The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas (200pp) CUP PDF

Edge diffractionChapter 1 Units, constants, and conversions Chapter 2 Mathematics Chapter 3 Dynamics and mechanics Chapter 4 Quantum physics Chapter 5 Thermodynamics Chapter 6 Solid State physics Chapter 7 Electromagnetism : Chapter 8 Optics Chapter 9 Astrophysics Index Se A Se The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas is a quick-reference aid for students and professionals in the physical sciences and engineering. It contains more than 2000 of the most useful formulas and equations found in undergraduate physics courses, covering mathematics, dynamics and mechanics, quantum physics, thermodynamics, solid state physics, electromagnetism, optics, and astrophysics. An exhaustive index allows the required formulas to be located swiftly and simply, and the unique tabular format crisply identifies all the variables involved. The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas comprehensively covers the major topics explored in undergraduate physics courses. It is designed to be a compact, portable, reference book suitable for everyday work, problem solving, or exam revision. All students and professionals in physics, applied mathematics, engineering, and other physical sciences will want to have this essential reference book within easy reach. Graham Woan is a lecturer in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Glasgow. Prior to this he taught physics at the University of Cambridge where he also received his degree in Natural Sciences, specialising in physics, and his PHD, in radio astronomy. His research interests range widely with a special focus on low-frequency radio astronomy. His publications span journals as diverse as Astronomy & Astrophysics, Geophysical Research Letters, Advances in Space Science, the Journal of Navigation and Emergency Prehospital Medicine. He is co-developer of the revolutionary CURSOR radio positioning system, which uses existing broadcast transmitters to determine position, and he is the designer of the Glasgow Millennium Sundial.ESTE LIBRO ES UN BIEN PUBLICO. NADIE TIENE DERECHO A ‘SUBRAYARLO NIA ANOTARLO. EL INFRACTOR DEBERA REPONER EL DOCUMENTO O REINTEGRAR EL IMPORTE DEL MISMO. K.l246082 53(#) | The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas GRAHAM WOAN Department of Physics & Astronomy University of Glasgow CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSFUDLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OFTHE UNIVERSETY OF CAMBRIDGE ‘he Pit Bulg, Trampingon Suee, Cambridge, Unied Kingdom ' Contents (CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS “The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Steet, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA. 477 Wilismstown Road, Port Melboure, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alaro6n 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa bip/ow.cambridge-ore (© Cambridge University Press 2000 Preface page vii book isin copyright Subject o statutory exception sod tee peioes cf seevaat oaletve loettag sponments, How to use this book 1 : ho reproduction of any pat may take pace witbout : the writen permision of Cambridge University Pres. 1 _ Units, constants, and conversions A / Fist published 2000 LA Introduction, 3 + 12 SI units, 4 + 1.3 Physical constants, 6 Reprinted 2001, 2002 +14 Converting between units, 10 + 1.5 Dimensions, 16 Printed inthe United States of America +1.6 Miscellaneous, 18 i Tpeface Times Roman 10/2 pt. Sytem LEX 279] 2__ Mathematics 19 A catalog record for this book i available from the British Library. 21 Notation, 19 + 2.2 Vectors and matrices, 20 «2.3 Series, summations, and progressions, 27 + 2.4 Complex variables, 30 + 2.5 Trigonometric and hyperbolic formulas, 32 + 2.6 Mensuration, 35 2.7 Differentiation, 40 +28 Integration, 44 + 29 Special functions and polynomials, 46 +2.10 Roots of quadratic and cubic equations, 50 «2.11 Fourier series | Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ‘Woan, Graham, 1963 “The Cambridge handbook of physics formulas / Graham Woan, poem "| ISBN 0-521-57349-1. - ISBN 0-521-57507-9 (pbk.) and transforms, 52 +212 Laplace transforms, 55 * 2.13 Probability and 1. Physics Formulas. Tile statistics, 57 «2.14 Numerical methods, 60 Qcs.we7 1999 . 530.0212 -€c21 5 3 Dynamics and mechanics i) cr 34 Introduction, 63 «3.2 Frames of reference, 64 +33 Gravitation, 66 ISBN 021 57349 1 hardback +34 Particle motion, 68 +35 Rigid body dynamics, 74 + 3.6 Oscillating ISBN 0521 57507 9 paperback systems, 78 * 3.7 Generalised dynamics, 79 + 38 Elasticity, 80 +39 Fluid dynamics, 84 4 Quantum physics 89 4.1 Introduction, 89 +42 Quantum definitions, 90 +4.3 Wave mechanics, 92 + 44 Hydrogenic atoms, 95 +45 Angular momentum, 98 +46 Perturbation theory, 102 + 4.7 High energy and nuclear physics, 103 Thermodynamics 105 541 Introduction, 105 +52 Classical thermodynamics, 106 «53 Gas laws, 110 +5.4 Kinetic theory, 112 + 5.5 Statistical thermodynamics, 114 +5.6 Fluctuations and noise, 116 + 5.7 Radiation processes, 118°6 Solid state physics 6.1 Introduction, 123 + 6.2 Periodic table, 124 + 6.3 Crystalline structure, 126 * 6.4 Lattice dynamics, 129 + 65 Electrons in solids, 132 7_Blectromagnetism 74 Introduction, 135 + 7.2 Static fields, 136 +7.3 Electromagnetic fields (general), 139 +74 Fields associated with media, 142 7.5 Force, torque, and energy, 145 + 7.6 LCR circuits, 147 + 7.7 Transmission lines and waveguides, 150 +7.8 Waves in and out of media, 152 +7.9 Plasma physics, 156 8_ Optics 84 Introduction, 161 + 8.2 Interference, 162 «8.3 Fraunhofer diffraction, 164 +84 Fresnel diffraction, 166 +8.5 Geometrical optics, 168 +86 Polarisation, 170 + 8.7 Coherence (scalar theory), 172 +88 Line radiation, 173 9 Astrophysies 94 Introduction, 175 +9.2 Solar system data, 176 + 9.3 Coordinate transformations (astronomical), 177 +94 Observational astrophysics, 179 +95 Stellar evolution, 181 + 9.6 Cosmology, 184 Index 123 135 161 175 187 Preface In A Brief History of Time, Stephen Hawking relates that he was warned against including equations in the book because “each equation... would halve the sales.” Despite this dire prediction there is, for a scientific audience, some attraction in doing the exact opposite. The reader should not be misled by this exercise. Although the equations and formulas contained here underpin a good deal of physical science, they are useless unless the reader understands them. Learning physics is not about remembering equations, it is about appr ating the natural structures they express. Although its format should help make some topics clearer, this book is not designed to teach new physics; there are many excellent textbooks to help with that. It is intended to be useful rather than pedagogically complete, so that students can use it for revision and for structuring their knowledge once they understand the physics. More advanced users will benefit from having a compact, internally consistent, source of equations that can quickly deliver the relationship they require in a format that avoids the need to sift through pages of rubric. Some difficult decisions have had to be made to achieve this. First, to be short the book only includes ideas that can be expressed succinctly in equations, without resorting to lengthy explanation. A small number of important topics are therefore absent. For example, Liouville's theorem can be algebraically succinct (@ = 0) but is meaningless unless is thoroughly (and carefully) explained. Anyone who already understands what @ represents will probably not need reminding that it equals zero. Second, empirical equations with numerical coefficients have been largely omitted, as have topics significantly more advanced than are found at undergraduate level. There are simply too many of these to be sensibly and confidently edited into a short handbook. Third, physical data are largely absent, although a periodic table, tables of physical constants, and data on the solar system are all included. Just a sighting of the marvellous (but dimensionally misnamed) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics should be enough to convince the reader that a good science data book is thick. Inevitably there is personal choice in what should or should not be included, and you may feel that an equation that meets the above criteria is missing. If this is the case, I would bbe delighted to hear from you so it can be considered for a subsequent edition. Contact details are at the end of this preface. Likewise, if you spot an error or an inconsistency then please let me know and I will post an erratum on the web page.Acknowledgments This venture is founded on the generosity of colleagues in Glasgow and Cambridge whose inputs have strongly influenced the final product. The expertise of Dave Clarke, Declan Diver, Peter Duffett-Smith, Wolf-Gerrit Frith, Martin Hendry, Rico Ignace, David Ireland, John Simmons, and Harry Ward have been central to its production, as have the linguistic skills of Katie Lowe. I would also like to thank Richard Barrett, Matthew Cartmell, Steve Gull, Martin Hendry, Jim Hough, Darren McDonald, and Ken Riley who all agreed to field-test the book and gave invaluable feedback. My greatest thanks though are to John Shakeshaft who, with remarkable knowledge and skill, worked through the entire manuscript more than once during its production and whose Iegendary red pen hovered over (or descended upon) every equation in the book. What errors remain are, of course, my own, but I take comfort from the fact that without John they would be much more numerous, Contact information A website containing up-to-date information on this handbook and contact details can be found through the Cambridge University Press home pages at hitp://www.cup.org (North America) or http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk (United Kingdom). Production notes This book was typeset by the author in ISTEX 2¢ using the CUP Times fonts. The software packages used were WinEdt, MiKTEX, Mayura Draw, Gnuplot, Ghostscript, Ghostview, and Maple V. How to use this book ‘The format is largely self-explanatory, but a few comments may be helpful. Although it is very tempting to flick through the pages to find what you are looking for, the best starting point is the index. I have tried to make this as extensive as possible, and many equations are indexed more than once, Equations are listed both with their equation number (in square brackets) and the page on which they can be found. The equations themselves are grouped into self-contained and boxed “panels” on the pages. Each panel represents a separate topic, and you will find descriptions of all the variables used at the right-hand side of the panel, usually adjacent to the first equation in which they are used. You should therefore not need to stray outside the panel to understand the notation. Both the panel as a, whole and its individual entries may have footnotes, shown below the panel. Be aware of these, as they contain important additional information and conditions relevant to the topic. Although the panels are self-contained they may use concepts defined elsewhere in the handbook. Often these are cross-referenced, but again the index will help you to locate them if necessary. Notations and definitions are uniform over subject areas unless stated otherwise.Chapter 1 Units, constants, and conversions 1.1 Introduction The determination of physical constants and the definition of the units with which they are measured is a specialised and, to many, hidden branch of science. ‘A quantity with dimensions is one whose value must be expressed relative to one or more standard units. In the spirit of the rest of the book, this section is based around the International System of units (SI). This system uses seven base units (the number is somewhat arbitrary), such as the kilogram and the second, and defines their magnitudes in terms of physical laws or, in the case of the kilogram, an object called the “international prototype of the kilogram” kept in Paris. For convenience there are also a number of derived standards, such as the volt, which are defined as set combinations of the basic seven. Most of the physical observables we regard as being in some sense fundamental, such as the charge on an electron, are now known to better than 1 part per million (ppm). The least well known is the Newtonian constant of gravitation (128 ppm) and the best the Rydberg constant (0.0012 ppm). The dimensionless electron g-factor, representing the magnetic moment of an electron measured in Bohr magnetons, has been determined to 1 part in 10" ‘No matter which base units are used, physical quantities are expressed as the product of a numerical value and a unit. These two components have more-or-less equal standing and can be manipulated by following the usual rules of algebra. So, if 1+ eV = 160.218 x 10- J then 1- J = [1/(160.218 x 10-)]- eV. A measurement of energy, U, with joule as the unit has a numerical value of U/J. The same measurement with electron volt as the unit has a numerical value of U/eV = (U/J):(J/eV) and so on.4 Units, constants, and conversions 1.2 SI units 5 | 1.2 SI units SI base units SEprefixes Physical quantity name symbol Factor prefix symbol | factor prefix symbol length metre =m 10% —yotta.-¥ 107 yocto -y maa kilogram kg 17 zeta, Z 10 Zepto z time second 8 1" eB 10" ato a | electric current ampere A 10 peta PP 10 femto f thermodynamic temperature kelvin = K 10? tera TT 10"? pico p amount of substance mole mol 10° gisa GG 10° nano on luminous intensit candela od mega M 10-6 micro Hy TO kilo k 10% milli, om hecto 107 centi_ | - deca® da lo! decid | ‘SI derived wi SQrdkaOOOSOC~=~—“—SsSSCststs‘CSCS*S*SSS | physical quantity name symbol equivalent units electric capacitance farad F cv"! electric charge coulomb c . . electric conductance siemens s Recognised non-SI_ units electric potential difference volt v Physical quantity — name ‘symbol ST value electric resistance ohm a time minute min 60s energy, work, heat joule I hour h 3600s : force newton N day a 8640s | frequency hertz Hz Plane angle degree . (x/180) rad | illuminance lux Ix minute D (%/10800) rad inductance henry H second " (x /648 000) rad | | luminous flux lumen In length Angstrém A 107m magnetic flux weber ‘Wb fermi* fm 107m magnetic flux density tesla T micron* hm, 10m plane angle radian rad barn b 10-7 m? power, radiant flux watt w litre LL 10-3 m? pressure, stress pascal Pa tonne®® t 10°kg radiation absorbed dose gray Gy ket . pressure bar bar 10°Nm2 radiation dose equivalent* — sievert Sv [ke] energy electron volt eV = 1.60218 x 10-5 radioactive activity becquerel Bq mass unified atomic solid angle steradian st {mass unit = 1.66054 x 10-7 kg | | temperature* degree Celsius °C Roe se oe To distinguish it from the gray, units of Jkg~ should not be used for the sievert in practice. ‘The Celsius temperature, To, i defined from the temperature in kelvin, Tk, by Te = Tk ~ 273.156 Units, constants, and conversions 1.3 Physical constants The following values are in accordance with the 1986 CODATA Recommended Values for the fundamental physical constants (Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 92, 85, 1987). ‘The digits in parentheses represent the 1-c uncertainty in the previous two quoted digits. For example, G = (667259 + 0.00085) x 10-"' m?ke~'s~®, It is important to note that the uncertainties for many of the listed quantities are correlated, so that the uncertainty in any expression using them in combination cannot necessarily be computed from the data presented. Suitable covariance matrices are tabulated in the above article Summary of physical constants speed of light in vacuum® c 2.997924 58 x10'ms~ permeability of vacuum? wm ae x10“ Hm =12.566370614.... x10-7 Hm permittivity of vacuum % Fmt x10? Fm constant of gravitation® G 6.672 59(85) x107U m? kg Planck constant h 6.626 075 5(40) x104Js h/Qr) hi 1.054 $7266(63) x10“, elementary charge e 1,60217733(49) x10“ C magnetic flux quantum, h/(2e) 20678346161) _—x10-* Wb electron volt eV 1.6021773349) x10“ electron mass m. —-9.1093897(54) x10“ kg proton mass m, _ 1.6726231(10) proton/electron mass ratio m,/me 1836.152701(37) unified atomic mass unit u 1,660 5402(10) fine-structure constant, oce?/(2h) 7.297353 08(33) inverse 137.035989 5(61) Rydberg constant, mecx”/(2h) 1.097373 153413) x107mo* Avogadro constant 6.0221367(36) x10 mol Faraday constant, Nae 9.648 530929) x10*C mol molar gas constant 8.314510(70) Jmol Kt Boltzmann constant, R/N, 1.380 658(12) x10 1K Stefan-Boltzmann constant, n2k4/(60Rc2) Bohr magneton, eh/(2m.) be “By defstion, the speed of Fight & exact 2 Also exact, by definition. The standard acceleration due to gravity, gis defined as exactly 9.80665 ms, o 5.67051(19) x10 Wm? K+ 9.2740154(31) x10“ JT 1.3 Physical constants General constants speed of light in vacuum permeability of vacuum permittivity of vacuum impedance of free space constant of gravitation Planck constant in electron volts h/(Qn) in electron volts Planck mass, /fic/G Planck length, h/(mpic) = /AG/ Planck time, In/e = G73 elementary charge magnetic flux quantum, h/(2e) Tosephson frequency/voltage ratio Bohr magneton, ef/(2m) in electron volts in kelvins, /e nuclear magneton, efi/(2mp) in electron volts in Kelvins, ey/k Zeeman splitting constant Atomic constants” fine-structure constant, jioce®/(2h) inverse Rydberg constant, mgco? /(2h) in hertz, Ree in joules, Rohe in electron volts, Rehc/e Bobr radius?, a/(4nRo) ‘See also page 95. "Fined nucleus, mm, Ia te ® 2efh Hs HN 2.997924 58 dn 1 /(we?) =8.854 187817 Hoe =376.730 313 462 6.672.59(85) 6.626075 5(40) 4.135 669 2(12) 1.054 572.66(63) 6.582 1220(20) 2.17671(14) 1.61605(10) 5.390 56(34) 1.602.177 33(49) 2.067 83461(61) 4.835976 7(14) 9.2740154(31) 5.788 382.63(52) 0.671 709. 9(57) 5.050786 6(17) 3.152451 66(28) 3.658 246(31) un/(hc) 4.668643 7(14) Va Ro 5.291 772.49(24) 7.297353 08(33) 137.035 989 5(61) 1.097373 153.4(13) 3.289 841 9499(39) 2.179 8741(13) 1.360 56981(40) 2.566 370614... xio®ms~ x10-7 Hm - x10 Hm Fmt x10“? Fmt a a x10“! m? kg xo*Ts x10“ eVs x10*3s x1o-evs x10-*kg x10-* m x10-#s x10-¥e x10“ wb x10" HzV-t xo TT xloSevT kT x1027 JT! x10-SevT“! x104KT+ x10! mt Tt x10 x10" m+ x10!5Hz x1o8y x10'ev x10 mElectron constants Units, constants, and conversions 1.3 Physical constants ‘Muon constants electron mass ~ Me 9.109 389754) x10" kg ‘muon mass my 18835327(11) x10 kg in electron volts 0.51099906(15)_ Mev in electron volts 105,658 389(34) MeV electron/proton mass ratio rme/my 5446 17013(11) x10 muon/electron mass ratio m/e 206.768 262(30) electron charge -e — —1.60217733(49)_ x10-"C muon charge -e — -1.60217733(49) x10-C electron specific charge -e/m, —1.75881962(53) x10" Ckg™) muon magnetic moment Bu 4.4904514(15) x10-°6 JT“! electron molar mass, Name M, — 5.48579903(13) x10- kemol~ in Bohr magnetons, /j5 4.84197097(71) x10 Compton wavelength, h/(m,c) de 2.426 31058(22) x10- m in nuclear magnetons, p/s 8.890 598 1(13) classical electron radius, aa re 2.81794092(38) x10~m muon g-factor Bu 2.002331 846(17) Thomson cross section, (8/3)72 or 6.6524616(18) x10- m® ae electron magnetic moment He 92847701031) x10-* JT in Bohr magnetons, 2/18 1.001 159652 193(10) . in nuclear magnetons, p/p 1838,282000(37) Bulk physical constants _ electron g-factor, 2se/up fe __ 2.002319 304 386(20) ‘Avogadro constant Na 6022136736) x10 mol atomic mass constant® rm, 1.6605402(10) x10-*7 kg in electron volts 931.494.32(28) MeV Proton constants Faraday constant F —9,6485309(29) x10*Cmol {proton mass ™p 16726231(10) x10 ke | molar gas constant R — 8314510(70) Jmol~ K-* in electron volts 938.27231(28) MeV Boltzmann constant, R/N, k 138065812) x10“ JK proton/electron mass ratio m/e —1836.152701(37) in electron volts 8.617 385(73) x10~°eV K* proton charge e 1.60217733(49) x10" C molar volume (ideal gas at stp)? Vn 2241410(19) x10-?m* mot! proton specific charge e/m, —9.5788309(29) x10’ Ckg* Stefan-Boltzmann constant, xk*/(60Hc*) ¢ +—5.670S1(19) xl0*Wm? K+ | proton molar mass, Nap My 1.007276470(12) x10 kgmot™ [ Wien’ displacement law constant< b= 7m _b _2897756(24) _x10-?mK proton Compton wavelength, h/(mgc) Jey —-*1.321.41002(12). x10" m State pees ear aye for Ee eoaneel ThsPa t sanded srmorghar) proton magnetic moment Mp —-:141060761(47)_ x10-%6 Tt «See also page 12 in Bohr magnetons, tip/up 1.521 032202( in nuclear magnetons, tp/ins 2.792847 386(63) proton gyromagnetic ratio ty 2.67522128(81)__x108s"!T"! Re ee pi@ 3.141 592 653 589 793 238 462 643 383 279 Neutron constants exponential constant (e) 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 360 287 471 352 neutron mass me STASI) IO Te Catalan’s constant 0.915 965 594 177 219 015 054 603 514 932 in electron volts 930.56563(28) MeV Euler's constant® ()) 0.577 215 664 901 532 860 606 512 090 082 neutron/electron mass ratio mg/m, 1838.683 662(40) Feigenbaum’s constant (a) 2.502 907 875 095 892 822 283 902 873 218 ... ee eee mma/me 10013784040) Feigenbaum’s constant (8) 4,669 201 609 102 990 671 853 203 820 466 ... neutron molar mast, Natt Ma 1.008664904(14) x10? kgmot Gibbs constant 1.851 937 051 982 466 170 361 053 370 157 neutron Compton wavelength, h/(mac) Zon (1.319591 1012) x10-* m Mad hens mean eneyoe os eee is neutron magnetic moment mn 96503707180) 10-27 T+ ladelung constant 1,747 564 594 633 182 190 636 212 035 S44 in Bohr magnetons Hole 104187563025) x10 eae eee in nuclear magnetons Ha/wx _1.91304275(45)10 Units, constants, and conversions 1.4 Converting between units un 1.4 Converting between units unit name alue in SI units u The following table lists common (and not so common) measures of physical quantities. carat (metric) 200.0" x10 kg ‘The numerical values given are the SI equivalent of one unit measure of the non-SI unit. cone 45359237 kg Hence 1 astronomical unit equals 149.5979 x 10° m. Those entries identified with a “*” in centare , Lo m i the second column represent exact conversions; so 1 abampere equals exactly 10.0. Note centimetre of Hg (0°C) = 1.333222 x10" Pa that individual entries in this list are not recorded in the index. centimetre of H20 (4°C) 98.060616 Pa chain (engineers’) 30.48" m There is a separate section on temperature conversions after this table. chain (US) 0116s) om Chu 1.899101 x10°y clusee 1.333224 x10-W [amit name ealue ix ST waits 7 Ce 3a S56 5 Aas at ‘A cubit 4512 x107m abcoulomb 100° c oe eo ms pcan rs x10 F cup (US) 236.5882 x10-6 abbenry a 10H curie 370" x10? Bq abmho 10° x10°S darcy 9869233 x10~! m? abohm 10" x10°.0 day 86.4" x10s abvolt 10.0" x10°V day (sidereal) 86.16409 x10°s acre 4.046856 x10°m? debye 3.335641 x10“"Cm amagat (at stp) 44614774 molm™ degree (angle) 1745329 x10-®rad ampere hour 36° x10. C denier 1idil1 — x10~kgm Angstrém 1000" x10-?m digit 19.05" x10-3m apostilb 10" Imm dioptre 10° m arcminute 2908882 x10-rad Dobson unit 100° x10-6m aresecond 4848137 x10-rad dram (avoirdupois) 1.771845 x10 kg are 100.0" m? dyne 100° x10-6N astronomical unit 149.5979 x10? m éyne centimetres 100.0° x10-9J atmosphere (standard) 101.3250" 10° Pa electron volt 1602177 x10- 5 atomic mass unit 1.660540 x10" kg all 1143" m bar 100.0" em 4233333, x10-?m barn 100.0" emu of capacitance 10" x10°F baromil 750.1 emu of current 100° A barrel (UK) 1636592 x10 m’ | emu of electric potential 10.0" x109V barrel (US dry) 115.6271 x10-3m? emu of inductance 10" x10 barrel (US oil) 1589873 x10 m? emu of resistance 10° x10 barrel (US liquid) 1192405 x10-?m? Eétvds unit 10" x10-9m baud 10° on esu of capacitance 1.112650 x10-2F bayre 1000" x10" Pa esu of current 333.5641 x10-2 A biot 100 A esu of electric potential «299.7925. V bolt (US) 36.576 sm esu of inductance 308.7552 x10°H brewster 10° x10-2 nN su of resistance 898.7552 x10 British thermal unit 1.055056 x10°J erg 100.0" x10-°J | bushel (UK) 3636872 x10-3m? faraday 964853 10°C | bushel (US) 35.23907 x10 m* fathom 1.828804 om | butt (UK) 477.3394 x10-3m3 | fermi 10" x10-!5 m cable (US) 219.456 sm Finsen unit 100° x10- Wm | calorie 41g6s° firkin (UK) 4091481 3 candle power (spherical) — 4ar Im firkin (US) 3406871 x10-?mé continued on next page. continued on next pagen Units, constants, and conversions 14 Converting between units 3 unit name value in SE units unit name value in SI units fluid ounce (UK) 2841308 x10-Sm? kilocalorie 4.186 8" x10J fluid ounce (US) 2957353 x10-°m> Kilogram-force 9.806 N | foot 3048" x10? kilowatt hour 36° x10°F ii foot (US sone soasons plies m knot (international) 5144444 x10? ms if es (4°C) ree a) ca 10/x" 10° ced m=? i 1763: x : x “ footlambert 3.426259 cd? iangmnir ey net = footpoundal 2.14011 x10 Teague (nautical int) «S556 m penne (force) it 818 i eee league (nautical, UK) 5.559552 x10 m resnel , F league (statute) 4328032 x10°m funal 10 x10-N light yea ‘ . ight year 9.46073" x10 furlong, 201.168 om ligne 2256" x10-m g (standard acceleration) 980665" ms line 2116667 x10-°m al we ior. xm | (magnetic fux) 100° x10-° Wo | gallon . x10? m? ink (engineers’) 3048° x10 m | gallon (US liquid) a7Bsen2 aa link (US) 2011680 x10m gamma r x litre 10° x10- m? Hil Bass our ST | lumen (at 555 nm) 1.470588 x10 W gilbert 47 x10 Arun — 5 . gill (UK) 142.0654 x10-Sm? a vel we xe ae i m3 , : ail US) see eee | meron 10" x10-6m x/ mil . 6 grade 15.70796 x10-xad mil a) ne pone 7 om x ‘m grain sarees x10 tks mile (international) 1.609344" x10°'m l] mn 7 Bie mile (nautical, int) 1852" x10'm i gram-ra 0 ot mile (nautical, UK) 1.853184 x10°'m | gray 10° Sig! mile per hour 4470" = x10 mst j hand 101.6" x10-°m milliard 10° x10 m? | hartree 4359748 x10-8 millibar 100.0" Pa {i hectare 100° x10 m? millimetre of Hg (0°C) 1333224 Pa hefner 902 x10 od minim (UK) 5919390 x10-° m3 hogshead 238.6697 x10-3m? minim (US) 6161151 x10-9m? | horsepower (boiler) 9.80950 x10°W minute (angle) 2908882 x10-rad | horsepower (electric) a8 w minute 60.0" fi horsepower (metric) 735.4988 W minute (sidereal) 5983617 5 horsepower (UK) 745.6099 W month (lunar) 2551444 x10 i) hour 36 x108s nit 10° 7 i hour (sidereal) 3.590170 x10°s noggin (UK) tip.06s 4 oe m3 hundredweight (UK long) 5080235 kg a Rooate - | hundredweight (US short) 4535924 kg s! Many Am | me a — ounce (avoirdupois) 2834952 x10kg | (| [Ebene eo Hea Se =e iW inch of water (4°C) 249.0740 Pa a ae TH 7 20 an? Hr . x10 m \ jansky 100" x10 Wor He parsee 3085678 x10 jar 10/9 x10°F eck (UK) 9.09218" x10? m? kayser 100.0° m! peck (US) 8809768 x10~?m? continued on next page | continued on next page7 4 Units, constants, and conversions 14 Converting between units 18 unit name value in SI units unit name value in ST units i pennyweight (troy) 1.555174 x10-3kg statmho. 1112650 x10“. perch 5.0292" =m statobm 898.7552 x10. phot 10.0" x10 lx statvolt 299.7925 pica (printers’) 4217518 x10" m. sthéne 10" pint (UK) 568.2612 x10-Sm? stere 10" pint (US dry) 550.6105 x10-6m> stilb 10.0° pint (US liquid) 473.1765 x10-6 m3 stokes 100.0" point (printers’) 351.4598* x10~6m Le 6.350293 poise 100.0" — x10-Pas tablespoon (UK) 14,206 53 pole 5.0292 tablespoon (US) 1478676 x10-m? poncelot 980.665 W teaspoon (UK) 4.735513 x10-6m? pottle 2273045 x10-3m? teaspoon (US) 4928922 x10-6m? pound (avoirdupois) 453.5924 x10 kg tex 10° x10~% kgm“ poundal 1382550 x10-3N therm (EEC) 105.506" x108J pound-force 4448222 N therm (US) 105.4804" x10 promaxwell Lo" Wb thermie 4185407 x10 psi 6.894757 x10°Pa thou 25.4" x10°6m puncheon (UK) 3179746 x10- m? tog 100. x102W'mkK | ms vestse “08 a | 3 z quart (UK) 1136522 x10 m? ean eee raf x10 kg | quart (US dry) 1.101221 10-3 m’ ton (of TNT) 4.184" x10°J quart (US liquid) 946.3529 10-6 m? tor ae uintal (metric) 100.0" kg townsend 10° x10 Vm? | rad 10.0* x10~3 Gy ‘troy ounce 31.10348 x10-$kg. | rayleigh 10/(4r)—x10°s~! m=? srt troy pound 3732417 x10-$kg rem 10.0" x10 Sv troy dram 3.887935 x10-7kg | REN 1/4000" S tun 9546789 x10 m* reyn 689.5 x105 Pas xu 100209 x10" m the ior Parts yard sia" x10 m rod 5.0292" m year (calendar) 31536 x10s eet) SOc year (sidereal) 3155815 x10%s x 5 = itssgos ics ai Com) Fanon year (tropical) 31.5569: 106s | rutherford 10" x10 Bq ; | ae oem iy ‘Temperature conversions = scruple 1.295978 x10~kg From degrees = ‘oo seam 290.9498 x10-3m? Celsius oe C4) | ce tmperatue in second (angle) 4.848137 x10-Srad Calais second (sidereal) 997.2696 x10-3s, From degrees an shake 100.0* x10" s Fabrenheit #27345 (12) | SeeReaba shed 100.0* «107 m? sug 1459390 ke peeinea) (1.3 | 7 temperate in square degree (/180)* st [Ranking | statampere 333.5641 x10“2A stateoulomb 333.5641 x107!2C statfarad 1.112650 x10"? F stathenry 898.7552 x10°H continued on next page.16 Units, constants, and conversions 15 Dimensions The following table lists the dimensions of common physical quantities, together with their conventional symbols and the SI units in which they are usually quoted. The dimensional basis used is length (L), mass (M), time (1), electric current (I), temperature (©), and luminous intensity (J). Physical quantity ‘symbol dimensions ‘ST units acceleration a ur? ms action s uMtTt s angular momentum Ls out mkgs angular speed © uw rads area AS ou m Avogadro constant Nao 1 mol bending moment G@ UmT? Nm Bohr magneton «1 iv Boltzmann constant kks UMT@-+ JKt bulk modulus K Lim tT Pa capacitance c Lwite oF charge (electric) q TI charge density p Ltt conductance G Liwipe os conductivity ° wipe sot couple GT mt Nm current Ri current density ij density e LM | electric displacement D “tr electric field strength E LMT3rt Vet electric polarisability a MTP Cmyv-t electric polarisation P L?Tl Cm? electric potential difference V UMTart ov energy EU GMT J energy density u utM tT Jn? entropy s UmTte+t K+ Faraday constant FE TI Cmol force F LMT? N frequency vf Tt Hz gravitational constant G BMT? m3 kg~ Hall coefficient Rm Tt mci Hamiltonian H Mt? I heat capacity c UmT?@4t IK Hubble constant! H u st impedance Z UMT3? 9 impulse I umT Ns continued on next page ‘The Hubble constant is almost universally quoted in units of kms“! Mpe!. There are about 3.1 x 10 Kilometres in a megaparsec. tr 1.5 Dimensions physical quantity inductance irradiance illuminance Lagrangian length luminous intensity magnetic field strength magnetic flux magnetic flux density magnetic dipole moment ‘magnetic vector potential magnetisation mass mobility molar gas constant ‘moment of inertia momentum number density permeability permittivity Planck constant power Poynting vector pressure radiant intensity resistance Rydberg constant shear modulus specific heat capacity speed Stefan-Boltzmann constant stress surface tension temperature thermal conductivity time velocity viscosity (dynamic) viscosity (kinematic) volume wavevector weight work ‘Young modulus symbol L E. Ey po RAR ORD = WP AYE O ESTES ~ P a dimensions OMT MT? iu UMT L J wh UMTr MT vt LMT ot M wy UmTe+ UM umT is LMT Lucite umT UT MT? wim tT UMT3 BMT ct Lim tT viet ut MT 0-4 LiMT MT e LMT 7 Fr Lt LMT aire B re umT veut Lit? SI units H Wm? ik J n ed Wm?kK4 Wok mst Pas ms “28 Pa Pu18 1.6 Miscellaneous Greek alphabet oe ee A alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta RX ORNS TD Units, constants, and conversions | nu xi omicron pi tho sigma tau upsilon phi chi Chapter 2 Mathematics 2.1 Notation Mathematics is, of course, a vast subject, and so here we concentrate on those mathematical methods and relationships that are most often applied in the physical sciences and engineering. Although there is a high degree of consistency in accepted mathematical notation, there is some variation. For example the spherical harmonics, ¥/", can be written Yi,, and there is some freedom with their signs. In general, the conventions chosen here follow common practice as closely as possible, whilst maintaining consistency with the rest of the handbook. > Psi DEN eHAMVAS x Pi (x) to 1000 decimal places {31415926895 6975323846 2643385279 SODSRALITL 699957510 5820974944 $873078164 0628420099 BA2ETR4825 3421170679 s214s086st 5282305647 0938446095 5058223172 5359408128 4811174802 6410270193 85211055 6446229489 $493038196 429510875 6688534461 2847564823 STROTEDLES 2712019091 4554856692 340348610 4543266482 1335360726 O249141273 1245870066 0631558817 4861520920 9628292540 9171536436 7892530360 0113305305 4882046652 1384146951 9415116094 305727036 5759591959 0921861173 $193261179 3105118848 0744623799 6274956735 1885752724 8912279581 $301194912 5833673362 MOESG6430 8600135494 6995224737 1907021798 6094370277 0539217176 2981767523 S46T4SI846 7663405152 ooseaizri 4526386082 7785771342 7577896081 736S7L7E72 1468440901 7249524301 4654858597 1050792279 6892589285, 4201995611 2129021960 8540344181 5981362977 477130960 5187072113 4899999837 2978049951 0597317328 1605631889 san44souss 3469083006 4252230825 5344685035 2619511881 TIOIO00313 7838752886 5875332089 €142061717 1609147303 $962534904 2875546873 1159562863 8823597875 9375195778 1857780532 1712268066 1300192787 6611195909 2164201989 e to 1000 decimal places T araszarense 5904523536 0287471352 6624977572 4709360995 9574966967 6277240766 3035354759 4571382178 5251664274 “4ces93 2003059821 817439966 2908357290 OSSRED SBSENTEEL 323282794 HHOTEING BZSES07SE1 95210190 1sesa67 930702540 891493488 416707244 T4GDGED 226A0016 BATIIIESS 74248404 310753907 71992069 ssiyoaTet8 396263 184543000 752049538 26602976) 673IL3I0 TOSS28791 2144874704 7230696977 293101416 Sngssnonn 5515108657 46721112 S2389TRAD SOSEHSI696 TOTRSD SBE 4S4H05H87 931638882 308879212 “rT 44995295 1625148220 82695193 GSSSDIEDS 296539849 HES15E00S3929ED0 5979352096 25049117 S0Nr361970 e3ei6an39 7OLss7er9 320683283 THEO $911802528 T5DUHH19§$581530175 671736332 069812509 essies59 0616x381 S95885198 450727386 RESID TH2DSNR SPONSE? 519779610 4BsL98AS C346I2456 ‘sass e2s87715 7862320900 2160990235 38369948 <9LAGD1409 34SI7SBES G4OSHE2S3 520918369 O8HHTOTONS 158396045 TS14059271 4563549061 3031072085 10857505 OSTEO I7HR9S6IDG 679606852 1267154688 970850354 In particular: scalars unit vectors vector cross-product Laplacian operator partial derivatives nth derivative closed surface integral mean value (of x) factorial exponential constant natural logarithm general vectors scalar product gradient operator derivative derivative of r with respect to t closed loop integral matrix binomial coefficient unit imaginary (?=—1) modulus (of x) log to base 107 Mathematics 2.2 Vectors and matrices a 2.2 Vectors and matrices Common three-dimensional coordinate systems Vector algebra Scalar product® — @-b=|allb|c en) 5 * Vector product! a, a, @2) <) ry _: @ b (in) 3) (24) Product rules 5) (26) Tagrange’s on identity a party? (2.21) y 1G x=peosd=rsindcosd (2.18) by @8) pee tyt 4232 ex) Scalar triple cy ql IS sindsing (2.19) product =(bxe)-a=(exa)-b 9) oa, on 0 =arccos(z/r) (2.23) olume of parallelepiped 210) |S, J @=arctan(y/x) (224) Vector triple (a-e)b—(B-c)a (2.11) coordinate system: rectangular spherical polar cylindrical polar product (a-c)b—(a- be (2.12) coordinates of P: (x,y,z) (7,6,6) (0.42) volume element: dxdydz sinddrd0dd pdpdzdd (2.13) metric elements® (h,/3,h3):(1,1,1) (rrsind) (p,1) (2.14) “in an orthogonal coordinate system (Paramteried by coordinates gan) the diferent Ins Reciprocal vectors 015) element di obtained from (4l}?=(h;da:)-+ (ha dan? +0 das) (2.16) Gradient _ [Wector a with Rectangular a, of, of yf salar feta Westar = j coordinates vi= +58 029) | eestor Peet tO a gale aber H(esaben +(eh-aes 17) —E_Eev—vAen__ = 9 _* - — nonorthogoa Ghimteal yy Ay, 1g, ey (2.26) |? iance rom he is0 Known as the "Zot product” or the “nner product™ coordinates edd 20 ies eas 5 tse knowa asthe “oss product.” isa unit vector making a riht-handed set with @ and. Spherical polar af, , 10%, 1 Fy ” , , (256) | le/(7sind) 0 /(rsind) Ir he Spherical polar DD ie 235 V-(Wed 257) coordinates Vxd=| 8/or 0/08 b/8b (2.35) Vx(Vxd) = 0(V-A)—V2A (2.58) | 4 rAg —rAgsind| - -— _— Vector integral transformations General a hh ahs a basis Gana : — orthogonal vxd=— —loyoqs a/dqr a/0as! (2.36) | iy meio jauss's ‘vector fil coordinates Fighahs {70% 10% 01CF Sas (Divergence) f (WAV = f Ads (2.59) | 6% volume element yA, Iiny—gA theorem v s, Se closed surface t 7 V volume enclosed ee S surface adial forms’ Stokes’s ds surface element r V(L/r] (2.41) theorem (x4) = fe Ad (2.60) | £ toop bounding 5 vat (2.37) r 3 dt tne clement Ver=3 (2.38) Ve(r/r (2.42) Wr? =2r (239) vj) (2.43) Green's first fore ds= [ V-(fVg)aV 2.61) V-(r)=4r (240) m “ theorem ; fag. scalar fields V-(r/r)=4n6(r) (2.44) [we eH(VA)(Vg)dV (2.62) ‘Nowe Wat the carl of any purely radial Funstion is ore Sp) & the Disa dela Tanction. a fowe-a AR [aee-senar theorem (2.63)Matrix algebra’ Mathematics 2.2 Vectors and matrices 25 Square matrices? ay a Oe Matrix ay az Oe coca) | 8 mbynmacic definition sy matrix elements Gt Ona _**" Onn Matrix addition C=A+B if cyay+by (2.65) C=AB if cy=cahy (2.66) a (AB)C=A(BC) 67) multiplication 4(B+C)=AB+AC (2.68) Tampoe 44 2) | a mene mt matrix? (AB..N)=W...8A (2.70) | (ometines a, oro) + complex conjent (of Adjoint matrix oe . oe i @: adjoint (r Hemisan (definition 1)° 2) | sit , Hi Hermitian (or Hermitian matrix! H1=H 273) | Bemian or AB= | examples: fay a2 as a an a ay, 32 3 fay Ay at a2 a ay 13 das a) fay bu + arab +arsbat ay, bys + Gabry +a2sba1 3, bys +aszbay +435 bas ba ba bs ‘ayy +b A+B= | a+b 31 +31 aub2+anbataisbs2 aubisbarbss tas ay by +azzbo+az3b32 dn by3-+a22b2s+anabas aybytaxnbn+asbe aubis+ax2bu ta: bss bas bss, ath a+b antbhy ats asy+b32 ass +s “Tonas ae imply summed over repented suis; hence hy e@uas Dx Gaby See also Equation (2.45) Or “Hermitian conjugate matrix” The term ‘matrix and in linear algebra forthe transpose matrix of i both are widely used [e. Equation (280) Hermitian matrices must also be square (see next table). “adjoint” is used in quantum physics forthe transpose conjugate of 's cofactors. These definitions are not compatible, but n trA=ar 2.74) | A square matrix race ‘ay matrix elements t(AB)=tr(BA) 2.75) | oo implciiy =Syau det =e. audny03e... (2.76) | trace . 5 (-1)*!ayMa (2.77) | det determinant (or {A)) eterminant! aa (2.78) | My minor of ekmet ay Cy cofactor of the det(AB...N)=detAdetB...detN (2.79) element ay Adena aaa Tgp | obi nts (definition 2°“ on OH oe Cy _ adja aya = (281) Inverse matrix 7) GUA det 1 (Quang) A (2.82) | wnitmatri (AB...N) 1 Bact (283) Orthogonality 44x =O 284) | 5, Kronecker dtta (= condition ie, AA“ (2.85) if i=, =0 otherwise) e If A=A, Ais symmetric (2.86) cael If A=-A, Aisantisymmetric (287) Unitary matrix U'=U 8) say mi crmitian conjugate examples: A cs fa as on(% he =] a a2 as bay be Co) wA=ay+an+433 tB=bu tbe | det A= ayy 23 433 — 13 023 39 — ns 412 033 + 24 043.032 +034 432.03 — 31 01302 et B= by ba —birba 1 [ tnten anda —anaatanan —a2dn—anan Ata coq | tas tangs — auass—arsds, —au aes barsant 4y42-andy —Ayan+ana% — a142—4Ana%, | [bx —be ie [" © detB ( ‘a Terms are implicitly summed over repeated sufices; hence aay equals Soy aby. Sey. is defined as the natural extension of Equation (2.444) to n-dimeasions (see page $0). My is the determinant ofthe matrix A with the ith row and the jth column deleted. The cofactor C= (—1)*"/M “Or “adjugnte matrix.” See the footnote to Equation (2.71) for a discussion of the term “adjoin.”t 6 Mathematics 2.3 Series, summations, and progressions 27 Commutators 23 Series, summations, and progressions Conmutstor [A.B] AB-BA=—1B,A] 2.89) | 1 commatator | definition | Progressions and summations i (A.B) =[B',A" (2.90) | 1 adjoint ; Adjoint As) 1 (2.90) oT Sp=a+(a+d)+(a+2d)+ (2.102) | n number of terms 2 Distribution [A+ B,C]=1A,C]+1,C] 291) Acithmetic pees (2108) | * mse progression Flat (n=) (2.108) | @ frst tm Association [AB,C]=A(B,C}+1A,C]B 2.92) a 4 commen diference i Associatioi U [B.C] +1A.C} 292) (a+) (2.105) | 1 jast team i Jacobi identity (A,[B.CJ=(BIACI-(GIAB] = (2.93) | Syeatartar?+--bar™ (2.106) Geometric progression (2.107) | + common ratio j Pauli matrices 2.108) | 7 0 ‘) ( a) faces = i 0 (x +x2 Xi (Ja arithmetic mean Pauli matrices i A ; 1 2x2 wnt matric mean qeatrat tay) (2.109) | (04 itm 1 2.94) [8 Pant Geometric _ a ( a) (@ 1) | meen (132% .%)! 2110) | (geometric men ! ‘Anticomim t - | (2.95) | éy Kronecker delta - 1 1 4 | wn | cimmicees Giee(Sedanet)* astn| totem | i Cyclic (2.96) Relative 7 i! pamutation (297) magnitudes (a2 ()e2(en if >0 for alli — (2.112) i L I (2.113) | | Rotation matrices" _ fo (2.114) 1 0 0 (0) matrix for rotation i ih, | 0 —sind cos @ rotation angle ous i cos? 0. sind i tot = O=[0 1 2%) Summation | and sind 0 088, formulas (2.116) | ¢ Gommy integer | | = cosé sind 0) & rotation about 3, | | Rotation Rs(@)=(—sind cos® 0 (2.100) | 8 rotation about x4 eu about x: | ° 0 on > ‘wtation about x i | Baler angles — —_— |e rotaon max _ } cosycosBeose—sinysina cosycosfsina+sinycosa —cosysin a | R(o,B.y) sinycosBeosx—cosysina —sinycosBsina+cosycosa —_sinysinB \| sinBeosa singsina cos (2.119) (2.101 pS z Euler's (2.120) | Euler's constant ‘Ragles are in the righthanded sense for rotation of axes, or the lef ven @ right-handed rotation of @ about the 23.axis using Rs(~6)e-+1'. Conventionally, x1 =x m= Ys ‘Sx0aTF fiven a right-handed rotation of @ about the 25 1g Rs(-8)e-+#"- Conventionally, 2 ECE PIC | | L I janded sense for rotation of vectors. ie, a constant*| | | i 1 | Power series Mathematics 23 Series, summations, and progressions Series expansions nt Binomial (14j'—t¢mee D+ @.121) exptx) (2.133) dora) series? [° poo (2.122) Inf +>) (2134) Ci0 yet 129) on (1+x/n' re as n00 [xinx-+0 as x0 2.130) cosh(x) (2.144) Goratin an — sy six 1 as x0 (2.131) sinh(x) (2.145) (rally) = — —_| [ £6) I) yyspital’s rule) (2.132) tanh(x) (2.146) (wi<2/2) It fla=s(a)=0 or 20 then lime = Sq) (VHépital’s rule) (2.132) L : ‘aroconia)=a/2— arial) Note Wat asinine) fe arcot(s) = /2— arctan) 29| 0 Mathematics 24 Complex variables 31 Inequalities 7 Complex analysis _ - {| ~a2| Slay +a2| s|ay| + laa) s (2147) if f(Z)=u(x,y)+in(, = complex variable | | ‘Triangle ln nl ‘Cauchy- ou at i Pao | | inequality Sral..2% (2.149) i (2.165) | ye rea functions | if Chebyshev and by 2bp2bs>..2b, (2.150) | Canciy= : | inequality * * . Goursat f(z)dz=0 (2.166) | then ny abi (E+) (S») (2.151) [theorem Je | | ist a_/ \‘et ; © mth desvatve | ; Cauchy @asn |? ™ * ses | Cauchy z integral aurentcoefcents y ub 2.152) residue of f() at x9 inequality (Sa ) | formula! (26s) | See of 10) : | =< arn Farce ee Schwarz ° PP > ! j inequality | f Fone] < Hi [feo ax if [eo ax ass) coun (2168) : expansion® il (2.170) | 2.4 Complex variables cS } esidue i Complex numbers theorem fi f(z) dz =2ni) enclosed residues (2.171) i 7 complex vatable “Closed contour inegials are ten isthe counterclockwise see, once | Cartesian form 7= x+y (2.154) a1 $Newessary condition for f(2) to be analytic ata sven point. eae Tf f(z) is analyte within and oa a simple closed curve. Sometimes called “Cauchy’s theorem.” | le Peay 4 fe) is analytic within and on a simple closed curve ¢, encircling 2. i r— smplitude (al 0% f(2), (analytic) in the annular region between concentric circles, c) and cp, centred on zp. ci any closed curve | Co ASS) | pase ea in this region encircling zy J | ; (2.156) Modulus (2is7) modulus of 2 i i} (2.158) amen argz argument of 2 i | Argument iss) | | (2.160) i Complex 2161 |* canis cosiume o | conjugate 16) F i Logarithm? (2.163) | n —imeger il | "Or “magnitude” The principal value of Inzis given by n=O and —* <8.Mathematics 25 Trigonometric and hyperbolic formulas 33 2.5 Trigonometric and hyperbolic formulas Hyperbolic relationships* ‘Trigonometric relationships sinh(x-+y)=sinhxcoshy + coshxsinhy (2.194) e—eeEEeEe>EH cosh(x-+y)=cosh:xcoshy+ sinhxsinh; 2.195) sin(4-B)=sinAcosB +cosAsinB 17) ” ews) 2 =. tanb(x-y) = tanbettanby (2.196) | cos(A:iB) cos Acos BF sinAsinB 2173) Toaakwtanky ) tanAitanB | Sy 1 tan(ALB)= Ten dtanB @.174) coshxcoshy = 5 [eosh(x-+y)-+eosh(x—y)] (2.197) 1 75) 1 cosAcosB= 5 [cos(A+B)+cos(A—B)] (2.175) sinhxcoshy =; [sinh(x+y)+sinh(x—y)] (2.198) i 1 . 1 i sin AcosB = 5 [sin(4-+B)+-sin(4—B)] 2.176) sinhssinhy = [eosh(x+y)—cosh(x—y)] (2199) po TX T sindsinB=$ [tos(A—B)—cos(a+B)] (2.177) 1 (2.200) | | ; Zw | | cost Asin? A= 178) etn set eee i sec? A—tan?A= (2.179) coth?x—esch*x= 1 (2.202) esc? A—cot” A. (2.180) sinh2x=2sinhxcoshx (2.203) San ETT ccosh2x=cosh?x-+sinh?xx (2.204) * a | 2tanhx | c0s2A=¢os? Asin A (2.182) : tanh 2a (2.205) | i} tan2A= 2004 (2.183) sinh3x=3sinhx-+4sinh? x (2.206) ~tand » i sin3ASsind asin’ A ies) cosh3x=4cosh? x—3coshx (2207) i 24 ( TES ike c083A=4cos' A—3cosA (2.185) sinhx+sinhy =2sinh~ $ » cosh™ 5 y (2.208) | | BAB gey | x x | sinA+sinB sin cos AF (2.186) sinhx—sinhy = 2cosh 4? sinh (2.209) | Mt sinA—sinB=2c0s4 £3 sin 45% sy | | coshx-+coshy = 2cosh**2 cosh*—¥ 2.210) \ 5 (2210) | | A+B “De X+Y sian ® | cos A+c08B = cos cos > 28s) | , — coshx—coshy =2sinh * > sinh=>* (2211) A+B. A-B Le x xX [ = tet | | | cosA—cos B= —2sin—— sin (2.189) {\] {\ f\ \ loosh2x+1) (2.212) x | | Ty ‘ > Hit i | 1 | c0s?A= (1400824) (2190) | Sa F(cosh2x—1) 2213) | | 2 : {ik} sin?A=1(1-cos2A) 2191) cosh? x=1(3coshx +-cosh3x) 2.214) itil | 3 c | I cos! A= 4(30084-+00834) (2.192) ° = 1 (einh3x—3sinh>) 2215) | ; | ‘Thewe can be derived from Wgonometicreatonships by wing the | | sin?A= 1 (sind —sin34) (2.193) See eet 34 Mathematics 26 Mensuration ‘Trigonometric and hyperbol Inverse hyperbolic functions ssinhocamsinh—!—In fx--(224-1)"9) ] de Moivre’s theorem —_(cosx-+isinx)*=e™ =cosnx-+isinnx (2216) arsinhx=sinh!x=In[x+(7+1)7] (2.239) | oraz |, of, Tt > Ly 7 a aie arcoshx =cosh“!x=In [x-+(2— 1)" =n ° il 2217) cosha= 5 (e+e) 2.218) | eazy ¥ (2219) sinhx= 5) (2.220) (224 | wict | = t (2221) tanhx. sme (2.222) (2.242) | xi>1 ‘ (2.223) coshix=cosx (2.224) oexsi (2225) sinhix=isinx (2.226) (2.243) > 2.227 = (tanhx)t 2.228 ae : (2227) cothx=(tanhx) (2.228) (2.244) secx=(cosx)* (2.229) sechx=(coshx) (2.230) ° a esex=(sinx) (2.231) z (2.232) us 2.6 Mensuration Inverse trigonometric functions* ] — & / js Be aresi (2233) 1 — Moiré fringes? _ 3. Parallel pattern reece arccosx=aretan (2.234) dy (2-245) | ay grating spacings 4 common grating arose: (2.235) Rotational (2.246) spacing pattern? 8 relative rotation angle arcseex=arctan [e? = »'?] (2.236) ‘Foe walaypy neat aa (8isx/2) ‘From identical gratings, spacing d, witha relative rotation 0 aveste=arcun(!) aan arocosx = 5 —arcsinx e236 | ‘Valid in the angle range 0-20 eRq (2.276) | a cap depts | depth d P depth | Area? E=A+B+C (2261) Volum of ahedagh P| so angle | _ Volume of spherical e(r—4 " e | Ona wait sphere cap, depth d v -§ (2277) | = ° distance from centre | also called the “spherical excess” ss a halfangle subtended Solid angle of a circle =n [1-2 (2.278) a Ir from a point on its Cea ecix_| axis, z from centre =2n(1—cosa) (2279) z ‘Sphere defined by 1" The approximation is exact when ‘Elipsoid defined by x2 /a +y2/b? 22/1 “Curved surface ony. and e~031, giving a maximum error of 11% at e=1Conic sections Mathematics 1. 2.6 Mensuration Curve measure 39 L ofside a Both regular and inegular polyhedra foliow the Buler relation, Taces—edges + verties =2. y Length of plane eo t ee (2.280) | 2) plane curve | ee — 35 Surface of a revolution (2.281) | 4 surface area | ‘Volume of _ revolution yi dx (2282) | volume parabola Radius of dius of curvature (2.283) |? Satire equation ~ parametric form Differential geometry” foci Unit te . | = tangent it tangent (2.284) | curve parameterised by r(t) [ ee 2 Heol eccentricity ‘Unit principal normal (2.285) | » principal normal deers Unit binormal (2.286) | ° vinormal Platonic solids* carreras) (2.287) | x curvature i volume “a srcumradius —_ inradi ; - a) bur surface arec circumradius radius Radius of curvature (2.288) | p — radius of curvature tetrahedron 2 ab aye | Torsion (46,4) a3 4 2 | B (2.289) | 2 torsion cube ; a8 a 6128) . oa 3 3 | 7 (2.290) Brcalasing octahedron @y 2 8 a plane, | (8,12,6) 3 ’ v2 | Frenet’s formulas (2.291) | "ormabplane cahedron [TR a | 50+22V5 ee aaty/5(5+2V5) Gv30+V5) a oe | (2.292) | 3 a oxsia en s+) <2 5 a boa (vie ‘Fora continuous curve in three Gimensions, Gaced by the positon vetor A (20,30,12) 2 sey aV2EEND G\Very40 _ Mathematics 2.7 Differentiation - a 2.7 Differentiation Trigonometric derivatives* a a Derivatives (general) plGinax)—acosax (2.306) $(cosax) =—asinax (2307) n power a Power (2.293) Powe Fltanax) = asec? ax (2.308) cea remota e209) | B | [ 140 Fasetions 4 Product (2.294) | “ne rloecax) Hyperbolic derivatives” app, re sign ae x] =~ tant) (2.299) 4 aU, F(x): f(p) (q constar (2.299) Gy sinhax) =acoshax (2.318) (2.319) apr” ] do du General = (! = — fu a 2, eneral integral Lh Fst) =O SOG (2300) EZ (anhax) =asect? ax (2320) (2321) 7 4 ye 1 blog base a | 1 Logarithm “(ORs lax) = Gelb) (2301) | s constant gy loechax)=—asechax-tanhax (2,322) (2.323) Vy | | | q Seaae™ a eer | Exponential Grae (2.302) gylarsina) =ala’x? +1)? (2.324) Hrarcoshey) (2.325) ie | 7 | ay 4 F a a | | (2) (2.303) gy (ettanhax)=a(l ax) (2.326) qleroschas)=— allay? (2.327) Waal | @y (gy d ay Inverse functions oe (2304) 4 farsechax)=——4(1 a2? i) Ge \ dx, a trsechax) = — ll -axty Xtercoinax) (2.329) ay : (2305) es) tl | alsa conan | ‘The "chain le2 Mathematics 27 Differentiation a3 Partial derivatives Differential equations Total (2.330) (x.y,2) WF=0 differential (2330) | f fian) Laplace f 2340) | 7 fess ~ l . Reciprocity 331) | etsy) ' Diffusion® (2.34r) |? m+n) ale Named integrals Error function 2391) ‘Complementary error aan | fanction 239) 60)= [sin ar (2.393) Fresnel integrals* en [Fe ~*s| (2.394) Exponential integral (2395) Gamma fanetion Te)= f[ Pet de (x>0) (2.396) A F@t)= f° ae Gist (o.K)= a ind) 2.39 Elliptic integrals a) i Taare 7 (Erst Kind) 2) ((cigonometric form) oo EG,K)= [ (1-Hsin?@)!? a6 (second kind) (2398) "See also page 167,46 Definite integrals Mathematics 29 Special functions and polynomials Bessel functions 47 J) Bessel function ofthe fist | PiG=x P3(x) = (Sx? —3x)/2 2 (a>0) (2.399) (= 37/4 Kind ( cS Series G y rea KID +k+1) @ai5) Y,(x) Bessel function of the (x) expansion seoond Kind (a>0) (2.400) | Jou) (416 | ro) Game fnetion a | + order (v20) (a>0;n=0,1,2...) (2.401) t 1Ra —q i (O0) (2.402) | (>) = } (O 0 and even 3 a (2.418) f ae { 4-6>...-(n—1)(2a)-m4/2 n>1 and odd (2.403) | &>w I 1y(9) modified Bese function of 1 tg! | 2.419) 11 xt dy 2a! 7 Modified Bessel the fst kind [ MUL—aft d= GPT py (0g integers > 0) (2.404) } functions (2.420) | Ks(a) modied Bess function of as e t the second kind cos(ax?) dx = f[ sin(ax*) di (2.405) | Spherical Bessel myn Jos) spherical Bessel function [ ls U i ae io)=(Z) Ia glo) 2421) ote it it ly s (2.406) | F - a) | Legendre polynomials? Legendre (1-22 EP) PX) 141)P(x)—0 Lageodie i . 7 I equation oe i Polynomials 2.9 Special functions and polynomials (2.422) | 1 onder ('=0) ‘i Rodrigues’ Gamma funetion - _ _ Rodrigus Pax)= zy (2423) | Definition re f etetdt [RG)>0 2.408) i = j a ie)> Gate) Recurrence (1 1)Piys(x)=(21+1)xP(x)—IPL a(x) (2.424) _ relation : nl=T(nt1) =n (a) (0=0,1,2,.-) (2.409) I 7 a | Relations Td/2)=2'? (2.410) | Orthogonality [ PiCOP rs) d= ir (2.425) | du Kronecker delta » = (2411) | ue Tw+Dre } Explicit form — p(x) =2-T an(i yes nem (2.426) | (2) binomial coetciens | Tie) wets W729)! (a a (2.412) ae wavenumber Stirling’s formulas z 88 exp 2) expr cos6) (2.427) | 2 propagation axis (for |z|,n>>1) mice nV e—m(2_)h/2 (2.413) Expansion of a rcosh Inn!) =nlnn—n (2414) plane wave =dot (Gr) (cosd) (2.428) | 41 sphere Best incon ofthe first — — i ind (order 1) Po(x)=1 Pa(x) = (3x? = 1)/2 (35x — 30x? 43)/8 (63x — 70x? + 15x)/8 SOF te fat nd8 _ : Mathematies 29 Special fimetio 9 Associated Legendre functions” Spherical harmonics | r 3 3 ] Associated od [iy AP) [i = PP associsted Differential 1 2 (sng o ee eee rea $|e- = ]+ fen prx=o | FP pccian equation sind 36 (S55 TRH DYM=0 Pee equation (az9) | Santos eee sae ess) a Te 42 a ‘Pi associated 2S py m. 3 2 ¥(6,g)—(—1yn | EE Sm ng From PP(x) Bah, Osmsl (2430) | > egendre Definition’ “™(8,) =(—1) [ Te eal Pi"(cos6)e! Lzpeade Legendre (—m! poynouiale (as) one Polynomials FA) =D" PO) (2.431) = capex oa t———————— _ Orthogonality yy me = Sur (2438 conjugate (2m+1)P2(x) (2.432) | Coane fo mg?!” 892.6) sin 40 dd = Snow 5tr (2-438), 5, Kronecker Resarense P(x) =(—1Y"Qm—1) 11 2"? (2433) | a 515-3-1ete ot relations 7 a | (m4 DPR (0) = 21+ DxPPO)— +m) PE 6) £0,0)=> D> ain¥/"0.4) (2439) | (2.434) | Laplace series hom . f continuous I 7 7 by Kronecker he = (0,6) (0,4) sind dO d Orthogonaty f/ Rroorptayan= fr a de assy |" Gate ne Ie [2 @evedinoans | ie (=m) +i (2440) I P&)=1 POx)=x Pi@)=—1 2)! Solution to if V'v(r,8.4)=0, then » contisuous PIG)=Gx—1)/2 Pix) =~ 3x27)? Pi) =3(1—22) Laplace Co | fonction i | equatic V(r.8.8)= ¥"(0.6)- [aint + Bint] (2441) | ab constants i) Oar a iP cas sea wi «(TV ar Tn Egan OY as wl as Eaton AT, emeation 96.9 =F- YMO8) [er thr") a) an Legendre polynomials j._tssoviated Legendre functions ip : x | a Fy 35 sindcosdet? 1 o po a Hh) TK 2 8 | ¥9¢0.¢)=24/ 2 (6c0s?0—3)c0s0 2 sin6(Scost— 1) | tt) of & B a ie ; 29 «1, [TS 5 ae 2 pcosbet2 | | 4 P 50,6)= 1) sin? cose { "Defined for lm using the sign convention of the Condon-Shortley phase. Other sign conventions are i 4 0 1 possible. | | Hi | | i | i | | | | | i} | | |50 Mathematics 210 Roots of quadratic and cubic equations 51 Delta functions Cubic equations ie ( 34 bx?. = # x variable ] (2.442) | 5 en Equation ax+betex+d=0 (a¢0) (2.460) Kronecker delta ities pices [* ) | ahd real conta (2.443) | " pul (%_F a Dy 7 —___| | 3a @ (2461) 23 =a e12 Intermediate 1 (2b 9be 27d eee : | definitions 1-3 (3 = oo) (2.462) | 2 lsciminant Three: ame (2444) I mee ta { dimensional all other e%¢=0 | b= 2y*4(8) (2483) Levi-Civita «) | eye Levi-Civita symbol } symbol €ip€kin = 515 jm — Sin (2.445) | “* (Gee alzo page 25) i If D=0, also defi | (permutation —_dyeia (2.446) | 20, also define: If D<0, also define: tensor)? €iim€ jim = 25 (2.447) I =a (iel\*” i (448) i (2.464) | areas |= (8) (2.468) 7 ————_| t (2.465) ' 1 ifa<0 1) (2.454) | = ees arbres = (2.472) "The general symbol eu is defined to be 21 for even permutations of the suffices, —I for odd permutations, and ‘olution ene | Ot aula is repeated. The sequcor (2.3.0) aken fo be even. Swapping adjacent suet an odd (or een) combinations *Y2FH¥3 +2275 (2473) i number of times gives an odd (or even) permutation. ximxy=—d/a (2474) ‘jy are solutions to the reduced equation "> py+q=0. 2.10 Roots of quadratic and cubic equations Quadratic equations | x variable | Equation ax abe real constants (2.456) Solutions um quadratic roots | (2457) iil Solution mite (2.458) H | combinations x1x)=c/a (2.459) Ht52 2.11 Fourier series and transforms Fourier series Mathematics Se 2+, (moos m 1 ft nx a [foes ax /—L L Complex form Parseval’s theorem (2.475) Ste) periosic function, (2.476) period 2L nba Fourier coefcients (2477) 2.478) (2478) | 6. compler Founer 419) coefcient (2.480) modulus (2.481) Fourier transform* F= |” fooe 3 Definition 1 ® [x ome 2482) | 0) fancon of = too [rie as (eagay | FO) Poser manors of 76) Fo [soe tax (2.484) Definition 2 1 oo f= [ F(sje™ ds (2.485) Fo) “foe ax (2.486) Definition 3 ve ie fe)== f F(sje™ ds (2.487) All thee (and more) definitions are used, but definition I i probably the best 211 Fourier series and transforms _ Fourier transform theorems* 53 Convolution f(x) * g(x) f flajgto—1) du Convolution f*s=s*f ee f+(g*=(feg)eh | Convolution cpo-au theorem POD) = F(s)* G(s) Autocorrela- cia fu-f(w) du Wine Khintehine — f°(2)*f) = |F()? | theorem Cross- correlation — J *804 Correlation j¢x)s j(x) = H(9I"(s) (2.489) | 5 ses=re) 2491) [Fone u fog general functions = convolution (2.488) (2.490) |e sw=60) Fourier transform relation + comeation (2.492) | f° complex conjugate of f (2.493) (2.494) ‘hj seal functions 2.495) | H=h) oa “| 183109 Kine [_Slae'@ds= [ Fec'iods (2.496) Parseval’s I” tare [rae : 7 fee [_verPax= [" eras e497) wo = 2nisF(s) (2.498) Derivatives afte ae Ae *e091= +219 = S209 \ (2.499) ‘Dalsng ie Frais stom ws Fm Fo Also called the “power theorem.” ‘Alo ead “Rajlogis heen” Fourier symmetry relationships f@) Fis) definitions even even: real: f(x)=f"(x) odd odd imaginary: f(x)=—f"°() real, even real, even real, odd imaginary, odd imaginary, even complex, even complex, odd real, asymmetric imaginary, asymmetric imaginary, even complex, even complex, odd complex, Hermitian complex, anti-Hermitian tit to tt t 1) 154 Mathematics 2.12 Laplace transforms fe Fourier transform pairs* 2.12 Laplace transforms fe) = F()= f F(xje™ dx (2.500) Laplace transform theorems a = Ton fla) = Gree (a+0, real) (2.501) Cea F)=L{F(O) f Fe“ dt 2sis) | 20 tapice f(x—a) = e**F(3) (areal) (2.502) F(s)-G(s) off f(t—z)g(z) (2.516) | Fe) U0} i” Convolution? lo 6) -2(g00) we = (Qnis)"F(s) (2.503) =L{f(t)*a(0)} (2517) | + convolution 6@) = 1 (2.504) 5 2.518) d(e—a) = (2.505) Inverse! 2518) | stant a (2.506) SCresidues (for t>0) (2519) | ae 9 : a"f(e) = ao | eo (2.507) Transform of o{ =s2{f0}-y 9 derivative ae ue} zy dt limo nm integer >0 ers (2.508) (2.520) Derivative of d°F(s) . sinax = (2.509) transform Gr = FIV FO} (2.521) cosax = 2.510) Substitution F(s—a)=2{e"fO} (2.522) | a constant Y s—ma = (2.511) (s)=L{u(t—a)f(t—a)} (2.523) rane Translation uid) unit step —_ wee oe [EO (osey) | Base step”) = 2.512 $6) { So Ce") a FTES) Ha or say age, the Laplace wana GANG Tors 5 lso known a the “flung (or folding) theorem.” a 7S a) isa 1 - (Ctriangle") = =75(1—cos2nas)=asinc*as (2.514) xl>a ‘quaiion (2.300) defines the Fourier Wansform used for these pairs. Note that inexe (Ginn)/(@x) 256 Mathematics Laplace transform pairs fO=FO)=2FO}= 61 Sede 1=1/s (s>0) nt at ta (s>0,n>—1) (late | Peta. siaceme 550) : i const zts (620) sinhat—> —* (s>a) eae . otal 60) Mint es be, stb ef() > F(st+a) (2.525) (2.526) (2527) (2.528) (2529) (2.530) (2.531) (2.532) (2.533) (2.534) (2.535) (2.536) (2.537) (2.538) (2.539) (2.540) (2.541) 2.13 Probability and statistics 57 2.13 Probability and statistics Discrete statistics data eres Mean (2542) | Nv series tength mean vane [; - EJ unbiased Variance* by? var] unbias a 7 (2543) a Standard oidatvarbey? © standard deviation Ba=(varlal) (2.544) deviation Skewness (2.545) Kurtosis (2546) t sy data series 0 Correlation x)0% (2547) correlate cient? W I=¥ (yy | corelation coetiient Vane arVEL0-09 corn STF (a) w derived from the data, (=), the relation is as showa IF (@) ms Knowa Independenily, then an unbiased estimate is obtained by dividing the righthand side by N rather than N=. Also known as “Pearson's 1.” Discrete probability distributions distribution r(x) mean variance domain sg) | (2) binomial Binomial (")p(1—py"*_ mp mp(1—p)_ (x=0,1,...,n) (2.548) Pema Geometric (—p)'p ——1/p ) (2.549) Poisson exp(—A)/x! 2 .) (2.550)58 Continuous probability distributions Mathematics distribution —_pr(x) ‘mean variance domain a atb (ba? - Uniform m= > z (@sx aa (2.560) | + comelaion coeticent Box-Muller (—2iny,)"cos2ny2 (2.561) | 1 normally distributed deviates p 562) | 3 deviates distributed | tissformetion (-2iny)"*sin2ny2 (2.562) |” SSiomniy berwene O and 1 yo Random walk f = diacetate N aape (can be postive or gate) One- Prix) probability density of x dimensional (Saprts}ae—1) (2.563) | N number of steps 1 step length (all us) rms 564) | ae Tootmeansquared displacement a) Gloplacemeat fom start point radial distance from start 2.565 “= i “ pe) protien of c(t) probability density ofr dimensional ree eo @ (ost probable distance)“ (%) mean distance from start Mean distance point (2.566) root-mean-squared distance from start point rms distance (2.567) | Tm Bayesian inference Conditional , ~~] peta) probability (east) of = probability vetx)= f patsy pnty)ay’ 2568) | pry’ sont pba of hen Toiat - 5 probability pr(x,y)= pr(x) pr(y|x) (2.569) | pr(x,y) joint probability of x and y Bayes’ theorem’ pr(y|x)= eer (2570) "la ths caprenion, pO) We Knows te the powtror probability, PAAp) Ws Uiihood, and pO) We poe probability 2.13 Probability and statistics 539Mathematics _ - 2.14 Numerical methods _ 6 2.14 Numerical methods Numerical integration Straight-line fitting* h ——— he Data ({x}.093) » points sn) FO) Weights? (2.572) - t x Model (2.573) Xo XW Residuals (2.574) x h be aan —x0)/N |— sraperoidl rh [ sovaxa tucson tafet waa) a rapezoidal rule Jay ene +2fna+fn) (2586) | sumber centre 575) Mme Weighted rN h moment sre) Simro mier SOBA Hh tape jimpson's rule’ sy (2.577) +4fx-atfu) (2.587) Gradient SW mt be even Simpson's nik fs caat for quadrats aad GOB (2.578) (2.579) . 7 sagt Intercept 1 Numerical differentiation® varl]~(=— +5 2.580) afd | fd (= D c | Lx Sp pce42h) +8704) —8f Wt f—2 (2.588) dx 12h “Toeaitaquart St of Gata y—e-re Errors on y-values ony fe IF the errors on y; are uncorrelated, then w;= L/varly:] ~ x Ve+h—Fe—h) (2.589) 1 ‘Time series anal: Pays H+ 2h) + 16f (+ 8) —30f (x) + 16f eH) —F(x—2)] (2.590) 7% response function - 1 Discrete (2.581) s kero ~B [f(x+h)—2f(x)+f(x—h)] (2.591) M response funtion duration ef Bartlett sey windoning uses Ba ap VFN) 2F (+H) +2F(x—H)—Flx—2H)] (2.592) (triangular) (2.582) | eae rine anne L ae length of time series ‘Durivatves of FOV atx hiv a spall wiewainx Welch 1 hs Haring] Relations containing “x" are O(h*); those containing “~” are O(i?), (quadratic) (2.583) | 08} KN en X window w 06 Hanning 2)] assy | / rine \ Numerical solutions to f (x)=0 window S| 02|/f—Hamics \\ i function of x Secs nH] =Xq— 5 ——_ —f (Xn) (2. f ase af -— ‘ecant method Fe Fhe) (2593) | TT aie Wj =0.54—0.46¢0s (= (2.585) JIN ‘The tine series ruas from J=0..0N jy and the windowing functions peak at J=N7E Newton-Raphson method aaa (x) F°Gn) (2594) | #7 mayyaxMathematics Numerical solutions to ordinary differential equations* rn] Chapter 3 Dynamics and mechanics if Euler's method and 2596) | then You =Jnthf Cn yn) +OU?) (2597) ay _ tf Pagay) 2.598) | ax Py) (2.598) | and h=Xnu—X (2.599) Runge-Kutta ky =hf nn) (2.600) 3.1 Introduction method ka hf nth /2,ynths/2) (2.601) ‘Unusually in physics, there is no pithy phrase that sums up the study of dynamics (the way (fourth-order) ky Sho (Xq+h/2,yn the /2) (2.602) | in which forces produce motion), kinematics (the motion of matter), mechanics (the study of ky =hf (n+ hyn ths) (2.603) | the forces and the motion they produce), and statics (the way forces combine to produce ly ky ky ke 7s | equilibrium). We will take the phrase dynamics and mechanics to encompass all the above, then Ya —Irt ott tt OUh) (2.604) | although it clearly does not! 6137376 | | i 2 = —- = To some extent this is because the equations governing the motion of matter include some Ondinary diferential equations (ODEs) of the form $= f(xy). Higher order equations shou of our oldest insights into the physical world and are consequentially steeped in tradition. a a eee eae lead Za One of the more delight, or for some annoying. facts of this is the occasional use of arcane vocabulary in the description of motion. The epitome must be what Goldstein! calls “the jabberwockian sounding statement” the polhode rolls without slipping on the herpolhode lying in the invariable plane, describing “Poinsot's construction” — a method of visualising the free motion of a spinning rigid body. Despite this, dynamics and mechanics, including fluid ‘mechanics, is arguably the most practically applicable of all the branches of physics. Moreover, and in common with electromagnetism, the study of dynamics and mechanics has spawned a good deal of mathematical apparatus that has found uses in other fields. Most notably, the ideas behind the generalised dynamics of Lagrange and Hamilton lie behind much of quantum mechanics. | MHL Goldstein, Clasical Mechanics, ad ed, 1980, Addison-Wesley.6 3.2 Frames of reference Galilean transformations oe Dynamics and mechanics , 77 position in frames 5 | Timeand r=r'ter Ga) and § | position Y 32) | © velocity ofs' in s _ if time in $ and s? Velocity uaW to 33) | tH Yelosiy in frames $ — Dp! particle momentum Momentum — p=p'+me G4) in frames $ and § me particle mass Angular J=J'4mrxo-4vnp! 3.5) | JJ’ angular momentum momentum iaaiedimmda 65) in frames $ and $ Kinetic =T" ne 7,7’ kinetic energy in energy cimnaliimead 2) G6) frames $ and 5" ‘Frames cones a Lorentz, (spacetime) transformations? 2A 7 erent factor Lorentz factor (1-5) 3.7) | & velocity of "in s é ¢ speedoftigne =| Time and position x=y(x'-+0r): G8} te jsf ox seposiion in frames G9) 'S and S” (similarly re 3,10) fory and) ul OI) ge sine intames Sant | * Gn) s Petree AX = (cdt,—dx,—dy,—dz) time four-vector | four-vector fay |= astine are | transformations of electromagnetic quantities. SCovariant components, using the (,~1,—1,—1) signature. Velocity transformations Velocity ty Tae me @.13) aT muses 9 u as uw, Hira G.15) ‘For frames and 5” coincident at (0 ia relative motion along » "For frames S and 5” coincident at =0 in relative motion along x. See page 14 for the Treats factor = (o/eP 1 velocity of Sin S speed of light particle velocity components in frames S and 5! 3.2 Frames of reference 65 Momentum and energy transformations* 7 Lorentz factor = e/er 2 Pe=ipe—vE/e) (316) | © veloiy of Stins | (17) | © seed ortight as) [Po Seman j G.19) 8% (sim. for y and 2) | | [> ? E,E! energy in S and 5’ ‘Momentum-and energy (Pig +2E'/2); x | | (3.20) | mo (est) mass 3 a P total momentum in S Four-vector? (E/¢,—Pes—Py.—Pz) 3.21) | ae ‘For ames S and S’ coindWdent at F=0 ia Wilative motion along = *Covaiant components ing he (,—1,—1y-1) signature . ; Propagation of light? Doppl / ' 7 temnynaietns ]§ Domi ¥ s4teon) aay ]v tears |p c 2. arsval angle i$ Z is y Lacente for - cos = S087 40h 3.23) ml @/eer 2 : i Aberration? 1+ (/e)0086" B23) | | alos of 5 ia $ ¥ cos#—v/c ¢ speed of light L cost = SPST, (8.24) So Caen geet a ae ins and S ket Relativistic sin? ‘P(6) angular distribution of | beaming® B= w/qeosge 75) | photons in $ | For Frames Sand 5 coincident at '=0 ia lative motion loos = Light traveling inthe opposite sense has a propagation angle of x-+0 radians. ‘Angular dstbution of photons from a source, isotropic and staonary in Sf PCO) Four-vectors” Covariant and - 2" covariant vetor contravariant components compouenis 626) | 2 etaraaet components Scalar product G27 -#,2ourvector components in i Lorentz transformations frames $ and 7 1 828) |, Lorenz facor | 329) mee v velocity of S’ in S i (3:30) | © speed of ight 1 For Hames 5 and 5, colaident at r= 0 in lative motion along whe () Gestion, Note that the (=U—1=1) | signature used here is common in special relativity, whereas (—1,1,1,1) is often used in connection with general relativity (page 67)er 6 Dynamics and mechanics 3.3 Gravitation 67 Rotating frames General relativity® A any vector , re fi ds? =gydx"de = Vector trans. [dd] [dd stationary frame Line element Bu formation [¥] [¥] ond B31) | 8° rotating frame _ Invariant interval proper time interval metric tensor ses. a Aiferential of x* ? fc ‘by = 58" (Bopn + B68 — Ber stoffel symbols ‘8? accelerations in $ Christoffel (Bop2 + 8 ) (Christoffel symbol partial dif. wnt. x" and $" symbols and : a¢/ax? Acceleration fa +o! +oxow’) 332), MES, | aes aw covariant dif. wt. whe scalar | josition in sntiation | 7 porkon in siferentaion og th Sinus veso: | BS Fecal ore (33) m particle mass ¢ covariant vector Coriolis force Foy lr ] Feeacentrifugal force Ym oy Tg po gal py Centrifugal 834) | erpenticuarto | fa" +P p)—Tys 3.50) force particle from rv ? 3 jemann tensor EO) ees L# Riemann tensor Berg Busia R'sapB, G51) | Bos Be m= F,+2moe()sin 20082) eel Repys=—Ragiys Rpao=—Raps 3.52) Motion 636) |, iasmae Rogy5-+ Raopy + Rss =0 (3.53) eae "0 F,—2mogisind (3.37) | = local vertical axis - = 42) northerly axis ka = . Ca tangent vector mis F,—mg+2mogkcosi (3.38) | 7 Ram as an Geodesic ° ce e/a) : ation 2 afin parameter (649 + Foucault's Q pendulum’s rate ow {or material particles} A oesind 3.39) oftum i pendulum ars pin rat | —— bo Eons J i Geodesic Dee , The sign oa asf mae We Toa Gost We mabe emg Geodesic DIE Ry ocho poses deviation ; ose Ricci tensor (3.57) | Reg Ricci tensor 3.3 Gravitation { GP Binstein tensor R Ricci scalar (= 3") Einstein tensor Newtonian gravitation | Tima masses Einstein's field ; _ (a9) | 7” sessenry tensor Newton's law ofp, _ Gmina (@.4n) | Ft freon = F2) equations prestre (a set fame) gravitation oa +40) | a2 vector fom m tom ices frame) \ = unt vector Perfect fluid @—deaiy a est ame) | - G constant of gravitation ee H Newtonian field 9=—V6 GB-41) | g gravitational field strength | | Schwarzschild M spherically symmetric | equations! (0.42) | $ patatona pote! cara (24) sr seaion 33) \ avaeant | (exterior) +7°(a0? +sin?6dg?) G61) | (080 mene ascot | | + vector fom sper centre | a £ time | M-mass of pbere ___| | j Pies aa an 3.43) | umes ae Kerr solution (outside a spinning a hole) | ; rs J angolar momentum uniform sphere, a? 292 Mrsi88 rag jon mass M, r from ? iD { r 2 a si \ the centre (44) sintedg?+Zar?4 tas? (362) | 4 Mra | _ Ld | | 4 “|e =P +eeote | “The pao ison am ame | Sasa aay emvantoaly wa poaeeael wa WE GT a ol Tis TTR | tte, Contavarant indices are writen a superscripts and covariant indies as eubeerips. Note also that do means (as? ete.8 3.4 Particle motion Dynamics definitions* aa Dynamics and mechanics ‘Newtonian force Momentum, pani Kinetic energy Angular momentum = J=rxp F fares (3.63) | m mass of particle 1 particle position vector momentum T kinetic energy » particle velocity sngular momentum Couple (or torque) G=rxF 8.67) | @ couple Centre of mass (ensemble of V particles) Ry position vector of centre of mass (3.68) | m; mass of th particle 1 _position vector of ith particle In the Newtonian limit, «Ze, assuming m is constant Relativistic dynamics* Constant acceleration 7 Lorentz factor Lorentz factor (3.69) | © partici velocity speed of ight Momentum (2.70) |? *lativste momentum ‘my particle (est) mass - ® F force on particle Force pale at BM | sine Rest energy E,= me? (8.72) | £, particle rest energy Kinetic energy T=mge(y—1) 3.73) | 7 relativistic Kinetic energy Tota E=ymoe? (3.74) ‘otal energy 2s gilt E total energy (=E:+7) =e + met)! (3.75) “Tris now common to regard mass as a Loveatz invariant property and to Grop the term "west mass” The symbol my is used here to avoid confusion with the idea of “relativistic mass” (yma) used by some authors. (3.76) @.77) 3.78) 3.79) inital velocity final velocity distance travelled acceleration 34 Particle motion Reduced mass (of two interacting bodies) Reduced mass 380) (381) Distances from m+m | centre of mass (382) Moment of (383) inertia Total angular (334) momentum Lagrangian (3.85) Ballistics* i % n9cosat-+ (no sina—gt)h : Velocity 86) | 5 G87 | Trajectory G88) | , ‘Maximum Ra ) |B heisht has sinta (3.89) Horizontal, _ 03 sind, : range 1= 0 sin2. 8.90) reduced mass my interacting masses 1% position vectors from centre of lel distance between masses 1 moment of inertia J angular momentum L Lagrangian U__ potential energy of interaction Tata velocity te velocity att elevation angle sravitational acceleration unit vector ‘heen range ‘Tgnoring the curvature and rotation of the Earth and Gicdional loses. g is assumed constant. ©——!_ 10 Dynamics and mechanics | 3.4 Particle motion n Rocketry Gravitationally bound orbital motion® — Te exape weloay Ty potential energy . constant of gravitation constant of gravitation (ast) constant of Potential energy 5, __GMm a M_—— mass of central body ee iecce Uw)= : 3.99) | central mast y—cxntal body radios rm ofbitng mass ( Othen e > 1 and the orbit becomes a hyperbola (see Rutherford scattering on next Page) | then the equations are valid with te substitutions m —> sz = Mm/(M + m) and M —» (M+ m) and with r taken asthen _ Dynamics and mechanics 34 Particle motion : B Rutherford scattering* Inelastic collisions* 7 = 7 Km» | G4 2B Seaetor ( ‘es- ©- forn0 attractive x scattering angle Scattering angle (3.116) | E total energy (>0) impact parameter (3.117) | raic closest approach hyperbola semi-axis (3.118) | ¢ eccentricity Closest approach | Semi-axis (19) Eccentricity (3.120) Motion trajectory (@urany | *7 poston win epet 10 Scattering centre® (3.122) {erential seterng Rutherford (3.123) nm —-beam flux density scattering formula? a)? 4X 3 ‘AN number of particles = (qe) #3 (3.124 | Satered into J solid angle SNonrelatvisic weatment for an inverse-square force law and a fhed scattering centre. Similar scattering results from either an attractive or repulsive free. See also Conic sections on page 38. The correct branch can be chosen by inspection, Also the fecal points of the hyperbola “is the number of particles per second passing through unit area perpendicular to the beam. energy? Final velocities Loss of kinetic 4 =e, T.T" total KE in 2er0 ‘momentum frame before and after celison matic masses “Along the line of ntres, etn m) (3.134) | © incident velocity of m {final velocities fijon between two perfocly clastic spheres: my initially at est, velocities “ez4 3.5 Rigid body dynamics Moment of inertia tensor Dynamics and mechanics Moment of kinetic energy inertia tensor® = [e5y—x) am (3.136) ‘JO*+22)dm = —fxydm —Jxzdm —Jxydm — f(t+24)dm — —fyzdm —Jxzdm — —fyzdm — f(x? +y) dm, (3.137) Ia=Thy—mayax 6.38) Feral x t= yt (al +a) (3.139) | 1y=1j+m(lal’Sy—aa)) G.140) Angular = am momentum Rotational 1 1 TajZ0-J = 5lyania; 3.142) 4y Kronecker deta 1 moment of inertia ém_mass clement Xe position vector of an Ty components of I tensor with respect | to centre of mass a4 position vector of centre of mass m mass of body J angular momentum © angular velocity T Kinetic eneray volume. Principal axes “Tg aie te moments oF Tnria oF We bods. Ty UPI) a Ww produce oF aewia The integrals ae over the body Principal hh 0 0 moment of obo inertia tensor oon Angular J=(hoyhox tos) momentum Rotational =) ho? thot +02) Kinetic energy T= 7{i thao +1303) ‘The ellipsoid is defined by the surface of constant T- Moment of T=T(o,0,03) inertia ar re fs ia? Si=5— (J is ellipsoid surface) ellipsoid! ia & ipsoid ) Perpendicular ls generally hthy= > & | axis theorem ‘F241, fiat lamina 1 to 3-axis L#¢b#ls asymmetric top Symmetries L=h¢ls symmetric top K=h=ls_ spherical top (3.143) (3.144) (3.145) (3.146) | (3.147) (3.148) (3.149) principal moment of inertia tensor principal moments of inertia J angular momentum @% components of — | along principal axes | T Kinetic energy r 3.5 Rigid body dyna Moments of inertia® Thin rod, length 1 oe) (1st) Solid sphere, radius r (3.152) Spherical shell, radius r (3.153) Solid cylinder, radius r, oo Iength 1 a (3.155) (BP +07)/12 (3.156) Solid cuboid, sides a,b,c In=m(c? +a”)/12 (3.157), (+012 (3.158) Solid circular cone, base Ce) radius r, height (3.160) (3.161) Solid ellipsoid, semi-axes (316) abe (3.163) } (3.164) Elliptical lamina, ten semi-axes a,b Saeee (3.166) Disk, radi (3.167) isk, radius r (316) | 3.169) | Teangutor eater With respect to principal axes for bodies of mass m and uniform density. TI k= /m)?, origin of axes is atthe contre of mass (h/4 above the bas). i T) (,)_Zn) Wey | in | radius of gyration is defined as ‘Around an axis through the centre of mast and perpendicular to the plane ofthe plate.Mo Bymamios and mechanics | 3.5 Rigid body dynamics n Centres of mass , Tops and gyroscopes Solid hemisphere, radius r d=3r/8 from sphere centre 170) 7 ~ + 3 j : 3 Hemispherical shell, radius r _ d=r/2_ from sphere centre .171) erpalhiods I Sector oF dn, radius r, angle i006 om disk contre ein) a polhod ef I Are of circle, radius r, angle ~ 6 rele, radius r, ang from circle centre (3.173) | oe sport pin 3 clips ‘Arbitrary triangular lamina, A | i fant e d=h/3 perpendicular from base @.174) Solid cone or pyramids height 4/4 perpendicular from base G.175) | prolate symmetric top * gyroscope | 3 Qrme | 11+ (I~, (3.184) | 6 external couple (=0 for fre Sobel cp, ght solid: d= 75 —]- from sphere centre (3.176) Euler's equations! adr tl —Ts)as@, 3.188) | em sini sphere radius r shell: d=r—h/2 from sphere centre (3.177) I3003-+(Lo—h)oe0 (3.186) | o, angular welocty of otation i Semi-elliptical lamina, 4h " 7 d== from b: . 7) heh $= from base (178) a 2180 | sty ey “his the perpendicular distance between the base and apex of the triangle. | top’ (3 | Pendulum ( 8 ow aa J3=4Tjmgacosd (3.192) |, Hom sppor poi ae Ty ta momen ofineniaof wb | moment of ae aon | pendulum P=2n (2) G.181) | ¢ tomionalnigidny of vie |] yy Gyroscopic limit G15 4 distance of rotation axis (‘sleeping top”) i L ftom ceatre of mass P=2n| (ma? +I, cos” . Nutation rate (3.194) ‘nutation angular velocity Compound [na to mms otty ) | a su pendulum? i ppl more Gyrossape re 5 +1003?) +he0e)| (282) | a cacouaion | released from rest 8° "y, 1 —6050at) (3495) | © time __ |" subend achat axe | 7 Component are with agent Ue prepa aos, tating wih te Body Equal m "The body frequency is the angular velocity (with respect to principal axes) of @ around the 3.axis. The space double cuss ‘ frequency isthe angular velocity ofthe axis around J, ic, the angular seloaty at which the Bocy cone moves (183 around the space cone pendulum® ™ SP clo to Sais 108 <0, the body tumble “Assuming the bob Be supported paalel toa prndpal aon wR Le, an arbitrary taxa rgd bod. damping factor (pr unit A 4 generalised velocities mas) L Lagrangian day _undemped angular frequency Euler-Lagrange oay|) oe nt, - equation “ - | Underdamped x= Ae" cos(ot +4) (3.197) | 4 ampide conan ih mm mass 3 i ase constant # velocity solution (7«p) (3.201) Lagrangian of a (3.217) | +¢. positive charge charged particle } electric potential Logarithmic Gann | ®t | Ae decrement* “| @q nth displacement maximum | Generalised (3.218) | py generalised momenta i SST momen Quality factor => (3.203) | @ quality actor | | The decrement vsualy the ratio of susessve Gaplacement mana buts sometimes taken asthe ratio of suoosaive Hamiltonian dynamics displacement extrema, reducing A by afacor of 2 Logarithms are sometimes taken to base 10, introducing a forther 1 Lagrangian factor of logis. (3.219) |p, generalised momenta a generained velocities | Hamiltonian =) pi Forced oscillations | Hamilton's, 0H | amilton’s H Hamiltonian % oscillating variabl Differential Px) dx 9 5 oe eanations CMO | sed con A 2S 4 ahaa Fool (3.204) ati z |» damping factor (per unit © particle speed equation Pe damaging factor (pe Hamiltonian (3221) | 7 Bites meee i of particle in 9 eee | ), where (8.205) | 9 undamped angular frequency external field 222) | Fonte | steady. A= FolloB—oF? +2rax7!? ——.206) | 7 fceamlade per unit | _—— | my (re) mass ion , = , Relativistic 2 apood of ight state ——Fo/(20) 6 ean) (3.207) | &F foeing angular eqn Hamiltonian Oy eee solution [ooo HP A amplitude eae (3223) | 42 postive charge phase Ing of rorpoase behind | eee clectie potential 6.208) |* Biting ce Particle A, vector potential | |__ err | ‘Amplitude ou amplitude resonant forcing 3.224) aes (3.209) ae (3.224) |, particle momentum Vatosty atop | em losis eonat fag Poisson trivary ucions resonance! (6.210) | © Saal eqns brackets am fee cae ; __§_§_—— Commatators on page 26) Quality 8.211) | 0 gant tatr | 3226) leh] | [Hamilton Impedance Z=2y4i- a (3.212) | Z impedance (per unit mass) | Jacobi (3.227) | $action : — equation | “Excluding the free oscillation terms | Forcing frequency for maximum displacement. “Forcing frequency for maximum velocity. Note @=n/2 at this frequency. \30 Dynamics and mechanics 3.8 Elasticity Strain Young modulus (Hooke’s law) Poisson rati Elasticity definitions (simple)* ‘A (3.228) | F A e=6l/1 (3.229) | or 1 constant (3.230) | one (3.231) | 6 ij its These apply w @ thin wire under Tongitudinal sos ‘Solids obeying Hooke's law are restricted by thermodynamics to —1< none are known with ¢ <0, Noa-Hookean materials can show o>1/2. Elasticity definitions (general) applied force cxoss-sectional 1 change in length length Young modulus Poisson ratio change in width it 2, but Stress tensor® Strain tensor force || i direction Fee acer (2.232) | xy sess ensor y= 5p u™ area L j direction (3.232) | vw ae 5 a, ex strain tensor (@1 = én) (+2) (3.233) | te displacement | 0 mx * Oe xe coordinate system Elastic modulus (3.234) | ayy elastic modulus Elastic energy (3.235) | U potential energy ~ ey volume strain ‘Volume strain iV eva meu tentes (3.236) | 67 change in volume (dilatation) Vv v oS 1 bu) 1 bi 3.237) Shear strain gorda) 3681 (3-237) | 5, conocer delta ier dintion Hydrostatic 5 3 y= poy 3.238) hydrostatic pressure compression v oa i | P hyd ™ eq afe normal SUES, Fj As usual, products are ‘are torsional stresses plicitly summed over repeated indies, 38 Elasticity Isotropic elastic solids E “Tg an eriended mediums Axes aligned along eigenvectors of the stress and strain tensors. Torsion _ Torsional rigidity (for a 5 homogeneous 252) ro) olin 8253) Thick circular — cylinder (3.254) Arbitrary thin-walled tube (3.255) Long fiat ribbon (3.256) a= (3239) | ya Lamé coefficients ee E Wrayt—20) (3.240) | ¢ Longitt E(1=o) | a eee Mm Gnd) (3.241) 3242) | Diagonalised | 2 equations? (3243) |e (3248 | 1 2 «0 — | (3.245) | X Bulk modulus be (compression (3.246) | y modulus) (3.247) | T E “ Shear modulus a (3.248) H (rigidity modulus)" 2(1-+0) 4 ars Hey (3.249) | = 9uK Young modul = (3.250) | « oung modulus PERT (3.250) ‘ . 3K—3y 1 Poisson rati = pee 3.251 oisson ratio °= 7K +a) ¢ ) ‘esting couple torsional rigidity rod length twist ange in Tength f radius ‘wall thickness shear modulus inner radius outer radius cross-sectional perimeter crose-sectional width Lamé coefficients Young modulus Poisson ratio Jongitudinal elastic modulus strain in § direction stress ini direction stress tensor unit matrix race bulk modulus isothermal bulk modulus volume pressure temperature volume stesin shear modulus shear strain82. Bending beams* Dynamics and mechanics Ina thin circular rod Gy bending moment | E fa E Young modulus z= 3.257, radius of curvature a Gaz | eas fe )| fa moment EI ences a (3.258) | ¢ distance to neural | iS Ce (cross eton) 1 moment of area mi |» displacement from Light beam, |? Selmar horizontal at 59) |W end-wviht x=0, weight” SD eae eee x distance along beam Heavy beam (3.260) |” Ba seag Pee PEL/P (free ends) | a compro Euler strut 4@E1/P (fixed ends) | fine oon fod PEI/(4P) (1 free end) | 1 strut length 6.261) The radios of eurvature approximated by 1/R=@y/ G7 Elastic wave velocities* speed of wanvene wave (3.262) | 9 speed of longitudinal wave In an infinite (3.263) | # shear modulus isotropie solid p density (3.264) | 1 Iongitaginal modulus (1s) Ina fluid (3.265) |.K bulk modulus speed of longitudinal wave (displacement i) 1f? speed of transverse wave (3.266) |" — Gisplacement 1) E Young modulus 3.267) | ¢ Poisson ratio k wavenumber (=25/2) (3.268) | 5 pate thickness (i z,-€3) (3.269) (3.270) | #5 torsional wave velocity a rod radius (<1) (27) waves, or Pa ‘Waves that produce “bending” are generally dispersive. Wave (phase) speeds are quoted throughout Transverse waves are also known as shear waves, or Sovaves, Longitudinal waves are also known as pressure 38 Elasticity Waves in strings and springs? 33, speed of ongidina wave Inasping —n=(el/pi? am | © sn conan? 1 aping length - fn tae pe uit engi? Ona stretched, (pyr 3) | & speed of transverse wave string += (T/p1) G273) T tension (Ona stretched a] pa)? (a.a74) | ¢ teasion per unit width sheet Pa) (3274) | 7 snus per unit ea ‘Ware anplinds asuned < wavekagih Hin the see n= foree/oneasion Measured along the sis of te sping Propagation of elastic waves force 3 2 2 impedance Acoustic response velocity (3275) F tee force impedance (E'p)' (3.276) | u strain displacement Wave velocity/ if» (2) “ (3.277) | elastic modulus impedance ? p densiy relation then Z=(E'p)!” (3.278) | © wave phase velocity Mean energy (3279) | # cacy densi density wavenumber (nondispersive (6280) | @ sama mse waves) (3281) | mean eneay tux 44 Zink Normal aa a tay (3.282) | r reflection coefficient Noma tranmitioncofiient t (3.283) | «stress angle of incidence ind, _ sind, Snell's law? = Hinds _ sind, (3284) | 6, "angle of reflection me & _ angle of refraction ‘For siress and strain amplitudes. Because these reflection and transmission coelicienis are usually defied in terms of displacement, v, rather than stress, there are diflerences between these coefficients and their equivalents defined in lectromagnetism {see Equation (7.179) aad Angles defined from the normal to the interface, An incident plane pressure wave will gene and pressure waves in reflection end transmission. Use the velocity appropriate for the page 154] ally excite both shear pe84 : Dynamics and mechanies | 3.9 Fluid dynamics : 85 39 Fluid dynamics scous flow (incompressible)? . | 77 ld ses tensor Ideal fluids* P hydrostatic pressure f 5 pkey Fluid stress fn shear viscosity Continuity? 3p FV (er) =0 (3.285) | » fluid velocity field | velocity along i axis —— a by Kronecker delta r. fe at=constant 6.286) | ar oop clement : (3300) | © Br wos sa Kelvin circulation ds element of surface | ae a © vorticity o-ds (3287) bounded by 199p ati sor [2 esisiona celeron I 5 ean | rc) 2 (0-9) (3288) |? Pressure Kinemati n/p (3.302) | » kinematic viscosity a 4 gavitational fd viscosity Euler's equation’ [sey a 3280 strength ie, ¥ or £(¥x8) (2.289) | (e-v) aavective operator Neglecting Bil (second) viscosity. . Bernoullis equation re Laminar viscous flow incompressible ow) Seieesiy ;—__—— | » rato of specie heat 2 direction of flow Bernoulli's equation (3.291) |” Capacities (y/ev) Between ; distance fom : (compressible cp specific heat capacity parallel plates #0) plate h adiabatic fowy! (6.292) at constant pressure shear viseoscy y | 7 temperature } pane Hydrostatics Vp: (8.293) a= tet) 22 distance from ° | Along a = gulag, (3308 | ee ‘Adiabatic lapse rate. AT og cirealar pipe av _natap Pipe radius (aed va) ou 6.294) | a 305) |} Rinse Ie No thenmal conductvgy or os. Circulating : Ge axial couple True general between ae The seond form of Eulers equation applies 1 incompressible Sow only | Sylngers Equation (3.292) is true only for an ideal gas. concentric per unit length \ Va rotating (3.306) | 0% angular velocity ; ek arab eplngs le aay) ot imme rin S Potential flow ‘Along an saat AA] outer ads a annular pipe In(az/a1)}) 9 volume discharge 295) | 5 seoaiy | (307 |° 8 : Velocity potenti *Poisale Bow se Ti (3.296) | 6 —elcity potenti | ae Vorticity condition © @=Vx0=0 3.297) | @ vority Drag* Frag foree on moving | | On a sphere (Stokes’s law) F=6naqy (3308) | Fes fore sere | a rive Drag force on a,, 4 sphere radius ; | > velocity pat (3.298) | {Shere ecateraon | Ona disk, broadside to ow F=16aqy (3.309) | sty . Aid density ° Ma_dleplaced Suid mass On a disk, edge on to flow F=Maye/3 (3.310) | For incompressible fuids The effect of this drag foree is to give the ephere an additional effective mass equal to half the mass of fuid displaced. | _ For Reynolds numbers > 2) (3.322) | {or gravy waves, in the wake ofa boat. Nowe tha tbe wedge semange i independent of | "Tile wavs re lira rahe Tan abe en OTA : | "Seon Yor sec) aorma shock, inh rae moving With th shock Hon 5/3 then amplitude < wavelength | In the limit k?> go/e. | | |Dynamics and mechanics Surface tension surface energy Ow (3.335) | oy surface tension Definition area Giquid vapour surface tension, , oa = (8.336) | terface) Tength | td Ap pressure diterence | Laplace's _ 3 cover surface formula® aro ( E+E) 8337) | principal radii of curvature e capillary constant Capillary (=) A aa3e) | % i desi —4 Capillary rise 2owcos8 Be |F tele i (3.339) | @ contact angle a) pga 4 tube radius wm wal/vapour surface | Sm| Say tension Contact a = ono 3 Contact angle cos = 6.340) | curt & tension oni oy ‘For a spherical bubble in a liquid Ay 1ay/R. For soap bubble (Ww surfaces) Ap=aay/R Chapter 4 Quantum physics 4.1 Introduction Quantum ideas occupy such a pivotal position in physics that different notations and algebras, appropriate to each field have been developed. In the spirit of this book, only those formulas that are commonly present in undergraduate courses and that can be simply presented in tabular form are included here. For example, much of the detail of atomic spectroscopy and of specific perturbation analyses has been omitted, as have ideas from the somewhat specialised field of quantum electrodynamics. Traditionally, quantum physics is understood through standard “toy” problems, such as the potential step and the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator, and these are reproduced here. Operators are distinguished from observables using the “hat” notation, so that the momenturi observable, p,, has the operator fy =—ihid /@x. For clarity, many relations that can be generalised to three dimensions in an obvious way have been stated in their one-dimensional form, and wavefunctions are implicitly taken as normalised functions of space and time unless otherwise stated. With the exception of the last panel, all equations should be taken as nonrelativistic, so that “total energy” is the sum of potential and kinetic energies, excluding the rest mass energy.i, momentum ga") (430) | 7 potential energy "Equation (426) uses the Dirac “bracket notation for integrals involving operators. The presence of vertical bars distinguishes this use of angled brackets from that on the left-hand side ofthe equations. Note that (a) and (@) are taken as equivalent.OO Dy) Quantum physics 4.3 Wave mechanics 93 Dirac notation Potential well® rim elgeavector indies | a dan= | vitondx (4.31) | ae matix element © Maticelmea =~ {8% cen Von tant ' incident partie yy mn] gm = (nidlm) (432) | a operator | g _ spatial coordinate | —Vo Bra vector bra state vector (433) | oa | - V_ particle potential energy Potential veal? (xir@) (as) | "eldest Ket vector ket state vector = |m) (4.34) |) ket | function “)—Ve (ixla (4.46) | 4 poricte wavenumbers Scalar product (nlm)= [viene (435) Wavenumbers _, aia) A ee ) (al0 incident particle Yop | effect? Vos amat (4.52) | 5, Ramsaver exergy 1 1 a _fiki/a even parity ~ o es | Bound states tone { a/ik| odd parity 52) | 5 V particle potential energy (Wo wy po Potential 0 (<0) (438) | Yo. step height | Gk =2mVo/h? (4.54) function Yo (x20) Planck constant) /(2n) ps "One-dimensional interaction wi an incident parte of total eneay 2mE (<0) (4.39) | #9 Particle wavenumbers ‘Particle Gux in the sense of increasing x. } Wavenumbers ee es “agg) | Pale mass | incident energy for which 2ga=ne,(|—0, nd i= Im{E—Vo) (=>) (440) | hal poe energy “When E-<0, is purely imaginary. [kj and q re obtained by solving these implicit equations. ‘Amplitude reflection (aan | ample econ coefficient ‘Amplitude ~ transmission (442) | appt wansmison coefficient | Probability (4-43) | particle Sux in one 1 7 2 2 particle ux in zone currents jn? (444) | *One-Gimeasional interaction with an incident particle of oil energy E=KEYV.1TEa) Vo well depth veo . function @ , (esa 455) | n° (etanck constant) /(2n) 7 2a baser width 5 . oe incident wavenumber reer Wie =2mE, (xl>a) (4.56) | x tunneding constant tunnelling 99 yy py constant B Wx? =2m(Vy—E) (|x|E Particle flux in the sense of increasing x. ‘Spinless particle in a rectangular box bounded by the planes x=0, 70, 2=0, Particle in a rectangular box Eigen- mny .nnz functions “psn (4.64) Re 5 ar (465) Density of ey ; fee PE)SE=FOMPE) dE (4.6) z=, The potential is zero inside and infinite ouside the box. Yn abe cigenfunctions box dimensions integers 21 energy Planck particle mass density of states (per unit volume) =a, y=b, and 44 Hydrogenic atoms Harmonic oscillator Ey Schridinger equation 467) Energy level (4.68) | 4.69) Eigen- 409) fanctions where a-( Hermite H,0)=2y, HG) polynomials yHy(y)—2nHl-s(y) (470) 95 ‘Planck constant)/(Qn) mh eigenfunction isplacement integer 20 angular frequency total energy in nth state H, Hermite polynomials dummy variable Ep is the aero.polnt energy of the osalator 4.4 Hydrogenic atoms Bohr_model* rah orbit radius Quantisation 29 nh (471) | @ orbital engutar speed condition | n principal quantum number eo Bobs radius Bohr radius (4.72) | reduced mass (=m) electronic charge atomic umber Orbit radius (4.73) | Planck constant hyn) ‘otal energy of nth orbit, Total energy (474) permittivity of free space cfectron mess Fine structure ; fine structure constant constant (4-75) | permeability of fee space Hartree energy (476) Hartree energy Rydberg Rydberg constant constant (477) speed of light Rydberg’s photon wavelength formula? Tom 478) integer >” “Because the Bohr model is strictly a two-body problem, the equations use reduced mass, «=mMauc/(me-+Mcuc) ~My where myo is the nuclear mass, throughout. The orbit radius is therefore the eletron—nuceus distance. Wavelength of the spectral line corresponding to electron transitions between orbits m and n7 96 Hydrogenlike atoms — Schrédinger solution* Quantum physics 44 Hydrogenic atoms Orbital angular dependence Schrddinger equation Bon Ze Memoye | Eg — Ze =EWim with p= 4.79 | IgV Pen Frege Evin = Fa nim with t= Fm (4.79) Eigenfunctions (n—1-ry? mn | 7.8,¢)= |S (= Yn, (4.80) Pnim(7.4.9) (ee G)Y"(6,6) (4.80) | ack res th gate. 21461 faye (4+m)(—2 with at @)= & G+i+Hie—1-1-Hikl : - nz % waleney | Total energy Baia (480) | 6 permitvcy of fee space | (= $0 10+0) (482) | Pack onsant ? sa? 5 A Ws Radial (SPST (483) Py expectation 1 rage tase of nucleus alee Uin= ae (484) | om egenfunctions | 2 Ze” charge of nucleus | Pya— (4.85) O?)= ore (485) | A. electronic cbarge .2,3,. (4.86) | rf associated Laguerre | _ polynomial Allowed ie nm » t a 4 cassical orbit radius, n=1 | quantum =0t1,22,... 41 +88) |, cectzo-nueleus separation > orbital se 7 pial numbers and An#0 (4.89) | yp | (=0) s=¥o'= constant (492) | ammosics selection rules? 4) —41 (490) | a : or tt (491) | Pax Fall -YyV ccoosqsind (493) rbitals i 0,6 spherical polar | (ep py in (E+ ¥ cesing sind (aoa | °* Bee | ps=Y¥P cccosd (495) *8c0s8 aA A dap = sgl ¥P-+ YF) ocsin? Bo0s26 (496) 7 2) ais Wg Ory raf 7 (2-185 425 Jer Yn0= Sia (6-2) Ze**cos0 = Thr} —¥54) csindcos eos (497) ‘ 4 orbitals 0 6-2) Lo singet 7/38(3.cos?@—1) | (=2) ¥f cc(3e0s*—1) (498) ue ia(¥i +¥5") xsinBoosOsing (4.99) a A age sindeosde Wa 11 sin? get os ached ee i rath YE") ocsin? @sin2g (4.100) Sora single Bound Gecron i a perfont moslear Coulomb polenta (nonrelativistic and spin ea). se pues a) fe Ge delta of petal Exceed For dipole transitions between oxbitals The sign and indexing definitions for this function vary. This form is appropriate to Equation (4) .Quantum physics 45 Angular momentum 9 45 Angular momentum Orbital angular momentum (4.101) | L angular ‘momeatum (4.102) | p linear momentum Angular r position vector momentum (4103) | 29* Caren operators nates flat 16 spherical polar Pai +h+ (4.104) |" Soran a), 1 @ A (Planck — Py) +o (4.1 ‘constant}/(2x) (4106) | adder operators Ladder =net (icora 42 107) | 3 sphecioat operators (mow 26 (4.107) | 1 ermonics ALD) — mem £7 Y= (4.108) | ft Haters BYM=i+iey" (120) (4.109) Figen LY =mhy" — (\mlI) 20) Langevin fonction “Scamming opin and ovbial angular momenta as examples, eigenstates [sm and Thm}. p(x) =tanhx fase ‘cothx—1/s (se page 144) (M) mean magnetisation Sor “Wigner coefficients.” Assuming no L-S interaction. number deasity of atoms Magnetic moments _ Mean ag) wy Lande gator a Beir mapeioa aed M) nines, (Jer42E) (4150) | fo Bobr magneton =e electronic char ee B magnetic fux deasiy Bobr magneton up= 4.137) | 5 Gan constant 25) | J FSi coonmae Ime 4 ' (M) for isolated eB cae ve ceca oat (2 res ay, —yatnn('M2) rst) | ere cbital magnetic (0) mean magnetisaton for Gyromagnetic orbital magnetic moment (443g) | gyromagnetic ratio L Tat/2 nd ge?) | ratio Srbital angular momentum | “Of essen of toms in theme elim at npr T, cok Wi otal angular momen quan Electron yo (4.139) | gyromagnetic ye elect gyromagnetic ratio | ratio (4.140) 4) componeat of | Spin magnetic dasa) |" mace ome j moment of an 6 ge eection g-factor (=2.002) electron? catay) | ™ inset sober (12) uy ‘otal magnetic moment w= VIT+ Dee (4.48) |e ctmponeat of yo Landé g-factor® ne = BIBI (4.145) | my magnetic quantum number a SpIGEDESS DHE) | 18 att nln galt 2I(+1) ‘quanturn numbers | (4.146) Landé g-factor ~ [Or “magaetogyrie ratio.” he electron pfactor equals exactly 2 in Dirac theory. The modification ge=2+a/x-+. structure constant, comes from quantum electrodynamics Relating the spin? orbital angular momenta of an electron to is total magnetic moment, assuming g where a is the fine102 46 Perturbation theory Time-independent perturbation theory Quantum physics Hip vapertarbed Hamiltonian Unperturbed ove = Exide (4.152) | 1p, eigenfunctions of states (vq nondegenerate) Ey eigenvalues of fy integer 20 Perturbed iy fy’ At perturbed Hamiltonian ly (4.1: & Hamiltonian 7 — 0+ 153) | pertrtation («H6) Bt (yell tye) | Perturbed ian le) 2 [BL perturbed eigenvalue (=) eigenvalues + eae Iwo 5. (4.154) | Ul) Dirae bracket Perturbed cen tae (4135) | peed casio functions? To woond ond To first order. ‘Time-dependent perturbation theory Unperturbed [Fa sre Hass stationary _Hlove= Ene (4.156) | 9 enfinstion fH tation Be cigenvaues of Bo s integer =O A perturbed Hamiltonian Perturbed #7 +A" " 7 4.157) | (perturbation (« Ferret HO= +80) (A457) | Apron aro a ; wevetencton schrédinger Ho +Fr(oiyo=in 28 4.58) | ¥ fies yo iia tate equation —¥(¢=0)=v0 (4159) | n° tance coastant/@2=) Perturbed YO=Tenlynexp(—iEst/h) (4.160) wave: p ce probably amplitudes function* where ea F [onl CivadespOE.—Faye/m ae (A161) lo ' Top tansion probability pr | Fermi’s r well wh POE) (4162) unit time from state {t0 golden rule tag = We Voll XE state f plEs) density of final states To frst order 47 High energy and nuclear physics 103 4.7 High energy and nuclear physics Nuclear decay as ; — N@ umber of made Nuclear decay (= N(@Oje* (4.163) remaining after time t law 7 os In2 1 Half-life and > (4.164) | 4 deta constant ed (r)=1A (4165) | (7) mean iesime Successive decays 123 (species 3 stable) M(O=M Oe + (4.166) NyOAle"—e™) Na(0)= Nae + (0)(1—e nena) (1425 = N3(0)+: Ny popolation of species 1 population of species 2 population of species 3 decay constant 1—>2 decay constant 2->3 Geiger’s law* velocity of « particle stance from source Geiger-Nuttall rule log’. constants for each sties «and For a particles in air (empirical) Naclear binding energy Liquid drop model* ‘number of neutrons ‘mass number (=N+Z) semi-empirical binding energy ‘namber of protons volume term (~158MeV) surface term (~180MeV) Coulomb term (~0.72MeV) asymmetry term (~235MeV) 4p pairing term (~33.5MeV) PRRENWRS mass formula _ 2g 22, N-ZP B= a.A~ aA 0,5 a4 +4(A) (4.171) +a,A-* ZN both even 6(A)~ 4 —apA-** Z, N both odd (4.172) 0 otherwise Semiempirical y4(Z,4)—ZMy+Nma—B (4.173) M(Z,A) atomic mass ‘My mass of bydrogen atom ‘mg _neutron mass *Cocficiat values are expircal and approximate104 Quantum physics Nuclear collisions ‘(E) cross-section for atb—>e z Te ce (4.174) | k incoming wavenumber Breit-Wigner 2)" 8 E—EyP+ formula* +1 GDRs, 2 spin factor (4.175) | E total energy (PE + KE) Fy resonant energy I’ width of resonant state R Total width P=letTe (4.176) | rr paral width into a+b TT. partial width into € + resonance lifetime Resonance h J total angular momentum lifetime “Tr (4.177) |" quantum umber of R ip spins of «and b itera colision | redo mass Vow’ or cn hoa| 6 footnote) (4.178) |» radial distance V¢e) potential energy of interaction Born scattering formula’ “Mott scattering formula” do ay? Ak a/r scattering potential energy B- (ie) [5 oor A. =2 for spin-zero particles, for spin-balf particles do ya aa (28) wnt ‘For the reaction a+b-+R—>c in the centre of mass frame. 'For a central field. The Born approximation holds when the potential energy of scattering, V, is much less than the total kinetic energy. K is the magnitude of the change in the particle's wavevector due to scattering. For identical particles undergoing Coulomb scattering in the oentte of mass frame. Nonidentical particles obey the Rutherford scattering formula (page 72). Relativistic wave equations” Klein-Gordon ; wavefuntion equation (P= ?)y ey (4.181) ve pore mast (massive, spin ae t time zero particles) Weyl equations (massless, spin 1/2 particles) & spinor wavefunction (4.182) | ; Pauli spin matrices (see page 26) 1 P Dine patio: isa) | P=(0 1) 0 a) | (4.183) Dirac equation (massive, spin 1/2 particles) \-o, 0} gmx unit mate Chapter 5 Thermodynamics 5.1 Introduction The term thermodynamics is used here loosely and includes classical thermodynamics, statistical thermodynamics, thermal physics, and radiation processes. Notation in these subjects can be confusing and the conventions used here are those found in the majority of modern ‘treatments. In particular: The internal energy of a system is defined in terms of the heat supplied to the system plus the work done on the system, that is, dU = 40+ ¢W. The lowercase symbol p is used for pressure. Probability density functions are denoted by pr(x) and microstate probabilities by ps With the exception of specific intensity, quantities are taken as specific if they refer to unit mass and are distinguished from the extensive equivalent by using lowercase. Hence specific volume, v, equals V/m, where V is the volume of gas and m its mass. Also, the specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure is cy=C,/m, where Cp is the heat capacity of mass m of gas. Molar values take a subscript “m” (¢2,, Vq for molar volume) and remain in upper case The component held constant during a partial differentiation is shown after a vertical bar; is the partial differential of volume with respect to pressure, holding temperature constant. The thermal properties of solids are dealt with more explicitly in the section on solid state physics (page 123). Note that in solid state literature specific heat capacity is often taken to ‘mean heat capacity per unit volume.106 Thermodynamics 5.2 Classical thermodynamics 107 Cycle efficiencies (thermodynamic)* 5.2 Classical thermodynamics 7 ey Heat engine y= Wotkentracted < THT (6.10) | Ta higher temperature Theat input Th a lower teperatre ‘Thermodynamic laws ; peat extracted. Th “Thermodymam 7 Germotant temperate Refrigerator y= 7 one surface tension Ratio of heat (ss |? ‘82 of beat apeies ie capacities rs adiabatic compressibily | » | EB electric field ~ EI (5.7) a Blectric field ©) | ay induced electric dipole moment ‘Thermodynamic —————_ B magnetic x desiy . Tyas api ! Magnetic field (5) | induced mags dipole momeat ae 619) | 7 voiume : —_— ———_} 7 temperature ‘Ag potential ditrene Electric current @W=Abdq — (59) | GP sarge moved Isothermal (6.20) | *P eternal ompesiy ‘esos WER and ag Tes sake ws Ding ovkde the themnodmais Wem Os compressibility Siler which they are working. | Adiabatic . 5.21 ks adiabatic compressibil compressibility 621) diabatc compressibility | 44 pect Ee (5.22) | Ky isothermal bulk modulus Ny modulus i pee (5.23) | Ks adiabatic bulk modulus modulus "so clad "ase" ae expan Tie near exp BH =H |108 Expansion processes Thermodynamics (524) Joule expansion* () (5.26) Joule-Kelvin expansion’ a L 7 Joule coeficient 7 temperature pressure U internal energy heat capacity, V constant 1 Joule-Kelvin coefficient volume H cathalpy peat capacity, p constant ‘Expansion with no change in internal energy Expansion with no change in enthalpy. Also known as 2 “Soule-Thomson expansion” or “throting” proces. Thermodynamic potentials" dA=(T—To)dS—(p—po)dV (5.40) Tiel eeray 1 temperature Internal energy aU=Tds—paV-+wdN (528) | 5 entopy chemical potential N-number of parties H=U+pV (6.29) | #_ enthaloy Enthalpy dH=Tds+Vap+udN (5.30) | 5 PE ee ae 630 | eambotefe eerey energy? dF=-séT—paV-+udN (6.32) G=U-TS+pV (533) Gibbs free energy’ © =F +pV=H-TS (5:34) | G — Givbe fee energy dG=-SéT+Vdp+udN (535) i Oakey 630) potential Grand potential “4g gur—pay—nay (637) |° Gibbs-Duhem -SdT+V dp—Ndy=0 (5.38) relation | A ality A=U-ToS+P0V (5:39) | 75 teperature of Availability surroundings | po pressure of surroundings FGN=D for a dosed atom. Sometimes called the “work function.” «Sometimes called the “thermodynamic potential.” 5.2 Classical thermodynamics Maxwell’s relations Maxwell 1 en wv Maxwell 2 Maxwell 3 Maxwell 4 U internal energy (S41) | T temperature ¥ volume H eathalpy (5.42) | $_— estropy pressure (5.43) | F Helmholtz free energy (544) | G Gibbs fre energy Clausius—Clapeyron equation® F Hekbolz free exeray (545) | U internal eneray Gibbs free energy (5.46) | H enthalpy 5 | 7 temperance (5.47) | p pressure ¥_ volume Phase transitions - T Gaten) heat absorbed 2) Heat absorbed L=T(S—Si) (5-48) | 7 tempereture of phase change S entropy (5.49) | p pressure ¥ volume (5.50) | 1,2 phase states Coexistence curve? (5.51) | R moter gas constant Ehrenfest’s equation Gibbs's phase rule P+F=C+2 (5.52) | 6, isobaric expansivity er isothermal compressibility (5.53) | Cp heat eapacity(p constant) | P number of phases in equilibrium (5.54) | F number of degrees of freedom © _ number of components ‘Phase boundary gradient lor a first-order transition. Equation (3.50) is sometimes called the “Clapeyron equation” "For V>Vay ey if phase 1 isa liquid and phase 2 a vapour. For a second-order phase transition110 Thermodynamics 5.3 Gas laws m1 5.3. Gas laws Van der Waals gas D_pressare Vy molar volume Equation of state (567) | R- molar gas constant Ideal gas eo is = perature Joule’s law ur) (555) | 2 ee 5 var der Wats constants | (5.68) | 7 critical ; essure ctl temperature Boyle's law (5.56) | 7 ee Critical point (5.69) | py caitcal pressure ‘Equation of state (5.57) |" tumber of moles (5.70) | Vex stitical molar volume (Ideal gas law) " R molar gas constant { Reduced equation ® (5.58) of state (3.71) Ki Adiabatic (559) | 7 ao othe pss - zi equations (5.90) | sy ec one on yer (5.61) Dieterici gas (562) > prewure 5 Vig molar volume Internal energy Rese Equation of state (5.72) | R molar gas constant isothermal AQ=nRTIn(V2/Vi) (5.63) | 42 beat supplied to system T temperature 1.2 inital and final states ioaaial expansion P| icteric constants Joule expansion® iRin(V2/¥%1) (5.64) | 4S change in entopy of the a /(4RY) (5.73). | Te critical temperature | : Critical point a /(4be2) (6.74) | Fst! pressure "Since AO Tor a Joule expansion, AS is due entirely to ireversiblity. Because entropy isa function of state it bas the same value as forthe reversible isothermal expansion, where AS = AQ/T. © | Vag excal molar volume (5.75) e278 Reduced equati ® amaton (5.76) | ¥ of state ial expansion -—— ee OY ? over (4 2 ¥ volume Virial expansion 565) | R molar gas constant BD ) a eee Van der Waals gas a ve B,visilcoeients wf PSa\ne ra | Boyle BAT 56 lc tempeature 7 16 temperature P2(7®) ea heen i} |e ia Ee 12] = 08 <1 06 08 04 06 ta a o 0 1 2 3 4 5 o 1 2 3 4 5 ve Vem2 Thermodynamics 3.4 Kinetic theory 13, 5.4 Kinetic theory ‘Transport properties Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution® Be pobably densty m \3/2 me? 2 m urticle mass Particle speed —_pr(c)de= (=) exp = ) Ane de bs distribution (sar) 2kT isso a oe 5 tempeature cpt speed Particle energy particle Kinetic 7 z -E -_ distribution ater (i) dE (585) Mean speed (5.86) | (@) mean speed rms speed (ssn) | = ens | Most probable /2kT\"?_pmyii2, Mon woe (EYL) 9 9 | nen | ‘SDrobabilty density functions normalised so that jg" prix) . 7 mean Fee path 7 Monatomic gas Mean free path* (5.89) | @ molecular diameter c P pee partite number density 1 umber density Survival pr probability Pressure p=3znm() (5:77) | m partie mass equation? (590) | O inear distance ° (2) mean squared partite oP _—— volume lane (591) | (4, mean molecular speed Equation of Fea constant = — _—____| “= state of an ideal (5:78) |. umber ot particles Self-diffusion J (5.92) | = 7 temperature (Fick's law of D__dision cote \, diffusion) (593) | Internal energy (5.79) | U internal eneray Ce | a=_avT (S94) | Hest x per uit area 2 thermal conductivity (5.80) Thermal (595) | 7 temperature | heat capacity, constant conductivity pb density Heat capacities (5.81) | Gea capacity, constant p (5:96) | ev specie beat capacity V Gs 7 ratio of beat capacities en tw 5 cy 3 Viscosity . displacement of sphere in Entropy _ se dlretion after time ¢ (Sackur— | (mT \ 3 ; ser >. Brownian Boltzmann constant Tetrode senuin| (75 6.83) Pack soni) motion (of a Sime imerel equation)* . 3 sphere) sphere radius | “For he sonnel gu The aoe (36) quanta consetaton ote pres, na Their therm de Free mokeular al ome fw is m 7 ie radius flow)! ‘ (5.99) | m — Partice mass | pressure Fora perfect gas of bard, spherical particles with a Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distibution. Probability of traveling distance x without a eolision ‘Fromm the side wheve the number density isn, assuming an isotropic velocity distribution, Also known as “collision umber.” Down a pipe from end 1 to end 2, assuming Ry (e106 | Es sem oer ions | : Gibbs entropy | protabiy that he sytem sia monte | Entropy aT nz) ary |S mtorr i sy | oT Iv Number of paris N two-level (S107) | mb tones | REREe _ | systems. number im upper state Pressure, SET InZ) a ) (5.118) | p pressure yee av Ina harmonic (6.108) | @ total number of ene quanta avatabe | Genial < cen | | (eee THETIEY) |» a ons ‘Sometimes called “configurational entropy.” Equation (5.105) is true only for large systems. én vit - Sometimes called “canonical entropy.” Ensemble probabilities ‘Microcanonical 1 = 5.109) ensemble* i 6. Partition function” (5.110) | Canonical ensemble (Boltzmann (5.111) | distribution)® =e newt Grand partition (st) | # function NN; umber of particles in | Grand canonical — im ensemble (Gibbs Pi HEN) (5.113) distribution)? i ‘probability thatthe system isin ‘microstate 1 number of accessible partition function suum over microstates =r) energy of microstatef Boltzmann constant temperature grand partition function chemical potential "Energy Oxed. Aloo called “sum over states” Temperature fixed “Temperature fixed. Exchange of both heat and particles with a reservois, Identical particles Bose-Einstein distribution 0 10 02 08 a6 03 112 ia 16 18 2 ‘Bose-Einstein distribution Fermi-Dirac distribution? Fermi energy* Fermi-Digec distribution 002 04 06 08 1 12 1416 18 2 fi mean occupation number of ith state p =Ver) (8.120) energy quantum for it state chemical potential (5.121) Fermi energy (5.122) particle number density particle mass Bose aa condensation 2ah [ - | temperature mk (g0(3/2) spin degeneracy (=25+1) Riemann zeta function £6/2)~2612 T. Bose condensation temperature # o (Planck constant)/(25) z (8.123) For bosons. f;0. For fermions. 0 fis 1 “For noninteracting particles. At low temperatures, weyOO T — 16 _ Thermodynamics 5.6 Fluctuations and noise _ wT Population densities? Noise om — may number density of atoms in w exchangeable noise power Mj 5.14 excitation level fof ionisation i Sea Boltzmann (129 | Shey git ot ones) % T-pe(el—1)-tav (538) | Balmamcomant excitation Nyquist’s noise "erature fy level degeneracy yan =kTdv equation (5.125) | 7) excitation energy lative to theorem kT ai (5.139) | Ty noise temperature the ground state =kT dy (hv kT) 27)= 2 ex (ZF) (5.188) Wien : 7 _f$1x10%mK for B, dg wavelength of displacement ig T= os Stefan Mw. f[ BAT)av (5.190) | M_extence Boltzmann b © Stefan-Boltamann law? Ink gs yet |" constar(e Fog rsort wm (5.191) | Serx10*war?K~4 "TV pen to he projet aa of evr, Svcs Uigne also Kno simply as “baginee intensity wed fr Teospton *Sometines “Sita lame [Exitance is the total radiated energy from unit area of the body per unit time. ‘Speciee Chapter 6 Solid state physics 6.1 Introduction | ‘This section covers a few selected topics in solid state physics. There is no attempt to do more than scratch the surface of this vast field, although the basics of many undergraduate texts on the subject are covered. In addition a period table of elements, together with some of their physical properties, is displayed on the next two pages Periodic table (overleaf) Data forthe periodic table of elements are taken from the 16th edition of Kaye and Laby Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants (Longman, 1995) and from the 74th edition of the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (CRC Press, 1993), Note that melting and boiling points have been converted to Kelvin by ‘adding 27415 tothe Celsius values listed ia Kaye and Laby. The standard atomic masses relect the relative isotopic “abundances in samples found naturally on Earth, and the aumber of significant figures reflect the variations between Samples, Crystallographic data are based on the most common forms of the elements (the e-form, unless stated otherwise) stable under standard conditions, Densities are forthe solid state. For full details and footnotes for each tlement, the reader is advised to consult the original texts ‘4 Solid state physics 6.2 Periodic table 125 6.2 Periodic table 8A 1A. Helium Hoes same sone erie t 2 He 1 pea BE a {0 atomic number $$ atoms ma (0) i CUB saneabe 20 396 gan Tinian eee lex ea HEX 1.632 elect figuration. ‘4738. Pana i Foc! =] bi 3A. 4A SA 6A TA __|35 420 fh Zom| 2A on configuation S93 a { ROC fcocented cutie Bowe] cuter | Sivoes | Oman] Fotos ] Nem ‘Lithium Belen . a i MCL s on ae 1 ee 159994 ee 201797 sour | Sour asi (kgm 9s ate constant, (i) i menos ‘ 2 | NE, | sense eines et (ty i ORC orthorhombic vent | Sao | aod | Bae | “oer | Ma | and | an? is os fa (angle io REIL, i RHL thombobedral nego "tox |2aee"™ asr| 103s (By4os| 1460 qots|t 40 s80| 442 as s33""py3st|.ste 229 cxpstal type ffgin ORC & McL) TET tetragonal RAL 657 DIA nex “test [cus |Me ig |Fee ee al ca Pus Srs|eh coo|6o thas| sta oats sass akay| 86 zr07 eral ing point (K) ling point (K) ‘Aluminium | —Siicon | Phoiphorss | Sulpbor | Clone | — Argon Magzesiam Ts) eee i deoeiss | asosss | sas | 32006 | Ssas7 | debae porn i Balu sifis P| ie S| 17 Cl] ag. ar 2 Me i peat | oan | ora? | overt | ase | meant ase ‘ [2698 40s|2329 543|1820 3931/2086 1046/2030 62/1656 532) eee 3 Ree “lm “lone ux lone ‘is lone gai|rec ES) 4 apse 5 : 1B 2B Sir 2m fa asolsns Balsam alles 0 : Copa | ie | Galle | Geman | Arc | Seaian | Brouie | Kegon Tie | Santon] Tinian | Vamdlon | Chemin | Manganas | ie | Cota : . ma |OSRa | Abit |S sem | ake | Seat, | Tater” | “Quests | Caiosct™ | “sastos:| ssaer_ | stonszo i a a 92 | aa BSc | aa! | a8 | 24 Ce | 28 Mn) 26 Fe | 27. Co { fetes | Seaue” | aus! oe) Seat | Sue | ae ue x!” sansa ssl aon ales 20 so | 1190 “ss [art ™ alr anos Cast 3 . sss| sre ats] 4s tess ts pe seine sso male malcom ae aeliee ise kee Ya] | ree (See anally HSSJOR UB IDIA aM stv] “Lislonc us ree BCS om(fG5 rast Sivas Sou|2193_soa|2i00 290050 2ax9[te5 ssl ; z ss 2888 3]329_2473|121_2100|889 pn] 3 958|2e850 3320|1188_1199 Taiden | Suet | Yerian | Zironiom | Nicbm | Molybdcmum | Tesiootui Rarhenom | Rhode | Patadiom | siher | Cadmiam | toda ‘Aatimosy | Telli | ode | Xenon Rives, | “ron | gegusss | siz" | szecess | sso | svo072. | Tovar. | 10290350 | yosaz" | so7see2 | uzalt. | issis sins | ciara” | 1269007 | 13129 HT Rb | 38 Sr | 39 ¥ | 40 Zr| 41 Nb| 42 Mo| 43 Te| 44 Ru| 45 Rh t 46 Pd) 47 Ag| 48 Ca] 49 In| 50 Sn | si Sb| 32 Te| 53 I | 54 Xe Tea | ast | Meu | Mant | ‘toutes | “taatats | aad | erst | cnet i malt | nade | owt | “ean | Stee | seam | clone | cas! | nae 1533 571/2583 608/4475 365|6507 323/8578 330] 10222 31S |11496 274) 12360, 270/12420 380) 11995 389/10500 409]8687 — 298]7290 325) 7285 (6)583/6692 451/6247 4464953 1727/3560 635) Bes OTR ee I alsce “| poe 2 Uaioe séoi|iex’ ual ec Foo" lrce "lam waselrer 13ilrer “asue|Rmt sr7|MEx 18|ORc is |ro 3124 9631 ]1050 _1653|1798 3613|2123 4673|2750_4973| 2896 4913 |2433_4533|2603_ 442312236 _3973, 1 1828 3233/1235 2433/5942 1043/429.75 2343/50508 2893/9038 1860|723 1263 [3867 457/1613 _ 165.0 Cacsium ‘Barium | Lanthanum | Hafnium | Tantalam “Tungsten Rheniom =| Osmium ridin | Platina Gold ‘Mercury | Thallium ‘Lead ‘Bismuth | Polonium | Astatine ‘Radon ‘Goede | Berm | Lamhe | Hats | Tersien [Tree | icusr | Ssosr | ‘eee | Sane: | asSbeese | “Sous | dresses | dota | wows | Sousmt | Zoveri | anoire BG | 36a | ada | 2 rl 73 Ta) 7 W | 75° Re| 76. Os | 77 Ir 78 Pt| 79 Au| 80 Hg) st T1| 82 Pb| 3 Bi| 84 Po| as At | 86 Rn 8) cast pega? st arse past pens ras pease rus? , xnas?#schect | peazl4seGet | pros ae! ele? taal iaee* ts meas 1900" 614/354 502]6174377|13276 319|16670 330] 19254316 |21023 276] 22580 273/22550 384] J21450 392/19281 408 ]13546 300/11871 346|11343 49/9803 475/9400 337 440 Rao Salat Seg Saluee wilace “"lBco’ Jinx’ s6is|nex os| roo \ eco’ "Ieee. “*latan mraz |x. uss|zce [RAL srs] CoB Bee gisa| Gn ainalGik atest Letalsios sess] 308 suos|as Senlanos soram0 aus) ou _cos|isi73 sus|asi ols rslon7 2on|see5 ies als ela au Fee ‘tin i Bogs | aamge | dors a7 ir | 88 -Ra| #9 Ac 1 Sat | Sane | Sr ) sod)” sus 1000 sa sce ince . s0__ow/os smaltss san) ____ Calms [Pectin] Neolaian [Fonstinn | Sena] | Tanjim | Gulsiaa | Tetion | Dpmetm | Heian | Bian | Thain | Wonton | at ae [Preise] Nekrsin | Pomation | Sasi ree | Casas” | rao |NCan'"| fetes | eras | seeosem | “isso” | “toon . 58 Ce! 59 Pr | 60 Nd| 61 Pm| 62 Sm 63 Ea| 64 Gd| 65 Tb 66 Dy) 67 Ho! 68 Er 69 Tm/ 70 Yb| 71 Lu Lanthanides | 58,,5° |} Mass” | Sean | om eit pow? | paws | a Cat | ee | ee | Oe agen | mat eel ers er 2000 35 | 1220" 237588 528 ae] esas seas” spat ssl gold” ase oat8™” 35 osee ts fond au eri csuslorm9 67/7000" mela se a], ace “|i asst 3so/eiex 15ia|tex 3ro| tex i3to|iiex uano[rce °° [em as FO ost PBUGS SURRS ASU Tz F095 asrs| ty S33s[teas Sips ieg0_dias|tes_ Dots t600 sissies 22| 98) S6a Titan | Proms | Unaiom | Nepiem | Paulas ; Amici | Cums | Boia] aiaion | Esti | Fernion [Menem Tamas Beer | Poneto | votes | Sows | Susmms Saioctt | eros | nas | Gone: | ‘aseoste | ssrosi | ‘Ssemes Saiose sate 90 Th} 9% Pa | 92 U| 93 Np| 94 Pu 95 Am) 9 Cm| 97 Bk) 98 Cf) 99 Es | 100 Fm) 101 Md 103 Lr Actinides | Oe | aascate | wascatnt | masrtaine | ‘mast war | ose | ase | maar | matt ee Hea sal EO So |sS0lo es Ss “ e|sa a at” 3] 880 0|40" 30) 9) | Foe Ter’ oms lore. gone. ga|McL Em HEX ioe 3o¢/Hex 321]mEx 324) HEX Boas sos| ters 4218 rag aacilotsvs[ous 355 reo aesliae lise Sirs “is [usos das frsos__ sons r ,126 6.3 Crystalline structure Solid state physics Bravais lattices - ea a oe ee (oxb)-¢ 61) | Roane frie cl primitive cell 2nbxe/{(axb)-<) 2) 2mexa/ {(axb)-¢} (63) a ( a’ ,B',c reciprocal itive base patie base 2raxb/ (lad) (64) | 8.6 see si vectors" a ae Rete vo] Lattice vector Raw nw integees Reciprocal lattice vector expliGiia* Rue (orthogonal basis) 63 Crystalline structure ia’ + kb" + 1c" (68) | Gv 1 (69) |i Weiss zone haus ko+ hw (6.10) | (xy equation’ _ —| Interplanar ean | spacing (general) — Tnierplanar I ‘ 6.12) spacing & Bt (6.2) reciprocal lattice vector (hl) Pat Miller indices of plane® distance between (hkl) planes FNote that ths i 2 times the usual defimiti Condition for lattice vector [uw] to be part “Cana ee ened 9 tat Guy ibe shortest pres Weber symbols | oa OT SOP oe eH ig ane ne (in an arbivary Broa atic, ae eT lie ves nal eC) lanes. Lous) (613) | i &, Converting v=*Qv—u) (6.14) | wow {uw to 3 oo a T=-30+09) (615) | jw») (616) a 17) | Converting (618) UVTWI to ted ' (619) Gonelawe = WURV IT +I =0 =| V,T.W Weber indices zone axis indices ‘Weber symbol zone exis symbol Miller-Bravais indices "or trigonal and hexagonal systems. Cubic lattices _ Tattice primitive (P) body-centred (I) face-centred (F) lattice parameter a a a volume of conventional cell a a a lattice points per cell 1 2 4 1st nearest neighbours 6 8 2 Ist na, distance a a2 a/v 2nd nearest neighbours 2 6 6 2nd nn. distance ay? a a packing fraction? reciprocal lattice® primitive base vectors! 50: “oordination aumber” "For close packed spheres. The maximum possible packing fraction for spheres is YBx/6. ‘The lattice parameters forthe reciprocal lattices of P, I, and F are 2x/a, 4x/a, and 4n/a respectively. a 4, §, and ® are unit vectors. Crystal systems* “The smbol “implies that equality Ts not requied by the symmetry, bul nether is f forbidde. "The cell axes are a,b, and c with a, B, and y the angles between bc, c:a, and a:b respectively. Te lattice types are primitive (P), body-ceatred (1), all fae-centred (F, side-centred (C), and rhombohedral primitive (R). A primitive hexagonal unt cell, witha triad j [001], is generally prefered over this rhombohedral unit cell ‘system symmetry ‘unit cell adds. trick . P riclinie none wap ar uOO? atbpes monoclinic one diad | [010] 57 90", BESO? BC orthorhombic three orthogonal diads PC.LF tetragonal _one tetrad | [001] BI a a=b=c; trigonal one triad | [111] “120° 490° BR a=bee; hexagonal one hexad | [001] 90°, y= 120° P cubic four triads || (111) a REI128 Dislocations and cracks Solid state physics Edge dislocation Screw dislocation Screw dislocation energy per 71-b=0 ‘unit vector | line of i ne ee peo U_ dislocation enerey per unit length, shear modulus inner cutoff for r critical erack length, surface energy per unit ‘outer cutoff for r | unit length? Critical erack length® ‘were the dislocation to travel throughout the crystal cracks > 1 will grow and smaller cracks will shrink Crystal diffraction |p. area x > Young modulus Zak - L ‘The Burgers vecior is @ Bravals lattice vector characterising the total relative FOr “tension” The energy per unit length of an edge dislocation is also ~ 1. For a crack cevity (long 1) within an isotropic medium. Under uniform stress pp, applied widening stress ip I abe lattice parameters a(cosay —cosa (626) | adi sages bere ace as Lave ects and input waverector (cos cos (621) i ania anges between lattice base cavations efeosii—60s) (628) tectors ad ouipt wavevotor nk) integers (Lave indies) [i wavelenath Bragg’s law? hin. G+|G?=0 (6.29) | kin input wavevector G—__recprocal atc vector a | it) omic form factor tomic form Aer yey a3 x G)= [ erp(p)d'r (6.30) |r position vector aa FO fa ) atomic electron density ice a SiG) strucrte factor structure 64 3 S()=STi(GeAS4— (631) | numberof atoms in bass a OP IKO position of jh atom within bass i | change in wavevecor (koa ks) Scattered WK) cc N*IS(K. (6.32) | 1(K) scattered intensity intensity Number of latce points ituminatea Ip intensity at emperature T Debye r1 1b intensity from ate Wi 20 Waller Ip=hoexp|—Z0IGF| 633) 2 r! (2) meansquared thermal factor SEsplaccment of toms Alternatively, se Equation (6.3). ‘The summation is over the atoms in the basis ie, the atomic motif repeatin The Bragg condition makes K’a reciprocal lattice vector, with [kn|= Kot, 4Bifect of thermal vibrations, 1g with the Bravais lattice, 6.4 Lattice dynamics 64 Lattice dynamics Phonon dispersion relations? Monatomic linear cain Diatomic 1 34 2, 78 Snocrthaint P= Sta[b——* snteg linear chain [-atgse'v] Identical hm 12 | ay aerating spring constants Haentes 3 +2macoska) spring alternating oto ees spring {0% %ota)/m itk=0 gy CHa (es n/m, n/m fkaxja ©) e (637) diatomic chain phonon angular frequency spring constant® atomic mass Phase speed (sinex= ‘group speed ‘Phonon wavelength wavenumber #/2) atomic separation atomic masses (ma >m) reduced mass [mma fn, +a)] ‘Along infinite Tinear atomic chains, considering Simple Barmonie nearest-neighbour interactions only. The shaded region of the dispersion relation is outside the first Brillouin zone of the reciprocal late. Tn the sense 2-=restoring force/ relative displacement. 6p) (6.46) +f | Potit’s law i] Debye T? a pee (r<é) 64D | Tre 2 | oo hoot , —_ FO ___- d= 3Nka T D(60/T) (648) Internal [ Spite eT I= thermal NS 3 py , energy’ where D(x sow (6.49) , @ Sy aay Simple bammonks oscillator im thermal equilibrium at emperature T. Neglecting zero-point energy. 64 Lattice dynamics Lattice forces (simple) 131 3°) tro-parile poteatal Van der Waals 3_ hoo energy interaction® 90-7 Gres) e (6.50) |, partice separation - % patie polaisaiity ! (6.51) | & (Pienck constant)/C2n) Lennard-Jones > _permitivity of free space i 6-12 potential (6.52) | o angular frequency of (molecular polarised orbital crystals) alec (6.53) | parameters =p 5 ‘Ade Bocr parameter area A= (6.54) |b Planck constant parameter anes? » i Uc lattice Coulomb enexay Coulomb Pan interaction a (655) | ™ Madsing conta (ionic crystals) Frere —e electronic charge ry nearest neighbour separation Lattice thermal expansion and conduction “London's formula for fluctuating dipole interactions, neglecting the propagation time between particles. Griineisen dino parameter* anv Linear 1_ op) _ Cv expansivity* 3Kr OT ly 3KrV | Thermal Comlocviy ot 11a | a phonon gas i“ ! Umklapp mean), «cexp(6/T) free path (6.56) (657) (6.58) (6.59) Griineisen parameter normal mode frequency V volume linear expansivity Kr isothermal bulk modulus pressure T temperature Cy lattice beat capacity, constant V 2 thermal conductivity effective sound speed 1 phonon mean free path 1, umblapp mean free path 2, _umklapp temperature (~ 85/2) “Siriclly, the Griineisen parameter is the mean of y over all normal modes, weighted by the mode's contribution to. cy %0r “coefficient of therm expansion,” ‘Mean free path determined solely by “umklapp processes” ~ the scattering of phonons outside the fist BrillouinSolid state physics 6.5 Electrons in solic . 132 physics ds | 65 Electrons in solids Fermi gas EB electon enerey (0) roperties Free electron transport properts San Electron density (6.69) | s(8) densi of sates fecal saber deny | | of states ¥ “ex lune Current density J=—neva (6.60 |", eine mamber dey (670) | m cease as va mean lesron dit velocity | Planck constant (2x) | +" collision Fermi ke Fermi wavenumber - 1 nean ime beeen clfnion (axation Ferm (em Mean electron (ory |° aes enummber numberof estos per unit drift velocity se. chevonie mess | me volme Fermi velocity op =ke/m, (6.72) | sp Femi wiociy [ae seat ca E applied electric etd conductivity a Ae. conductivity (J =oE) Fermi energy ‘kg Boltzmann constant ‘ac. electrical o(a)= 2 (663) | © Se anmlasequncy | (T=0) (6.73) | Be Fermi energy I-iet ‘o) as. conductivity = | cr tl erent enc, Yconant | iecipereraee (6.74) | TF Fermi temperature ye (6.64) | volume Vv 2 ed ‘Thermal > (G2) mean square electron spé Elect 5 c Electron heat 3 75) conductivity a T (pg Te) | be Bolemann constant ee BT (615) | 6 ea caacy er en me T temperature ton (6.65) | sr, Fermi temperature | (T) li-roral cae: Franz law A thm conductivity a | energy (T=0) (6:77) | Up total kinetic energy | Ry Hall coefficient w . Sfaawen 5/51 2”) ‘ur Pal magic wepby Hall coefficient’ Tapped curent density F>—f/ Pauli (6.78) | magnetic field strength |, immnese tin demiy C74 | paramagnetism frm) | owen Halwa Vig Heal voltage Vit (6.79) | permeability office space | (rectangular Va= Ru (6.68) | 1. applied current (-=J_x cross-sectional area) | =e #3 Bobr magneton ) | strip) WW _ strip thickoes in . (680) | mt Landen magnetic SFor an clectre Geld varying «8 comeemenny _ ee sscepeiility The density of states is often quoted per unit volume in Teal space (le, g(E)/V here). = btfolds for an arbitrary band structure The charge on an elevtron is ~e, when coefficient is therefore a negative number wi ce eis the elementary cbarge (approximately +1.6% 107°C). ‘The Hall a ey eee jben the dominant charge carriers are electrons. y Thermoelectricity iF F ciochemied Fel? Thermopower* & 3tsrvT (6.81) | J current density ‘Sr thermopower . Poller elec: © W=1V—19T (682) | 7 tnpontre | HY beat Se per unit area Kelvin relation =TSr (6.83) | TT Peiter cosfcient | A. thermal condacivity Or “absolute thermolectie power” — The electrochemical field is the gradient of (1/e)—d, where wis the aac ema (ule)—6, wbere 1 is the chemical potential, —e the electronic charge,

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