (24) angles), giving
= z'r sin (0; + eL - ej - zr sin (0r + eL - ej - Q CPJCP3 = FPJPiPs = CF/CP1 = Kt
(25)
= Zr sin (9r + 6L- 9a) - {ZrZ'JZL)
(26) Using eqns. 11 and 14, the relay voltage signals at both
x sin (0; - 0r - 0J ends of the protected circuit are
0a is denned in Appendix 10. Vr = IrmZL + IrkrLRF (29)
It is possible for both solutions of eqn. 23 to be positive.
This arises when S is negative and T is positive, a condi- V'r = rr(l-m)ZL + I'rk'rLRF (30)
tion which may arise for resistive faults in the remote
The voltage term Ir krL RF in eqn. 29 is the voltage across
section of a protected circuit. However, if | S \ > Q + T,
the fault resistance in terms of sending-end signals,
one positive solution is greater than unity and may there-
whereas the term I'rk'rLRF is the same voltage drop
fore be ignored, as the correct solution is always less than
expressed in terms of receiving-end signals, i.e.
1 p.u.
This algorithm is applicable to 3-phase, phase-to-phase IrkrLRF = I'rkrLRF
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986 363
therefore for end B is
KJKL = K/Ir m' = (1 - m) = (X'r - (XL - Xr)IK\)l{\ - l/KJ)XL
Thus the scalar quantity Kt is also equal to the magnitude = {K\X'r - (XL - Xr))/(Kl - l)XL
ratio of receiving-end to sending-end relay currents. Refer-
ring to Fig. 5, The flow chart given in Fig. 6 summarises the fault loca-
tion procedures at both ends of a protected circuit.
= krL/k'rL = rjIr = Kl (31)
From Fig. 5, it may be shown that 5 Algorithm using impedance data from one end
2
(PiQi) = K 1(P3Q3)/(l-Kl) 5.1 Introduction
= K\{Xr + X'r- XL)/(l - K\) The source impedances ZA, ZB in the system of Fig. 1
have a marked influence on the magnitudes of fault current
therefore infeeds at both ends of the protected circuit. Reference 3
mXL = Xr + (PXQX) assumes representative values for these impedances, thus
allowing fault current distribution factors to be evaluated.
= (X, + K\{X'r - XL))/(l - K\) Errors introduced by this approach are claimed to be
small [3], particularly on long transmission circuits.
m = (Xr- K\{XL - X'r)W ~ KIWL (32)
The procedure given in this section uses local current
When Kt > 1, it may be shown that and voltage signals to calculate the source impedance
behind a relay location. An assumed value is used for the
m = (K2(XL - X'r) - Xr)l(K\ - \)XL
remote source, which introduces an error into the fault
Thus eqn. 32 may be used for those cases giving Kx < 1 location algorithm. However, the major error appears in
and Kv > 1, but may not be used for the case Kt = 1. the magnitude of a current distribution factor, but the
When the relay current magnitudes at both line ends are error in the argument of this parameter is not excessive.
equal, then The calculation procedure uses only the argument of a
current distribution factor, leading to more accurate
\KL\ = \ KLI and arg (krL) = - a r g (k'rL) distance-to-fault measurements. Section 5.3 considers the
i.e. error introduced by using representative values of remote
source impedance.
FPl = FP2 and 02 = d'2.
For this particular case (Kt = 1), the fault location is 5.2 Calculation of source impedances
obtained from The source impedances behind a relay location may be cal-
culated from a knowledge of pre-fault and post-fault cur-
m = 0.5 - (R'r - Rr)/2RL (33) rents and voltages. In terms of shunt faults, other than
If there is no fault current infeed at the remote end (Kx single phase-to-earth short circuits, the PPS and NPS
0), eqn. 32 is still applicable and fault location is given by impedances of a source are

m= Xr/XL (34) ZAl = ZA2 = (K2F(a2 - oc)VL - - ofl/J


If a phase-to-earth fault occurs on a radial feeder- (36)
transformer circuit, the absence of a remote source does where
not result in I'r being zero. In this case, there is a ZPS K2F = a for 'a b1 and la b e' short circuits
current infeed at the far end, so that Kx is not zero and
fault location is obtained from eqn. 32. K2F = 1 for '6 c' and lb c e1 short circuits
The distance to fault as seen from end B in Fig. 1 is
obtained from eqn. 32 by interchanging Xr and X'r, and 2F

also replacing Kx by (l/K^. The corresponding equation K2F = a or 1 or a 2 for 'a b c' short circuits
A F and Vr, Ir are the relevant voltage and current signals of
x x
the faulted phase relay.
m When dealing with single phase-to-earth short circuits,
= m'
it is necessary to calculate both ZA2 and ZA0. Using an
end A end B approach similar to that given above, it may be shown
that for a phase a-earth fault
calculate Z r =fyjX r calculate Z'r=R^jX'r
data link
calculate K1=I I'r/Ir) -i - coio)
zA2 = (vL - vae + L (37)

zA0 = -(K. + K (38)

yes = -VJCoIo
The phase-to-neutral ZPS signal is used in eqn. 38 to
exclude any earthing impedance which may be present in
(Xr' -(X L -X r )/K?)
the source.
If one or more transmission lines are in parallel with the
( 1-1/K2)XL
protected circuit, the currents flowing in these lines con-
tribute to the source voltage drop and a form of parallel
m = ( R L * R r - R ' r )/2R L <RL R; - R r ) / 2 R L line compensation must be introduced to give the correct
values of source impedances. For example, in the case of
Fig. 6 Flowchart giving a summary of fault location procedure an earth fault on a double-circuit interconnector, the
364 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986
correct current signal to use in eqn. 37 is fixed point. However, from eqn. 43, the location of point P
is influenced by the unknown parameter m, and as the
distance-to-fault increases, P moves further away from P 2 .
where l'a, I'L, C'0I0 are currents flowing in the parallel The angle PtP2P may be shown to be (6L 0r), which is
circuit. Similarly, the ZPS impedance is given by constant for the particular fault considered. Thus, con-
sidering various combinations of mZL, RF and C 2 , the
Z = V KC + C")/ (39) point P is variable and its locus is given by the straight
line P2 P inclined at an angle (6L 0r) to PXP2.
5.3 Calculation of fault location From the impedance triangle PPiP2 in Fig. 7, it may be
The relaying signals Vr and Ir allow the impedance Z r pre- shown that
sented to a faulted phase relay to be calculated. Using = Zr sin (0r 02)/ZL sin (0L 02) (47)
eqns. 5 and 11, the impedances seen for a phase-to-phase
fault are The argument 0 2 of the current distribution factor C2 is
unknown and is itself a function of the unknown param-
loaded case: Z r = VJlr = mZL + 0.5RF/(C2 k^) (40) eter m and the source impedances Z A , ZB. The maximum
unloaded-case: Zro = VJIro = mZL + 0.5RF/C2 (41) positive value of 02 (i.e. 02m) is plotted against (ZA/ZL) in
Fig. 8a, based on the equation
Eqn. 41 assumes that compensation has been applied to
the voltage and current signals (Vr and Ir) to obtain the sin (9SL - 02m)/sin 02m = (1 + x)ZJZL (48)
corresponding signals for the unloaded case. A voltage
compensation scheme to generate Vr0 from Vr requires a
knowledge of the unknown distance-to-fault parameter m.
5
To avoid this difficulty, a partial compensation scheme is
\
considered in which a new impedance Zrp is obtained from
ZrP = Vrlho = (Ko + (h + Iro)mZL)/Iro Nl
i
3
- lu ^zB/zA=o.i

- AV
i.e.
Zrp = mZLkl[91 + Q.5RF/C2 (42)
M<
2
;\V
1
The impedance phasors for Z r , Zr0 and Zrp are shown in 0
Fig. 7. 0 1 2 3 U 5
6
2m

2
1

0 0.1 0.2_ m 1.0

-2

Fig. 8 Variation of angle 6 for a phase-to-phase fault


a Variation of 62m (maximum positive value of 02) with source to line impedance
ratio ZJZL
b Variation of 0, with fault location
Fig. 7 Typical impedance phasors for Zr, Zro and Zrp

where x = ZB/ZA and 9SL is the difference between source


and line impedance angles. Assuming a 400 kV line imped-
The impedance triangle PP\P2 in Fig. 10 has sides given ance angle of 85, the maximum value of 6SL is 5. The use
by of an assumed value for ZB introduces an error into the
(43) value of 0 2 m , which is small at high source-to-line imped-
ance ratios (see Fig. 8a), and appears to be a maximum for
(44) ZJZL values between 0.5 and 1.0. The curves of Fig. 86
show the variation of 0 2 with fault location m for ZA/ZL =
1.0, and are obtained from
= (0.5*,/1 C21 )fca/fl3 - 0, - 0 2 (45)
sin 02/sin (02m - 02) =
where
(m - me) sin (dSL - 0 2 J/(1 - m) sin 0SL (49)
- 1) (46)
Fig. Sb shows that the angle 0 2 varies between limits of
For a given fault condition on a loaded system, the output approximately +2 for ZB = 0.1 ZA (i.e. x = 0.1), and this
of the faulted phase digital impedance relay specifies point variation decreases as the remote source impedance
Px in Fig. 7. The complex coefficient k3^ defined by eqn. increases. If the assumed value for ZB is 0.5Z,,, whereas its
46, is constant for a particular fault, so that the impedance actual value is 5Z,,, the error in 0 2 is less than 0.8 for
phasor (PlP2) is also constant for that fault, giving P2 as a 0 ^ m ^ 0.8 and less than 1.3 for 0.8 ^ m ^ 1.0.
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986 365
When these small errors in 92 are introduced into eqn. The quadratic solution given in Table 3, shows that
47, the error in fault location is quite small. Results of a resistive faults in the remote line section (e.g. m = 0.8) give
computer study are given in Section 6 to illustrate this
132kV
point.
If a procedure using the magnitude of a current dis-
tribution factor is used, the above error in the assumed
value of ZB would give a 40% error in the magnitude of
C 2 . This error is reflected directly in the magnitude of the
impedance component (F^) in Fig. 7, giving rise to a Fig. 9 Arrangement and data of the system studied
greater error in the distance-to-fault measurement process. ZLl = Z L2 = (0.126 +;0.612) fi/mile
Eqn. 47 is also applicable to other fault conditions and ZL0 = (0.315 + j\.54) Q/mile
Z r a o =(0.19 +j0.74) Q/mile
to cases where a parallel transmission line is present. The ZJZL = 0.7 ZJZA = 1.0
equations developed in Section 3 allow the appropriate line length = 10 mile
current distribution factor to be used for both loaded and source impedance angle = 85
line impedance angle = 78
unloaded system conditions.

6 Computed results two positive values for the calculated fault location.
However, any positive value greater than unity can be
A digital computer study was carried out to determine ignored, as the fault considered is within the protected
fault currents and voltages in the 132 kV system shown in circuit. Earth fault cases given in Tables 3, 4 and 5
Fig. 9 and to evaluate impedances presented to faulted (m = 0.4) result in a very small ZPS component in the
phase relays at ends A and B of the faulted circuit. This healthy line of Fig. 9 and ZPS parallel line compensation
data was then used in the three fault location algorithms is not included.
given in Sections 4 and 5, to calculate the location of a A contributing factor to the low errors found in the
fault. Checks were carried out on loaded and unloaded results of Table 5, is the presence of a parallel healthy
systems and the results are presented in Tables 3, 4 and 5. circuit (see Fig. 9). In the case of a double circuit intercon-

Table 3: Results obtained using quadratic algorithm (see Section


4.2)
Fault Location m Calculated Comments
condition p.u. location
Phase-to-phase 0.4 m, =0.399 EA = EB = 1/0^ P u - = 76 200 V
m2 = -0.493
Unloaded system
0.8 m, =0.799
m 2 = 1.825
Phase-to-phase 0.8 m, =0.794
RAF = 2.9 Q
Loaded system
Pre-fault flow A to B
0.8 m, =0.799 EA = 1/CP; EB = 1/+30 0 p.u.
m2 = 1.786 RF = 2.9 O
Loaded system
Pre-fault flow B to A
Phase-to-earth 0.4 m, =0.389 EA = 1/0^; EB = 1/-30 0 p.u.
m2= -0.73 RF = 2.9 Q
Loaded system
Pre-fault flow A to B

Table 4: Results obtained using linear algorithm (see Section


4.3)
Fault Location m Calculated Comments
condition p.u. location
Phase-to-phase 0.2 0.2001 , = , = 1/0 p.u.
0.4 0.4004 RF = 2.9 Q
0.6 0.5999 Unloaded system
0.8 0.7998
0.4 0.4008 5^ = 1/0; f B = 1/-30 p.u.
0.8 0.8006 D O Q f}
Loaded system
Pre-fault flow A to B
0.8 0.7997
RF = 2.9 Q
Loaded system
Pre-fault flow B to A
Phase-to-earth 0.4 0.402 p.u.
RF = 2.9 Q
Loaded system
Pre-fault flow A to B

366 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986


Table 5: Results obtained using data from one end (see ponent (i.e. FP in Fig. 7) remains constant as the fault
Section 5.3) location varies. This corresponds to a fault resistance of
Fault Location m. Calculated Comments 22 Q for a fault at the midpoint of the interconnector.
condition p.u. location However, this value of RF is not constant for all fault loca-
Phase-to-phase 0.2 0.202 EA = EB = -\l(y p.u. tions, as the current distribution factor C2 varies with m
0.4 0.401 RF = 2.9 O (e.g. when m = 0.1, RF = 28 Q). Curve 2 in Fig. 10 is drawn
0.6 0.599 Unloaded system
0.8 0.792 for (0.5RF/C2) = O.IZ^, so that RF is 5 Q for m = 0.5 and
0.8 0.797 EA = 1/0^; EB = 1/-3Q p.u.
5.5 Q when m = 0.1.
RF = 2.9 Q A positive error in Fig. 10 indicates that the estimated
Loaded system distance-to-fault is greater than the actual value, corre-
ZB2 = ZA2 (correct value)
sponding to relay underreach. Similarly, for negative
0.8 0.798 EA= 1/0^; EB = 1/~30 p.u.
RF = 2.9 Q
errors, the apparent fault location is closer than it actually
Loaded system is, and overreaching takes place. The relationship between
ZB2 = 2ZA2 (assumed value) the estimated location my and the actual location m is (to a
0.8 0.796 EA = 1 /0_2; EB = 1 / - 3 0 p.u. good approximation) given by
RF = 2.9 fi
Loaded system mjm = sin (0r 92 + A02)/sin (0r 02) (51)
ZB2 = 1QZA2 (assumed value)
Phase-to-earth 0.4 0.397 EA = 1/0^; EB = 1/-3Q p.u. where A02 is the error in 62 due to an incorrect value of
RF = 2.9 O remote source impedance. For close-up high resistance
Loaded system faults, the angle 6r is low and (A02) has a greater influence
ZB2 =ZA2 correct values
^BO ~ ^AO
on the error term (ml m). More remote faults give higher
0.4 0.4003 ^ = 1 / 0 ; f H = 1 / - 3 0 p . u .
values of (0r) and the error term (A02) is less significant, as
RF = 2.9 O shown in Fig. 10.
Loaded system
ZB2 = "2ZA2 assumed values
7 Conclusions
Fault location estimates in HV networks are influenced by
nector, the current distribution factor for the faulted circuit
is (assuming a phase-to-phase fault) the system being non-homogeneous, by pre-fault load
current and also fault resistance. The influence of pre-fault
+ (1 ~ m)(ZA2 + ZB2 + ZJ] load is considerably greater than variations in system X/R
c _ (50) ratios and when fault resistance is also present, consider-
2 \2{Z B2) ZL]
able difficulties exist when attempting to give a precise
The argument 02 of the complex function given by eqn. 50 fault location. This paper presents a new method of ana-
is considerably less than that of a single-circuit intercon- lysing the influence of pre-fault load current and gives a
nector, as given by eqn. 2. The maximum value of 62 (i.e. procedure which is simple to apply and leads to a better
62m) for the double-circuit interconnector is typically 2 understanding of the fault location problem.
and the error involved in the calculation of 02 using an Three fault location methods are considered, two of
assumed value of ZB, is quite small. which rely on impedance data from both ends of a protect-
The greater errors of a single-circuit interconnector are ed circuit. The advantages claimed for these algorithms
considered in Fig. 10. .The results given apply to a 100 are:
(i) Programs do not contain simplifying assumptions
and lead to an accurate fault location estimate
(ii) No limits are set for the magnitude of fault resistance
8
and overall accuracy is limited only by the accuracy of
6
,(FP)/ZL=0.5
digital impedance relays at both ends of the protected
circuit
* 4
(FP)/ZL = (iii) Applicable to loaded and unloaded systems and a
separate load compensation procedure is not required
(iv) Applicable to any system arrangement and the same
01 0.2 03 0.4 0.5 0.6
algorithm applies to all four basic shunt fault types.
m
The third fault location method relies on voltage and
current signals from one end of a protected circuit. A new
procedure is used which concentrates on using the argu-
Fig. 10 Typical curves showing errors in fault location using the algo-
ments, rather than magnitudes, of current distribution
rithm of Section 5.3 {phase-to-phase fault on a 100 mile 400 k V single- factors and leads to more accurate fault location estimates.
circuit interconnector)
(0.5RF/C2) = 0.5ZL
{0.5Rr/C2) = 0AZL
8 Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Prof. J.E. Thompson for the
mile, 400 kV, 4 x 0.4 inch2 interconnector, with ZJZL = facilities provided at University College, Cardiff and also
1 and ZB/ZA = 1. The assumed value of remote source Dr. John Rushton for many invaluable discussions on this
impedance is taken to be five times the actual value and subject.
the error in this assumption gives rise to errors in fault
location estimates. The curves of Fig. 10 apply to resistive
phase-to-phase faults at various locations along the inter- 9 References
connector of Fig. 1. Curve 1 is drawn for (0.5RF/C2) = 1 COOK, V.: 'Analysis of distance protection' (RSP, 1985)
0.5ZL and it is assumed that this fault resistance com- 2 SACHDEV, M.S., and AGARWAL, R.: 'Accurate fault-location

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986 367


methods from digital impedance relay measurements'. IEE Conf. Publ. 10 Appendix
249, 1985, pp. 180-184
3 ERIKSSON, L., SAHA, M.M., and ROCKEFELLER, CD.: 'An 10.1 Quadratic algorithm {method 1)
accurate fault locator with compensation for apparent reactance in Fig. 11 shows the impedance phasors Zr and Z'r presented
the fault resistance resulting from remote end feeds', IEEE Trans.,
1985, PAS-104, pp. 424-436 to faulted phase relays at both ends of the protected circuit
4 WISZNIEWSKI, A.: 'Accurate fault impedance locating algorithm', for a phase-to-phase fault. Adding these impedances and
IEE Proc. C, Gen., Trans. & Distrib., 1983, 130, (6), pp. 311-314 using the equations in Table 1, it may be shown that
5 SANT, M.T., and PAITHANKAR, Y.G.: 'Online digital fault locator
for overhead transmission line', Proc. IEE, 1979, 126, (11), pp. 1181- 0a = arg (Zr + Z; - ZL) = - a r g (C2) - arg (1 - C2)
1185
6 TAKAGI, T., YAMAKOSHI, Y., YAMAURA, M., K1NDOW, R., i.e.
and MATSUSHIMA, T.: 'Development of a new fault locator usine
the one terminal voltage and current data'. IEEE Trans., 1982, PAS- e = e' - e
a 2 2
101, pp.2892-2898
7 KONDOW, R., SUGIYAMA, Y., and YAM ADA, M.: If the system is loaded, the corresponding equations of
'Microprocessor-based fault locator'. IEE Conf. Publ. 249, 1985, pp. Table 2 are used and C 2 is replaced by C2L.
188-192
8 ZYDANOWICZ, J.: 'Application of the idea of steady-state imped- The following relationships are obtained from Fig. 11:
ance and admittance to the construction of diagrams intended for the
analysis of the operation of distance and directional relays and pro- PiQt = mXL - Zr sin 0r = mXL - Xr
tective schemes'. CIGRE, Paper 323, 1960
9 RUSHTON, J., and HUM PAGE, W.D.: 'Power-system studies for BQ1 = Z r cos 0r - mRL = Rr - mRL
the determination of distance-protection performance', Proc. IEE,
1972,119, (6), pp. 677-688 BQ2 = Z; cos 6'r - (1 - m)RL = R'r-{\- m)RL
10 CAVERO, L.P.: 'Analysis of complex distance relay characteristics P2 Q2 = Z; sin d'r - (1 - m)XL = X'r - (\ - m)XL
taking load into account'. IEE Conf. Publ. 185, 1980, pp. 192-195
(tan 6'2 - tan 62)
tan 0a = tan (0'2 - 62) = (52)
(1 + tan 6'2 tan 02)
Substituting for tan 6'2 and tan 92 in eqn. 52 gives, after
JX
some rearrangement, a quadratic equation
Qm2 + Sm + T = 0
where
Q = ZL sin {28L - 6J (53)
S = Z'r sin {8'r + 6L- dj - Zr
x sin (0r + eL-da)-Q (54)
ZrZ'r
= Zr sin L- 0J -
Fig. 11 Typical impedance phasors Zr and Z'r for a phase-to-phase
resistive fault x sin (0; + 0r - 9a) (55)

368 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 133, Pt. C, No. 6, SEPTEMBER 1986

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