Defensive

Preparedness
Course
Trainee Manual
Tactical
1
Contents

Session 1: Tactical & Support: Militia Operations, Operational Security, Hand and
Arm Signals .................................................................................................................. 3
Florida Militia Operations .............................................................................................. 4
Operational Security ................................................................................................... 12
Session 2: Tactical: Communications and Procedure, Warning Orders, Operations
Orders, Infantry Movement, Fighting Positions ........................................................... 13
Session 3: Tactical: Patrolling Methods, Defensive Procedures, Troop Leading, and
Inspections ................................................................................................................. 14
Session 4: Tactical: React to Contact, Basic Medical (First Aid/Trauma Care and
troop movement) ........................................................................................................ 16
Session 5: Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Chemical Preparation, Reconnaissance
Operations, Search and Rescue................................................................................. 17
Care and Use of a Gas Mask ..................................................................................... 18
Light Search and Rescue ........................................................................................... 20
Session 6: Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Medical Operations ................................... 37
Disaster Medical Operations ...................................................................................... 38
Session 7: - Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Communications and Base Security........ 57
Excerpts from the Emergency Communications Plan ................................................. 58
Setting Up and Maintaining a Secure Command Base .............................................. 67
Session 8: - Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Food Distribution, Personal Protective
Gear, Vegetation Clearing .......................................................................................... 72
Disaster Food Distribution .......................................................................................... 73
Personal Protective Gear ........................................................................................... 75
Vegetation and Debris Removal ................................................................................. 78

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Session 1: Tactical & Support: Militia Operations, Operational Security, Hand
and Arm Signals
Reading Reference: Light Infantry Tactics for Small Groups Pages 1 35, Number Hand Signals
Supplement, Militia Operations Booklet, Operational Security Booklet
What to Bring: This Page, Textbook, Small Notebook for decoding messages (No larger than 3X5 so it
will fit in a uniform pocket), Lunch, at least one bottle of water, chair
Objectives:
1. Identify the various methods, tools, and rules regarding militia recruitment.
2. Identify the documents required to be vetted in the militia.
3. Explain the roles of personnel during militia activation.
4. Explain the steps of ICS command voting.
5. Demonstrate the ICS command voting system given a variety of scenarios.
6. List the additional support roles that may be required in any deployment environment.
7. Identify the areas of Operational Security.
8. Explain the reasons for intense Operational Security.
9. Trainee will demonstrate each of the 26 team hand and arm signals regarding movement and
command.
10. Trainee will demonstrate each of the numeric hand signals including hundreds and meters

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Florida Militia Operations

Overview
The purpose of this paper is to identify the procedures used within the Florida Militia. Various aspects of
the following items will be discussed.

Recruiting

Meetings and Training

Communications

Activation

Incident Command System (ICS)

Assistance Operations

Recruiting
All members are encouraged to recruit like-minded individuals into the Florida Militia. Since we are always
in need of both Infantry and Support Staff, almost everybody can help and join. Just as a reminder, all of
the following are NOT welcome to join the Florida Militia:

Dishonorably discharged from the Military

Anyone with a Felony or pending Felony

Anyone that cannot legally own or handle a firearm

Anyone that wishes to cause civil disorder

Anyone that is a racist

Anyone convicted of domestic violence

Anyone that has dual-citizenship

When recruiting individuals, the absolute best method to invite them personally to a Meet & Greet Meeting
and attend with them. Since we are not always able to do this or we know a person only by social media or
other non-personal means, the best method is to invite the person to join on the website www.flmilitia.org.
The website contains specific instructions on how to join and what the person should do next. All members
should familiarize themselves with the How to Join, Events, and Support Needs and Training pages on the
website. These pages include Step-by-Step instructions on How to Participate and also show the recruit
what events are available in their area.

There are two acceptable paths to having a recruit show up to an event. First, the preferred method is
listed below:

1. Sign-up/Join their region on the website.

2. Read the Welcome and Introduction Packet.

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 3. Join the appropriate Facebook and seen.is page.

4. Join the next Meet & Greet event in their area where they will also learn the vetting process

5. After meeting militia staff or members, and the person is considered a worthy and qualified recruit,
they can join regular training sessions provided they bring their vetting documents. No vetting, no
participation.

The second method assumes a Meet & Greet for the area is not available for an extended period of time.
This is also necessary as some of the training takes place at private residences or other property and the
person will not be allowed to enter the property without proper documentation as follows:

1. Sign-up/Join their region on the website.

2. Read the Welcome and Introduction Packet.

3. Join the appropriate Facebook and seen.is page.

4. Join the next training event in their area where they must provide vetting documents.

To accomplish this, a militia member must talk to the recruit to let them know this is a requirement and they
will not be permitted to participate without the proper documents.

Documentation
Vetting comes in a wide variety of methods but ensure the safety of current members, it is important to
complete the process as quickly as possible. As written in the Standards and Guidelines, the following are
proper vetting documents:

1. Concealed Weapons Permit (CWP)

2. Legible receipt of gun purchase from a Federal Firearms Licensed (FFL) retail establishment.
(Ensures the DOJ background check was completed.)

3. Valid Florida Drivers License

4. For ex-military personnel a DD-214 must be presented.

Either 1 or 2 is required, not both. Many people do not yet carry a CWP. Additional vetting as directed by
S2 Security/Intel Staff may be appropriate and will be processed on a case-by-case basis.

Meetings and Training

All of the following meetings are designed to have a regular contact with both members and the public.
Each Region or Platoon can develop their own schedule in many cases as long as they do not conflict with
Joint Region or Statewide events. These events are scheduled with the input of all leadership in all regions
specifically to avoid these conflicts.

Meet & Greet (M/G): Designed to bring the general public to an event to see that the militia is all
about and consider membership. These meetings should be held in each region no less than
once per month. M/G should never be scheduled on a holiday weekend; most people plan large
events or travel on three-day weekends and would be a serious detriment to participation.
Friday evenings are recommended except for high school football season.

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 Field Training Exercises (FTX): Any meeting scheduled for training as a group of militia
members.

Radio Net: Regularly scheduled radio communications exercises designed to ensure all
members can communicate when regular telephone or internet systems are not available.

Skype Conference: Regularly schedule Skype communications exercises designed to simply

get in touch with members from all over the state to discuss training, schedules, or other
pertinent issues.

Training Schedules
Several training events are available and should operate on a regular schedule as outlined below:

Defensive Preparedness Course (DPC): An 8-week basic training program that covers all the
initial training members should have in which they should become proficient. The sessions
should be scheduled weekly except for one, but no more than two off weekends. Each region
should conduct at least three full courses per year.

Advanced Training Modules are additional training prepared by militia staff and cover subjects
such as Land Navigation, Night Operations, and Riot/Crowd Control to name only a few. These
sessions should be scheduled to begin within a few weeks following a DPC and can be
conducted both before and after a statewide event.

Statewide FTX: This term identifies any FTX conducted by the Florida Militia only and includes
all the regions/companies in the state. These should be held in either three or four quarters of
the year so that all members can meet to discuss training, conduct joint exercises, and generally
get a feel for the progress of the unit as a whole.

Joint FTX: This term identifies any FTX conducted with any other group outside of the Florida
Militia. These should be conducted at least once per year to ensure good communication and
camaraderie continues among groups.

Personal Training: This term refers to any training members conduct outside of the militia.
Examples include First Aid/CPR Certification, HAM Radio Licensing, Appleseed Marksmanship
Program, National Rifle Association Firearms Certification, C.E.R.T., and a variety of others.
Ample breaks are provided between militia training schedules to accomplish these
certifications or events. The militia encourages all members to get as much training as possible.

Communications
All members should have, at a minimum, a mobile telephone and a handheld HAM radio. Other means of
communications that are prudent are:

HAM Radio Base Unit (Preferably capable of HF frequencies for long-distance

communications.)

CB Radio: Although the range of these radios can be diminished by terrain and other natural
objects, these radios provide communications to a substantial portion of the public, especially
truckers moving food and supplies during emergencies or disasters.

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 FRS/GMRS Radios: The modern walkie-talkie, these radios provide short-distance
communications within a patrol or neighborhood. They are not useful at long ranges unless both
parties are at the top of tall structures with absolutely no objects between the radios.

The Florida Militia Emergency Communications Plan outlines the basics of emergency communications
and is constantly being updated with pertinent information or new communications frequencies or methods.
Any discrepancies discovered in the manual should be reported to the region S3 Operations staff as soon
as possible.

Email, social media, and other internet-based communications forms should be used for sharing non-
secure information and meeting schedules only. Personal information about any militia member should
never be posted online at any time.

Radio or Call Tree

To ensure all members can get notified of any activation, event, or secure information, all members are
encouraged to participate in any radio or call net exercise. The goal is to have all members be able to
contact the net regardless of equipment, but this requires a large number of people be involved and able to
at least listen to activity. Practice is the key to the successful accomplishment of any mission and
communications is no exception. All members should attend regularly scheduled Radio Net events and be
sure to contact the Net Host if no contact was made.

Activation
Any member can activate any or all portions of the militia at any time. That ability comes with a large
amount of responsibility. For example, activating the entire states militia to rescue a treed cat is not a
prudent move. That would result in a great deal of resources being wasted and a severe lack of trust in
your future activation attempts. If the need to activate is required, here are the steps that follow activation:

1. Call your regions S3 Operations Staff person FIRST. Be prepared to give specific details of the
incident and the reason activation should be initiated.

2. S3 Operations Staff will contact S6 Signaling, S1 Personnel, and S2 Security/Intel to discuss

quickly and determine what area or areas will require activation and deployment.

3. S1 Personnel and S6 Signaling begin activating personnel in the proper areas by either radio or
call net.

4. Simultaneously, S3 Operations contacts all other S3 Operations personnel in all areas to

develop a Warning Order that includes where to assemble.

5. The Warning Order is issued to all pertinent personnel and areas.

6. S3 Operations continues to develop an Operations Order in conjunction with all available Staff and
members that have information. When available, S3 Operations takes the orders to the assembly
area and initiates the ICS.

7. The Incident Command System (ICS) provides all members the ability to vote for leadership based
on the locale and the mission in the Operations Order. (See ICS section below.)

8. Leadership deploys all personnel and takes command until the incident is resolved or mission is
completed as stated in the Operations Order.

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 9. Upon completion, the unit remains on standby until leadership ensures the mission is complete,
no other missions have arisen in the meantime, and that the incident is completely resolved. If not,
leadership instructs S3 Operations to develop additional Operations Orders as required to
complete the mission.

10. Upon completion and verification that all is secure, leadership deactivates the unit and all
command roles are removed.

Incident Command System (ICS)

The ICS is a system designed to allow all members of a group to vote for command leadership at the
beginning of an event or incident. It is designed to allow personnel that may have the most knowledge
and/or experience in a particular situation to be the personnel directing the mission and are most likely to
conduct the mission in a way that provides the quickest, safest, and most efficient resolution.

This method includes geographic or demographic considerations. A person from the East Coast may not
be familiar with local resources, terrain, or travel methods on the West Coast. In this case, it is more likely
that a West Coast member would be voted into the command structure. Heres how it works:

1. S3 Operations, in conjunction with all other Staff members, sends the Warning Order which
includes the assembly area location and recommendations for any command structure required to
properly support the mission.

2. All members that can participate immediately deploy to the Assembly Area.

3. Once the Operations Order arrives, all members in the Assembly Area are informed of the order
and nominate persons to each of the recommended command structure positions.

4. After nominations, all members vote for each of the positions. Position assignments are made by
majority vote.

5. When all positions have been filled by majority vote, the elected members take command and
execute the mission based on the Operations Order.

6. As stated in the Activation section above, when the mission is complete and verified, the top
commander declares the mission complete and all command structure is removed.

Types of Deployments
As seen through the entire course of materials, and as a reminder, any of the following might be realistic
deployment scenarios:

Hostile/Hostage

Property Protection

FLM Personnel Protection

Security

First Aid

Vegetation Removal

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 Mass Casualty

Victim Recovery

Food Distribution

The first three of these can be conducted entirely within the militia but along with all others, can require
frequent communication and coordination with public and private agencies, personnel, and systems. The
ICS elected commander for the event or incident will require a great deal of support to work with these
outside organizations. To accomplish this, many S-Shops Staff members and other volunteers will be
needed.

Assistance, Support, and S-Shops

S-Shops
Although this section is covered mostly in the Welcome and Introduction Packet, it is repeated here for
reference and clarification.

S Shops are the Support departments. Even though a person may be in the Infantry division, it is likely they
will be a member of at least one S Shop and contribute to others. Extended descriptions of these can help
you determine where you might want to participate when qualified.

S1 - Administration
S-1 staff section or equivalent is the principal staff section responsible for the delivery of HR support to the
unit, processes awards, solves problems, places new troops for assignment in local Squads, and stays in
regular contact with members. HR support is a key sub-element of the personnel services portion of the
Sustainment Militia Function. S-1 personnel must be technically competent and knowledgeable and at a
minimum each S-1 team member needs to have an understanding of the following:

Individual and unit readiness is the driver for all Company support.

The role of the S-1 and how the S-1 contributes to the mission of the unit.

FLM doctrine, Company core competencies, and the key functions and supporting tasks
required to execute each core competency.

Company readiness and S-1 functions during each cycle (reset, train/ready/ and available).

S2 Intelligence/Security
The S2 handles all matters concerning militia intelligence counterintelligence, security operations, and
military intelligence training. Collects data on enemy movement, strengths, and deployments, and makes
recommendations for command. The S-2 office also handles security clearances and verifies who has a
Concealed weapons permit and or a 1 time background check for trainings that involve firearms. Once
those security measures are verified, they notify the S1 so that proper records can be kept. They also
maintain the battalion/brigade's Signal Operating Instructions and radio codes, and usually maintain the
battalion's map collection. S2s also have a duty to disseminate intelligence to the relevant decision makers
of the unit. After intelligence is collected, soldiers on the Company staff analyze it and generate reports.
One of the most important documents that the S2 staff generates is the Intelligence Preparation of the
Battlefield (IPB) report. The IPB report provides an ongoing assessment of the location and capabilities of
enemy forces, the disposition of friendly forces and potential areas of security weaknesses. This report is
submitted regularly to the commanding officer, executive officer and S3 (operations) officer.

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S3 - Operations
S-3 has staff responsibility for planning the operations and organization meetings and trainings by working
with the other S shop staff. They are responsible for what happens in a training day or weekend. Planning
the local trainings, field training exercises, and training schedules. They will work on individual plans on
how to incorporate what the State Coordinators/Headquarters has submitted for the training days. The S3
writes operational directives and plans and writes tactical orders. S3 officers have a tremendous influence
on the effectiveness of battalions and brigades. Therefore, they must have excellent communications skills
because they determine how the unit will respond to given conditions. Everyone from the commanding
officer to the lowest private must understand the S3's plans. Also, S3s must have strong interpersonal skills
since they will have to work with all the other staff officers in developing those plans.

S-4 Supply (or Logistics)

As implied by the name, Supply is the clearing house for all militia materials including food and water. They
handle requests for new supplies and replacement equipment, keep unit property books, and plan logistical
movement of equipment and camp setup. The S4 is the principal staff officer for coordinating the logistics
integration of supply, maintenance, transportation, and services for the command. The S4 is the link
between the support unit and his commander plus the rest of the staff. The S4 assists the support unit
commander in maintaining logistics visibility with the commander and the rest of the staff. The S4 must also
maintain close and continuous coordination with the S3. This person also plans group transportation to and
from trainings etc.

S5 Special Plans
The S-5 special projects officer plans and coordinates special projects as outlined by the State
Coordinators, S3 staff or local commander. S5 maintains records on all activities and coordination as they
pertain to each project. Additionally, S5 keeps the State Coordinators or local commander informed as to
the progress of, or any problems encountered with, the projects.

S6 Signal
The S-6 S staff works on the public face of the Florida Militia in all areas whether in meetings or trainings
etc. The S6 overviews all public meeting notes and training outlines to ensure the proper professionalism is
maintained as well as the integrity and focus of those meetings and trainings. The S6 State Coordinators
department handles all media requests and gives final approval to all public communications such as but
not limited to TV, Youtube, and Radio etc. The signal officer directs all communications and is the point of
contact for the issue of communications instructions and protocol during operations as well as for
communications troubleshooting, issue, and preventative maintenance. The S6 will also coordinate within
all units to make sure radio networks are up and online, encourage Ham licensing, company to company
communications and company to local unit communications.

S7 Liaison
The S-7 is our corporate and political liaison. S7 will be the main liaison with all local individuals outside of
the Florida Militia such as but not limited to the Sheriff, Police, local politicians and businessmen etc. As the
organization grows other areas of liaison work can be added however at this time the focus should be on
local farmers and ranchers (they will be our best allies and support) and small business owners as they will
be most receptive to our message. The S7 staff person should draw up an outline of what they want to say
and the order of such. They should then let some of the other S shop personnel view it and help in any
areas that need professionalism. This individual must present a very professional image and conversation
because they will be meeting with important individuals. This person will acquire logistical and political
support from the local community. Local support is the only way a Militia will be able to operate and sustain

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itself, without this help we cannot operate. Since the S-7 is a public liaison, they must be professional in
appearance and conversation.

S8 Finance and Contracts

The S-8 works on securing donations and funds to help equip more Militiamen and Units. This person also
will not attempt to form a 501c3 or any other type corporation for this cause. Fund raisers, raffles Bitcoin,
etc. are all ways to secure additional money for the cause of Liberty.

S9 Medical
The S-9 Medical staff will work on securing the medical supplies that can help sustain the local team in
their area. They work with members and the community to set up home triages and emergency
transportation. They will direct training plans for all individual units and work with the S3 to ensure success
in training and coordination with all local units. They will plan and direct reality based training for the local
units. S9 will also plan training for training weekends which include station rotation of which medical will be
one station that all personnel rotate through.

Additional Support
Command personnel are not always limited to the operations at the Command Base. In many scenarios,
the command personnel need to be on-site to directly assess the progress or problems that may exist at
the event. To function efficiently, any or all of the following positions may be required and may be filled by
either S-Shops Staff or volunteers when available or necessary:

Assistant to the Commander: Any person who can take notes, phone calls, or radio
communications on behalf of the Commander during an event. This may be an S7 Liaison
Staff member or any volunteer qualified to fill the position.

Radioman: A person specifically designated to operate the radio on behalf on any portion of the
command structure outside the Command Base. This allows the command personnel to
continue conversations with other personnel on-site while pertinent communications with the
command base are being conducted.

Command Base Support: Any person capable of taking notes, delivering notes, supplies, or
other materials both inside and outside the Command Base using proper security protocols.

On-site Volunteers: Any person capable of doing almost any task asked of them from members
or command personnel to assist in resolution. Volunteers should be selected carefully based on
capability and their ability to participate and follow instructions.

Couriers: Any person capable of delivering any item among sites, personnel, command base, or
any other place designated by command personnel. Couriers can be critical to mission success
so careful selection requires knowledge of the person, the transport vehicles available, and the
level of commitment to the unit and mission.

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Operational Security
What is OpSec anyway? There are hundreds of legitimate answers, but for our purposes, all of the
following are considered items of OpSec and should not be discussed or transmitted to any person or
group outside of our own to ensure the security and well-being of all members:
Locations of any training or operation with very few exceptions to be approved by S3 Operations or
State Coordinators
Pictures, documents, names, or addresses of any persons or property associated with or owned by
the group without express written consent of the persons involved and the S6 Staff.
Past or future training or operation details including dates, locations, persons involved, equipment
used, or supplies available. (Content of the training or operation may be shared.)
Frequencies used for any training or operation communications
Details of methods, procedures, participation numbers (strength of unit,) or any other specific
information regarding training, operations, personnel, or the organization as a whole. General
information used to recruit and inform the public is acceptable.
The real test of OpSec is to ask yourself I wonder if I should really say or share this? If you ask the
question, the answer is No. Better safe than sorry!

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Session 2: Tactical: Communications and Procedure, Warning Orders,
Operations Orders, Infantry Movement, Fighting Positions
Reading Reference: Light Infantry Tactics for Small Groups Pages 36-47, 67-75, and 88-101
What to Bring: This Page, Textbook, Small Notebook for recording recon data (No larger than 3X5 so it
will fit in a uniform pocket), at least one bottle of water, a chair
Objectives:
1. Trainee will identify three primary field communications methods and the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
2. Trainee will demonstrate knowledge of the internationally recognized phonetic alphabet by
phonetically spelling each of three random words.
3. Trainee will demonstrate use of a CEO&I by properly calling and communicating via radio with the
proper portion of the CEO&I chain of command.
4. Trainee will demonstrate the use of a CEO&I by properly decoding an encrypted message over
radio.
5. Trainee will demonstrate the use of a CEO&I by providing proper Authentication via radio.
6. Trainee will demonstrate the use of a CEO&I by returning to base via use of proper password
challenge and response procedures.
7. Trainee will explain the components of the Warning Order and Operations Order.
8. Trainee will explain the purpose and procedure for conducting an AAR.
9. Trainee will demonstrate each of the 4 fastest Infantry Movement methods and practices and where
appropriate, act as both lead and buddy.
10. Trainee will demonstrate and/or explain each of the three primary Fighting Positions.

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Session 3: Tactical: Patrolling Methods, Defensive Procedures, Troop
Leading, and Inspections
Reading Reference: Light Infantry Tactics for Small Groups Pages 78 87, 104 128, 138 - 171
What to Bring: This Page, Textbooks, Small Notebook (No larger than 3X5 so it will fit in a uniform
pocket), Lunch, at least one bottle of water, a chair, IFAK (Individual First Aid Kit), All tactical gear you
already have.
Objectives:
1. Trainee will identify and explain briefly, each of the nine steps to leading a Troop Movement.
2. Trainee will demonstrate the pertinent steps of preparing for a movement acting as Patrol Leader
and Team Member.
3. Trainee will identify all items and/or equipment that should be checked during a pre-movement
inspection.
4. Trainee will demonstrate a pre-movement inspection acting as both Patrol Leader and Team
Member.
5. Trainee will demonstrate the Staggered Column method of travelling movement.
6. Trainee will explain the Over Watch method of travelling movement.
7. Trainee will explain the Bounding Over Watch method of travelling movement.
8. Trainee will demonstrate the Security/Listening Halt Defensive Position acting in each role of Patrol
Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
9. Trainee will demonstrate the Wagon Wheel Objective Rally Point Defensive Position acting in each
role of Patrol Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
10. Trainee will demonstrate the Triangle Objective Rally Point Defensive Position acting in each role of
Patrol Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
11. Trainee will demonstrate the Back to Back Hide Position acting in each role of Patrol Leader, Team
Member, and Drag Man.
12. Trainee will demonstrate the Star Method Hide Position acting in each role of Patrol Leader, Team
Member, and Drag Man.
13. Trainee will demonstrate the activity required to develop the Forward Friendly Line acting in each
role of Patrol Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
14. Trainee will conduct an After Action Review (AAR) acting as both Patrol Leader and Team Member.

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FFL, FFU, FEBA Relationship

AO (Area of Operation)

FEBA Forward Edge of Battle Area The line defined as the most forward point away
from Command Base where operations are conducted whether hostile or other.

FFU Forward Friendly Unit The most forward unit

meaning Company, Platoon, or even Squad. This unit may
be behind or forward of the FFL depending on the mission
or deployment.
FFU Guide A person at the FFL designated to be POC
(Point of Contact) for teams travelling to, from, or beyond
FFL.

FFL Forward Friendly Line A defined line where the entire area between the line and
Command Base is considered friendly and secure.

Command Base

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Session 4: Tactical: React to Contact, Basic Medical (First Aid/Trauma Care
and troop movement)
Reading Reference: Light Infantry Tactics Pages 129-136, SAS Survival Guide Pages 394-438 (Pages
differ in various editions. Please read First Aid through Moving the Injured.)
What to Bring: This Page, Textbooks, Small Notebook (No larger than 3X5 so it will fit in a uniform
pocket), Lunch, at least one bottle of water, a chair, IFAK (Individual First Aid Kit), All tactical gear you have
already
Objectives:
1. Trainee will demonstrate the proper React to Contact/Break Contact techniques acting in each role
of Patrol Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
2. Trainee will demonstrate the appropriate actions to take before administering First Aid.
3. Trainee will demonstrate the basic procedures for Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR).
4. Trainee will demonstrate the appropriate methods to stop bleeding for arterial, venous, and capillary
bleeding.
5. Trainee will demonstrate the appropriate method to immobilize a victim suspected of having one or
more fractures.
6. Trainee will demonstrate the appropriate method to bandage several types of wounds.
7. Trainee will demonstrate the appropriate method to move an injured person.

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Session 5: Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Chemical Preparation,
Reconnaissance Operations, Search and Rescue
Prerequisite: None.
Reading Reference: Gas Mask Excerpt, Light Infantry Tactics, Pages 174-182, Light Search and Rescue,
SAS Survival Handbook, Page 506-527 (3rd Edition. For other editions, read the entire Rescue chapter)
Objectives:
1. Trainee will demonstrate the proper procedures for the care, transport, and donning of an individual
chemical gas mask.
2. Trainee will demonstrate Area Recon using the Single Team method acting in each role of Patrol
Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
3. Trainee will demonstrate Area Recon using the Double Team method acting in each role of Patrol
Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
4. Trainee will demonstrate Zone Recon using the Butterfly method acting in each role of Patrol
Leader, Team Member, and Drag Man.
5. Trainee will identify the goals of search and rescue operations.
6. Trainee will explain the sizeup process for planning search and rescue operations.
7. Trainee will demonstrate the assessment of property damage levels.
8. Trainee will explain the resources required to initiate search and rescue operations given a
scenario.
9. Trainee will demonstrate the most common techniques for searching in both interior and exterior
scenarios.
10. Trainee will list the precautions to minimize risk to protect rescuers during search and rescue
operations.
11. Trainee will demonstrate the single- and multi-person victim extraction methods.
12. Trainee will identify the search pattern best suited to a variety of search and rescue operations.
13. Trainee will demonstrate safe techniques for debris removal including leveraging and cribbing.

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Care and Use of a Gas Mask
Proper care and procedures for the use of a gas mask are critical to the masks function. If the mask is
damaged in any way or is not donned properly, the wearer will not be protected from the gas or other
airborne toxin. This brief paper identifies only the basic care and procedures and should never take
precedence over the manufacturers recommendations and instructions.

Care and Storage

When the user first purchases a mask, the user should remove it from protective shipping materials and
thoroughly clean the mask as directed by the manufacturer. Almost all masks are shipped with a small
amount of powder that is used in the manufacturing process. This dust will inhibit the masks ability to
make a good seal against the skin and should therefore be washed off.
After thorough cleaning and air drying, the mask should be stored in a protective case that can be worn, yet
easily accessed, on the belt in the back. This position is usually directly under the back pack / ruck sack.
When the mask is stored in this case, it should be done in a manner that ensures the rubber seal that
touches the skin does not have any extremely sharp turns as this can cause cracks in the rubber. Also
ensure the lenses will not touch any item in or around the bag that can cause damage.
Unless there is a specific compartment for them, only one mask filter cartridge should be placed in the
storage bag with the mask itself. Under no circumstances should the mask be stored with the cartridge
installed unless the cartridge is specifically designed to have a quick-release mechanism. Additional
cartridges should be stored in a separate compartment or bag and remain in any airtight packaging they
may have been shipped in. The additional cartridges should also be carried in a position where they cannot
be damaged or create a snag. To store a mask for long-term, non-deployment conditions, first remove the
mask from the storage bag, then cover the mask with a plastic bag and hang the mask and bag in a vertical
manner as if it were donned on the face. This will keep the mask from developing creases or a memory of
any incorrect shape.
Once per month, the user should remove the mask and ensure it is in good condition and free from dust or
other contaminates. Additional cleaning is not always necessary but will not damage the mask if rinsed
properly.

Donning the Mask

If a situation occurs where one suspects a mask may be necessary in the near future, one should prepare
their head for donning. That is, all of the following preparations should be made:
Shave beards to the point where the mask will touch only skin. The mask cannot provide a proper
seal on anything but the skin.
Cut or alter hair so that it does not interfere with the mask holding straps. A pony tail or other hair
coil will eventually compress and will not allow the mask to maintain a tight seal. One should run a
pony tail or other hair coil to the side or other direction so that it is not in the way of the user or the
mask.
Trim bangs or other facial hair so that it can be easily kept out of the seal of the mask.
To actually don the mask, follow the manufacturers instructions, but in general, the list of procedures
below applies.
1. Stop to follow the procedures before entering a suspect contaminated area.
2. Remove the mask from the storage bag.

18
 3. Remove the cartridge from the storage bag.
4. Remove any seal or protective cover from the cartridge.
5. Install the cartridge on the mask.
6. Pull the straps to the top of the mask.
7. Place the mask against the face where it fits properly and comfortably.
8. Pull the straps over the top of the head.
9. While continuing to hold the mask in place with one hand, use the other hand to tighten on strap at
a time. It is recommended the center strap is tightened first.
10. Once all straps are equally tight, place the palm of one hand over the intake of the filter cartridge
and breathe in. The mask should attempt to suck down on the face. If it does not, there is a leak in
the mask or its seal.
11. Ensure all leaks are removed and the mask is operating properly before entering a suspect
contaminated area.
To change the filter cartridge, do not remove the mask, but follow the list of procedures below.
1. If at all possible, leave the contaminated area before changing filter cartridges.
2. Obtain the replacement cartridge.
3. Take a deep breath.
4. Quickly remove the first cartridge and begin to slowly exhale. This keeps a constant exhaust leaving
the mask and prevents any contamination of the mask.
5. Quickly remove the protective coating/seal from the replacement cartridge and install on the mask
while continuing to exhale.
6. Once the cartridge is completely installed, completely exhale before returning to normal breathing.
After the need for the mask has passed, it is critical the mask be thoroughly cleaned and sanitized
before using it again. Follow the manufacturers recommendations.

19
Light Search and Rescue

Overview
Search and rescue consists of three separate operations:
Sizeup involves assessing the situation and determining a safe action plan (using the 7-step sizeup
model).
Search involves locating victims and documenting their location.
Rescue involves the procedures and methods required to extract the victims.
Previous disasters have shown that the first response to trapped victims immediately after almost every
disaster is by spontaneous, untrained, and well-intentioned persons who rush to the site of a collapse in an
attempt to free the victims. More often than not, these spontaneous rescue efforts result in serious injuries
and compounded problems. Rescue efforts should be planned and practiced in advance. People, including
rescuers, have died when the rescuers werent prepared and trained.

Deciding To Attempt Rescue

The decision to attempt a rescue should be based on three factors:
The risks involved to the rescuer
The overall goal of doing the greatest good for the greatest number of people
Resources and manpower available

Goals of Search and Rescue

The goals of search and rescue operations are to:
Rescue the greatest number of people in the shortest amount of time
Get the walking wounded and ambulatory victims out first
Rescue lightly trapped victims next
Keep the rescuer safe

Effective Search and Rescue

Effective search and rescue operations hinge on:
Effective sizeup
Rescuer safety
Victim safety

20
Safety During Search and Rescue Operations

Search and Rescue Sizeup

Like every other operation, search and rescue requires sizeup at the beginning of the operation and
continually
as long as the operation continues.
Sizeup Steps:
1. Gather facts
2. Assess damage
3. Assess your situation
4. Establish priorities
5. Develop a plan
6. Take action
7. Evaluate progress

Step 1: Gather Facts

The facts of the situation must guide your search and rescue efforts. When gathering facts, personnel need
to
consider:
The time of the event and day of the week. At night, more people will be in their homes, so the
greatest need for search and rescue will be in residential settings. Conversely, during the day,
people will be at work, so the need will be in commercial buildings. Search and rescue operations
may also be affected by where people are located in their homes and the amount of daylight
available.
Construction type and terrain. Some types of construction are more susceptible to damage than
others. The type of terrain will affect how the search is conducted.
Occupancy. The purpose for which the structure was designed may indicate the likely number of
victims and their location.
Weather. Severe weather will have an effect on victims and rescuers alike and will certainly hamper
rescue efforts. Forecasts of severe weather should be considered as a limiting factor on the time
period during which search and rescue can occur.
Hazards. Knowledge of other potential hazards in the general and immediate areas is important to
search and rescue efforts. For example, if a gas leak is suspected, taking the time to locate and
shut off the gas can have a big impact in terms of loss of life.

Step 2: Assess and Communicate Damage

There are general guidelines for assessing damage in interior searches and exterior searches. When in
doubt about the condition of a building, personnel should always use the more cautious assessment. If
unsure about whether a building is moderately or heavily damaged, personnel should assume heavy

21
damage. The mission changes depending on the amount of structural damage. The mission for interior
searches changes depending on the situation:
If damage is light, (superficial or cosmetic damage, superficial cracks or breaks in the wall surface,
minor damage to the interior contents) the mission is to locate; triage; treat airway, major bleeding,
and shock; continue sizeup; and document.
If damage is moderate, (visible signs of damage, decorative work damaged or fallen, many visible
cracks in the wall surface, major damage to interior content, building is on its foundation) the
mission is to locate; treat airway, major bleeding, and shock; evacuate; warn others; continue
sizeup while minimizing the number of rescuers and time spent inside the structure.
If damage is heavy, (partial or total collapse, tilting, obvious structural instability, building off its
foundation, heavy smoke or fire, hazardous materials inside, gas leaks, rising or moving water) the
mission is to secure the building perimeter and warn others of the danger in entering the building.
Personnel are not to enter a building with heavy damage under any circumstances.

Light Damage
Superficial damage
Broken windows
Superficial cracks or breaks in the wall surface, for example, fallen or cracked plaster
Minor damage to the interior contents

Moderate Damage
Visible signs of damage
Decorative work damaged or fallen
Many visible cracks or breaks in the wall surface
Major damage to interior contents
Building still on foundation

Heavy Damage
Partial or total collapse
Tilting
Obvious structural instability
Building off foundation

Assessing Damage
Assessing the damage of a building or structure will require an examination from all sides. Be sure to do an
initial "lap around." In assessing damage, personnel must consider probable levels of damage based on
the type and age of construction. In addition to a visual assessment, rescuers should also listen to
damaged structures. If a building is creaking or groaning, it is unstable and should not be entered.

22
Communicating Damage
You can describe different locations within and around the structure by using the ABCD standard, with A
corresponding to the front of the building and B, C, and D representing the sides of the building moving
clockwise from A.
Using this system, the area inside of a structure can be further broken down by quadrants to facilitate
communication. For instance, a hazard or victim located closest to the A and B sides of the structure is in
the A/B quadrant. You must communicate your findings to the command post or responding agencies.

Step 3: Assess Your Situation

Before you can completely assess any situation, you may need to consider some probabilities. Because
you will be working in such close proximity to the dangerous situation, considering what will probably
happen and what could happen are of critical importance. Be sure to identify potentially life-threatening
hazards and ask:
How stable is the situation? Even within a structure that appears from the outside to have only
minimal or moderate damage, nonstructural damage or instability inside the structure can pose real
danger to the rescue team. Personnel should think about what they already know about the
structure thats been damaged. Are lawn chemicals, paints, or other potentially hazardous materials
stored within the structure? How are they stored? Where are they? It wont take personnel much
time to answer these types of questions, but the answers could make a huge difference in how they
approach the search.
What else could go wrong? Based on the information gathered during Steps 1 and 2 of the sizeup,
personnel should take a few moments to play What if? to try to identify additional risks that they
may face. What if the electricity fails during the search? What if a wall that appears stable shifts and
collapses? Applying Murphys Law to the situation could save lives.
What does it all mean for the search and rescue? Based on the probabilities, personnel should think
about what they can do to reduce the risks associated with the probabilities that they have
identified. Is a spotter necessary to look for movement that could indicate a possible collapse and
warn the rescue team? Is some remedial action required to stabilize nonstructural hazards before
beginning the search? Search and rescue teams must remember that their own safety is the first
priority.
Remember that sizeup is a building process, with each step building upon the previous steps until the
decision is made to begin the search and rescue operation (or that the situation is unsafe). You need to
draw on everything youve learned from Steps 1 through 3 to assess your situation to determine:
Whether the situation is safe enough to continue
The risks that rescuers will face if they continue
What resources will be needed to conduct the operation safely and what resources are available

Rescue Resources
Assessing resources, including personnel, tools, and equipment, is extremely important to search and
rescue operations. Search and rescue resources include:

23
 Personnel
o How many personnel are available for this operation?
o In addition, who lives and/or works in the area?
o When are they likely to be available?
o Do they have skills that might be useful in search and rescue operations?
o How can their efforts be mobilized?
Equipment
o What equipment is available that might be useful for search and rescue?
o Where is it located?
o How can it be accessed?
o On which structures (or types of structures) might it be most effective?
Tools
o What tools are available that might be useful for lifting, moving, or cutting debris?

Step 4: Establish Priorities

After evaluating the situation and keeping in mind that the safety of personnel is always the top priority, the
next step is to determine:
What should be done?
In what order?
Remember your goal: to rescue the greatest number in the shortest amount of time. The safety of
personnel is always the first priority and will dictate some of the other priorities. For example, removing or
mitigating known hazards must be completed before teams begin to search. Think through the situation
logically to determine how you should approach the operation.

Making Decisions
At this point in the sizeup you will make decisions about where to deploy your resources to do the most
good while maintaining an adequate margin of safety. Many of your decisions will be based on the priorities
established during Step 4. Those priorities are based on:
The safety of personnel
Life safety for victims and others
Protection of the environment
Protection of property

Step 5: Develop a Plan

Step 5 is where all of the information you have about the situation comes together. During Step 5, the
Incident Commander/Team Leader (IC/TL) will decide specifically how the team will conduct its operation,
considering the highest priority tasks first.

24
An action plan does not need to be written, but when search and rescue operations are required, the
situation is probably complex enough that a written plan of some type will be important. A plan should:
Help focus the operation on established priorities and decisions
Provide for documentation to be given to responding agencies when they arrive on scene
Provide for documentation that will become part of the record of the overall operation
Keep notes as you develop your action plan. Any changes made to the initial plan based on new
information that comes in should also be documented.

Step 6: Take Action

This step involves putting the plan developed in Step 5 into action.

Step 7: Evaluate Progress

This is the most critical step, not only in terms of evaluating whether the plan works, but also from a safety
standpoint. Remember that sizeup is ongoing and that information gained during Step 7 needs to be fed
back into the decision-making process for possible revision of priorities and updated action planning.

Specific Safety Considerations

Regardless of the severity of structural damage, rescuer safety must be the primary concern. The two most
frequent causes of rescuer deaths are:
Disorientation
Secondary collapse
Follow these guidelines during all search and rescue operations:
Use a buddy system. Successful search and rescue depends on teamwork.
Be alert for hazards (e.g., power lines, natural gas leaks, hazardous materials, sharp objects, etc.).
You should never attempt to search an area where water is rising.
Use safety equipment. Wearing gloves and a helmet will protect a rescuer's hands and head. Also,
the primary cause of rescuer problems after working in a structural collapse is breathing dust, so a
dust mask is essential. However, a dust mask will not filter out all harmful materials. If the presence
of chemical or biological agents is suspected, personnel without chemical masks must evacuate to
an upwind location and notify professional responders.
Have backup teams available to allow rotating of teams, prevent fatigue, and ensure help if a team
gets into trouble. Have teams drink fluids and eat to keep themselves fresh.

Conducting Interior and Exterior Search Operations

When the decision is made to initiate search operations, personnel will inspect the area assigned by the
Incident Commander/Team Leader (IC/TL). The search operation involves two processes:
1. Employing search techniques based on the sizeup
2. Locating any victims
By using these processes, search operations will be more efficient, thorough, and safe. They will also
facilitate later rescue operations. Although the processes are related, this section addresses them one at a

25
time. Interior search operations are the most common and will be discussed first; exterior search
operations will be discussed later in this section.

Locating Potential Victims in a Structure

The first step in locating potential victims in a structure is to conduct a sizeup of the interior of the building
to gather more precise information about damage and to develop priorities and plans. The data gathered
will provide more information about possible areas of entrapment or voids.

Structural Voids
There are three types of voids:
Pancake void
Lean-to void
V void
If personnel see collapsed floors or walls, they should leave the premises immediately.

Individual Voids
Individual voids are spaces into which the victim may have crawled for protection. Examples of individual
voids include bathtubs and the space underneath desks. Children may seek shelter in smaller places like
cabinets. After identifying the possible areas of entrapment, personnel must:
Determine the potential number of victims
Identify the most probable areas of entrapment
Some information may be known through assessment, but personnel may need to get some information by
talking to bystanders or those who are familiar with the structure. Personnel should ask questions when
talking with these individuals, including:
How many people live (or work) in the building?
Where would they be at this time?
What is the building layout?
What have you seen or heard?
Has anyone come out?
What are the normal exit routes from the building?
Be aware that bystanders may be confused by the event. They may tend to exaggerate potential numbers
or may not even remember the event accurately. Gather as much information as you can, though, because
it will be useful for planning search priorities and implementing the search.

Search Methodology
An effective search methodology:
Indicates rescuer location
Locates victims as quickly and safely as possible

26
 Prevents duplication of effort

Search Markings
Experienced search and rescue personnel use the following system. This will save fellow personnel and
other responders time during the search and continual sizeup of the structure.
1. Upon entering a search area, you will make a mark next to the door to indicate that you are
entering. Do not make the mark on the door or on the wall where the door swings. Make a single
slash and write the agency or group ID at the 9 oclock position. Then write the date and time in
at the 12 oclock position.
2. Upon exiting the search area, make another slash to form an X (the agency or group ID will be in
the left quadrant). Enter the search time out In the top quadrant.
Right quadrant: Enter the areas of the structure searched and any specific information about
hazards.
Lower quadrant: Enter information about the victims found in the search area. L represents
living victims, while D represents dead victims. The search marking on the front of a structure
or building should contain the total number of victims, whereas search markings inside the
structure or building will include victim totals for specific search areas. Also indicate where
victims have been taken.

Search Procedure
1. Upon entering each space or room, call out to victims. Shout something like, "If anyone can hear
my voice, come here." If any victims come to you, ask them for any information that they may have
about the building or others who may be trapped, then give them further directions such as, "Stay
here" or "Wait outside" (depending on the condition of the building). Remember that even those
who are able to get to you may be in shock and confused. When giving directions to victims,
personnel should look directly at the victims, speak in short sentences, and keep their directions
simple.
2. Use a systematic search pattern. Ensure that all areas of the building are covered. Examples of
systematic search patterns to use include:
Bottom-up/top-down
Right wall/left wall
Keep in mind that every interior space has six sides including the floor and ceiling. Rescuers must check
all six sides especially to locate hazards such as fixtures that may be hanging from the ceiling.
3. Stop frequently to listen. Listen for tapping, movement, or voices.
4. Triangulate. Triangulation can be used when a potential victims location is obscured. If access
permits, three rescuers, guided by victim sounds, form a triangle around the area and direct
flashlights into the area. The light shining from different directions will eliminate shadows that could
otherwise hide victims. Triangulation should not be used as an initial search method.
5. Report results. Keep complete records both of removed victims and of victims who remain trapped
or are dead. Report this information to emergency services personnel when they reach the scene.

27
Exterior Search
In addition to searching inside a structure, personnel might also be required to search open areas outside
of buildings. Conducting an effective search in open areas requires that searchers work methodically and
follow standard procedures established by those in charge of the search operation. This is true in all cases,
and especially if the area to be searched is a crime scene where all potential evidence must be protected.
When searchers are needed, they assemble in a central staging area and sign in. Authorities will brief the
searchers on what they will be looking for, what areas they are responsible for searching, the pattern of the
search, and what they should do if they discover the missing person, evidence, or related information.
Exterior search patterns include grid, line, quadrant or zone, and spiral. A grid pattern is typically used in
large open areas or small areas when a hands-and-knees search is conducted. To conduct a grid search:
The area to be searched is viewed as a grid, with searchers initially positioned at one side of the
grid.
The distance between the searchers should be set according to visibility and debris. In all cases,
searchers must remain within line of sight and voice contact with searchers on either side of them.
It is also critical that the area to be covered by each searcher overlaps that of the searchers on
either side of them.
The searchers proceed, maintaining as straight a line as possible across the entire search area. As
each searcher moves across the area, they conduct a thorough search for victims within their
designated row of the grid.
To ensure full coverage, personnel must record each area that has been searched. A grid search
might be particularly useful following a tornado or hurricane.

Conducting Rescue Operations

Rescues involve three primary functions:
Moving objects and debris to free victims and to create a safe rescue environment
Triaging victims by checking for the three killers, airway obstruction, major bleeding, and shock
Removing victims as safely and as quickly as possible

Creating A Safe Environment

There are three safety considerations for all rescue operations:
To maintain rescuer safety
To triage in lightly and moderately damaged buildings
To evacuate victims as quickly as possible from moderately damaged buildings while minimizing
additional injury
None of these can be achieved without creating as safe an environment as possible before attempting
rescue. There are, therefore, certain precautions that rescuers must take to minimize risk.

Precautions to Minimize Risk

There are certain precautions that rescuers must take to minimize risk and increase their chances of
achieving their rescue goals.
28
 Know your limitations. Many volunteers have been injured or killed during rescue operations
because they did not pay attention to their own physical and mental limitations. Rescuers should
take the time to eat, drink fluids, rest, and relax so that they can return with a clear mind and
improved energy.
Follow safety procedures. Personnel should always use the proper safety equipment required for
the situation and follow established procedures, including:
o Work in pairs.
o Triage and treat only in lightly damaged buildings.
o In moderately damaged buildings, triage only and remove victims as quickly as possible.
o Never enter an unstable structure.
o Lift by bending the knees, keeping the back straight, and pushing up with the legs.
o Carry the load close to the body.
o Lift and carry no more than is reasonable.
o Remove debris as needed to minimize risk to rescuers and to free entrapped victims.

Leveraging and Cribbing

You may encounter situations in which debris needs to be moved to free victims. In these situations,
rescuers should consider leveraging and cribbing to move and stabilize the debris until the rescue is
complete.
Leveraging is accomplished by wedging a lever under the object that needs to be moved, with a
stationary object underneath it to act as a fulcrum. When the lever is forced down over the fulcrum,
the far end of the lever will lift the object.
A crib is a wooden framework used for support or strengthening. Box cribbing means arranging
pairs of wood pieces alternately to form a stable rectangle.
Leveraging and cribbing are used together by alternately lifting the object and placing cribbing materials
underneath the lifted edge to stabilize it. Safety is number one: "Lift an inch; crib an inch." Leveraging and
cribbing should be gradual both for stability and to make the job easier. It may also be necessary to use
leveraging and cribbing at more than one location (e.g., front and back) to ensure stability. Leveraging and
cribbing at opposite ends should never be done at the same time because doing so will increase the
instability of the debris. If leveraging is required at both ends, lift and crib at one end, then repeat the
process at the other end.
Positioning the pry tool and the fulcrum correctly is critical for safe operations. The fulcrum and pry tool
must be perpendicular (90 degrees) to the edge of the object being lifted. Also, attempting to leverage a
heavy object using too sharp an angle is inefficient and can result in back injury. Box cribbing is stable, but
it requires pieces of cribbing material of relatively uniform size. When such material is not available,
unboxed cribbing can also work effectively to support and stabilize the heavy object. A variety of cribbing
materials may be used for these procedures and you will probably need to improvise by using materials
such as tires or structural debris. Whatever you use, dont put form over function.
When you are able to achieve sufficient lift, you should remove the victim and reverse the leveraging and
cribbing procedure to lower the object. You should never leave an unsafe condition, unless the structure or

29
building is obviously compromised. When you must remove debris to locate victims, you should set up a
human chain and pass the debris from one person to the next. Be careful, however, to set up the chain in a
position that will not interfere with rescue operations.
Wear your Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to protect yourself at all times. Kneepads can be an
important addition to your PPE during rescue operations.
1. Conduct a sizeup of the scene: Gather facts, identify hazards, and establish priorities.
2. Have one person in charge and formulate a plan of action, based upon the information you have
received, to identify how and where to lift and crib and how the victim will be removed from
underneath the debris.
3. Gather necessary materials for lifting/cribbing operations: Lever, fulcrum, cribbing blocks, and
spacers/wedges. During an actual emergency, you may have to use creative, substitute materials.
4. Use cribbing materials to stabilize the object prior to lifting.
5. Distribute cribbing materials as necessary to be readily accessible during the lifting operation.
6. Prepare to lift the object: Assemble the lever and fulcrum at the previously identified location.
7. Assign a person to monitor and be ready to remove the victim as soon as possible.
8. Initiate the lift, using the lever and fulcrum for mechanical advantage.
9. As the object is lifted, add cribbing as needed, one layer at a time.
10. When the object is adequately supported, remove the lever and fulcrum. The victim may then be
removed.
11. Unless the structure is obviously compromised and you need to evacuate immediately, reinitiate the
lift and begin removing cribbing materials, reversing the process by which the crib was built.
12. Progressively lower the object to the ground. Always return the heavy object to a stable position
unless you have to evacuate immediately.
13. Before you leave, remember to collect the lifting/cribbing supplies to be available for additional
operations.

30
Leveraging and Cribbing
Team organization for leveraging/cribbing operation, showing the victim underneath a collapsed wall and
the personnel at the following locations:
Group Leader: In front of
collapse, positioned so that he
or she can view the entire
operation while remaining out of
the rescuers way
Lever Person: At the front edge
of the collapsed wall and
positioned so that he or she can
position a fulcrum and lever
under the wall
Crib Persons: On either side of
the collapsed wall and
positioned to enable the
placement of cribbing as the
wall is raised with the lever
Medical Care/Victim Removal
Person: Next to the Crib Person
who is closest to the victims head

Four steps for building box cribbing:

Step 1: Position two pieces of wood parallel to each
other on either side of the collapse.
Step 2: Place two pieces of wood perpendicularly
across the base pieces.
Steps 3 and 4: Add additional layers of wood, with
each perpendicular to the previous level.

31
Removing Victims
There are two basic types of victim removal:
Self-removal or assist
Lifts and drags
It is usually best to allow an ambulatory victim to extract him- or herself. Be aware that sometimes
ambulatory victims are not as strong and uninjured as they think they are. When victims become free from
entrapment, they may need assistance to exit the structure.

Extraction Methods
The type of extraction method selected should depend on the:
General stability of the immediate environment
Number of rescuers available
Strength and ability of the rescuers
Condition of the victim
If safety and time permit, you should not use lifts and drags to remove victims when closed-head or spinal
injury is suspected. In such cases, the spine must be stabilized using a backboard. Doors, tables, and
similar materials can be used as improvised backboards. The backboard must be able to carry the person
and proper lifting techniques must be used.
When moving victims, rescuers must use teamwork and communication and keep the victim's spine in a
straight line. Remember, rescuer safety and the condition of the building will dictate the approach.

32
One-Person Arm Carry
If a rescuer is physically able and
the victim is small, the rescuer may
use the one-person arm carry to lift
and carry the victim by:
Reaching around the victim's
back and under the knees
Lifting the victim while
keeping the rescuer's back
straight and lifting with the
legs
Consider the size of the victim and
the distance he or she needs to be
carried before using this carry.

Pack-Strap Carry
Another way for a single rescuer to
lift a victim safely is by using the
one-person pack-strap carry. The
pack-strap carry is most effective for
quick removal of a victim over a
short distance. Using this method,
the rescuer should:
Step 1: Stand with his or her
back to the victim.
Step 2: Place the victim's
arms over the rescuer's
shoulders and grab the
hands in front of the
rescuer's chest.
Step 3: Hoist the victim by
bending forward slightly,
until the victims feet just
clear the floor.

Two-Person Carry
Victim removal is easier when multiple rescuers are available. The victims upper body will weigh more
than his or her lower body; therefore, rescuers with greater body strength should be positioned at the
victims upper body. A victim may be removed using a two-person carry:

33
 Rescuer 1: Squat at the
victim's head and grasp the
victim from behind around
the midsection. Reach under
the arms and grasp the
victim's left wrist with
rescuers right hand, and
vice versa. Crossing the
wrists creates a more secure
hold on the victim and also
pulls the victims arms and
elbows closer to their body.
This will be helpful if the
victim is carried through any
narrow passages.
Rescuer 2: Squat between
the victim's knees, facing
either toward or away from
the victim. Note that, if the
rescuers will carry the victim
over uneven areas such as
stairs, the rescuers will need
to face each other. Grasp the
outside of the victim's legs at
the knees. Both rescuers:
Rise to a standing position
simultaneously, keeping
backs straight and lifting with
the legs. Walk the victim to
safety.

Chair Carry
Two rescuers can also remove a
victim by seating him or her on a
chair:
Rescuer 1: Cross the victims
arms in his or her lap. Facing
the back of the chair, grasp
the back upright.
Rescuer 2: Grasp the two front legs of the chair.
Both rescuers: Tilt the chair back, lift simultaneously, and walk out.

34
It is best to use a sturdy, non-swivel chair for this lift. Note that, if rescuers will need to carry the victim over
uneven surfaces such as stairs, the rescuers must face each other.

Blanket Carry
You can use the blanket carry for victims who cannot be removed by other means. The blanket carry
requires four to six rescuers to ensure stability for the victim and that one rescuer must be designated the
lead person:
Step 1: Position a blanket next to the victim, ensuring that the blanket will extend under the victims
head.
Step 2: Tuck the blanket under the victim, and assist the victim in moving to the center of the
blanket. If necessary, use the log rolling technique to position them on the blanket.
Step 3: With three rescuers squatting on each side, roll up the edges of the blanket against the
victim to grasp a handle." The lead person checks the team for even weight distribution and correct
lifting position.
Step 4: The lead person calls out, "Ready to lift on the count of three: One, two, three, lift."
Step 5: The team lifts and stands in unison keeping the victim level and carries the victim feet
first.
The team must also lower the victim together, using the following steps:
Step 1: The lead person calls out, "Ready to lower on the count of three: One, two, three, lower."
Step 2: The team lowers the victim in unison, exercising caution to keep the victim level.
A variety of materials such as blankets, carpets, and folded tables can be used as improvised
stretchers.
Log Rolling
Log rolling should be used to move victims with a suspected or confirmed cervical spine injury. If the victim
is unconscious, assume he or she has a cervical spine injury. The rescuer at a victims head should give
commands as fellow rescuers roll the victim as a single unit onto the blanket, backboard, or other support.

Correct Drag Technique

Correct drag technique, showing the rescuer grasping the victim by either the feet or shoulders and
dragging him or her clear of the hazard

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Blanket Drag
Blanket drag, showing the victim wrapped in a blanket with the rescuer squatting at the victims head. The
rescuer grasps the blanket behind the victims head and drags him or her clear of the hazard.

This subject matter summarized from FEMA.gov CERT training materials by permission granted on the website.

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Session 6: Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Medical Operations
Prerequisite: None.
Reading Reference: Disaster Medical Operations Booklet
Objectives:
In this session, the trainee will:
1. Explain the START method or emergency medical response.
2. Identify the three life-threatening categories of injuries.
3. Identify the recommended safety equipment to be used by emergency medical personnel.
4. Demonstrate the head tilt/chin-up method of opening the airway.
5. Demonstrate the three methods of stopping bleeding.
6. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a tourniquet and when it should be used.
7. Explain the symptoms, dangers, and treatments of shock.
8. Demonstrate the triage marking system.
9. Demonstrate the establishment of a treatment area.
10. Conduct a head-to-toe assessment.
11. Identify the burn classifications and the treatment for each.
12. Demonstrate proper wound care using dressings and bandages.
13. Demonstrate proper splinting methods using both soft and rigid materials.
14. Demonstrate the proper treatments of heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

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Disaster Medical Operations

Introduction and Unit Overview

As emergency personnel you will need to know lifesaving first aid or post-disaster survival techniques.
Medical operations can play a vital role in limiting deaths from trauma. The phases of death from trauma
are:
Phase 1: Death within minutes as a result of overwhelming and irreversible damage to vital organs
Phase 2: Death within several hours as a result of excessive bleeding
Phase 3: Death in several days or weeks as a result of infection or multiple organ failure (i.e.,
complications from an injury)
These phases underlie why in a disaster there may be more victims than rescuers, and assistance from
medical professionals may not be immediately available. Disaster medical operations are conducted by
identifying those with the most serious injuries as soon as possible and treating those with life-threatening
injuries first.

START
Simple Triage And Rapid Treatment (START) is a critical concept for initially dealing with casualties in a
disaster. History has proven that 40% of disaster victims can be saved with simple (rapid!) medical care.
START is based on the premise that a simple medical assessment and rapid treatment based on that
assessment will yield positive often lifesaving results.
The goal of disaster medical operations is to do the greatest good for the greatest number. In a disaster
with many victims, time will be critical. Personnel will need to work quickly and efficiently to help as many
victims as possible. This training session is different from previous First Aid and Moving and Injured Victim
sessions in that this session is designed to cover mass casualties after a major disaster. Previous sessions
concentrated on the squad and personal level first aid treatments.

Treating Life-Threatening Conditions

In emergency medicine, airway obstruction, bleeding, and shock are killers because without treatment
they will lead to death. Rescuers must first ensure that they are wearing safety equipment:
Helmet
Goggles
Gloves
N95 mask
Sturdy shoes or boots
Non-latex exam gloves
A good time-saving technique is to wear non-latex exam gloves under your work gloves. Then, when you
find a victim, you can remove your work gloves and are ready to work with the victim. Remember to use
non-latex exam gloves to prevent potential reaction by individuals who are allergic to latex.
There are several steps to take when approaching a victim. When ready to approach a victim:
1. If the victim is conscious, be sure he or she can see you.
2. Identify yourself by giving your name and indicating the organization with which you are affiliated.
3. ALWAYS request permission to treat an individual. If the individual is unconscious, he or she is
assumed to have given implied consent, and you may treat him or her.

38
 4. Ask a parent or guardian for permission to treat a child, if possible.
5. Remember, all medical patients are legally entitled to confidentiality (HIPAA). When dealing with
victims, always be mindful and respectful of the privacy of their medical condition.

The Head-Tilt/Chin-Lift Method

In an unconscious or semiconscious victim, especially one positioned on his or her back, the most common
airway obstruction is the tongue. The tongue which is a muscle may relax and block the airway. A
victim with a suspected airway obstruction must be checked immediately for breathing and, if necessary,
the airway must be opened.
When an airway obstruction is suspected because a victim is unconscious or semiconscious, Personnel
should clear the airway using the Head-Tilt/Chin-Lift method. In addition to opening the airway, this method
causes little or no cervical-spine manipulation because only the head is manipulated. Proper technique is
always important in opening an airway, but so is speed.

Head-Tilt/Chin-Lift Method for Opening an Airway

1. At an arms distance, make contact with the victim by touching the shoulder and asking, Can you
hear me? Speak loudly, but do not yell.
2. If the victim does not or cannot respond, place the palm of one hand on the forehead.
3. Place two fingers of the other hand under the chin and tilt the jaw upward while tilting the head back
slightly.
4. Place your ear close to the victims mouth, looking toward the victims feet, and place a hand on the
victims abdomen.
5. Look for chest rise.
6. Listen for air exchange. Document abnormal lung sounds (wheezing, gasping, gurgling, etc.).
7. Feel for abdominal movement.
8. If breathing has been restored, the clear airway must be maintained by keeping the head tilted
back. If breathing has not been restored, repeat steps 2-7.

Maintaining the Airway

If breathing has been restored, the clear airway still must be maintained by keeping the head tilted back.
One option is to ask another person to hold the head in place; even another victim with minor injuries could
do this. The airway also can be maintained by placing soft objects under the victims shoulders to elevate
the shoulders slightly and keep the airway open. If breathing is not restored on the first try using the Head-
Tilt/Chin-Lift method, you should try again using the same method. If breathing cannot be restored on the
second try, you must move on to the next victim.
You should always be concerned with head, neck, or spinal injuries (all of which are common in structural
collapses). Used properly, the Head-Tilt/Chin-Lift method for opening an airway causes little spinal
manipulation because the head pivots on the spine.
Remember the importance of opening the airway as quickly as possible. When treating the three killers,
checking for airway obstruction is always first.

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Controlling Bleeding
Uncontrolled bleeding initially causes weakness. If bleeding is not controlled, the victim will go into shock
within a short period of time and finally will die. An adult has about 5 liters of blood. Losing 1 liter can result
in death. There are three types of bleeding and the type can usually be identified by how fast the blood
flows:
1. Arterial bleeding. Arteries transport blood under high pressure. Blood coming from an artery will
spurt.
2. Venous bleeding. Veins transport blood under low pressure. Blood coming from a vein will flow.
3. Capillary bleeding. Capillaries also carry blood under low pressure. Blood coming from capillaries
will ooze.
There are three main methods for controlling bleeding:
1. Direct pressure
2. Elevation
3. Pressure points
Direct pressure and elevation will control bleeding in 95% of cases.

Direct Pressure
Step 1: Place direct pressure over the wound by putting a clean dressing over it and pressing firmly.
Step 2: Maintain pressure on the dressing over the wound by wrapping firmly. Direct pressure and
elevation can take 5 to 7 minutes to stop the bleeding completely. The use of a dressing and pressure
bandage allows the rescuer to move on to the next victim with a bandage.
A pressure bandage should be tied with a bow, so that it can be loosened rather than cut to examine
the wound, and then retied. This procedure helps to conserve supplies and saves time. The bandage
maintains the direct pressure needed to stop the bleeding. If the victims limb is turning blue or becoming
numb below the bandage, then it should be loosened.

Elevation
Elevation can be used in combination with direct pressure. Elevate the wound above the level of the heart.
The body has great difficulty pumping blood against gravity; therefore, elevating a wound above the heart
will decrease blood flow and loss of blood through the wound.

Pressure Points
There are also pressure points that can be used to stem the flow of bleeding. The pressure points most
often used are the:
Brachial point in the arm
Femoral point in the leg
Pressure point behind the knee
The pressure point to use depends on the location of the wound. The correct pressure point is between the
wound and the heart.

Tourniquets
Emergency personnel will use direct pressure on pressure points and elevation to manage most bleeding.
However, if bleeding cannot be stopped using these methods and professionals are delayed in responding,

40
a tourniquet may be a viable option to save a person from bleeding to death. However, a tourniquet is
absolutely a last resort (life or limb) when other preferred means have failed to control bleeding in an arm
or a leg.
While the use of a tourniquet is extremely rare, it may have a use when part of an extremity is amputated
or crushed and bleeding cannot be stopped by any other preferred means. A tourniquet is a tight bandage
which, when placed around a limb and tightened, cuts off the blood supply to the part of the limb beyond it.
A tourniquet can do harm to the limb, but it can halt severe blood loss when all other means have failed.
Use any long, flat, soft material (bandage, neck tie, belt, or stocking). Do not use materials like rope, wire,
or string that can cut into the patients flesh.

To tie a tourniquet:
1. Place the tourniquet between the wound and the heart (for example, if the wound is on the wrist,
you would tie the tourniquet around the forearm).
2. Tie the piece of material around the limb.
3. Place a stick, pen, ruler, or other sturdy item against the material and tie a knot around the item, so
that the item is knotted against the limb.
4. Use the stick or other item as a lever to twist the knot more tightly against the limb, tightening the
bandage until the bleeding stops.
5. Tie one or both ends of the lever against the limb to secure it and maintain pressure.
6. Mark the patient in an obvious way that indicates that a tourniquet was used and include the time it
was applied.
7. Do not loosen a tourniquet once it has been applied.
8. Only proper medical authorities should remove a tourniquet.

Shock
Shock is a condition that occurs when the body is not getting enough blood flow. When blood doesnt
circulate, oxygen and other nutrients are not carried to tissues and organs. Blood vessels begin to close
and organs are damaged and, if left untreated, will shut down completely. Shock can worsen very rapidly.
Remaining in shock will lead to the death of cells, tissues, and entire organs. The main signs of shock you
should look for are:
Rapid and shallow breathing
Capillary refill of greater than 2 seconds
Failure to follow simple commands, such as Squeeze my hand

Evaluation
Note if the victims breathing is rapid and shallow, i.e., more than 30 breaths per minute.
Circulation: One way to test for circulation is the blanch test. A good place to do the blanch test is
the palm of one hand. Sometimes, a nail bed is used. The blanch test is used to test capillary refill.
You should see the color return to the tested area within 2 seconds. Because the blanch test is not
valid in children, mental status should be used instead as the main indicator.
Mental Status There are several ways to evaluate mental status. Ask, Are you okay? or give a
simple command such as Squeeze my hand.
If you are concerned that there might be a language barrier or hearing impairment, reach out with both
hands and squeeze one of the victims hands. The person will squeeze back if they can.

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Treating For Shock
The body will initially compensate for blood loss and mask the symptoms of shock; therefore, shock is often
difficult to diagnose. It is possible and, in fact, common for an individual suffering from shock to be
fully coherent and not complaining of pain. Pay attention to subtle clues, as failure to recognize shock will
have serious consequences.
Avoid rough or excessive handling. It is important to maintain the victims body temperature. If necessary,
place a blanket or other material under and/or over the victim to provide protection from extreme ground
temperatures (hot or cold). Position the victim on his or her back and elevate the feet 6 to 10 inches above
the level of the heart to assist in bringing blood to the vital organs. Although victims who are suffering from
shock may be thirsty, they should not eat or drink anything initially because they may also be nauseated.

Procedures for Controlling Shock

1. Maintain an open airway.
2. Control obvious bleeding.
3. Maintain body temperature (e.g., cover the ground and the victim with a blanket if necessary).
Notes: Avoid rough or excessive handling. Do not provide food or drink.

Triage
In mass casualty events, medical personnel:
Identify the dead and those who are too severely injured to be saved
Send those with relatively minor injuries and wounds to a holding area to await treatment
Identify those who would die from life-threatening injuries and treat them immediately
The term for this is triage. During medical triage, victims conditions are evaluated and the victims are
prioritized into four categories:
Immediate (I): The victim has life-threatening injuries (airway, bleeding, or shock) that demand
immediate attention to save his or her life; rapid, lifesaving treatment is urgent. These victims are
marked with a red tag or labeled I.
Delayed (D): Injuries do not jeopardize the victims life. The victim may require professional care,
but treatment can be delayed. These victims are marked with a yellow tag or labeled D.
Minor (M): Walking wounded and generally ambulatory. These victims are marked with a green tag
or labeled M.
Dead (DEAD): No respiration after two attempts to open the airway. Because CPR is one-on-one
care and is labor intensive, CPR is not performed when there are many more victims than rescuers.
These victims are marked with a black tag or labeled DEAD.
From triage, victims are taken to the designated medical treatment area (immediate care, delayed care, or
the morgue). Do not rescue those tagged DEAD. If the scene is deemed safe and it is appropriate to do so,
you may move the DEAD to the morgue. It is crucial to the physical and mental well-being of disaster
survivors that the morgue be placed away from the other groups. Traditionally, blue tarps are used to
identify and conceal the morgue area.

Rescuer Safety during Triage

If hazardous materials are present, rescuer safety is paramount. Personnel should leave the scene to avoid
harm to themselves and to reduce the risk of spreading the contamination.
Rescuer safety is crucial during triage. Rescuers must wear all safety equipment, including non-latex exam
gloves, goggles, a helmet, and an N95 mask when examining victims and should try to change gloves

42
between victims. Because of limited supplies, it may not be possible to use a new pair of gloves for every
victim. If this is the case, gloves may be sterilized between treating victims using 1 part bleach to 10 parts
water. Your disaster kit should have a box of non-latex gloves. Bleach and potable water should also be
available at the emergency medical treatment area.

Triage in A Disaster Environment

Here is the general procedure to conduct triage:
Step 1: Stop, Look, Listen, and Think: Before your team starts, stop and size up the situation by
looking around and listening. Think about your safety, capability, and limitations, and decide if you
will approach the situation. If you decide to proceed, quickly make a plan about your approach that
all members understand.
Step 2: Conduct voice triage: Begin by calling out, Emergency Response Team. If you can walk,
come to the sound of my voice. Speak loudly and firmly. If there are survivors who are ambulatory,
tag them M and direct them to a designated location. If rescuers need assistance and there are
ambulatory survivors, then these survivors should be asked to provide assistance. These persons
may also provide useful information about the location of the victims.
Step 3: Start where you stand, and follow a systematic route. Start with the closest victims and work
outward in a systematic fashion.
Step 4: Evaluate each victim and tag them I (immediate), D (delayed), M (minor), or DEAD.
Remember to evaluate the walking wounded. Remember to ASK for permission to treat if the
individual is conscious.
Step 5: Treat I victims immediately. Initiate airway management, bleeding control, and/or
treatment for shock for Category I victims.
Step 6: Document triage results such as effective deployment of resources, information on the
victims locations, and a quick record of the number of casualties by degree of severity.
Remember that your safety is paramount during triage. It is important to wear proper protective equipment
so as not to endanger your own health.

Evaluating a Victim during Triage

1. Check airway/breathing. At an arms distance, make contact with the victim and speak loudly. If the
victim does not respond:
a. Position the airway.
b. Look, listen, and feel.
c. Check breathing rate. Abnormally rapid respiration (above 30 per minute) indicates shock.
Maintain the airway and treat for shock and tag I.
d. If below 30 per minute, then move to Step 2.
e. If the victim is not breathing after two attempts to open airway, then tag DEAD.
2. Check circulation/bleeding.
a. Take immediate action to control severe bleeding.
b. Check circulation using the blanch test (for capillary refill) or a radial pulse test.
c. Press on an area of skin until normal skin color is gone. Time how long it takes for normal
color to return. Treat for shock if normal color takes longer than 2 seconds to return, and tag
I.
d. Or check the pulse.
e. If present, continue to step 3.
f. Note if the pulse is abnormal (rapid, thready, weak, etc.)
g. If absent, tag I and treat for bleeding and shock.
3. Check mental status. Inability to respond indicates that immediate treatment for shock is necessary.
Treat for shock and tag I.
Time will be critical in a disaster. You will not be able to spend very much time with any single victim.
To respond effectively in a mass casualty event you must:

43
 Have a basic plan
Follow that plan
Document actions throughout (so additional resources can be obtained if necessary.)
Triage must be practiced to avoid triage pitfalls. Triage pitfalls include:
No team plan, organization, or goal
Indecisive leadership
Too much focus on one injury
Treatment (rather than triage) performed

Public Health Considerations

When disaster victims are sheltered together for treatment, public health becomes a concern. Measures
must be taken, both by individual personnel and medical operations, to avoid the spread of disease. The
primary public health measures include:
Maintaining proper hygiene
Maintaining proper sanitation
Purifying water (if necessary)
Preventing the spread of disease

Maintaining Hygiene
Maintenance of proper personal hygiene is critical even under makeshift conditions. Some steps that
individuals should take to maintain hygiene are to:
Wash hands frequently using soap and water. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers which dont require
water are a good alternative to hand washing.
Wear non-latex exam gloves at all times - Change or disinfect gloves after examining and/or
treating each patient.
Wear an N95 mask and goggles
Keep dressings sterile - Do not remove the overwrap from dressings until use. After opening, use
the entire package of dressing, if possible. Thoroughly wash areas that come in contact with body
fluids with soap and water or diluted bleach as soon as possible.

Maintaining Sanitation
Poor sanitation is also a major cause of infection. Medical operations personnel can maintain sanitary
conditions by:
Controlling the disposal of bacterial sources (e.g., soiled exam gloves, dressings, etc.)
Putting waste products in plastic bags, tying off the bags, and marking them as medical waste.
Keep medical waste separate from other trash, and dispose of it as hazardous waste.
Burying human waste. Select a burial site away from the operations area and mark the burial site
for later cleanup.

Water Purification
Potable water supplies are often in short supply or are not available in a disaster. Water can be purified for
drinking, cooking, and medical use by heating it to a rolling boil for 1 minute or by using water purification
tablets or non-perfumed liquid bleach.
The bleach to water ratios are: 8 drops of bleach per gallon of water, or 16 drops per gallon of water, if the
water is cloudy or dirty. Let the bleach and water solution stand for 30 minutes. Note that if the solution
does not smell or taste of bleach, add another six drops of bleach, then let the solution stand for 15
minutes before using. Rescuers should not put anything on wounds other than purified water. The use of
other solutions (e.g., hydrogen peroxide) on wounds must be the decision of trained medical personnel.

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Preventing the Spread of Disease
Personnel must use non-latex exam gloves, goggles, and an N95 mask during all medical operations.
Cover all open wounds as a way of preventing the spread of infection.

Establishing Medical Treatment Areas

Because time is critical when teams activate, medical operations personnel will need to select a site and
set up a treatment area as soon as injured victims are confirmed. Determining the best location(s) for the
treatment area should include the following overall considerations:
Safety for rescuers and victims
Most effective use of resources, e.g., Personnel themselves, time, medical supplies

Safety for Rescuers and Victims

As victims are located, rescued, and triaged, they are moved to a location where they can be treated. The
severity of the damage and the safety of the immediate environment determine where the initial treatment
area should be located. In all cases, remember that your safety is the number one priority.
In structures with light damage, Personnel triage the victims as they are located. Further medical
treatment is performed in a safe location inside the structure where victims are organized according
to the extent of their injuries.
In structures with moderate damage, Personnel also triage the victims as they are located;
however, victims are sent to a medical treatment location that is a safe distance from the incident
location. Victims are organized according to the extent of their injuries.
Whether the treatment area is set up inside or a safe distance from the structure, a morgue may need to be
set up as a temporary holding area for victims who die at the treatment area.
In addition to the severity of the damage to the structure where victims are found, there are two other
important safety considerations:
The treatment area itself must be free of hazards and debris.
The site should be close to but uphill and upwind from the hazard zone.

Most Effective Use of Resources

In addition to the safety of rescuers and victims, a second overall consideration for setting up treatment
areas is how to make the best use of resources, e.g., Personnel themselves, time, medical supplies, and
equipment. To help meet the challenge of limited resources, particularly if initial treatment operations will
continue for some time, may need decentralized treatment locations and/or may establish one central
medical treatment location, depending on the circumstances. The person in charge may need to include
one or both in their medical operations plan:
Decentralized Treatment Sites: In a widespread event with many injured, it is sometimes necessary
to set up and maintain more than one medical treatment location, especially when a central
treatment location would be a considerable distance from the initial treatment site. A medical
treatment location would be set up close to, but a safe distance from, each of the damage sites.
Each of the treatment locations would include areas for Immediate, Delayed, and Minor victims and
a morgue. Victims remain under treatment at the location until they can be transported to a location
for professional medical care or to the main treatment area.
Centralized Treatment Site: In an event with one or a few injured victims at each of a number of
sites, the may need to establish one central medical treatment location
o The location would include treatment areas for Immediate, Delayed, and Minor victims, and
a morgue. A centralized location may need to be set up even when there are decentralized
sites established.

45
 o Victims are moved from where they were rescued, triaged, and initially treated to the central
location, and remain under treatment there until they can be transported to a location for
professional medical treatment.
o A central medical treatment location allows for effective use of resources since a limited
number of medical operation personnel in one location can take care of a greater number of
victims.
o EMS or other medical professionals will generally be able to transport the injured more
efficiently from one central location than from multiple decentralized locations.
Whether a treatment site is centralized or one of a number of decentralized sites, the location(s) selected
should be:
Accessible by transportation vehicles (ambulances, trucks, helicopters, etc.)
Expandable

Treatment Area Site Selection

The treatment area must be protected and clearly delineated. Signs should be used to identify the
subdivisions of the area when available:
I for Immediate care
D for Delayed care
M for Minor injuries/walking wounded
DEAD for the morgue
The I and D areas should be relatively close to each other to allow:
Verbal communication between workers in the treatment areas
Shared access to medical supplies (which should be cached in a central location)
Easy transfer of patients whose status has changed
Victims who have been identified with minor injuries may choose to stay at the treatment area or leave. If
they stay, they can assist personnel. If they leave, it should be documented.
Patients in the treatment area should be positioned in a head-to-toe configuration, with 2 to 3 feet between
victims. This system will provide effective use of space and effective use of available personnel. As a team
member finishes one head-to-toe assessment, he or she turns around and is at the head of the next
patient.
The morgue site should be secure, away from and not visible from the treatment area. This will help
minimize traffic near the area and reduce the potential psychological impact on those in the treatment area.
Pre-planning for medical operations includes equipment needed to set up the treatment area, such as
ground covers or tarps and signs for identifying divisions (I, D, M, DEAD).

Treatment Area Organization

There is an obvious need for planning before disaster strikes, including roles of personnel assigned to the
treatment area. The person in charge must assign leaders to maintain control in each of the medical
treatment area subdivisions. These leaders will:
Ensure orderly victim placement
Direct team members to conduct head-to-toe assessments
It is very important to thoroughly document the victims in the treatment area so they can be found by family
members as quickly as possible. This allows the persons to be removed from the treatment facility. Items
include:
Name, address, and phone number if victim is able to talk
Description (age, sex, body build, estimated height)

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 Clothing
Injuries
Treatment
Transfer location

Conducting Head-To-Toe Assessments

The first steps that you will take when working with a victim will be to conduct triage and rapid treatment.
After all victims in an area have been triaged and moved to a medical treatment area, personnel will begin
a thorough head-to-toe assessment of each victims condition.
During triage, you are keeping an eye out for the killers:
Airway obstruction
Excessive bleeding
Signs of shock
A head-to-toe assessment goes beyond the killers to try to gain more information to determine the nature
of the victims injury. The entire assessment must be performed before initiating treatment. The objectives
of a head-to-toe assessment are to determine the extent of injuries, determine what type of treatment is
needed, and to document injuries. Remember to always wear your safety equipment when conducting
head-to-toe assessments.

What to Look For In Head-To-Toe Assessments

The medical community uses the acronym DCAP-BTLS to remember what to look for when conducting a
rapid assessment. DCAP-BTLS stands for the following:
Deformities
Contusions (bruising)
Abrasions
Punctures
Burns
Tenderness
Lacerations
Swelling
When conducting a head-to-toe assessment, Personnel should look for DCAPBTLS in all parts of the body.
Remember to provide IMMEDIATE treatment for life-threatening injuries. You should pay careful attention
to how people have been hurt (the mechanism of injury) because it provides insight to probable injuries
suffered.

How to Conduct a Head-To-Toe Assessment

Whenever possible, ask the person about any injuries, pain, bleeding, or other symptoms. If the victim is
conscious, Personnel should always ask permission to conduct the assessment. The victim has the right to
refuse treatment. Talking with the conscious patient reduces anxiety. Head-to-toe assessments should be:
Conducted on all victims, even those who seem all right
Verbal (if the patient is able to speak)
Hands-on. Do not be afraid to remove clothing to look.
It is very important that you conduct head-to-toe assessments systematically; doing so will make the
procedure quicker and more accurate with each assessment. Remember to pay careful attention, look,
listen, and feel for anything unusual, and suspect a spinal injury in all unconscious victims and treat
accordingly.

47
Remember to check your own hands for patient bleeding as you perform the head-to-toe assessment.
Check body parts from the top to the bottom for continuity of bones and soft tissue injuries (DCAP-BTLS) in
the following order:
1. Head
2. Neck
3. Shoulders
4. Chest
5. Arms
6. Abdomen
7. Pelvis
8. Legs
While conducting a head-to-toe assessment, personnel should always check for: PMS (Pulse, Movement,
Sensation) in all extremities, and Medical ID emblems on bracelet or on neck chain.

Closed-Head, Neck, and Spinal Injuries

When conducting head-to-toe assessments, rescuers may come across victims who have or may have
suffered closed-head, neck, or spinal injuries. A closed-head injury for the participants is a concussion-type
injury, as opposed to a laceration, although lacerations can be an indication that the victim has suffered a
closed-head injury.
The main objective when Personnel encounter suspected injuries to the head or spine is to do no harm.
Minimize movement of the head and spine while treating any other life-threatening conditions.

Signs of a Closed-Head, Neck, or Spinal Injury

The signs of a closed-head, neck, or spinal injury most often include:
Change in consciousness
Inability to move one or more body parts
Severe pain or pressure in head, neck, or back
Tingling or numbness in extremities
Difficulty breathing or seeing
Heavy bleeding, bruising, or deformity of the head or spine
Blood or fluid in the nose or ears
Bruising behind the ear
Raccoon eyes (bruising around eyes)
Uneven pupils
Seizures
Nausea or vomiting
Victim found under collapsed building material or heavy debris
If the victim is exhibiting any of these signs, he or she should be treated as having a closed-head, neck, or
spinal injury.

Stabilizing the Head

In a disaster environment, ideal equipment is rarely available. Personnel may need to be creative by:
Looking for materials that can be used as a backboard a door, desktop, building materials
anything that might be available.
Looking for items that can be used to stabilize the head on the board towels, draperies, or
clothing by tucking them snugly on either side of the head to immobilize it.

48
Remember: Moving victims with suspected head, neck, or spinal injury requires sufficient victim
stabilization. If the rescuer or victim is in immediate danger, however, safety is more important than any
potential spinal injury and the rescuer should move the victim from the area as quickly as possible.

Treating Burns
As always, the first step in treating burns is to conduct a thorough sizeup. A few examples of burn-related
sizeup questions to ask are:
What caused the burn?
Is the danger still present?
When did the burning cease?
The objectives of first aid treatment for burns are to:
Cool the burned area
Cover with a sterile cloth to reduce the risk of infection (by keeping fluids in and germs out)
Burns may be caused by heat, chemicals, electrical current, or radiation. The severity of a burn depends on
the:
Temperature of the burning agent
Period of time that the victim was exposed
Area of the body that was affected
Size of the area burned
Depth of the burn

Burn Classifications
The skin has three layers:
1. Epidermis: Outer layer of skin, contains nerve endings and is penetrated by hairs.
2. Dermis: Middle layer of skin, contains blood vessels, oil glands, hair follicles, and sweat glands.
3. Subcutaneous layer: Innermost layer, contains blood vessels and overlies the muscles.
Depending on the severity, burns may affect all three layers of skin.

49
BURN Classifications

Classification Skin Layers Affected Signs

Superficial Epidermis Reddened, dry skin
Pain
Swelling (possible)

Partial Thickness Epidermis Partial destruction of dermis

Reddened, blistered skin
Wet appearance
Pain
Swelling (possible)

Full Thickness Complete destruction of Whitened, leathery, or charred

epidermis and dermis (brown or black)
Possible subcutaneous Painful or relatively painless
damage (destroys all layers of
skin and some or all
underlying structures)

Treating Burns
Remove the victim from the burning source. Put out any flames and remove smoldering clothing
unless it is stuck to the skin.
Cool skin or clothing, if they are still hot, by immersing them in cool water for not more than 1
minute or covering with clean compresses that have been soaked in cool water and wrung out.
Cooling sources include water from the bathroom or kitchen; garden hose; and soaked towels,
sheets, or other cloths. Treat all victims of full thickness burns for shock.
Infants, young children, and older persons, and persons with severe burns, are more susceptible to
hypothermia. Therefore, rescuers should use caution when applying cool dressings on such
persons. A rule of thumb is do not cool more than 15% of the body surface area (the size of one
arm) at once, to reduce the chances of hypothermia.
Cover loosely with dry, sterile dressings to keep air out, reduce pain, and prevent infection.
Wrap fingers and toes loosely and individually when treating severe burns to the hands and feet.
Loosen clothing near the affected area. Remove jewelry if necessary, taking care to document what
was removed, when, and to whom it was given.
Elevate burned extremities higher than the heart.
Do not use ice. Ice causes vessel constriction.
Do not apply antiseptics, ointments, or other remedies.
Do not remove shreds of tissue, break blisters, or remove adhered particles of clothing. (Cut
burned-in clothing around the burn.)

Chemical and Inhalation Burns

Chemical and inhalation burns vary from traditional heat-related burns in their origin and treatment. Keep in
mind that suspicion of either chemical or inhalation burns elevates the victims status to I.

Treating Chemical Burns

Unlike more traditional burns, chemical burns do not result from extreme heat, and therefore treatment
differs greatly. Chemical burns are not always obvious. You should consider chemical burns as a possibility
50
if the victims skin is burning and there is no sign of a fire. If chemical burns are suspected:
1. Protect yourself from contact with the substance. Use your protective gear especially goggles,
mask, and gloves.
2. Ensure that any affected clothing or jewelry is removed.
3. If the irritant is dry, gently brush away as much as possible. Always brush away from the eyes and
away from the victim and you.
4. Use lots of cool running water to flush the chemical from the skin for 15 minutes. The running water
will dilute the chemical fast enough to prevent the injury from getting worse.
5. Apply cool, wet compress to relieve pain.
6. Cover the wound very loosely with a dry, sterile or clean cloth so that the cloth will not stick to the
wound.
7. Treat for shock if appropriate.

Treating Inhalation Burns

Remember that 60 to 80% of fire fatalities are the result of smoke inhalation. Whenever fire and/or smoke
are present, personnel should assess victims for signs and symptoms of smoke inhalation. These are
indicators that an inhalation burn is present:
Sudden loss of consciousness
Evidence of respiratory distress or upper airway obstruction
Soot around the mouth or nose
Singed facial hair
Burns around the face or neck
The patient may not present these signs and symptoms until hours (sometimes up to a full 24 hours) after
the injury occurred, and such symptoms may be overlooked when treating more obvious signs of trauma.
Smoke inhalation is the number one fire-related cause of death. If you have reason to suspect smoke
inhalation, be sure the airway is maintained, and alert a medical professional as soon as possible.

Wound Care
The main treatment for wounds includes:
Control bleeding
Clean the wound
Apply dressing and bandage

Cleaning and Bandaging Wounds

Wounds should be cleaned by irrigating with clean, room temperature water. NEVER use hydrogen
peroxide to irrigate the wound. You should not scrub the wound. When the wound is thoroughly cleaned,
you will need to apply a dressing and bandage to help keep it clean and control bleeding. There is a
difference between a dressing and a bandage:
A dressing is applied directly to the wound. Whenever possible, a dressing should be sterile.
A bandage holds the dressing in place.
If a wound is still bleeding, the bandage should place enough pressure on the wound to help control
bleeding without interfering with circulation.

Rules of Dressing
You should follow these rules:

51
1. If there is active bleeding (i.e., if the dressing is soaked with blood), redress over the existing dressing
and maintain pressure and elevation to control bleeding.
2. In the absence of active bleeding, remove the dressings, flush the wound, and then check for signs of
infection at least every 4 to 6 hours.
Signs of possible infection include:
Swelling around the wound site
Discoloration
Discharge from the wound
Red striations from the wound site
If necessary and based on reassessment and signs of infection, change the treatment priority (e.g., from
Delayed to Immediate).

Amputations
The main treatments for an amputation (the traumatic severing of a limb or other body part) are to:
Control bleeding
Treat shock
When the severed body part can be located, you should:
Save tissue parts, wrapped in clean material and placed in a plastic bag, if available. Label them
with the date, time, and victims name.
Keep the tissue parts cool, but NOT in direct contact with ice
Keep the severed part with the victim

Impaled Objects
Sometimes, you may also encounter some victims who have foreign objects lodged in their bodies
usually as the result of flying debris during the disaster. When a foreign object is impaled in a patients
body, you should:
Immobilize the affected body part
Not attempt to move or remove the object, unless it is obstructing the airway
Try to control bleeding at the entrance wound without placing undue pressure on the foreign object
Clean and dress the wound making sure to stabilize the impaled object. Wrap bulky dressings
around the object to keep it from moving.

Treating Fractures, Dislocations, Sprains, and Strains

The objective when treating a suspected fracture, sprain, or strain is to immobilize the injury and the joints
immediately above and below the injury site. Because it is difficult to distinguish among fractures, sprains,
or strains, if uncertain of the type of injury, you should treat the injury as a fracture.

Fractures
A fracture is a complete break, a chip, or a crack in a bone. There are several types of fractures. A closed
fracture is a broken bone with no associated wound. First aid treatment for closed fractures may require
only splinting. An open fracture is a broken bone with some kind of wound that allows contaminants to
enter into or around the fracture site.

Treating an Open Fracture

Open fractures are more dangerous than closed fractures because they pose a significant risk of severe
bleeding and infection. Therefore, they are a higher priority and need to be checked more frequently.

52
When treating an open fracture, do not draw the exposed bone ends back into the tissue and do not irrigate
the wound. You should cover the wound with a sterile dressing, splint the fracture without disturbing the
wound, and place a moist 4 by 4-inch dressing over the bone end to keep it from drying out.
If the limb is angled, then there is a displaced fracture. Displaced fractures may be described by the degree
of displacement of the bone fragments. Non-displaced fractures are difficult to identify, with the main signs
being pain and swelling. You should treat a suspected fracture as a fracture until professional treatment is
available.

Dislocations
Dislocations are another common injury in emergencies. A dislocation is an injury to the ligaments around
a joint that is so severe that it permits a separation of the bone from its normal position in a joint. The signs
of a dislocation are similar to those of a fracture, and a suspected dislocation should be treated like a
fracture.
If dislocation is suspected, be sure to assess PMS (Pulse, Movement, and Sensation) in the affected limb
before and after splinting/immobilization. If PMS is compromised, the patients treatment priority is elevated
to I. You should not try to relocate a suspected dislocation. You should immobilize the joint until
professional medical help is available.

Sprains and Strains

A sprain involves a stretching or tearing of ligaments at a joint and is usually caused by stretching or
extending the joint beyond its normal limits. A sprain is considered a partial dislocation, although the bone
either remains in place or is able to fall back into place after the injury. The most common signs of a sprain
are tenderness at the site of the injury, swelling and/or bruising, or restricted use or loss of use
You should not try to treat the injury other than by immobilization and elevation. In some cases, strains may
be difficult to distinguish from sprains or fractures. Whether an injury is a strain, sprain, or fracture, treat the
injury as if it is a fracture.

Splinting
Splinting is the most common procedure for immobilizing an injury. Cardboard is the material typically used
for makeshift splints but a variety of material can be used, including:
Soft materials: Towels, blankets, or pillows, tied with bandaging materials or soft cloths
Rigid materials. A board, metal strip, folded magazine or newspaper, or other rigid item. Soft
materials should be used to fill the gap between the splinting material and the body part.
Anatomical splints may also be created by securing a fractured bone to an adjacent unfractured bone.
Anatomical splints are usually reserved for fingers and toes, but, in an emergency, legs may also be
splinted together.
With this type of injury, there will be swelling. Remove restrictive clothing, shoes, and jewelry when
necessary to prevent these items from acting as unintended tourniquets.

53
Cardboard Splint in which the edges of the cardboard are turned
up to form a mold in which the injured limb can rest.

Splinting using a towel, in which the towel is rolled up and wrapped around the limb, then tied in place.
Pillow splint, in which the pillow is wrapped around the limb and tied.

Anatomical splint in which the injured leg is tied at intervals to the non-injured leg, using a blanket as
padding between the legs.

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Nasal Injuries
Bleeding from the nose can have several causes. Bleeding from the nose can be caused by blunt force to
the nose, a skull fracture, or non-trauma-related conditions such as sinus infections, high blood pressure,
and bleeding disorders.
A large blood loss from a nosebleed can lead to shock. Actual blood loss may not be evident because the
victim will swallow some amount of blood. Those who have swallowed large amounts of blood may become
nauseated and vomit. To control nasal bleeding, pinch the nostrils together or put pressure on the upper lip
just under the nose. While treating for nosebleeds, you should:
Have the victim sit with the head slightly forward so that blood trickling down the throat will not be
breathed into the lungs. Do not put the head back.
Ensure that the victims airway remains open
Keep the victim quiet. Anxiety will increase blood flow.

Treating Heat-Related Injuries

There are several types of heat-related injuries that you may encounter in a disaster scenario:
Heat cramps are muscle spasms brought on by over-exertion in extreme heat.
Heat exhaustion occurs when an individual exercises or works in extreme heat, resulting in loss of
body fluids through heavy sweating. Blood flow to the skin increases, causing blood flow to
decrease to the vital organs. This results in a mild form of shock.
Heat stroke is life-threatening. The victim's temperature control system shuts down, and body
temperature can rise so high that brain damage and death may result.

Heat Exhaustion
The symptoms of heat exhaustion are:
Cool, moist, pale, or flushed skin
Heavy sweating
Headache
Nausea or vomiting
Dizziness
Exhaustion
A patient suffering heat exhaustion will have a near normal body temperature. If left untreated, heat
exhaustion will develop into heat stroke.

Heat Stroke
Heat stroke is characterized by some or all of the following symptoms:
Hot, red skin
Lack of perspiration
Changes in consciousness
Rapid, weak pulse and rapid, shallow breathing
In a heat stroke victim, body temperature can be very high as high as 105 F. If an individual suffering
from heat stroke is not treated, death can result

Treatment
Treatment is similar for both heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
1. Take the victim out of the heat and place in a cool environment.
2. Cool the body slowly with cool, wet towels or sheets. If possible, put the victim in a cool bath.

55
 3. Have the victim drink water, SLOWLY, at the rate of approximately half a glass of water every 15
minutes. Consuming too much water too quickly will cause nausea and vomiting in a victim of heat
sickness.
4. If the victim is experiencing vomiting, cramping, or is losing consciousness, DO NOT administer
food or drink. Alert a medical professional as soon as possible, and keep a close watch on the
individual until professional help is available.

Bites and Stings

When conducting a head-to-toe assessment, you should look for signs of insect bites and stings. The
specific symptoms vary depending on the type of creature, but, generally, bites and stings will be
accompanied by redness and itching, tingling or burning at the site of the injury, and often a welt on the
skin at the site.
Treatment for insect bites and stings follows these steps:
1. Remove the stinger if still present by scraping the edge of a credit card or other stiff, straight-edged
object across the stinger. Do not use tweezers; these may squeeze the venom sac and increase
the amount of venom released.
2. Wash the site thoroughly with soap and water.
3. Place ice (wrapped in a washcloth) on the site of the sting for 10 minutes and then off for 10
minutes. Repeat this process.
You may help the victim take his or her own allergy medicine (Benadryl, etc.), but you may NOT dispense
medications.

Bites and Stings and Allergic Reactions

The greatest concern with any insect bite or sting is a severe allergic reaction, or anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis
occurs when an allergic reaction becomes so severe that the airway is compromised. If you suspect
anaphylaxis:
1. Check airway and breathing.
2. Calm the individual.
3. Remove constrictive clothing and jewelry as the body often swells in response to the allergen.
4. If possible, find and help administer a victims Epi-pen. Many severe allergy sufferers carry one at
all times. DO NOT administer medicine aside from the Epi-pen. This includes pain relievers, allergy
medicine, etc.
5. Watch for signs of shock and treat appropriately.

This training module summarized by permission from the FEMA CERT Participant Manual.

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Session 7: - Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Communications and Base Security
Prerequisite: None.
Reading Reference: Excerpts from Emergency Communications Plan, Light Infantry Tactics, Pages 151-
159; Setting Up and Maintaining a Command Base Booklet
What to Bring: This Page, Textbooks, Small Notebook (No larger than 3X5 so it will fit in a uniform
pocket), Lunch, at least one bottle of water, a chair, IFAK (Individual First Aid Kit), Radio, Eye Protection,
Airsoft Rifle
Objectives:
In this session, the trainee will:
1. Explain the three tiers of the Three Tier System and the contents of each.
2. Identify the approximate range of each type of radio: CB, FRS, HAM:VHF/UHF, and
HAM:HF.
3. Explain the reasons to listen instead of transmitting during emergency situations.
4. Explain the security aspects of a patrol base.
5. Identify the aspects of a secure command base.
6. Demonstrate the techniques required to ensure continued security of a command base.
7. Demonstrate the techniques required to ensure continued security of a patrol and FFU base.

57
Excerpts from the Emergency Communications Plan
The Three Tier System

Tier Three The local neighborhood, community communications. This approach is left up to the
communities to utilize what is available and affordable to provide the local level (street)
communications. The primary radio is the CB (SSB preferred or AM), and / or walkie talkie, FRS,
GMRS.

Tier Two Is the interface between Tier One local street level communications to / from the general or
extra class HAM operator having the shortwave HF equipment necessary to carry out national / global
communications. While frequencies may vary, the Tier Two must have capabilities on CB (SSB
preferred or AM) or HAM UHF / VHF (not preferred), and telephone, RetroShare.

Tier One This is the general or extra class HAM with Shortwave who in coordination with the
Emergency Communications Network provides the information flow into and out of an area that might
otherwise be isolated or subject to controls. A Tier One must have additional capabilities on CB (SSB
preferred or AM) or HAM UHF / VHF (not preferred), and telephone,
RetroShare. Additional equipment like amplifiers and emergency power provides additional strength to
the network.

Basic Communications Design

It is virtually impossible to create a "one size fits all" neighborhood emergency communications network.
The one depicted below is proposed as an example system to use as a starting point for neighborhood
emergency coordinators to modify as required for their particular circumstances. It supposes a typical
urban/suburban neighborhood, with surrounding neighborhoods also setting up like communications,
and the existence of an amateur radio (ham) operator within 2 miles of the neighborhood. An
alternative is to integrate
CB radios to reach out to
other neighborhoods,
vehicles, or monitoring
HAMs.

This system recommends

Family Service Radio
(FRS) walkie-talkies for
each family in the
neighborhood. These
radios are relatively
inexpensive, provide clear,
crisp, static-free
communications, and are
limited in range (typically in
58
an urban area) to 1/2 to 3/4 of a mile in range, and offer up to 14 channels upon which to communicate.
This will serve to lessen the congestion that serves to cripple communications. Additionally, these types of
radios are already in wide usage for camping trips, boating, skiing, etc. for families to communicate
between themselves. (Be as standard as possible).

NETWORKS TO MONITOR FOR INFORMATION

AmRRON.com is the Communications Hub merging AmRRON (American Redoubt Radio

Operators Network) and TAPRN (The American Preparedness Radio Network)

http://www.amrron.com/ - Plan put together by John Jacob Schmidt go to site for complete plan.

In the event of a nationwide catastrophic disaster, the nationwide network of Amateur Radio licensed
preppers will need a set of standardized meeting frequencies to share information and coordinate activities
between various prepper groups. This Standardized Amateur Radio Communications Plan establishes a
set of frequencies on the 80 meter, 40 meter, 20 meter, and 2 meter Amateur Radio bands for use during
these types of catastrophic disasters.

AmRRON/TAPRN (Hams & Relays)

A network is only a Network if members can connect with each other. The mechanism to
connect them together is AmRRON. In January, 2014, AmRRON joined with one of the most prominent
Amateur Radio preparedness/patriot networks east of the Missouri TAPRN (The American Preparedness
Radio Network). After the merger between AmRRON and TAPRN, it is now a nationwide network of
communicators linking regional and a growing number of local nets to form one large network through the
internet, Ham Radio, and CH3 (the Channel 3 Project). Made up of:

HAMS: Licensed Amateur Radio operators dedicated to connecting patriots/preppers in sharing information
over radio. RELAYS: Although Hams are Relays as well, a dedicated Relay is a non-licensed radio
operator who monitors Ham traffic and CH3 traffic, and then relays pertinent information up and down the
chain to act as a link between Hams and Non-Hams. They monitor scanners, shortwave radios, Ham
transceivers, CH3 frequencies, and commercial broadcasts.

CH3 (The Channel 3 Project)

This refers to a standardized communications plan for the most commonly used non-Ham radio
communications bands that do NOT require a license to operate. These are:

- CB (Citizens Band)

- FRS (Family Radio Service)

- MURS (Multi-Use Radio Service

The standard is simple 3,2,1. Turn to Channel 3 on any of these devices, attempt to make contact or
check in to (or start) a local net for 2 minutes on each side of the hour, every 1 hour. To conserve battery
power, turn the radio off and attempt in the next hour.

Preppers are encouraged to monitor conventional Amateur Radio and non-Amateur Radio frequencies for
sources of information, including: National Traffic System nets, state ARES/RACES HF nets, global

59
Centers of Activity (CoA), local VHF/UHF repeaters, CB channel 19, and national simplex calling
frequencies. However, these standardized frequencies and channels provide a place for preppers to meet
and exchanges information relevant to those of a prepper mindset after a catastrophic disaster.

Routine nets will not be held on all of these frequencies, but preppers are encouraged to use them when
coordinating with other preppers on a routine basis. Go to www.amrron.com for information on nets.

AmRRON/TAPRN EMERGENCY NET SCHEDULE

(Net Windows Begin Every Six Hours)

60
61
A Graphical Comparison of Distance Range
for Radio
Types and Stations
Typical Ranges for Various Types of Transmitters
http://hflink.com/hfpack/radiorange/
"How far will that radio go?"
"What type of radio should I get for most range?"
These simple questions often lead to complex answers because so many factors influence the
distance of radio communications. To simplify, the following charts show how many miles you can
usually communicate over normal terrain in suburban or rural areas with different types of radios,
power levels, and station configurations. The graphs compare the most commonly available 2-way
radios such as ham, CB, FRS, MURS, and GMRS. Some radio gear advertisements tout the
maximum possible distance in perfect conditions, an often misleading
specification. In the real world, people want to know the normal dependable average range of a radio.

The above graph shows the distance range between two base stations using a basic antenna
mounted on the
roof of a suburban house with a height of about 20ft above ground level. Communication distance can
be greatly improved over this by advanced gain antenna systems or a high pole or a tower. This
estimate is based upon radio-to-radio direct communications without the use of a repeater.

62
BASE-TO-BASE

The above graph shows the distance range between a mobile vehicle with a basic vehicle antenna,
communicating with a base station using a basic antenna mounted on the roof of a suburban house.
Communication distance can be greatly improved over this by advanced gain antenna systems or a
high pole or a tower at the base station. The distance can be adversely affected by interference from
the vehicle engine; further distance can be achieved by parking on a hilltop or open area and shutting
off the vehicle. This estimate is based upon radio-to-radio direct communications without the use of a
repeater.

63
BASE-TO-VEHICLE

The above graph shows the distance range between a mobile vehicle with a basic vehicle antenna,
communicating with a base station using a basic antenna mounted on the roof of a suburban house.
Communication distance can be greatly improved over this by advanced gain antenna systems or a
high pole or a tower at the base station. The distance can be adversely affected by interference from
the vehicle engine; further distance can be achieved by parking on a hilltop or open area and shutting
off the vehicle. This estimate is based upon radio-to-radio direct communications without the use of a
repeater.

64
VEHICLE-TO-VEHICLE

The above graph shows the distance range between two mobile vehicles with basic vehicle whip
antennas. Communication distance can be somewhat improved (25%to 50% further) over this on VHF
and UHF by the use of a gain antenna. The distance can be adversely affected by interference from
the vehicle engine; further distance can be achieved by parking on a hilltop or open area and shutting
off the vehicle. This estimate is based upon radio-to-radio direct communications without the use of a
repeater.

65
PEDESTRIAN-TO-PEDESTRIAN

The above graph shows the distance range between two pedestrian radios with whip antennas.
Improved distance can be achieved by standing in an open area or on a hilltop. HF backpack radios,
HF packs, CB backpack radios, or manpack radios are compared with Handy Talkies, Walkie Talkie,
or HT radios. Distance on VHF will be somewhat less if a small rubber ducky antenna is used instead
of a full size antenna. The use of a counterpoise radial wire on the pedestrian radio improves distance.
This estimate is based upon radio-to-radio direct communications without the use of a repeater.

66
Setting Up and Maintaining
a Secure Command Base
Overview
Three primary criteria determine the security of a Command Base:
Visibility
Access
Personnel
Unlike the movies where a base is always out in a nice meadow surrounded by lush greenery, a creek or
river, and a beautiful mountain backdrop, real bases, that is small Command Bases, are rarely detectable.
Granted, an entire air base is difficult to hide and large artillery and other transport equipment can take a
considerable amount of space and are not the subject of this booklet. For our purposes, a Command Base
would be set up for no more than 300-500 soldiers with no vehicles, artillery, or other large equipment.
These methods also apply to a Patrol Base and an FFU Base.
Who can and cannot access the base is critical, both from a capability standpoint and a security post. In
short, if it is difficult to get into the base, it is less likely the personnel in the base will have to fight off
security threats. Personnel will, on occasion, have to defend a base so it is wise to set up the base in a way
that makes it easier to defend.
In the varying roles of the militia, not every base has to be invisible. When assisting in a medical operation
after a natural disaster, for example, the base should be readily available to emergency vehicles. Each
case will require its own particular configuration. Operations personnel must be flexible and ensure the
command base structure fits the mission. This booklet will not cover the items that are to be deployed at
the command base, but rather concentrate on construction and security.

Deciding on a Location
Again, you dont want a base to be in the middle of a plowed field where anyone can see it from miles
away. Even if there is no foliage, tree line, or other natural cover, the base should still not be in the middle
of a completely open area. All of the areas below can be used to set up a base:
For Open Areas:
o Road Culvert
o Over the horizon (When any type of hill or rise in the terrain is available.)
o Edge of a canal
o Behind or among vehicles
o Pile of cleared brush
o Behind or around a lone house (But not in it! This makes the base very prone to attack even
by accident. Even with guards, visibility from the inside to the outside is limited and
someone else wanting to use the facility as a hide, base, or cache could surprise occupants
inside a building. See below.)
For Non-Open Areas
o Wooded Area: Put the base as far into the woods/brush/foliage as is reasonably feasible.
Note that if the base is so far from the supply route that all the personnels time is spent
67
 moving supplies, its counter-productive. The goal is to make the base invisible from the
road if a hostile environment is expected.
o Shaded Area: If no hostile activity is expected, the base may be visible to allow emergency
vehicles, supply routes, or other personnel to find it easily. Shade, however, is critical to
keeping equipment and personnel operating efficiently.
o Buildings, Urban: For a strategic location in a hostile environment, being inside a building is
always a questionable option. Although it provides protection from weather and incoming
hostile weapons fire, it does not provide quick egress or protection from an actual fire.
Although a rooftop can provide excellent visibility for infantry, a command base should never
be on top of a building. In an urban setting, the best place to be is behind buildings out of
sight of roads or walkways. To facilitate good communications, an antenna may be run to
the top of the closest building, but it must be sacrificed if a hasty retreat is required.
o Buildings, Rural/Suburban: With the exception of a lone building in the middle of an open
field, rural and suburban buildings are much safer to use as a command base. When there
are several buildings in the same vicinity, the odds of a hostile group selecting the same one
are minimized. Even though guards would be on the outside of the building, adjacent
buildings provide good cover if the need arises. The disadvantage is the other buildings
restrict the visibility. In a neighborhood environment, a building/house should be selected
that is ignorable, that is, it should not look like a good place to rob, neither should it look
like it hasnt been occupied in a long time. These are the first targets of hostiles.
Bad Selection Options: If it can be avoided, never put a command base in any of the following:
o Steep slope behind the base in a rainy area. The entire base can be subject to rock or
mudslides.
o Atop a ridge. Long-range visibility is for infantry.
o Atop a building: As stated, personnel will have no exit in any emergency.
o A flood prone area: Especially if storms are the reason for the emergency. If an area is not
flooded now it could be in a matter of hours. In coastal areas, even a storm surge or high
tide can flood a base in the wrong place. A flood prone area can be a lower-lying spot in a
neighborhood, field, or even a street/alley. It may not be wet now but if it rains heavily, the
area could be difficult to navigate by both intruders and personnel. In a medical operation,
injured persons should not be placed on wet soggy ground. Operations personnel must
select a location where water will drain away from the base, not into it.
o On or near a bridge. This may seem obvious, but a base in this area will be the first to be
sighted or attacked. The only exception is if a squad is assisting in building or recovering the
bridge itself.
o Anywhere communications could be severely restricted such as near a cliff, between tall
buildings with no accessory antenna, inside a metal building, etc.
o Any place with only one entry or exit. Multiple escape routes must always be available, even
if they are hidden.

Restricting Access
Access is more than checking a persons ID when they approach the base. Access can range from the
ability to even get near the base to having a twenty-foot tall fence at the perimeter. A few basic and quick
options for restricting access to a base are:

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 Vehicles: Place any vehicles available in any roadway that leads to the base. Vehicles can also be
used to set up a perimeter around the base but they should be far enough from the center of the
base that visibility and movement out of the base is not restricted.
Trip Trench: This is simply digging a small trench around the perimeter that when stepped on
directly causes a person to lose their balance and fall forward. To be effective, the trench must be
at least 6 deep and 24 wide to ensure most everybody would step into it. After digging, the trench
must be covered with similar ground cover such as grass or limbs to hide its presence.
Trip Line: This term covers a wide variety of systems. The basic trip line is just that: something that
makes a person trip over it. This can be done with sticks and camo para-cord or small-gauge wire.
Other systems include, but are certainly not limited to:
o Hanging Noise Line: Like the trip line, but has aluminum cans or other easily moved items
that make noise hanging from the trip line. This adds a second or louder method of hearing
someone at the trip line. This method is usually set up just before dark as the hanging items
are difficult to disguise.
o Noise Line: This is usually created by surrounding the perimeter with anything that will make
noise when stepped on. Dried leaves, branches, twigs, paper, cans, and plastic bottles are
all something that might be readily available at the command base. Setting up a three foot
wide swath of these materials will alert all in the area that something, or someone, is
approaching the base.
o Stake Line: A line of sticks or any relatively straight material that can be used to create a
barrier similar to a fence. The stakes do not have to be very tall above ground for intruders
to trip over them, especially in heavy grass or brush. Taller stakes, though visible, provide a
barrier that at least slows an intruder down.
o Combinations: If a stake line is built, a noise line can be installed on the inside of it. Any
intruder that pushes through the barrier is going to make a lot of noise. If a standard trip line
is built, a short stake line can be built three feet inside of it. When an intruder trips and falls,
they will come in contact with the stake line in some way and almost certainly make a lot of
noise.
Foliage/Debris: Any type of debris that can be handled safely can make an excellent barrier that is
both difficult and time-consuming to penetrate. Although they are also somewhat time-consuming to
build, they can be very effective. Personnel can spend a few minutes of each watch or even each
day to fortify this type of structure. Using tree limbs, palm fronds, vines, tree trunks, or any
construction/destruction debris, personnel simply stack it up in a fashion where it will not fall over
easily. Attaching noise-making devices to the inside of the barrier also provides additional
protection if an intruder attempts to penetrate the wall.
Dunes: If heavy equipment and sufficient dirt is available, almost any height of a protective barrier is
sufficient to slow down an intruder. Dunes double as a hide and shooting position. These take a lot
of time to build and would not be used except in extremely long-term command base operations.
Fencing: An obvious barrier, but requires a large amount of resources and construction time. Also
only used for extremely long-term operations.
When setting up a perimeter, the base should still allow for quick entry and egress. Walls or other
barriers can be staggered to keep entry ways from being completely obvious. Even weak spots in the
barrier can be built. They are not obvious to intruders, but personnel in the base know where they are
and can be broken easily to allow quick egress. Personnel should exercise caution when building
barriers so that friendly personnel are not also tripping, falling, or being kept in or out.

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Personnel and Procedures
Having a Command Base is completely pointless without the people. Otherwise its just a collection of
equipment and supplies. The personnel make the base what it is and the mission is different on every
deployment. For that reason, security of the base is accomplished based entirely on the mission. Some
missions require armed guards; some require no guards at all such as in a disaster relief scenario without
hostiles. In no situation, however, is any guard to leave a post without being properly relieved.
For hostile or suspected-hostile situations, the command base needs no less than three guards:
Two guards patrolling the perimeter
o These guards must be on the lookout for all situations both inside and outside the perimeter.
o Guards must be careful to avoid any noise makers that might alert another guard by
accident.
o Guards must never patrol in the same path twice; always alter the path and timing of the
patrol so that your position can never be estimated.
o Guards must never be at the same place at the same time.
o Each guard must have a means of communication with both the other guards and the
personnel operating the command base.
o Guards must report any suspicious activity before taking action.
o Perimeter guards are also the first security checkpoint for returning
squads/patrols/personnel. Both far and near recognition protocols are the responsibility of
these guards.
One guard at the base station
o The sole purpose of this guard is to protect the personnel at the command base itself.
o This guard must not only keep lookout on the inside of the perimeter, but at all times be in
contact with perimeter guards by sight when possible, and by radio at all other times.
o This guard must also keep an accurate count of the persons in the command base area and
ensure he/she knows every person in the base by sight.
o The base guard is responsible for conducting any security challenges inside the base. This
guard will hear the far recognition on the radio when in use and should expect to challenge
returning personnel
For non-hostile situations, the base should still have at least one guard to perform the following:
Ensure all personnel at the base have a secure place to work and perform operations
Ensure any equipment or supplies are not stolen or used incorrectly in the base. In many,
rescue or other disaster relief scenarios, rescued persons often feel the need to take whatever
they might need and leave with it. The guard must ensure supplies are being distributed
correctly.
Ensure all non-militia emergency responders and law enforcement gain the proper access to
speak with base personnel when required.
Expand the guard duty by assigning other personnel to guard duty when necessary or the
number of people at the base requires.

Other Base Personnel

All other personnel at the base must also be vigilant in keeping the area safe from work hazards and
hostile situations. For example, during a suspected hostile environment, all base personnel should keep
appropriate weapons in close proximity in the event the base must be protected, guards require assistance,
70
or guards are overrun. In a non-hostile environment, assigned staff must stay alert to theft and other
damage, even by accident. That is, S4 Supply Staff need to be in charge of distributing supplies. S6
Signaling Staff need to ensure the communications set is kept out of the weather and that personnel do not
trip over cabling, power supplies, or any other equipment that can cause communications failures.
In both hostile and non-hostile scenarios, volunteers can be both advantageous and a detriment to
operations. If volunteers do arrive, it is crucial they are assigned non-essential duties such as moving
supplies, fortifying defensive barriers, or supporting the camp operations by cooking, etc. Never allow
volunteers to perform guard, communications, or medical duties until they are fully vetted and their
qualifications established. In a disaster relief function, there is always something for volunteers to do
outside the command base. Make every effort to keep the command base clear of all non-essential
personnel.
When volunteers are present, it is critical to ensure the base has the appropriate number of guards
available to secure the area, even if a patrol has to leave one member from each squad. Without the base,
all patrols are at the mercy of their patrol area and the supplies they have carried with them outside of the
base. If a patrol left on an expected 4-hour patrol and the base is overrun while they are gone, they will
have little in the way of supplies with them.

Operational Security Reminder

What is OpSec anyway? There are hundreds of legitimate answers, but for our purposes, all of the
following are considered items of OpSec and should not be discussed or transmitted to any person or
group outside of our own to ensure the security and well-being of all members:
Locations of any training or operation with very few exceptions to be approved by S3 Operations or
State Coordinators
Pictures, documents, names, or addresses of any persons or property associated with or owned by
the group without express written consent of the persons involved and the S6 Staff.
Past or future training or operation details including dates, locations, persons involved, equipment
used, or supplies available. (Content of the training or operation may be shared.)
Frequencies used for any training or operation communications
Details of methods, procedures, participation numbers (strength of unit,) or any other specific
information regarding training, operations, personnel, or the organization as a whole. General
information used to recruit and inform the public is acceptable.
The real test of OpSec is to ask yourself I wonder if I should really say or share this? If you ask the
question, the answer is No. Better safe than sorry!

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Session 8: - Tactical: Disaster Relief (DR): Food Distribution, Personal
Protective Gear, Vegetation Clearing
Prerequisite: None.
Reading Reference: Food Distribution Booklet, Personal Protective Gear Booklet, Vegetation Clearing
Booklet
What to Bring: This Page, Textbooks, Small Notebook (No larger than 3X5 so it will fit in a uniform
pocket), Lunch, at least one bottle of water, a chair, IFAK (Individual First Aid Kit), Radio, Personal
Protective Gear
Objectives:
In this session, the trainee will:
1. Identify the source of emergency food distribution resources.
2. Identify the Federal, State, and Local agencies or companies involved in Emergency Food
Distribution.
3. Explain the militia members role in Emergency Food Distribution.
4. Explain the types of deployments to consider when selecting personal gear.
5. Explain the equipment sets and personal protective gear recommended for both infantry and
disaster relief functions.

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Disaster Food Distribution

Overview
The purpose of this paper is to identify the sources of emergency or disaster food distribution, the agencies
that run the program, and how the Florida Militia can be involved when necessary.
Below are the Federal, State, and in some cases, County agencies that operate food distribution programs.
These agencies may be contacted by FLM personnel to offer assistance, transport, or even security for
operations.

Agencies Involved
Primary control of operations is held by the state agencies. When a disaster is incurred, the state agencies
submit requests to the US Department of Agriculture to receive assistance. The level of support provided
by the USDA depends on the severity, scope, and range of the disaster.
In Florida, the following identifies the appropriate agencies:
Statewide: Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services
o This is the agency that initiates the food distribution program when a disaster has been
declared by either the President or the Governor.
o The agency receives information regarding the severity of the disaster and completes the
appropriate forms for requesting assistance from the USDA if required.
Individual Food Banks
o The state does not actually handle the food or operate the food banks. Instead, the state
contracts a variety of companies to store and distribute the food when required.
o The independent companies are required to not only ensure the food stays edible, but also
provides for security of the food.
o The table below lists all of the food banks in Florida:
Florida Food Banks
Interest Name Location
All Faiths Food Bank, Inc Sarasota, FL 34240
America's Second Harvest of the Tallahassee, FL 32305
Big Bend, Inc
Bay Area Food Bank, Inc Milton, FL 32583
Catholic Charities of Central Lakeland, FL 33815
Florida, Inc. dba Agape Food
Bank
Farm Share, Inc Homestead, FL 33033
Farm Share, Inc Northeast Jacksonville, FL 32206
Florida Branch
Feeding America Tampa Bay Tampa, FL 33605
Feeding America Tampa Bay Land O Lakes, FL 34639
Suncoast Branch
Feeding South Florida, Inc Pembroke Park, FL 33023

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 Florida Food Banks (Continued)
Harry Chapin Food Banks of SW Fort Myers, FL 33901
Florida
Meals on Wheels Plus of
Manatee, Inc Bradenton, FL 34208
Osceola County Council on
Aging, Inc Kissimmee, FL 34744
Religious Community Services,
Inc Clearwater, FL 33756
Second Harvest Food Bank of
Central Florida, Inc Orlando, FL 32805
The Volunteer Way New Port Richey, Florida 34688
Treasure Coast Food Bank, Inc Fort Pierce, FL 34947

When an emergency arises, FLM personnel will be activated and a member will contact their local or
nearest food bank to offer assistance.
Local Assistance
o In Florida, disaster relief efforts are coordinated by the Florida County Sherriffs
Association.
o To offer assistance, you should contact the following but in this order:
Sheriffs Office (A County organization)
American Red Cross, Local Chapter
Salvation Army, Local Chapter
Local Police Force
This is why it is crucial for each FLM member to know and communicate with their local organizations listed
above. Each member should research the name of a point of contact and the appropriate phone number
for each of the organizations when it comes time to either offer assistance or report the need for
assistance.

Food Distribution Operations

Participation by FLM personnel is determined by the requested mission. After contacting the proper
authority, the authority/agency will state what mission they need. One of the following is typical:
Transport
o Actually moving food from one place to another
o Assisting in unloading food once it arrives at a designated location.
o Carrying food from street to the door of households for disabled persons receiving food
Serving
o Assisting in the actual distribution of the food to the public
o Though most distributed foods are designed to be prepared with no cooking required,
occasionally, cooked, buffet-style distributions are in order. In these cases, personal
hygiene is of utmost importance when serving.
Security
o Protect the food; ensure it is not stolen
o Protect the personnel: ensure the location is not overrun by rioters or looters.

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Personal Protective Gear

Overview
The purpose of this paper is to identify the equipment that should be carried by personnel in each type of
deployment scenario. Not all equipment need be carried to all events and/or deployments; this paper
identifies the different sets of equipment that can be prepared ahead of any event to make deployment
faster and more efficient for all members
The time to start putting together a deployment bag is NOT after the deployment has started. It is
recommend that each member have more than one scenario bag as outlined below.

Types of Deployments
As seen through the entire course of materials, any of the following might be realistic deployment
scenarios:
Hostile/Hostage
Property Protection
FLM Personnel Protection
Security
First Aid
Vegetation Removal
Mass Casualty
Victim Recovery
Food Distribution
Since many of the deployments require a different set of gear, it is not feasible to carry all possible gear to
all possible scenarios. It is also not feasible to have all members have all the gear for all scenarios. To
reduce the number of purchases required, teams can often combine their gear; one member brings part
of the required gear, another member brings a different portion. Each platoon or squad should work
amongst themselves to determine what gear already exists and who can bring it to the event, incident, or
deployment.

Recommended Equipment Sets

Since nobody want to buy and equip 10 or more different bags for different scenarios, many can be
combined into one equipment bag as identified below. Please note this equipment may be in addition to the
standard infantry pack outlined in our Standards and Guidelines document.
Infantry
The first four types of deployment listed above are very similar in nature and typically require the
same type of gear. A standard infantry pack is appropriate, but any additional bag may include:
o Back up batteries
o Back up lighting
o Back up communications
o Spare First Aid equipment
o Additional ammunition
o Gas Mask(s) and cartridges (replacement filters)

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 o Body suit: airtight, waterproof suit with head cover for any chemical or toxic presence
o Additional Weather Protection such as a pancho, jacket, head cover, gloves, pants or
anything that will prevent hypothermia.

Disaster Relief
Here, the missions are not quite as straight-forward. A vegetation removal deployment is completely
different from a mass casualty event. For these, we recommend two bags equipped with specific
items. Again, not every team member need have all the gear but it is important that every team
have at least the items listed below. These lists are in no way designed to be all-inclusive of all
equipment that could be included, but merely a list of minimum requirements for one full squad in a
disaster relief environment.
o Medical
Non-latex Gloves: A box of at least 100. During mass-casualty events, gloves are the
primary protection against the spread of disease
Hand Sanitizer: At least one quart size
Soap: At least one quart of anti-microbial hand soap
Masks: These not only reduce airborne pathogens from inhalation, but also reduce
the possibility of blood or other bodily fluids from entering your own mouth and nose.
Triangle bandages: These can be used in dozens of configurations for slings, splints,
wraps, and of course bandages
Sterile dressings: A wide variety of these exist made from gauze, padding, or other
material, but the primarily used dressing is 4 by 4 sterile gauze as it is the easiest
to remove or clean from a wound
Adhesive Bandages: Band-Aid style bandages of varying sizes to quickly dress
minor cuts
Medical or Athletic Tape: At least two rolls of cotton tape at least one inch wide
Scissors: At least two pair on blunt-point scissors for cutting bandages, dressings, or
clothing
Hemostats: At least two pair, but as many as can be carried efficiently to close
wounds or arteries
Suture kit: At least one suture kit in a sterile container
Syringe: At least one in the event any person with insulin requirements has lost or
broken their unit.
Epi-pen: At least one to counteract extreme allergic reactions
Clean Water: Two to four quarts of clean water with at least one of the quarts being
configured as an eye wash bottle are necessary
Hydrogen peroxide: One to two pints for specific cleaning and/or sanitizing
Pain relievers: Both acetaminophen and ibuprofen should be carried in ample
quantities of at least 100 each.
Isopropyl Alcohol: At least two quarts for sterilization and cleaning
Webbing belt: As many webbing belts as possible, at least one inch wide with quick-
tight shackles or buckles should be carried. These are used for tourniquets,
bandages (to hold large dressings in place,) splints, and a variety of other binding
requirements. They are fast, inexpensive, and disposable.
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 Spare body suits: As many as can fit in remaining space for protection from air- or
liquid-borne contaminants
o Debris
Working Gloves: Thick leather gloves are recommended for protection against sharp
items.
Goggles: Regardless if personnel are operating machinery, flying debris can be
found in any disaster.
Masks: Paper dust masks are recommended to protect the fact and prevent foreign
objects from entering the nose and mouth.
Machete: At least one machete should be included to help clear small vegetation.
Axe and/or Hatchet: Can be used to clear a wide variety of debris.
Pry bar: A small pry bar can help remove doors and other construction debris to help
rescue victims.
Chain: A six to ten foot section of medium size chain can be used to move a large
number of items or pull debris out of the way from a safe distance.
Helmet: At minimum a construction-style hard hat, but a spare infantry helmet is also
acceptable.
Chainsaw: A small unit is recommended to reduce the risk of injury to others and
make debris removal more efficient in small spaces. A large unit can be more
powerful, but a chainsaw is typically only needed to move trees from a roadway. The
easier it is to pack and carry the better.
Spare fuel: Fuel should not be stored inside the bag but may be permanently
attached to the outside of a bag.
Rope, Twine, or Para-cord: A spool of small line can be used for hundreds of
situations where tying something out of the way can facilitate entry into other areas.

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Vegetation and Debris Removal
Overview
In almost every natural disaster, both property and natural vegetation sustain damage. For the most part
however, buildings tend to collapse on themselves, be contained by vegetation, or be strewn over a large
area. Trees, shrubs, and other vegetation are generally thrown into places that were previously clear. The
main problem is that the majority of previously cleared areas contain roadways of some sort. Clearing
these roadways to allow passage of emergency vehicles becomes a priority.
The intent of this brief packet is to identify the equipment that can be used to clear vegetation and debris
and the safety considerations involved.

Deciding To Attempt Removal

If its in the way, then remove it! Not necessarily! Just because there is an obstruction of some sort blocking a
road or other critical passage does not mean a removal team should jump right in and start hacking away at it. A
few items should be taken into consideration before any removal is attempted. The major categories in this
packet are:
Hazards to personnel
Hazards to equipment
Hazards to safe passage after removal

Goals of Vegetation Removal

Goals are kept at a minimum in a disaster scenario: Provide enough room for emergency vehicles to pass, and
then move on to the next obstacle. No effort to clear an entire roadway or building should be attempted.

Effective Vegetation Removal

How effective a team can be in rapidly removing debris and vegetation depends a great deal on making the
proper plan, ensuring safety in every regard, knowing the proper use of equipment, and the ability to move
quickly. These will be discussed throughout the following information.

Safety During Vegetation Removal Operations

Safety First
There are no exceptions. The safety of the personnel involved with the operation is of utmost importance. Not
only for each teams personal safety, but also the safety and protection of all people that come in contact with
the removal area. Planning the removal, ensuring debris will not fall or become dislodged again, and use of
equipment are critical.

Planning the Removal

Before a team can begin any removal effort, it must first assess the situation and determine the following:
1. What hazards exist that may prevent removal?
2. What are the least time-consuming items to move?
3. Can the entire desired path be cleared?
4. What equipment is required or available?
5. Where can the removed items be placed to ensure a safe work environment and path?
6. Will the cleared path be obvious to emergency vehicles and teams?

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Hazards can be downed power lines, leaning structures or vegetation, items hanging from overhead cables, or
any other unstable structure. Power may not be applied to the power lines, but if power is restored before any
single line is cleared, it can present a serious danger to personnel and equipment. A leaning structure can
suddenly fall if wind or even vibrations cause it to move slightly. Items hanging from overhead cables can also
fall suddenly without warning or even pull down the cable. Any structure including vegetation that has sustained
moderate or severe damage can be a hazard.
Some items can be moved faster than others. A 60-foot long pine tree takes considerably more effort to remove
than a patio table or chair. A team must choose a path through the debris that requires the least amount of time
and effort yet still allows for moderately easy navigation by emergency vehicles.
A team must also determine if an entire path can be cleared. For example, in a suburban or urban environment
there are often many roads. Choosing a road with the least amount of obstructions can drastically reduce the
time required to provide a safe path. If an entire building fell across a roadway, determine if the road on the
other side of the building might be an easier path to clear.
A quick inventory of available equipment determines what can be cleared. An entire building across a roadway
cannot be cleared with machetes regardless of how many people are available to help. The team must choose a
path that they can clear with the equipment on hand. If larger equipment is readily available such as cars, trucks,
or even construction equipment such as bulldozers, excavators, or even cranes, much larger obstacle removal
can be attempted.
A safe path is essential not only to the emergency vehicles, but so that other teams may enter the area without
fear of injury. To accomplish this, some basic rules of physics and gravity can be applied as follows:
Place flat items flat on the ground. Never place a flat item on top of a round item as it will roll off with as
little input as a slight breeze.
Place round items in a pile surrounded by flat items. Round items rarely roll without some external force;
stacking them in a pile surrounded by support is a good method.
Do not leave any items leaning on other items. Stacking is always better than leaning in a debris
removal pile. Any item leaning on another can cause both to move.
A path should never be made over broken glass but around it. The broken glass on the ground or
roadway is the best place to start a debris pile. Walking on broken glass can cause personnel to slip and
fall directly onto the broken glass creating injuries.
Finally, the cleared path must be obvious. If an obvious path cannot be obtained on a particular roadway, a
nearby roadway may be a better option. An obvious cleared path does not necessarily mean a straight path.
Sometimes it is as simple as purposely stacking debris in a pile next to the entrance of the path so that
emergency responders can see that someone has been there and made an effort to clear a path. Many times a
large flat surface is available to put in front of the pile where an arrow or message can be spray-painted on it.
Bright-colored spray paint should be a standard item in all removal teams equipment. If a sign is set up, be sure
to reinforce it so that it will not blow over or create a hazard. All of these items should be considered before the
removal effort begins.

Use of Equipment
Although a team may have many members and often meet many volunteers along the way, it is important to
ensure each person is capable of handling whatever equipment can be used. Nobody would put a 6-year old on
the bulldozer, but it is not always as obvious who should and should not be using machetes and chainsaws.
Almost everybody, however, can pick up an item and move it to another location, so never turn away help.
Typically, hand tools and cutting devices are the primary removal tools available immediately following a natural
disaster. Do not let somebody you do not know borrow your power tool. If they need a removal to get to a
family member of other trapped person, get a buddy from your team and go with them so you can use the tool

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yourself. In a heavy vegetation environment, a machete is a very valuable tool to quickly clear a path into a
building or to remove small vegetation from a roadway. Do not allow anybody without proper training to use a
machete! More people have injured themselves with machetes, axes, and hammers than all other hand tools
combined. Sharing the basic rules of use described in sections below can drastically reduce personal injuries.
Even when a vehicle is used to pull a tree or other large item of debris out of the desired path, removal teams
should ensure no persons are in the way of either vehicle or debris and that nobody is in the range of a tow
cable or chain in the event it breaks. Although a path is desired as quickly as possible, it is crucial that teams
take their time to ensure personnel safety. Never sacrifice safety for speed of operations.

Actually Clearing a Path

When all safety considerations are reviewed, a team can actually start removing debris. At least one team
member should contact an Incident Commander or Command Base of some kind to let someone know they are
beginning the effort. This information can then be shared with emergency responders so when they get to the
area, they will know how to travel in that neighborhood or region.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Every member of a removal team should have the minimum safety equipment:
Leather gloves
Safety goggles
Hard hat or helmet
Long-sleeve shirt
Long pants
Boots (preferably steel-toed)
These items reduce or eliminate injuries caused by sharp items and flying debris such as sawdust or wood
chips.

Hand Tools
The following hand tools are the easiest to obtain and provide the quickest removal of small debris:
Machete
Axe
Claw Hammer
Sledge Hammer
Rip saw
Garden rake
Hoe
Pick
Wedge
All of these can cause serious personal injury so each tool should be distributed based on each persons
experience and capability.

Power Tools
Immediately following a natural disaster, the public utilities will probably not be available. Gas-powered tools are
therefore the best option. In this case, the chainsaw is the most useful tool. Only qualified, trained personnel
should use chainsaws. Any team with designated power tools should make every effort to keep them in reliable
operating condition and not just stored for future use. The longer any piece of equipment sits without being
used, the more likely it is that it will not work when required.

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How to Use a Machete
Many of us have seen movies where somebody is hacking through the jungle with a machete. In many of these
instances, the person using the machete is using it in a way that they would seriously injure themselves in a
real-life scenario. In short, at no time should any sharp edge device held by one hand be used in a straight line
in front of the body where a miss or loss of grip would allow the sharp edge to continue on toward the body. That
is, never swipe from directly above your head in a motion toward your feet. If you hit something on the way and
the device comes out of your hand, it has a very good chance of hitting you in the leg, foot, or even worse, your
stomach!
To eliminate the possibility of getting hit with your own sharp tool, always make a stroke that is at an angle to the
body. Swipe from upper left to lower right if youre right handed or upper right to lower left if youre left handed.
Do not attempt to hit or cut something that the tool was not designed for. Machetes are designed to cut
vegetation; small vegetation. If you try to break something by hitting it with a machete, you are likely to break
the machete itself and have the broken piece fly into your body. If it doesnt break, hitting a hard rigid object may
seriously damage the machete and render it either useless or seriously hampered in its ability to clear
vegetation.
A claw hammer is another example of a hand tool that should never be used in a manner parallel to the vertical
centerline of your body. Instead, offset the hammers target to the left or right of your body first. This way, if you
lose your grip, the hammer does not hit you.
All other tools in the list above are either two-handed tools where more control is available, or those that are
used in conjunction with another. Even then, extreme caution should be exercised in their use. Ensure that if you
miss your target, you will not hit yourself!

How to Use a Chainsaw

First, read all of the manufacturers warning and operating instructions. Although chainsaws are a relatively
basic tool, there is no way to cover the operating procedures for all of them here. After that, you must
understand the basic operation of the chainsaw and how to use it effectively without risking injury to yourself or
others. For the purpose of working with a team, the following are some general rules to follow:
Never start a chainsaw while holding its entire weight with one hand. That is, always set the chainsaw on
a solid surface when starting.
Never set the chainsaw down while it is running. Another team member may trip over it and cause injury.
If you need a cut item moved, get another team member to move it.
Take special care to never allow the chain to become pinched. This presents a hazard and wastes time
in removal.
Ensure that personnel are well clear of the cutting area. Stop often to ensure a safe distance is being
kept by all.
Ensure the item being cut will not fall, lean, roll, or move in any direction other than intended when the
cut is complete.
Ensure proper lubrication is maintained for the saw. Overheating can start fires.
Ensure only the operator is in charge of the chainsaw. Never had it to another person to move it or store
it. If the other person is not intimately familiar with its use, they can injure themselves.

Using Leverage
Even though tools might be available, many conditions exist that do not require the use of any tool to remove, or
more appropriately move an object. The primary condition is felled trees. If one tree has fallen on an already
felled tree, the two trees are a lever and a fulcrum. The top tree can be swung out of the way simply by applying
the proper pressure to one end and swinging the other end to a safe place.
Two issues exist with this practice:
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 1. Ensure personnel are NEVER between the trees in the direction of the swing of either end.
2. Ensure the lever tree is never swung so far that it will roll off the fulcrum tree. Move it only the
amount required to clear a path.
In every situation where leverage is used to move an item, be sure the item is chocked so that it cannot move.
Chocking means to place an item between the surface where a rolling item is sitting, and the rolling item. For
example, an airplane chock is the item placed between the concrete and the airplanes tire to keep it from
rolling. The removal team can place another branch, log, door, or any suitable item between the fulcrum and
lever trees to hold them in place.
Use of leverage in this case can eliminate the use of the chainsaw altogether. In some cases, the leverage is too
long on one side. Instead of cutting up the entire tree and then having to roll all the sections out of the way, the
team could potentially make one cut. The cut would be at a place where the tree could then be leveraged out of
the way and the other piece could either be left where it is, or moved easily.
In any case where a leverage scenario might exist, the removal team should seek to take advantage of it
so the team can reduce cutting time, reduce or eliminate potential for injury, clear more area in a given
time, or reduce the fatigue of the entire team.

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Session 9: - Tactical: Squad Proof and Graduation
Prerequisite: DPC 1 - 8
Reading Reference: Review all sessions of DPC.
What to Bring: All Tactical Gear available including radio and IFAK, Minimum 1 gallon of water, Minimum
1,000 calories of snacks, chair, protective gear
Objectives:
In this session, the trainee will:
1. Conduct an extended patrol demonstrating any of the topics in DPC at the direction of the
Instructor.
2. Conduct all First Aid, Victim Recovery, and Command Base procedures required by the
patrol/mission.
3. If qualified, participate in the Squad Graduation Ceremony.
4. Be sworn-in by conducting the Florida Militia Oath.

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