Roula Mahmoud (C)

LEBANESE UNIVERSITY
FACULTY of ENGINEERING
Branch -1-
Project No. 27/1419/2013
Graduation Project:
Engineering Club
Prepared by : Roula Mahmoud
Supervised By:
- Dr. Rouba Daleti
- Dr. Nada El Hassan
- Eng. Rana Zahra
- Eng. Najah El Weli
- Eng. Zaynab Mohsen
Diploma 2013
SPECIAL THAMKS
THANK YOU GOD.
I would like to thank Dr. Roba daleti for supervising my project
during this semester, continuous guidance and encouragement.
I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. NADA AL HASAN
For helping and guide me in Neel construction.
I am also grateful to Dr. ZAHRA RANA for supporting me and
giving me the basics and advices of the architectural view of the
project.
I would also extend my gratitude to Eng. Al-WELI Najah for her
helping me modeling the structure. It was a fulfilling and fruitful
experience and Eng. MOHSEN Zaynab for supervising the
management of my project.
Thanks to everyone that helped me and I forgot to mention.
Table Of Contents :
Chapter 1 : Architectural Description . 06
1.1- Description of the project ...
1.2- Architectural modifications ......
Chapter 2 : Joints ...18
2.1- Types Of joints ...
2.2- Joints spacing ....
2.3- Joints Location ...
2.4- Joints in the Project ...
Chapter 3: Structural design & design criteria .....22
3.1- Structural design ....
3.2- Design criteria ....
Chapter 4: Etabs Model ........26
4.1- Part 1: Periods and Participating Mass Ratio ..
4.2- Part 1: Story Drift and Displacement ..
4.3- Part2: Periods and Participating Mass Ratio ..
4.4- Part2: Story Drift and Displacement .
Chapter 5: Design of Slab .39
5.1- Type of slabs ..
5.2- Design procedure ..
5.3- Manual Application of the method (EFM) ...
Chapter 6: Slab-Safe Modeling ...45
6.1-Shear design in FLAT SLABS ..61
6.2-Modelisation on Safe ..62
6.3-DEFLECTION .65
Chapter 7 : Column Design ..53
7.1 Types Of Columns ..
7.2-Hints for design according to the ACI code.
7.3-Arrangement of square & rectangular Columns ...
7.4-Design of Columns....
Chapter 8 : Shear wall design ...7
8.1. ACI Requirements for the design of shear walls ..
3
8.2-Design Criteria ..
Chapter 9 : Raft Foundation.16
9.1-INTRODUCTION..
9.2- BEARING CAPACITY OF MAT FOUNDATIONS...
9.3- MAT SETTLEMENTS.
9.4- Why Mat Foundation instead of Isolated Footings .
9.5-Determination of the rafts depth
9.6-Safe Modeling .
9.7-Steel Drawings .
Chapter 10 : Basement Wall ......27
10.1-Types of Retaining Wall ...
10.2-Forces Applied ....
10.3- ACI Code Requirements for R.C Basement Walls .
10.4- Basement Wall in the Project ....
10.5- Design procedure .
10.6- Wall Reinforcement ....
Chapter 11 : Ramp Design .......45
11.1- Geometry ..
11.2- Design of the ramp .
11.3- Sketch Drawing ..
Chapter 12 : Stair Design ....52
12.1- Types of Staircases ..
12.2- Geometry of the stairs ..
12.2- Load Calculation ...
12.4- Reinforcement ..
12.5- Sketch Drawing ..
Chapter 13 : Vegetated building...68
Chapter 14 : Project Management .......103
14.1- The Traditional approach ......
14.2-Project management triangle......
14.3-Bill Of Quantities ........
14.4-Work on primavera ....
5
Chapter 1
Architectural Description
1.2- Description
Vegetated Building is a project for architecture diploma which was done in 2010-2011
Lebanese university, Institute of fine Arts, Department of architecture.
This project is a public building thats mean function is relaxation, amusement and creating a
green space between the rigid buildings.
By the large increase of unrecognized construction the green lands become more and more
smaller and fewer, and to provide a space like nature in the region with big population the
idea of vegetated building start to come up.
Location:
I supposed that this project is located btween Anfeh and kalamoun, is found in an oblique
terrain where a sandy soil exists.
1.1-Description of the Project:

Engineering club is composed of:
o Reception zone
o Classes
o Library
o pisine
o Restaurent
o Gym
o Sauna
The club is composed of 2 stories with 2 basements. The total height of the building is 14.9 m
and the height of each basment is 3.6m, story 1 is 3.4 m height, story 2 is 4.3 m height.
The Plan views are as follow:
7
Basement 2 :
Gross Floor area 1721 m. In this plan we have men and women toilets, 1 stairs, 2 elevators
and a ramp leading to the upper basement.
Basement 1:
Gross Floor area 1721 m. In this plan we have men and women toilets,2 stairs,
massage,material art,sauna,restaurant,2 depot.
9
Ground Floor:
Gross Floor area 1995 m.
In this plan we have 2 stairs, 2 salle polyvalante, cafeteria with its kitchen, male & female
toilets, 2 foyer,music class, informatique class,theater Also an exist leading to the outside
garden.
First Floor:
Gross Floor area 1995 m.
In this floor we have 1 stairs, espace technique, 5 offices, book storage, male & female
toilets, Offices for directors.
Top View:
Sections :
11
Sections A-A :
Sections B-B :
1.3- Architectural Modifications
Three main modifications have been made to the project. These modifications are listed
below:
1-In order to introduce lateral force-resisting frames in the building, I have changed the
positions of the columns and added some new columns and shear walls.
2- I put an expansion joint to control the dilatation.
3- I put and recognize the columns in the basements.
4- With the new distribution of the columns, I have been obligated to change the parking
entrance and the cars distribution in the basement respecting the related laws and norms.
Basment1:
Before
13
After:
Basment2:
Before
After:
RDC:
Before
15
After:
Story1:
Before
After:
17
Chapter 2
Joints in buildings
2.1-Types Of Joints :
The joints are categorized into 2 groups:

Construction Joints
Movement Joints.
Construction Joints : These joints are installed to break up the structure into smaller units in
accordance with the production capacity of the construction site. True construction joints are
not designed to provide for any movements, but are separations between consecutive
concreting operations.
Movement Joints : These joints are installed to accommodate volume changes by using the
Expansion joints , Contraction joints or the Shrinkage strips
o Expansion joints : They are used to allow expansion and

contraction of concrete during the curing period and during
the service; to permit dimensional changes in concrete due
to load; to separate or isolate areas or members that could
be affected by any such as dimensional changes; and to
allow relative movements or displacements due to
expansion, contraction, differential foundation movement
or applied loads. Obviously, expansion joints can also
function or work as construction joints.
o Contraction joints : The tensile stresses caused by

shrinkage and temperature drop in the concrete that is not
free to contract can be relieved or reduced to tolerable
limits by contraction joints. A control /contraction joint is a
purposely made plane of weakness of a section so that
cracking and contraction will occur along these preselected straight lines which are
inconspicuous and less objectionable. Control joints are inexpensive and can be
formed easily by tracking wooden, rubber, plastic or metal strips to the inside of the
forms. After removal of the form and the tracked on strips, a narrow vertical groove is
left in the concrete on the inside and /or outside surfaces.
o Shrinkage strips : are temporary joints that are left open for a certain time during
construction to allow a significant part of the shrinkage to take place without inducing
stresses. Such joints have been used to a considerable extent both in massive
structures and in thin walls and slabs, for the purpose of reducing shrinkage stresses
and minimizing shrinkage cracks. Such strips divide the structure into parts that
shrink independently until they are connected by casting the strip.
19
2.2-Joints Spacing:
Spacing of a functional joint (contraction or expansion) depends upon a great number of
factors:
- Shrinkage properties of the concrete

- Type of exposure to temperature and humidity
- Resistance to movement (restraint)
- Thickness of members
- Amount of reinforcement, and structural function of the member
- External loads, soil conditions, structural configuration, and other conditions
Many of these factors are exclusive variables, sometimes difficult to establish. As a

consequence, both experience and opinion on joint spacing vary greatly.
In reinforced concrete elements, joint spacing and reinforcement are interrelated variables,
and the choice of one should be related to the other. As yet, a reliable relationship between
the two quantities does not appear to have been established. Sufficient steel must be included
to control cracking between the joints. If the joint spacing is increased, the reinforcement
must be increased correspondingly to control cracking over the longer distance.
2.3-Joints Location:
The shape of a building has a definite
effect on joints locations. Any change
in the direction in such building shaped
as T, L and Y may require a close examination of
the necessity of joints at the junctions that usually
create stress concentrations
Also, at the junction between tall and low

buildings, the differential settlements require a
stress relief mechanism, in the form of either an
expansion joint or a shrinkage strip. So joints
are placed at major changes of building plan or
elevation.
Joints may also be needed at any location at which stress concentrations may occur, such as
large openings in walls or slabs, changes in thickness of walls, slabs in each of these cases
a sufficient amount of reinforcement across the potential crack may prevent cracking.
The type of construction and the climate are also important in determining the spacing of
movement joints.
There is a considerable divergence of opinion on spacing of movement joints (expansion and

contraction) with recommendation for expansion joints varying from 30m to 60m almost,
while contraction joints, they vary from a few meters up to 25m.
The distance between construction joints depends on the production capacity of the
construction site, being limited either by the formwork or casting capacity. When the distance
between construction joints becomes too large, intermediate control joints are introduced.
2.4-Joint in the Project :
The joint is placed between the basment1 and swiming pool,the thickness is 7cm.
It is expansion joints.
21
Chapter 3
Structural Design & Design Criteria
3.1.STRUCTURAL DESIGN :
3.1.1- Loading
A structure, or a part of it, is considered to be failed once it reaches one of the various limit
states.The considered states are:
Ultimate limit State (ELU) : This state refers to loads that could lead to failure, human
damages, serious financial losses ... Here the probability of failure must be low, thats
why we increase the loading by factors.
Service ability limit state(ELS) : This state refers to the criteria of ensuring the service
life of a structure or a building.
3.1.2- Strength and Stability:

The ultimate limit state design procedure requires that the structure has an adequate strength
in order to resist and ensure its stability under worst case of loading.
So the design at ultimate state must consider all the critical combinations that may be applied
on a structure.
3.1.3- Drift reduction:

If at a certain point of our study, the drift exceeded its allowable limit, multiple solutions
could be taken into consideration in order to reduce it:
Changing the geometric configuration to alter the mode of lateral load resistance
Increasing the bending stiffness of the horizontal members
Adding additional stiffness by the inclusion of stiffer wall or core member
Achieving stiffer connections, by sloping the exterior columns
In extreme circumstances, it may be necessary to add dampers, which may be of the passive
or active type.
3.1.4- Creep, Shrinkage & Temperature:

During the construction phase, elastic shortening will occur in the vertical elements of the
lower levels due to the additional loads imposed by the upper floors as they are completed.
Cumulative differential movements will affect the stresses in the subsequent structure,
especially in the building that includes both in-situ and pre-cast components.
Buildings subjected to large temperature variations between their external faces and the
internal core, and that are restrained, will experience induce stresses in the members
connecting both.
3.1.5-Determination of long term deformations:

In the terms of determination of long term deformations, many factors must be taken in
consideration:
- Concrete properties
- Loading history
- The age of the concrete at the time of load application
- Ration of volume over surface and steel ration in the studied elements
23
Uniform stress in the vertical components will induce a reduction of relative vertical
movement. This is due to creep and elastic shortening.
3.2.DESIGN CRITERIA
3.2.1-Softwares:
AutoCAD: used for architectural drawings, design drawings, and explicative

drawing in the project.
ETABS Version9.2 (Extended Three Dimensional Analysis of Building System): used

for modeling of the structure,
design of vertical elements (Columns, Shear Walls)
SAFE 12 (Slab Analysis by Finite Element Method): For the design of horizontal
elements (slabs, raft, beams)
S-CONCRETE: For the design of beams, columns as well as shear walls. This software
computes two types of strength utilizations:
- Shear and torsion utilization
- Axial load and moment (N vs. M) utilization.
Primavera P6: For the study of planning and project management of the entire project.
This software leads us
at the end to an analysis of the total material and labor cost and a plan view of the
project according to a logical sequencing of construction activities.
ROBOT 2010: Used for the design of beams, columns as well as shear walls. It is an
integrated graphic program for modeling, analyzing and designing various types of
structures. Robot allows users to create structures, carry out calculations and verify
results. In our project we used it for the basement wall design.
3.2.2-Design Codes:
ACI 318-05 for the determination of loads combinations, the design and detailing of various
concrete elements (slabs, columns and walls).
3.2.3-Structural Design Loads:
The designed loads to be considered in accordance to the ACI 318-05 standard code are
estimated as:
Dead loads :
Self-weight of the structural elements based on preliminary dimensioning of the

structural sections and the material specific unit weight.
Super imposed dead loads: including finishing and allowance for partitions: 5 KN/m2
in all stories (2 KN/m2 for the allowance for partitions and 3 KN/m2 for finishes)
Live loads :: LL = 5 KN/m2
3.2.4-Materials of construction
Concrete compressive strength : fcu = 25/30MPa
Reinforcing steel
- Yield strength of tensile steel reinforcement: fy = 400MPa
- Yield strength of shear reinforcement: fy = 400MPa
- Modulus of elasticity of concrete: Eb = 200,000MPa
25
Chapter 4
Etabs Model
4.1-Materials:
Horizontal concrete (for slabs): fc= 28 MPa
Vertical concrete (for walls and columns): fc= 28MPa
fc + Value of E from S-concrete
4.2-Data: loads & parameters:
Self weight: Dead Load
Super Imposed dead load: SI
current story 25.4 KN/m2
Parking & basement 2.5 KN/m2
Live load 1: LL1

Current stories 3.5 KN/m2
Parking, service 5KN/m2
Wind X, Wind Y + generation

Code ASCE 7-02
Wind speed = 70 mph
Exposure = B
Stories resisting wind loads: Ground floor to roof
Angle between Wind X and Wind Y = 90
Gust factor = 0.85
Earthquake: EQX, EQY

Code UBC 97: zone 3
Z = 0.3
Ct = 0.035 ft
I = 1.25
R = 3.5
Soil type: SD
All stories resist to earthquake
4.3-Etabs model with structural joints:

Input data:
Story Height Elevation SimilarTo

STORY2 4.3 14.9
STORY1 3.4 10.6 STORY2
BASE1 3.6 7.2 BASE2
BASE2 3.6 3.6
27
Modeling input floor geometry: Plan Views
Type 1
Diaphragm
Type 2
29
3D Views:
3D Perspective views
Static Load Cases:
CASE TYPE Auto Load SW multiplier

SELF DEAD DEAD 1
SI SUPER IMPOSED DEAD 0
LL LIVE N/A 0
EQX QUAKE UBC97 0
EQY QUAKE UBC97 0
WINDX WIND ASCE7-02 0
WINDY WIND ASCE7-02 0
4.4-Outputs results and verifications:
A. 3D Deformed shapes:
Story 3 Story 4
Due to earth quake: (from static a
EQX
3D Mode shapes:
Mode 1: T = 3.8128 S Mode 8: T = 2.7079 S
31
Mode 10: T = 0.0296 S
Mode 20: T = 0.0157 S

Mode 22: T = 0.0141 S
33
Summary report: (unit: KN-m):
Centers of cumulative mass & centers of rigidity :
Story Diaphragm MassX MassY XCM YCM CumMassX CumMassY XCCM YCCM
STORY4 D1 1681.189 1681.189 37.372 28.324 1681.189 1681.189 37.372 28.324
STORY3 D1 1755.649 1755.649 37.351 28.519 3436.8377 3436.8377 37.361 28.424
STORY2 D1 2239.4 2239.4 36.65 27.801 5676.2379 5676.2379 37.081 28.178
STORY1 D1 2499.883 2499.883 36.6 27.805 8176.121 8176.121 36.934 28.064

Periods and modal participating mass ratio :
Check: Participating mass ratio 90 % in X and Y direction

If not we should increase number of modes!
35
Drift table:
We have: MX = 0.7 R DriftX MY = 0.7 R Drifty
Story Item Load DriftX DriftY
ftX
STORY4 Max Drift QX1 0.000262
X
Y
X
Y
STORY4 Max Drift QY1 0.000066
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
Then OK
Check:
M 0.02
If not Increase wall stiffness
37
Chapter 5
Design of Slab
5.1-Types of Slabs
In reinforced concrete construction, slabs are used to provide flat, useful surfaces. A
reinforced Concrete slab is a broad, flat plate, usually horizontal, with top and bottom
surfaces parallel or nearly so. It may be supported by reinforced concrete beams and is
usually cast monolithically with such beams, by masonry or reinforced Concrete walls, by
structural steel members, directly by columns, or continuously by the ground.
Slabs may be supported on two opposite sides only in which case the structural action of the
slab is essentially one-way, the loads being carried by the slab in the direction perpendicular
to the supporting beams. There may be beams on all four sides, so that two-way slab action is
obtained.
Intermediate beams, may be provided, if the ratio of length to width of one slab panel is
larger than about 2, most of the load is carried in the short direction to the supporting beams
and one-way action is obtained in effect, even though supports are provided on all sides.
Concrete slabs may in some cases be carried directly by columns without the use of beams or
girders, such slabs that commonly used where spans are not large and loads not particularly
heavy. Both are devices to reduce stresses due to shear and negative bending around the
columns. They are referred to as drop panels and columns capitals, respectively.
Reinforcing steel for Slabs is primarily parallel to the slab surfaces. Straight bar
reinforcement is generally used, although in continuous slabs bottom bars are sometimes bent
up to serve as negative reinforcement over the supports. Welded wire reinforcement is
commonly employed for slabs on the ground. Slabs may also be pre-stressed using high
tensile strength strands.
Waffle slabs:
Waffle slabs are suitable for spans 750 to 1200 mm. They carry heavier loads than flat
plates and have attractive exposed ceilings. Formwork, including the use of pans, is quite
expensive.
Slabs on beams:
Slabs on beams are suitable for spans between 500 to 750 mm. The beams increase the
stiffness of the slabs, producing relatively low deflection. Additional formwork for the
beams is needed.
One-way slabs on beams:

One-way slabs on beams are most suitable for spans 250 to 500 mm. They can be used for
larger spans with relatively higher cost and higher slab deflection. Additional formwork
for the beams is needed.
One-way joist floor system:

A one-way joist floor system is most suitable for spans of 500 t0 750 mm. Because of the
deep ribs, the concrete and steel quantities are relatively low, but expensive formwork is
expected. The exposed ceiling of the slabs may look attractive.
39
Flat Slabs and Flat Plates:
By suitably proportioning and reinforcing the slab, it is possible to eliminate supporting
beams altogether. The slab is supported directly on the columns in a rectangular or square
region centered on the columns. In a rectangular or square region centered on the
columns, the slab may be thickened and the column tops flared.
The thickened slab is termed a dropped panel and the column flare is referred to as a
column capital. Both of these serve a double purpose: they increase the shear strength of
the floor system in the critical region around the column and they provide of high
negative bending moment over the support.
Flat slabs are widely used for storage warehouses, parking garages and below-grade
structures carrying heavy earth-fill loads, for example.
Flat plates provide minimum construction time and low labor costs resulting from the very
simple formwork. They are better than flat slabs if shown that they can resist punching shear
and negative bending moments in the region of supports. But this will almost not be the case
where heavy loads are present.
In the light of the previous information, and the existing of big spans from 5 to 9 meters,
we will use for the project a flat slab that are the preferred solution for the construction
of in-situ concrete frame buildings where a square or near-square grid is used.
Selecting The Slab Thickness :
A well-designed slab is judged on the basis of its performance under service conditions. The
selection of slab thickness and the decision to use auxiliary stiffening elements such as
column capitals and beams are of paramount importance in the design of slabs, since, to a
great extent, these items determine the magnitude of slab deflections and the degree of
cracking.
As a general rule, economy of construction dictates that the slab be as thin as practical
(minimum dead load) and have as few auxiliary stiffening elements as possible. On the other
hand, the slab must provide sufficient shear capacity and flexural rigidity to keep deflections
and cracking within acceptable limits.
In many instances it is both practical and economical to obtain the required shear capacity
and also decrease the slab deflections by providing column capitals, increasing slab thickness,
or providing beams between the columns. We shall first examine the choice of slab thickness
and then the use of auxiliary stiffening elements.
41
There are two procedures for selecting an initial slab thickness to satisfy deflection
requirements. The first computes deflections for specific loading situations, using numerical
techniques such as the finite element method or the methodology, and compares these values
to permissible maximum values. The simpler and more commonly used procedure is to
provide a minimum thickness that experience has indicated will result in a serviceable slab.
The latter procedure is discussed in this section.
For two-way slabs, minimum thicknesses for slabs consisting of regular rectangular panels on
column supports are specified by the code both as fractions of the clear span, in between
supports and as absolute minimum values. For slabs with or without beams spanning between
the supports on all sides and having a ratio of long to short span not exceeding 2 shall be:
( )
But not less than
And need not more to be more than :
Where:
Ratio of clear spans in long to short direction of two-way slabs

Ratio of flexural stiffness of beam section to flexural stiffness of a width of slab bounded
laterally by centerline of adjacent panel on each side of beam
= Average value of for all beams on edges of a panel
Approximate method:
The maximum span in this part of the building is 9m
The thickness can be calculated in many ways: l/16, abacus or manual calculations
Lets assume first that e = slab thickness = 30cm.
Dead load:
Self-weight of the slab= 0.3 x 25 = 7.5 KN/m2.
Finishes= 3 KN/m2.
Partitions = 2 KN/m2.
Live load: LL = 5 KN/m2 (For Schools)

Using the ultimate combination:
Wu= 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL=1.4(7.5+3+2) + 1.7 x 5 = 26 kN/m2.
Total moment in the panel of width from panel center line to panel center line:
Width of the strip = 9m.
Moment = = 1896 KN/m.
Column strip moment 0.75 x 1896 = 1422 kN.m
Middle strip moment 0.30 x 1264 = 569 kN.m (to be on the safe side).
Column strip width= 9/2= 4.5m.
= 0.2247 =
= 0.9(flexion)
2 > 0.18
We should compute deflection!!

. = 0.262x25/400 = 0.016 < max = 0.0203
So the thickness is accepted!
5.2-Design Procedures:
The ACI code states that a slab system may be designed by any procedure satisfying
conditions of equilibrium and geometric compatibility, if it is shown that the design strength
at every section is at least equal to the required strength, and the serviceability requirements
are met.
Two methods are mentioned in the ACI code for the design under gravity loads:
1- Direct Design Method DDM
2- Equivalent Frame Method EFM
The first method DDM is limited to slab systems to uniformly distributed loads and supported
on equally spaced columns. Method uses a set of coefficients to determine the design
moment at critical sections. Two-way slab systems that do not meet the limitations of the
ACI Code 13.6.1 must be analyzed more accurate procedures.
The Equivalent Frame Method EFM:
The structure is considered to consist of design frames through the building along both
longitudinal and transverse column lines which are bounded laterally by the centerline of the
panel on each side.
Frames adjacent and parallel to an edge are bounded by that edge and the centerline of the
adjacent panels. It is usual to assume that each floor is unaffected by the loading on other
floors so that the far ends of the columns above and below are assumed fixed.
Columns or support shall be assumed to be attached to slab-beam strips by torsional members
transverse to the direction of the span for which moments are being determined and extending
to bounding lateral panel centerlines on each side of a column.
Where slab-beams are analyzed separately, it may be assumed in determining moment at a
given support that the slab-beam is fixed at any support two panels distant there from,
provided the slab continues beyond that point.
43
Slab Steel Overlap:
Chapter 6
Slab - Safe Modeling
45
6.1-Shear design in FLAT SLABS
When two-way slabs are supported directly by columns, as in flat slabs and flat plates, or
when slabs carry concentrated loads, as in footings, shear near the columns is of critical
importance. Tests of flat plate structures indicate that, in most practical cases, the capacity is
governed by shear.
Slabs without Special Shear Reinforcement:

Two kinds of shear may be critical in the design of flat slabs, flat plates, or footings. The first
is the familiar beam-type shear leading to diagonal tension failure. Applicable particularly to
long narrow slabs or footings, this analysis considers the slab to act as a wide beam, spanning
between supports provided by the perpendicular column strips.
A potential diagonal crack extends in a plane across the entire width of the slab. The
critical section is taken a distance d from the face of the column or capital. As for beams, the
design shear strength must be at least equal to the required strength Vu at factored loads.
The nominal shear strength should be calculated by

or

Where in this case

Longitudinal reinforcement ratio or
Alternatively, failure may occur by punching shear, with the potential diagonal crack
following the surface of a truncated cone or pyramid around the column, capital, or drop
panel. The failure surface extends from the bottom of the slab, at the support, diagonally
upward to the top surface.
The angle of inclination with the horizontal depends upon the nature and amount of
reinforcement in the slab. It may range between about 20 and 45.The critical section for
shear is taken perpendicular to the plane of the slab and a distance from the periphery of
the support. The shear force to be resisted can be calculated as the total factored load on
the area bounded by panel centerlines around the column loss the load applied within the area
bounded by the critical shear perimeter, unless significant moments must be transferred from
the slab to the column.
6.2-Modelisation On Safe :
Check of the Punching Shear :
Punching Shear < 1

VERIFIED!
47
Some of the values are bigger than one, so we have the problem of the punching Shear.
Different solutions can be done
Enlarging the columns facing the problem
Special reinforcement
Using Drop Panels ( Solution adopted )
6.3-Check Of DEFLECTION :
1. Deformed shape under the service combination.
Max. Displacement = 27.5 mm
Verification:
Max allowable deflection in internal part=l/480=14.6/480=30mm
27.5 mm < 30 mm then OK
Reinforcement of slab:
49
51
Reinforcement:
Top steel X& Y direction:
Bottom steel X& Y direction:

Chapter 7
Column Design
53
Columns are members of the structural material subjected not only to compression force but
also to bending moment, and act as beam-columns in one or two directions. The load which
comes from the column above into a column is called axial load.
The axial load column is subjected to compression that should achieve a minimum
eccentricity of the axial load to be designed.
If the moment is involved in the column, the steel will increase the strength, and the concrete
will tolerate most of the axial load. If the member is a short column, its bending deformation
will be very small because of its large bending stiffness; the resulting secondary moments
which are small in magnitude can be neglected.
So its important to emphasize that most of the reinforced concrete columns classified as long
columns are still relatively stocky.
Although these columns may develop significant secondary moments, they will normally fail
by overstress, not by buckling.
7.1 Types Of Columns :
There are three major types of reinforced concrete columns:
Tied columns : they are members having rectangular, square or circular cross section that
is reinforced with longitudinal main steel to resist bending that might exist on the column,
and its tie should be individual with a corresponding spacing varying between 250 and
500mm.
A spiral column : has a circular or square cross section, and in both cases it has
continuous spiral to hold the longitudinal bars in their position during concrete casting.
A composite column : is consisted of reinforced concrete and I-Beam steel shape that
reduces the effect of creep and shrinkage. It may be used as square or spiral column with
a structural steel or I-Beam shape.
7.2-Hints for design according to the ACI code:
Cover
There are two cases to take into consideration:

- If the concrete element is exposed to weather: 50mm
- If the concrete element is not exposed to weather: 40mm
I will Take c = 40mm
MAIN REINFORCEMENT
1) Steel ratio: t = 1% 8%
- t mean = 3%
- t economical = 4%
2) The minimum reinforcement required for both tied and spiral columns:
As = 0.012bh where bxh is the column area of concrete
3) The maximum reinforcement required for both tied and spiral columns:
As = 0.08bh where bxh is the column area of concrete
4) Spacing for vertical bars:

- Minimum spacing shall be 1.4db but not less than 4cm
- The spacing shall be less than 15cm
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT
1) Diameter: dt db/3
2) Minimum spacing:
For tied columns:
For spiral columns:
3) Maximum spacing:
For tied columns:
For spiral columns:
55
7.3-Arrangement of square & rectangular Columns :
Design of columns type C318:
57
S-CONCRETE modeling:
Because the lateral load is taken by the shear walls we do the design of columns due
to dead and live loads only, so we use the ultimate combination. The loads are taken
from ETABS model.
We still change the section and the reinforcement until status becomes acceptable.
59
Drawing of columns type C318:
61
Design of columns type C257:
1
S-CONCRETE modeling:
Because the lateral load is taken by the shear walls we do the design of columns due
to dead and live loads only, so we use the ultimate combination. The loads are taken
from ETABS model.
3
We still change the section and the reinforcement until status becomes acceptable.
Drawing of columns type C257:
5
Chapter 8
Shear wall Design
7
In structural engineering, a shear wall is a wall composed of braced panels (shear panels) to
counter the effects of lateral load acting on a structure. Wind and earthquake loads are the
most common loads braced wall lines are designed to counteract. Depending on the size of
the building some interior walls must be braced as well.
A shear wall is a wall designed to resist the shear, the lateral force which causes the bulk of
damage in earthquakes. Many building codes mandate the use of shear walls to make homes
safer and more stable, and learning about shear walls is an important part of an
architectural education. Architects are obliged to think about shear walls and other safety
features when they design a structure, so that they can accommodate the walls to make the
structure sound while also aesthetically pleasing.
Action of Shear Wall under Load Cases:

As we said previously, shear wall is a structural element used to resist lateral/ horizontal/
shear forces parallel to the plane of the wall by:
Cantilever action for slender walls where the bending deformation is dominant.
Truss action for short walls where the shear deformation is dominant.
8.1. ACI Requirements for the design of shear walls:
The forces that are considered in the design of a shear wall include:
o Shear (Vu) that is the maximum at the base of wall.
o Flexure, bending moment, (Mu) that is the maximum at the base of the wall.
(Equivalent to a compression on one end and a tension on the opposite end)
o Gravity loads (Pu) that produce compression on the wall.
8.1.2-Data:
Lw =Length of the wall.
d =Effective length = 0.8Lw .
hw =Height of the wall.
h =Thickness of the wall.
Mu: Factored moment at the base of the wall (maximum).
Vu: Factored shear at the base of the wall (maximum).
Vu W(KN)
Avv
Lateral forces
S1
hw
(KN)
S2 Avh
Avv Avh
S1 Shear diagram Moment diagram
Vu (KN) Mu (KN.m)
h
Cw Cw
Lw
- R.C SHEAR WALL -
8.1.3-Reinforcement Requirements:
Shear reinforcement:
Check the max. shear strength:

We have to check if the thickness of walls can sustain applied shear force Vu at the base i.e to
verify that:
with:
The permissible shear strength of a wall is equal to the permissible shear strength of the
concrete plus that of the shear reinforcing: Vn=Vc+Vs
The shear strength Vn at any horizontal section in the plane of the wall may be taken as:

The value of Vc (shear strength of concrete) can be computed by using one of these equations:
For wall subjected to a net axial compression:

For wall subjected to a net axial tension:
9
Nu = factored axial tension force.
Ag = area of wall.
The critical section for shear is taken at a distance: < (Lw/2 ; hw/2)
If Shear reinforcement should be provided in two orthogonal directions

in the plane of the wall.
Shear strength Requirements:
For the walls with openings, the nominal shear strength, Vn for vertical and horizontal walls
segments should satisfy the following:
o If the factored shear force is resisted several pier, the nominal shear strength, Vn, for
all wall segments should be , is the total cross section area of the pier
considered.
o Nominal shear Strength of horizontal wall segment and coupling beams should be
where Acp is the cross section area of the horizontal wall segment or
coupling beam.
Horizontal Reinforcement:
The shear force contributed for the reinforcement is equal to:
Where,
Avh is area of horizontal shear reinforcement.
s2 is the vertical spacing between the horizontal reinforcement.
Vertical Reinforcement:
The vertical reinforcement Avv can be determined from:
[ ( ) ]
Where,
Avv is the area required for vertical shear reinforcement.
s1 is the horizontal spacing between the vertical reinforcement.
{
Flexion and Compression reinforcement:
The wall must be designed to resist the bending moment at the base, and an axial
compression produced by gravity loads on wall.
Determine the moment capacity of vertical steel (Avv):

[ ]
Additional flexural vertical steel As is

required in a boundary element (Cw):
Where,
Cw= 0.10LW (for wind load)
Cw= 0.20LW (for seismic force)
So, the total area of steel in the boundary element is:
As = As(flexural) + As(shear)
11
8.2-DesignCriteria:
On ETABS, we assign the walls to be design as piers. Then, we export all the loads applied
on the wall to be imported on S Concrete to obtain the final design and drawing.
13
Zone A
15
Chapter 9
Raft Foundation
9.1-INTRODUCTION
A mat foundation is a large concrete slab used to interface one column, or more than one
column in several lines, with the base soil. A mat may be used to support on-grade storage
tanks or several pieces of industrial equipment. Mats are commonly used beneath silo
clusters, chimneys, and various tower structures. It becomes a matter of definition as to when
the dimensions of a spread footing make the transition into being called a mat. The figure
below illustrates several mat configurations as might be used for buildings. Those shown
include the entire building plan, but this is not a requirement.
A mat foundation may be used where the base soil has a low bearing capacity and/or the
column loads are so large that more than 50 percent of the area is covered by conventional
spread footings.
It is common to use mat foundations for deep basements both to spread the column loads to a
more uniform pressure distribution and to provide the floor slab for the basement. Depending
on local costs, and noting that a mat foundation requires both positive and negative
reinforcing steel, one may find it more economical to use spread footingseven if the entire
area is covered.
17
Spread footings avoid the use of negative reinforcing steel and can be accomplished as in
figure below by pouring alternate footings, to avoid formwork, and using fiber spacer boards
to separate the footings poured later.
Mat foundations may be supported by piles in situations such as high groundwater or where
the base soil is susceptible to large settlements. We should note that the mat contact stresses
will penetrate the ground to a greater depth or have greater relative intensity at a shallower
depth. Both factors tend to increase settlements unless there is stress compensation from
excavated soil so that the net increase in pressure is controlled.
9.2-BEARING CAPACITY OF MAT FOUNDATIONS
The mat foundation must be designed to limit settlements to a tolerable amount. These
settlements may include the following:
1. Consolidationincluding any secondary effects
2. Immediate or elastic
3. A combination of consolidation and immediate amounts
A mat must be stable against a deep shear failure, which may result in either a rotational
failure. A uniform vertical punching failure would not be particularly serious, as the effect
would simply be a large settlement that could probably be landscaped; however, as the
settlement is not likely to be uniform or predicted as such, this mode should be treated with
concern equal to that for the deep-seated shear failure.
9.3-MAT SETTLEMENTS
Mat foundations are commonly used where settlements may be a problem, for example,
where a site contains erratic deposits or lenses of compressible materials, suspended boulders,
etc. The settlement tends to be controlled via the following:
1. Use of a larger foundation to produce lower soil contact pressures.

2. Displaced volume of soil (flotation effect); theoretically if the weight of excavation equals
the combined weight of the structure and mat, the system "floats" in the soil mass and no
settlement occurs.
3. Bridging effects attributable to :
a. Mat rigidity.
b. Contribution of superstructure rigidity to the mat.
4. Allowing somewhat larger settlements, say, 50 instead of 25 mm.
The flotation effect should enable most mat settlements, even where consolidation is a
problem or piles are used, to be limited to 50 to 80 mm. A problem of more considerable
concern is differential settlement. Again the mat tends to reduce this value.
Expected maximum Expected differential

Foundation
Settlement(mm) settlement, mm
type
Spread 25 20
Mat 50 20
9.4-Why Mat Foundation not Isolated Footings??
The use of mat foundation, especially in the case of basement, is justified for many criteria:
o Allow to replace:
The strip footings along the perimeter.
The tie beams.
The compacted backfill.
The slab on grade.
o Basement walls with the mat joint with water stop more performing as waterproofing
(against Fox effect).
o Less pressure and less general differential settlement.
o Possibility to add columns by the use of penetrating steel dowels.
o High capacity of end fixing (for columns and walls).
o Shorter construction time.
o Cost approximately the same.
9.5-Determination of the rafts depth:
The depth of the raft must verify the punching shear condition:
Where:
o : the width and the depth of the column
o the soil reaction = 0 (to be on the safe side)
o Shear safety factor = 0.85
o d: depth of the raft
o : Nominal Shear
19

We obtain the following equation:
d = 0.7 m
Combination:
In the study of combinations, the most critical states that must be considered:
1- The ultimate limit states, corresponding to:

ULS1= 1.4 Dead + 1.4 S.I.D.L + 1.7 L.L
2- The serviceability limit states, corresponding to:

SLS1 = 1.0 Dead + 1.0 S.I.D.L + 1.0 L.L
9.6-Safe Modeling :
Due to Dead Load :
Due to Service Combination:
21
Soil Pressure due to the Service Combination:
Punching Shear :
9.7-Steel Drawings :
Minimin Steel For this Raft Foundation:
As min = 0.0035 x 1000 x 1.4 *1000 = 4900 mm
T32 @ 150 mm
In Both Directions
23
Reinforcement:
25
Chapter 10
Basement wall
27
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil
when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the
soil. The active pressure increases on the retaining wall proportionally from zero at the
upper grade level to a maximum value at the lowest depth of the wall. The total pressure or
thrust may be assumed to be acting through the centroid of the triangular distribution
pattern, one-third above the base of the wall.
Retaining walls serve to retain the lateral pressure of soil. The basement wall is thus one
form of retaining wall.
10.1-Types Of Retaining Wall
Gravity walls: they depend on the weight of their mass

(stone, concrete or other heavy material) to resist
pressures from behind and will often have a slight
'batter' setback, to improve stability by leaning back
into the retained soil. Dry-stacked gravity walls are
somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing in
frost areas. Home owners who build larger gravity
walls that do require a rigid concrete footing can make
use of the services of a professional excavator, which
will make digging a trench for the base of the gravity
wall much easier. Earlier in the 20th century, taller
retaining walls were often gravity walls made from
large masses of concrete or stone. Today, taller
retaining walls are increasingly built as composite
gravity walls such as: geo synthetic or with precast
facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks); crib walls (cells built up log
cabin style from precast concrete or timber and filled with soil); or soil-nailed walls (soil
reinforced in place with steel and concrete rods).
Cantilevered retaining walls: are made from an internal stem of

steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often
in the shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever loads (like a
beam) to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures
from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below.
Sometimes cantilevered walls are buttressed on the front, or
include a counter fort on the back, to improve their strength
resisting high loads. Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles
to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete
footings below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much
less material than a traditional gravity wall.
Sheet pile wall: Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces.
Sheet pile walls are made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are driven into the
ground. For a quick estimate the material is usually driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below
ground, but this may be altered depending on the environment.
Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back anchor, or "dead-
man" placed in the soil a distance behind the face of the wall,
that is tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are
placed behind the potential failure plane in the soil.
Anchored wall : retaining wall can be constructed in any of

the aforementioned styles but also includes additional strength
using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind
it. Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors are
then expanded at the end of the cable, either by mechanical
means or often by injecting pressurized concrete, which
expands to form a bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this
method is very useful where high loads are expected, or where
the wall itself has to be slender and would otherwise be too
weak.
10.2-Forces Applied:
Retaining walls are generally subjected to:
Gravity loads due to the weights of the materials and can be calculated easily (if we
talk about basement walls).
Earth pressure due to the retained material on the wall: The magnitude and direction
of the earth pressure on a retaining wall depends on the type and condition of soil
retained and on other factors...
Water pressure.
10.2.1-Lateral Earth Pressure:

The pressure exerted on a retaining wall is proportional to the distance below the surface
of the fill and the weight of the retaining material:
P = C.w.h / 2
Some of the factors that can affect this pressure are:

Type of fill.
Moisture content of fill.
The presence of overload on the fill caused by trucks, equipment.
29
Possibility of vibration on wall.
Type of material beneath footing.
Elevation of water table
For the determination of the coefficient C, Coulomb published a theory for determining active
and passive earth pressures, PA and Pp , respectively.
This theory will be discussed very briefly:
[ ]
Where:
= angle of internal friction of the soil.
= angle of the soil pressure surface from the vertical.
= angle of friction along the wall surface (angle between soil and concrete)
= angle of retained material with horizontal.
When the pressure surface of the wall is vertical, and when because of
friction, and when the backfill is level , the coefficient of active pressure becomes:
This formula is valid when the top of the wall is free to move outward either by cantilever
action or the rotation of the structure about the toe. The required deflection may usually be
expected to occur.
This is the active pressure Pa which is the pressure of the soil on the structure, while the
passive pressure Pp is the resistance of the undisturbed earth to an object pushing against it,
such as the toe of a footing or a key cast under the footing.
Cp = coefficient of passive pressure
In this case, the coefficient of passive pressure replaces the coefficient of active pressure in
the equation and the expressions for Pp and Cp become:
10.3- ACI Code Requirements for R.C Basement Walls:
In determining the thickness of the basement walls, the lateral earth pressure of the earth must
be considered in addition to other structural features. If it is part of a bearing wall, the lower
portion may be designed either as a slab supported by the basement and first floors or as a
retaining wall, depending on the construction type.
If columns and wall beams are available for support, each basement wall panel of reinforced
concrete may be designed to resist the earth pressure as a simple slab reinforced in either one
or two directions.
The minimum thickness of bearing walls is 1/25 the supported height or length, but
not less than 10 cm.
A minimum thickness of 190 is specified by the ACI Code for reinforced concrete basement
walls.
In wet ground, a minimum thickness of 305mm is required. In any case, the thickness cant
be less than that of the wall above. The minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area to gross
concrete area shall be:
0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than 15 with a specified yield strength 400
0.0015 for other deformed bars
0.0012 for welded wire fabric plain or deformed not larger than W31 or D31
The minimum area of horizontal reinforcement in the wall shall be:

0.002 bh for deformed bars not larger than 15 with a 400
0.0025 bh for other deformed bars
0.002 bh for welded wire fabrics plain or deformed not larger than W31 or D31
fu = 60 ksi (413 MPa)
The maximum spacing of the vertical or the horizontal reinforcing bars is the min {45/50cm ,
three times the wall thickness}.
If the wall thickness exceeds 25 cm, the vertical and horizontal reinforcement should be
placed in two layers parallel to the exterior and interior wall surfaces.
The minimum area of the vertical reinforcement is 0.0015bh, but it may be reduced to
0.00126h if T16 or smaller deformed bars (with fu = 60 ksi (413 MPA))
Vertical reinforcement need to be enclosed by lateral ties if vertical reinforcement area is not
greater than 0.01 times gross concrete area, or when vertical reinforcement is not required as
compression reinforcement.
31
3-Basement Wall In the Project :
The cantilever wall in this project is required to support a bank of earth 7.2 m above the
finished ground line at the toe.
Design procedure
The wall here is considered as a vertical beam fixed at the base, and having a support at each
slab level.
Assumption:
The granular backfill consists of aggregate and silty sand; the values of estimated for
granular soil are in the order of 30.
We assume that the saturated unit weight of the backfill is sat =18 KN/m3 and the
maximum allowable soil pressure is qa = 240 Kpa.
Requirement:
The minimum thickness of the wall must not be less than 1/25 the supported height (ACI
code) : 1/25 x 3.6 0.15 m .
So assume a wall of 30 cm.
33
Given data:
H= height of the wall

From Foundation to basement 2: H= 3.6 m
From basement 2 to basement 1 : H= 3.6 m
=18 KN/m
=30
In our case, the basement wall is vertical with no inclination, and the loads applied
are perpendicular to the surface of load. Hence:
= = = 0.
Calculations:
Ca = 0.333 ; Cp = 3 ; Co = 1-sin = 1- sin30 = 0.5
Active Soil Pressure:
Basement 1: q1= x h x Co = 18 x 3.6 x 0.5= 32.4 KN/m2
Basement 2: q2= ( x h x Co) = 32.4 + 18*3.6*0.5= 64.8 KN/m2
live load over soil: q1= q x Co=10 KN/m2 x 0.5= 5 KN/m2
Total Load for a 1m strip width :

q1=32.4 +5 =36.4 KN/m
q2=64.8 +5=69.8 KN/m
Wall Modelling
35
37
Results & Reinforcement
Bending moment
Bending moments At mid span

The part in the first basement:
The part in the second basement:
39
Bending moments at supports & shear forces :
The part in the first basement:
The part in the second basement:

Steel Reinforcement:
@ Mid Span:
M = 50.6 KN.m
Using T16 5 T16/m s= 20cm
@ Support:
M = 106.425 KN.m
Using T16 5 T16/m s= 20cm
Shear Reinforcement:
41

Horizontal Reinforcement:
Then the Thickness of the wall is enough
Using T12 7 T12/m T12 @ 150 mm
Check up on Bearing wall conditions :
1. Thickness = 30 cm > 400 / 25 = 16 cm ok

2. Area of horizontal steel reinforcement = Asmin = 0.0025*b*h ok
3. Area of vertical bars reinforcement= 910 mm2 >Asmin = 0.015*b*h = 450mm2 ok
4. Spacing of vertical bar = 23 cm < 45cm or 3 *h ok
5. Thickness = 30cm > 25cm so we should put 2 layers of bars ok
Shop Drawing
43
Chapter 11
Ramp Design
The 2 Ramp is the project are used to give access to the basements
The Ramp in the project is used to give access to the basements
1.Geometry:
45
RAMP DATA:
Concrete: Compressive strength of concrete at 28 days:
Reinforcing steel: Yield strength of reinforcing steel:
Width of the Ramp: 5.25m
Slab thickness: 25 cm
LOADS:
Live load: 5 KN/m2
Super dead load: 2.5 KN/m2
(Calculation per 1m of Ramp)
Live load: 5 KN/m
Super dead load: 2.5 KN/m
ETABS Results:(KN-m):
M11 diagram:
M22 diagram:
M12 diagram:
47
DESIGN (Calculation):
LOADINGS:
Dead Load: DL = 0.25 x 25 x 1m = 6.25 KN/m
Super dead load: SD = 2.5 KN/m
Live Load: LL = 5 KN/m
Service Load: Ws = 6.25 + 2.5 + 5 = 13.75 KN/m
Ultimate Load: Wu = (1.2 x (6.25+2.5)) + (1.6 x 5) = 18.5 KN/m
Ultimatum Moment: Mmax = 63.74KN.m
At Supports: M = 0.2 x 62 = 12.75KN.m
At Mid-Span: M = 0.8 x 62 = 51KN.m
REINFORCEMENT:
Mid-Span :
MAIN REINFORCEMENT:
Mu = 51 KN/m
Effective depth: d = 250 (20cover + 6db/2) = 224mm
b= 1000 mm
Mu
R w(1 0,59w) 0.04033
0,9. f c.b.d 2
f 'c
w=0.04134 = w = 0.003
fy
1 .4
min = = 0.0035
fy
max = 0.0203
MAX SPACING = min (3h; 460mm) = (750; 460) = 460mm
= 0.003 < min so use = min = 0.0035
As = min * b * d = 0.0035 * 1000 * 224 = 784 mm2/m

7T12 per meter. So 7T12: As = 791 mm2/m
So use 7T12 @ 140 mm (Bottom steel at mid span).
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT :
Asmin= 0.0018*b*h = 0.0018*1000*250 = 450 mm2/m
As = 0.2*As = 0.2*791 = 160.08 mm2/m < Asmin so take As = Asmin = 5T12 @
200 mm (c/c) (Top steel at mid span).
End Support:
MAIN REINFORCEMENT:
Mu=-12.75KN.m/m
f'c=28Mpa
d=224 mm
b= 1000 mm
Mu
R w(1 0,59w) 0.01
0,9. f c.b.d 2
f 'c
w=0.01 = w = 0.0007
fy
1 .4
min = = 0.0035
fy
max = 0.0203
= 0.0007 < min so use = min = 0.0035

As = min * b * d = 0.0035 * 1000 * 224 = 784 mm2/m
So use 7T12 @ 140 mm (Top steel at end supports).
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT :
Asmin= 0.0018*b*h = 0.0018*1000*250 = 450 mm2/m
As = 0.2*As = 0.2*791 = 160.08 mm2/m < Asmin so take As = Asmin = 5T12 @
200 mm (c/c) (bottom steel at end supports).
Finally, I choose to put 7T12 @ 140mm (mid-span as bottom steel and end-
support as top steel) and 5T12 @ 200mm(mid-span as top steel and end
support as top steel).
DEFLECTION:
From SAP2000, maximum deflection at service load is equal to 3.5mm.
Allowable deflection = = = 11 mm. So deflection is acceptable.
49
Reinforcement Drawings:
51
Chapter 12
Stairs Design
Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors and
roof of the building. Stairs consist of rises, run or treads, and landings. The total steps and
landing are called a staircase.
The rise is defined as the vertical distance between two steps, and the run is the depth of the
step. The landing is the horizontal part of the staircase without rises.
12.1-Types Of Staircases:
There are different types of stairs, which depends mainly on the type and function of the
building and on the architectural requirements.
53
12.2-Geometry of the stairs:
Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors and
roof of the building. Stairs consist of rises, run or treads, and landings. The total steps and
landing are called a staircase.
The rise is defined as the vertical distance between two steps, and the run is the depth of the
step. The landing is the horizontal part of the staircase without rises.
13.1-Types Of Staircases:
There are different types of stairs, which depends mainly on the type and function of the
building and on the architectural requirements.
12.1-Geometry of the stairs:
55
Description of the Stair:
Data & Notations:
We are in the case of a "Double-flight / Open-well staircase".
H=3.49 m
n= 20stairs (Total number of rises considered on the plan)n/2= 10 rises.
h=Rise=H/n = (3.49/20) 10+3 =170mm.
Take: Rise =150mm and Run =290mm.
2h+g = 2x17+ 29 = 63 It satisfies the condition
Effective span Le = (10Runs) 0.29m= 2.9m.
Width of stair: 2 m.
Slope length : L L2e H e 2 2.9 2 1.65 2 3.3m .
Materials:
Concrete: fc =35 MPa
Steel: fy = 400MPa.
Concrete 25KN / m , Tiles 24KN / m and Mortar 22KN / m
3 3 3
f c' 1 .4 1 .4
= ; min = = = 0.0035 ; max = 0.0203

fy f y 400
Live load for stairs and landings : LL= 5KN/m
Finishes for stairs:
Mosaic steps (Run=29+4cm=33cm Rise=17cm)
Design Procedure:
The stair will be designed as simple span one-way solid slab spanning between the upper
and lower supports.
We will make the calculation per 1 meter of Stairs width (b=1m)
Adopt the thickness 200mm for the waist (slab) (adequate for deflection)
Effective depth d= 200-30 =170mm.
57
Loads:
Dead load:
a) From stairs:
Weight of one step (waist included):
= trapezoidal area25KN/m31m =
0.401 0.231
0.29 25 1 2.291KN / step
2
Mosaic tiles + mortar (3cm):
= [0.33 (0.0424 + 0.0322) + 0.17 (0.0224)] 1m = 0.616KN/step
Plaster of Waist:
= 0.017220.33611m = 0.1257KN/step
Average weights = (2.29x10 + 0.616x 20 + 0.1257x10) =36.36KN

- 1.4 DL =1.436.36=50.9KN
-1.7 LL= 1.75 1m =8.5 KN/m
WU =50.9/3.9 +8.5 = 21.55 KN/m
Thus, WU (on stairs) = 21.55 KN/m (uniformly distributed over 3.9m)
b) From Landing:
-1.4 DL = 1.4 (0.225+0.0424+0.02922+0.01722) = 9.76 KN/m2
- 1.7 LL = 1.75 = 8.5 KN/m2
Wu= 18.26 KN/m2
Because the load on the landing is carried into two directions, only half the ultimate load
will be considered in each direction (the middle 10cm will carry a full ultimate load).
Thus, wu (on landing) = (18.26/2)1m=9.13KN/m (uniformly distributed over 2m)
Calculate the max. bending moment & the steel reinforcement:
We obtain the resulting max. Moment using the following model:
W=21.55KN/m
W=9.13KN/m
A B
RA
RC
2.29m 2.9m
Take W= 21.55 kN/m to be in the safe side .

Mu (max) =72.553 KN.m at x=2.6 m, I decreased Mu (max) by 20% because the Stair is
Semi-Fixed at supports => Mu (max) = 58 KN.m
Main Steel:
Will be the root of the equation of the second order:
= = = 0.0057 <
The steel required will be then:
As = bd = 0.0057 1000 170 = 969 mm2/m
Use 5T16/m (T16@200mm C/C)
Transverse steel:
must be provided to account for shrinkage.
For Transverse steel, use the minimum steel required
Use 6T12/m (T12 @ 180mm C/C)
59
It is recommended also to use:
- Constructive steel at each step edge: 1T12
- Stirrups R8 @ 500mm stirrups to hold the main reinforcement.
- (sometimes) Bent bars matching the slab steel in top of the slab at the head of the stairs
to prevent cracks if the slab acts as a folded plate and develops negative moment at this
line .
Development Length:
100d 100 16
Lbh b 260mm
f c' 25 Take 300 mm
Design of Landing:
Considering a 1m length of the landing, the load on the landing is as shown in fig. below:
W =9.13KN/m
A A'
RA RA'
L=4.25m
Mu(max) = 28.6 KN.m

Because the bars in the landing will be placed on top of the main stair reinforcement,
dnew= d - db =170-16=154mm say, d=155mm
= = = 0.0034 <
The steel required will be then:

As = bd = 0.0034 1000 155 = 525 mm2/m
Use 3T12/m (T12@370 mm c/c) at Bottom
Spandrel Beam - Stairs End Support Design:
Rc(Landing level)=55.92KN/m
CL Rc(Landing level)=55.92KN/m
R R
L=4.25m
Rc=55.92 KN/m (is the reaction of the stair on the beam-see model of stair)
Self weight: s.w =350.31=10.5 KN/m
Total uniform load on the beam: wu=Rc+s.w =55.92 + 10.5 = 66.42 KN/m
The max. bending moment: 120 kN.m
The max. shear force: Vu ,max= R = wuL/2 =66.42x4.25/2=141KN
Main Steel:
d =h-30= 1000-30 =970mm (one row)
= = = 0.00035 <
As= minbd = 0.0035300970= 1018.5mm2

Use 6T16 bottom (Spacing 150mm c/c) Bottom
Compression Steel:
As = 20 % As = 203.7 : Use 2T12 top
61
c- Shear Reinforcement:
Minimum shear reinforcement @ s =d/2 =970/2=485mm.
Use R8 @ 485 mm c/c .
(The deflection is also verified)
Design of stair using ETABS:
Draw the stair in ETABS:
1. Loads:
Dead loads=self weight of stair.
Super imposed dead load=2.5 KN/
Live load=5 KN/
63
2. Results:
M11:
M22:
M12:
V13:
65
V23:
Deformed shape:
Due to ETABS: M11(min)=-0.559 KN.m
M11(max)=-0.461 KN.
M22(min)=-0.757 KN.m
M22(max)=-0.751 KN.m
So we put minimum steel for this stair in both direction.
Main steel:
1 .4
min = = 0.0035
fy
As = min * b * d = 0.0035 * 1100 * 74 = 285 mm2
6T12. So As = 678 mm2/m, Say T12@220mm
Transversal steel:
As=0.0018bh=0.0018x1000x100=180 mm2
Use 3T12/m (T12 @ 360mm C/C)
It is recommended also to use:
- Constructive steel at each step edge: 1T12
- Stirrups R8 @ 500mm stirrups to hold the main reinforcement.
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Chapter 13
Vegetated Buildings
Introduction
A green roof or living roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with
vegetation and a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane. It may also
include additional layers such as a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. Container
gardens on roofs, where plants are maintained in pots, are not generally considered to be true
green roofs, although this is debated. Rooftop ponds are another form of green roofs which
are used to treat greywater.
Green roofs serve several purposes for a building, such as absorbing rainwater, providing
insulation, creating a habitat for wildlife, and helping to lower urban air temperatures and
mitigate the heat island effect. There are two types of green roofs: intensive roofs, which are
thicker and can support a wider variety of plants but are heavier and require more
maintenance, and extensive roofs, which are covered in a light layer of vegetation and are
lighter than an intensive green roof.
The term green roof may also be used to indicate roofs that use some form of green
technology, such as a cool roof, a roof with solar thermal collectors or photovoltaic panels.
Green roofs are also referred to as eco-roofs, oikosteges, vegetated roofs, living roofs,
greenroofs and VCWH[1] (Horizontal Vegetated Complex Walls).
History
Green Roofs have a centuries-long history.
Modern green roofs, which are made of a system of manufactured layers deliberately placed
over roofs to support growing medium and vegetation, are a relatively new phenomenon.
However, green roofs or sod roofs in Northern Scandinavia have been around for centuries.
The modern trend started when green roofs were developed in Germany in the 1960s, and has
since spread to many countries. Today, it is estimated that about 10% of all German roofs
have been greened. Green roofs are also becoming increasingly popular in the United
States, although they are not as common as in Europe.
A number of European Countries have very active associations promoting green roofs,
including Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Norway, Italy, Austria, Hungary, Sweden,
the UK, and Greece. The City of Linz in Austria has been paying developers to install green
roofs since 1983, and in Switzerland it has been a federal law since the late 1990s. In the UK,
their uptake has been slow, but a number of cities have developed policies to encourage their
use, notably London and Sheffield.
Many green roofs are installed to comply with local regulations and government fees, often
regarding stormwater runoff management. In areas with combined sewer-stormwater
systems, heavy storms can overload the wastewater system and cause it to flood, dumping
raw sewage into the local waterways. Green roofs decrease the total amount of runoff and
slow the rate of runoff from the roof. It has been found that they can retain up to 75% of
rainwater, gradually releasing it back into the atmosphere via condensation and transpiration,
while retaining pollutants in their soil. Elevation 314, a new development in Washington,
D.C. uses green roofs to filter and store some of its storm water on site, avoiding the need for
expensive underground sand filters to meet D.C. Department of Health storm-water
regulations.
69
Combating the urban heat island effect is another reason for creating a green roof. Traditional
building materials soak up the sun's radiation and re-emit it as heat, making cities at least 4
degrees Celsius (7 F) hotter than surrounding areas. On Chicago's City Hall, by contrast,
which features a green roof, roof temperatures on a hot day are typically 1.44.4 degrees
Celsius (2.58.0 F) cooler than they are on traditionally roofed buildings nearby. Green
roofs are becoming common in Chicago, as well as in Atlanta, Portland, and other United
States cities, where their use is encouraged by regulations to combat the urban heat-island
effect. Green roofs are a type of low impact development. In the case of Chicago, the city has
passed codes offering incentives to builders who put green roofs on their buildings. The
Chicago City Hall green roof is one of the earliest and most well-known examples of green
roofs in the United States; it was planted as an experiment to determine the effects a green
roof would have on the microclimate of the roof. Following this and other studies, it has now
been estimated that if all the roofs in a major city were greened, urban temperatures could be
reduced by as much as 7 degrees Celsius.
Green roofs have also been found to dramatically improve a roofs insulation value. A study
conducted by Environment Canada found a 26% reduction in summer cooling needs and a
26% reduction in winter heat losses when a green roof is used. In addition, greening a roof is
expected to lengthen a roofs lifespan by two or three times, according to Penn State
Universitys Green Roof Research Center.
Rooftop water purification is also being implemented in green roofs. These forms of green
roofs are actually treatment ponds built into the rooftops. They are built either from a simple
substrate (as being done in Dongtan) or with plant-based ponds (as being done by
WaterWorks UK Grow System[26] and Waterzuiveren.be Plants used include calamus,
Menyanthes trifoliata, Mentha aquatica, etc.)
Green roofs also provide habitats for plants, insects, and animals that otherwise have limited
natural space in cities. Even in high-rise urban settings as tall as 19 stories, it has been found
that green roofs can attract beneficial insects, birds, bees and butterflies. Rooftop greenery
complements wild areas by providing stepping stones for songbirds, migratory birds and
other wildlife facing shortages of natural habitat
Types:
Green roofs can be categorized as intensive, semi-intensive, or extensive, depending on the

depth of planting medium and the amount of maintenance they need. Extensive green roofs
traditionally support 10-25 pounds of vegetation per square foot while intensive roofs support
80-150 pounds of vegetation per square foot. Traditional roof gardens, which require a
reasonable depth of soil to grow large plants or conventional lawns, are considered intensive
because they are labour-intensive, requiring irrigation, feeding, and other maintenance.
Intensive roofs are more park-like with easy access and may include anything from kitchen
herbs to shrubs and small trees. Extensive green roofs, by contrast, are designed to be
virtually self-sustaining and should require only a minimum of maintenance, perhaps a once-
yearly weeding or an application of slow-release fertiliser to boost growth. Extensive roofs
are usually only accessed for maintenance. They can be established on a very thin layer of
soil (most use specially formulated composts): even a thin layer of rockwool laid directly
onto a watertight roof can support a planting of Sedum species and mosses. Some green roof
designs incorporate both intensive and extensive elements. To protect the roof, a
waterproofing membrane is often used, which is manufactured to remain watertight in
extreme conditions including constant dampness, ponding water, high and low alkaline
conditions and exposure to plant roots, fungi and bacterial organisms.
Advances in green roof technology have led to the development of new systems that do not
fit into the traditional classification of green roof types. Comprehensive green roofs bring the
most advantageous qualities of extensive and intensive green roofs together. Comprehensive
green roofs support plant varieties typically seen in intensive green roofs at the depth and
weight of an extensive green roof system.
Another important distinction is between pitched green roofs and flat green roofs. Pitched sod
roofs, a traditional feature of many Scandinavian buildings, tend to be of a simpler design
than flat green roofs. This is because the pitch of the roof reduces the risk of water
penetrating through the roof structure, allowing the use of fewer waterproofing and drainage
layers.
Extensive Vegetative Roofs:
The intent of this guide is to provide information regarding the state of the art of vegetative
roof design and construction.
Vegetative roofs, also known as green roofs, are thin layers of living vegetation installed on
top of conventional flat or sloping roofs. We have chosen to use the word "vegetative" rather
than the word "green" in this guide because a non-vegetative roof could be considered to be
environmentally "green" without being vegetative. For example, due to it being white and
therefore mitigating heat gain within the building and reducing heat island contribution, a
white non-vegetative roof might be considered as being "green" or environmentally friendly.
In other words, "green" has too broad of a connotation to be clear for use in this guide, and
we recommend that the industry adopt the nomenclature "vegetative," rather than the overly
broad "green."
Vegetative roofs are divided into two categories: 1) extensive vegetative roofs, which are 6
inches or shallower and are frequently designed to satisfy specific engineering and
performance goals, and 2) intensive vegetative roofs, which may become quite deep and
merge into more familiar on-structure plaza landscapes with promenades, lawn, large
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perennial plants, and trees. With respect to the vegetative overburden, this guide addresses
only the more shallow extensive vegetative roofs.
Figure 1. Four Seasons Hotel, Boston, MA. Designed by Roofscapes, installed in 2004. In
2009 APEX Green Roof began maintaining the roof. System Depth: 4 inches
The challenge in designing extensive vegetative roofs is to replicate many of the benefits of
vegetative open space, while keeping them light and affordable. Thus, the new generation of
vegetative roofs relies on a marriage of the sciences of horticulture, waterproofing, and
engineering.
The most common 4 extensive vegetative roof cover in temperate climates is a single un-
irrigated 3- to 4-inch layer of lightweight growth media vegetative with succulent plants and
herbs. In most climates, a properly designed 3-inch deep vegetative roof cover will provide a
durable, low maintenance system that can realize the many benefits that vegetative roofs have
to offer. Some manufacturers consider a landscape up to 8 inches deep to be extensive
systems.
Back to top
Description
A. Features
All well-designed extensive vegetative roofs include subsystems responsible for:
Drainage: Vegetative roof drainage design must both maintain optimum growing
conditions in the growth medium and manage heavy rainfall without sustaining
damage due to erosion or ponding of water.
Plant nourishment and support: The engineered medium must be carefully designed to
provide for excellent plant growth, no wind scouring, and proper water holding
capacity.
Protection of underlying waterproofing systems: Vegetative roof assemblies must
protect the underlying waterproofing system from human activities (including the
impact of maintenance) and biological attack, and solar degradation.
Waterproofing systems: Waterproofing is critical for protecting the structure from
water intrusion.
Insulation systems: Insulation is critical for saving energy.
Figure 2. Generic Extensive Green Roof on a Concrete Deck

Image courtesy of American Hydrotech
Figure 3. Generic Extensive Green Roof on a Steel Deck

Image courtesy of American Hydrotech
A wide range of methods can achieve these functions. For instance, drainage layers may
consist of plastic sheets, fabric or synthetic mats, or granular mineral layers. Similarly, the
physical properties and performance characteristics of growing media (engineered soils) and
plant materials may vary with the climate, plant community, or engineering requirements.
Figure 2 shows a generic cut-away of a common type of vegetative roof assembly that
utilizes a lower granular drainage layer in combination with an upper growth medium or
substrate.
The selection of a particular approach may depend on performance-related considerations,

such as runoff control, drought-tolerance, biodiversity, appearance, or accessibility to the
public. While many pre-engineered systems are currently available, it is frequently necessary
to customize these systems to satisfy specific performance objectives.
73
B. Benefits
There are many potential benefits associated with extensive vegetative roofs. These include:
Controlling storm water runoff

Improving water quality
Mitigating urban heat-island effects
Prolonging the service life of roofing materials
Conserving energy
Reducing sound reflection and transmission
Improving the aesthetic environment in both work and home settings
Mitigation of wildlife
Cost/benefit.
As a result vegetative roofs may be appropriate as an addition to many types of buildings,

including commercial, industrial, institutional, and residential settings. On the other hand, the
additional cost, possible water usage to irrigate the plants, and required ongoing maintenance
may make them less appropriate.
1. Controlling Storm Water Runoff
The rapid runoff of storm water from paved areas and roofs contributes to destructive
flooding, erosion, pollution, and habitat destruction. The capacity of vegetative roofs to
moderate this runoff through both retention (water holding) and detention (flow-slowing)
properties has been well-documented in Europe and increasingly in the United States.
Vegetative roofs share many engineering features with conventional storm water
management basins, and compared to many at-grade storm water management practices,
vegetative roof covers are unobtrusive and reliable. Vegetative roofs may offer the only
practical "at-source" technique for controlling runoff in areas that do not have adequate space
on the ground to readily accommodate other methods of water retention.
Vegetative roof covers are particularly effective at controlling runoff on the large roofs
typical of commercial and institutional buildings because typically a greater portion of these
roofs can be vegetative than on other building types. Reducing the volume and rate of runoff
is important in urban areas because of flooding and water quality impacts (see Water Quality,
below), and also in watersheds that drain to streams and other natural water bodies where
uncontrolled urban runoff can lead to stream bank erosion and channel degradation, and
decreased baseflow. Vegetative roofs provide a means to mitigate some of these impacts from
building development projects, particularly when used as part of a suite of low-impact
development (LID) practices. Many jurisdictions (i.e. Seattle, Portland, and Philadelphia, to
name a few) advocate for a combination of LID practices including vegetative roofs,
rainwater harvesting, permeable paving, and bio-retention "rain gardens" to mitigate site
impacts on water resources while creating "vegetative storm water infrastructure".
The ultimate storm runoff benefit that can be achieved by a vegetative roof cover is
determined primarily by the climate patterns at the site and the design of the system
(thickness, media type, and drainage layer construction). They can be designed to achieve
specified levels of storm water runoff control, including reductions in both total annual runoff
volume and peak runoff rates for storms. Careful selection of material properties, such as the
water holding capacity and permeability rates of the growing media, can enhance annual
runoff volume reduction and peak flow reduction capacity of the vegetative roof.
Many Western U.S. states have water rights laws that restrict how rainwater landing on a
property may be used, as it is considered to be a water-of-the-state. For vegetative roof
systems, particularly systems where runoff may be harvested for re-use or irrigation purposes,
designers are advised to check with local municipalities to verify the acceptance of vegetative
roofs, and specific local agency requirements for such systems.
In contrast, some municipalities such as Chicago have taken the approach of mandating
vegetative roofs on new building projects because of the host of benefits it brings to built-out
urban areas. Other jurisdictions offer substantial tax benefits and subsidies to promulgate
vegetative roofs (Portland, Oregon, and New York for instance).
Reliable techniques for predicting the rate and quantity of runoff from vegetative roof covers
have been used successfully to design integrated storm water management measures in
Germany, where large zero-discharge developments that rely heavily on vegetative roofs are
already operating.
In the U.S., studies have been performed to monitor the performance of vegetative roofs with
regard to storm water runoff. Magnusson Klemencic Associates, a Seattle based engineering
consulting firm, evaluated and monitored the storm water control performance of five
different vegetative roof systems from 2005 to 2007 in the Pacific Northwest climate. Even
though this climatic region is characterized by a long rainy season where soils and media are
frequently saturated, storm water control capacity was demonstrated for the large storms that
can cause urban flooding and sewer overflows. For other climatic regions and smaller storms,
vegetative roofs typically have greater capacity for runoff control.
Water retained by a vegetative roof cover is ultimately returned to the atmosphere by

evapotranspiration processes. In climatic zones where substantial rainfall occurs during
summer months, when evapotranspiration rates are highest, the vegetative roof is able to
retain substantial amounts of rainfall and reduce annual runoff volumes. However, in climatic
zones characterized by summer droughts and extended winter "wet seasons", such as the
Pacific Northwest region, the capacity to reduce annual runoff may be limited by the lack of
availability of rainfall during the peak evapotranspiration periods. Reducing runoff volume is
a goal of some sustainability metrics, or may be required to restore the health of aquatic
resources (e.g. fisheries/salmon runs). How can runoff volume be reduced? Through
evapotranspiration, infiltration into the ground, or using harvested water.
That being said, if you can do at-grade landscaping i.e. rain gardens, bio-swales, etc., it
will almost always be more economical than a vegetative roof.
2. Improving Water Quality
By reducing both the volume and the rate of storm water runoff, vegetative roofs benefit
cities with combined sewer overflow (CSO) impacts. In cities with combined storm and
wastewater sewer systems, storm water dilutes the sanitary waste water, rendering treatment
less efficient. During heavy rainfalls these systems also overflow, discharging raw sewage
mixed with runoff into the receiving streams, harbors, or oceans, resulting in ecological
75
damage and human health hazards. Therefore, important water quality benefits (reducing
CSO) are achieved by controlling runoff in those situations.
In addition, in urban areas, up to 30% of total nitrogen and total phosphorus released into
receiving waterways is derived from dust that accumulates on rooftops. Acting as natural bio-
filtration devices, vegetative roofs reduce this water contamination. In the Potsdamer Platz
district of Berlin, extensive vegetative roofs have been employed on a large scale in an effort
to reduce pollution of the River Spree. This is only a factor when an entire community
practices storm water reduction, however. This program has demonstrated that extensive
vegetative roofs can achieve large reductions in nutrient releases from roofs; however, the
research also shows that the correct choices of growing medium and plant types are essential
for success.
In some states in the western United States, there are laws that prohibit harvesting of
stormwater. However, it appears that some of these laws are being eased. Check with your
local code authority.
3. Mitigating Urban Heat-Island Effects
Covering dark conventional roofs with vegetative roofs can significantly reduce the
temperature above the roof. Vegetative roofs have been shown in several studies, including
the referenced Columbia University study, to provide comparable benefits to white or
reflective roof surfaces in reducing the ambient air temperature. Unlike white roofs, which
tend to lose the ability to reduce temperature as they age, vegetative roofs continue to have
the ability to mitigate the heat island effect.
4. Prolonging the Service Life of Roofing Materials
Forty years of apparently good experience with vegetative roofs in Germany suggests that
they may have value in protecting waterproofing materials. The multiple layers of the
vegetative roof protect the underlying roof materials from the elements in three ways: by
protecting from mechanical damage (mostly from humans, but also from wind-blown dust
and debris, and animals); by shielding from ultraviolet radiation; and by buffering
temperature extremes, minimizing damage from the daily expansion and contraction of the
roof materials.
Although modern vegetative roof systems have not yet been in place longer than 40 years,
many researchers expect that these installations will last 50 years and longer before they
require significant repair or replacement.
5. Conserving Energy
Vegetative roofs have been shown to save energy, but comprehensive studies have not been
performed, including impacts of the energy for maintenance. (See the referenced Columbia
University Study.)
The largest share of the energy savings in the summer or warm months is from transpiration
or the evaporation of water from plant leaves. Transpiration cools the surrounding air, thus
lowering the temperature of the surface of the soil, and decreasing the heat flow through the
roof. The question is, where does the water come from? If it is rainfall and not from a city's
potable water, then there is a benefit. In Arizona, where there is the most benefit of cooling, it
is like stealing from one bucket to pay for another. In the winter months, there is an energy
conserving benefit only if the soil remains dry. Wet soil conducts more heat.
There are studies that support the energy conservation aspects of vegetative roofs. See the
Columbia University study and the study by Vidar Lerum of Arizona State University under
"Studies" at the end of this section. Also, the MIT Design Advisor,
http://designadvisor.mit.edu/design/, studies show extensive vegetative roofs to be better in
every climate, in comparison to cool (low albedo) roofs. Their conclusion is that cool roofs
are better for cooling, not surprisingly, but, even in warmer climates, this benefit is
overshadowed by the better performance of vegetative roofs in the heating season. One must
take into consideration, however, the added cost of vegetative roofs. The comparison to be
made is whether adding more insulation would be a more cost-effective solution.
Vegetative roofs are potential energy savers, but the degree to which they do so is unclear at
this time. The impact is highly dependent upon climate conditions and the insulation level of
the underlying roof. For the most part, vegetative roofs have very little impact on building
energy consumption for a new building built to modern energy codes (with high levels of
roof insulation). Some retrofit applications, however, can result in non-trivial savings of both
air-conditioning and heating.
Vegetative roofs may provide significant cooling savings in the summer and some heating
savings in the winter. But the research to date is not clear on the subject of the quantification
of savings in real-world applications.
The bottom line on energy might be summed up by this quote from Joe Lstiburek in footnote
3 to his Building Science Insight 052, "Seeing Red Over Green Roofs:" "The assumptions are
pretty important. Green roofs save energy compared to uninsulated roofs or poorly insulated
roofs or even better, black poorly insulated roofs. Once you have more than R-20 in a roof
assembly, that is, you meet the code, things pretty much don't matter. In other words, go
above R-20, and make green roof decisions for other reasons than energy. See 'Potential
Energy Savings of Various Roof Technologies' by S. Ray and L. Glicksman presented at
Buildings XI Conference, and check out Figure 9. Note that grass, even when it is green, has
a greater solar absorptance than a white membrane. The real effect of the grass comes from
the evaporation of water. But that takes water, and you might not always have some. If you
want to do the water evaporation thing, you probably could do as good a job by sprinkling the
top of a white reflective roof. When the grass goes brown, forget about any energy benefit;
also, be very worried about fire. "
6. Reducing Sound Reflection and Transmission
Vegetative roofs have important acoustical benefits, especially for higher frequency sounds.
The added weight of a vegetative roof results in an increased degree of sound insulation.
Vegetative roofs can absorb a portion of the sound that otherwise bounces off hard roofing
surfaces. See the referenced Ghent University study for more information.
77
7. Improving the Aesthetic Environment
Figure 4. PECO Main office Building, Philadlephia. 43,000 square feet. 3 inches of
lightweight green roof media, unirrigated. Established from pre-grown Sedum Mats. Installed
over Sarnafil PVC membrane. Green Roof design by Roofmeadow. Roofing by Sika Sarnafil.
Competed winter 2008.
Vegetative roofs offer interesting new opportunities for architectural design. A vegetative
roof can allow a structure to merge with the surrounding landscape, provide a dramatic
accent, or reinforce the defining aspects of the structure's geometry. In Germany and
increasingly in the United States vegetative roofs are frequently integrated into the design
of hospitals and care facilities in order to provide a more restful and restorative environment
for patients. Similarly, multi-unit residences and hotels will find that vegetative roof-top
views substantially enhance property values. In commercial settings, job satisfaction and
effectiveness can be enhanced by providing window views of meadows or flower beds or
relaxing garden areas for breaks or meetings.
In most cases, restricting public access to extensive vegetative roofs can help to keep the
building costs down, and reduce safety risk mitigation measures. When public access is
allowed to vegetative roofs or other roof areas, additional building requirements usually
apply. Accessible roof areas must include additional "live loads" in the structural analysis of
the building. These areas would also include safety features such as railings and access ways
that meet building codes for public areas. In those areas where public access is desired,
frequently owners and architects will employ an intensive vegetative roof because the more
robust building structure that results from applying the more stringent live loads will support
the weight of the deeper growing media, which in turn can accommodate a wider range of
uses such as lawn areas, vegetable gardens, or park-like settings that take advantage of the
expanded planting palettes that are achievable with increased growing media depth.
8. Mitigation of Wildlife
Vegetative roofs will attract wildlife. This is not desirable on an extensive vegetative roof,
which is not designed to support these habitats. Insects, spiders, snails, birds, and rodents
(rats, mice, squirrels) all promote damage to the soil, plants, and roof materials, as well as
create potential safety issues to maintenance personnel. Consult with local experts on native
pests and mitigation techniques, prior to pest control measures. Sustainable pest management
practices shall be employed before consideration of pesticides.
Because of the relative isolation of vegetative roofs and their often exposed environments,
these roofs should not be looked to as a replacement for lost native habitat. Rather, extensive
vegetative roofs contribute to increasing the visual encounter of urban dwellers with nature.
(For Intensive Vegetative Roofs, wildlife may be desirable. However, this instruction does
not address the specificity of this type of vegetated roof environment.)
9. Cost/Benefit
At present only vegetative roofs that receive favored treatment and generous financial
incentives will be able to show a positive return on investment. While it is true that cities with
combined sewer outflow problems can (and do, in Germany) release large financial benefits
from using vegetative roofs to manage urban runoff, these savings must be transferred to
property owners in the form of incentives for a vegetative roof to 'pay its way.' There are
several cities in the United States where incentive packages make vegetative roofs financially
attractive for developers.
Back to top
Applications
A. Design Factors
There are many interactive factors that vegetative roof designers must take into account,
balancing many considerations for optimal performance in each setting, including:
1. Climate, especially temperature and rainfall patterns.

2. Strength of the supporting structure.
3. Size, slope, height, and directional orientation of the roof.
4. Type of underlying waterproofing.
5. Drainage elements, such as drains, scuppers, buried conduits, and drain sheets.
Flashing details. Details for penetrations.
6. Work on existing buildings where there are occupancy and/or phasing issues.
7. Prevention of pest intrusion.
8. Accessibility and intended use.
9. Visibility, compatibility with architecture, and owner's aesthetic preferences.
10. Fit with other sustainable systems or renewable technologies, such as solar panels, or
"cool" (reflective) roof systems.
11. Cost of materials and labor.
12. Local fire code restrictions.
13. Wind uplift forces.
14. Design life.
15. LEED considerations.
16. Substrate provided.
17. Building movement.
18. Construction sequencing.
19. Odors generated.
20. Snow loads and overburden loads.
21. Orientation of the building as it relates to surrounding buildings and shading.
22. Security and fall protection.
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23. Combined warranty/maintenance period, and follow on warranty
24. Required maintenance.
During the design process, several professionals on the design team may need to participate.
Besides the Architect and the structural engineer, participation by a landscape architect and a
soils consultant may be required. The compatibility of the vegetative roof assembly,
fertilizers, natural pest mitigation and chemical pesticides (not recommended) with the
waterproofing or membrane roofing is a critical design consideration, and consultation with
waterproofing or roofing system manufacturers is usually necessary.
Origination of the soil medium is very important, to understand the potential risks of
transporting destructive or non-native pests to a vegetative roof environment (example:
engineered soils may originate in the Southern U.S. Native fire ant eggs, larvae, or adults
may be transported to other locations where they are not native, but always considered a
safety risk and a nuisance.)
Standard landscaping work considers plant hardiness; tolerance for sun and shade; and
preference for wet, dry, rich, poor, alkaline, or acid soils as the major concerns to influence
plant selection. Vegetative roof assembly design must consider important additional factors
such as the loads of saturated growing media and mature plants on building structure, the
effect of wind and erosion on lightweight growing media elevated above normal grade, the
temperature of the growing media around plant root systems, the depths of the growing media
appropriate for plant root systems, and the risk of brush fire posed by seasonal or drought-
condition dieback of some plant varieties if they are unattended. The last factor explains why
succulents, which retain water in their leaves, are often used in vegetative roofs.
B. Integration with Green Design
Vegetative roofs can be designed in conjunction with solar panels, and also work very well in
combination with other 'low-impact' development measures, such as infiltration beds, rain
gardens, bio-retention systems, cisterns and rain barrels. It is commonplace in Germany to
find large developments that have zero runoff discharge. In these developments, rainfall is
captured on the vegetative roofs, returned to ground water through infiltration, and re-used
for irrigation, toilet flushing, etc.
C. Examples of Extensive Green Roofs in North America
Forty years of German experience and research indicates that extensive vegetative roofs will
succeed in most climates, if properly designed. With appropriate plant selection, sufficient
drainage, and adequate structural support for the additional dead weight, vegetative roofs can
survive winter ice build-up and potential summer droughts. In North America, examples of
extensive vegetative roof projects are present in all climate zones.
Because the few North American roofs that have been built to date demonstrate such a wide
variety of settings and approaches, it is impossible to highlight "representative" case studies
here. However, many updated case studies of vegetative roof projects, including both
extensive and intensive designs, are available at Green Roofs for Healthy Cities.
D. Waterproofing, Protection Course, Leak Detection, Root Barrier, and Insulation
1. Waterproofing Membrane
Many premium roofing and waterproofing materials have been used in combination with
vegetative roof installations. These include, but are not limited to polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), modified bituminous sheet roofing membranes
with liquid membrane deck prep, hot fluid-applied polymer-modified rubberized-asphalt
waterproofing membranes, and other proprietary roof membranes available that the design
team may consider with proper investigation.
Other materials are likely to enter the industry as their suitability is proven in certification
testing and prototype installations. However, in general, the membrane or the membrane
combined with the root barrier used in all vegetative roof applications should exhibit the
following properties:
a. High puncture resistance.

b. Resistance to chemicals (e.g. fertilizer).
c. Low water absorption.
d. Low vapor transmission.
e. Be approved by the manufacturer for use with ponded water.
f. Be certified as passing a rigorous test for root penetration and biological test (existing
recognized procedures are FLL and the Swiss Insurance Agency) if the assembly does
not include a root barrier. Most EPDM and asphaltic membrane manufacturers require
a root barrier. It is recommended that a root barrier protect all membranes.
g. Have a track record of use as waterproofing in buried applications.
h. Have manufacturer-approved details suitable for the conditions on the project.
i. One source warranty from waterproofing through vegetation.
Worldwide, modified bituminous membranes, PVCs and hot fluid-applied rubberized

asphalts are the most common. Many of these installations have now been in place for over
30 years.
Interfacing of different systems is challenging and requires careful thought and attention to
detail. Where possible, the designer should consider the use of a single manufacturer for the
interfacing systems. When joining systems of differing manufacturers, issues arise related to
compatibility of products, warranty extents, long-term durability, and detailing concerns that
could be avoided with a single manufacturer.
Selection of membranes for waterproofing would prioritize systems compatible with a fully
adhered waterproofing membrane, protection course, root barrier, drainage layer, moisture-
resistant insulation, aeration layer, moisture-retention layer, reservoir layer, and filter fabric
layer. Preferably, these components are installed above the membrane in a protected
membrane roof assembly (PMR) often referred to as an inverted roof membrane assembly
(IRMA) as follows:
1. If the deck is reinforced concrete, use reinforced, minimum 215 mil thick hot fluid-
applied rubberized asphalt, applied directly to the deck, in a protected membrane roof
assembly (PMR) often referred to as an inverted roof membrane assembly (IRMA).
Many waterproofing experts recommend this membrane as the premiere
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waterproofing product, especially where there is an overburden (planting or paving)
that is expensive to remove and where the spaces beneath are of importance. The use
of an adhered membrane prevents leaks from migrating laterally from the course of
entry. If the deck is a steel deck, appropriate roof substrate sheathing (i.e., gypsum
based boards, plywood) may be secured to the metal deck and the fully reinforced
rubberized asphalt membrane applied to the surface. In many cases, the joints between
substrate boards will need to be pre-detailed with rubberized asphalt membrane and
appropriate reinforcing prior to the full membrane application). Odor management
during installation should be a consideration in the use of this system.
2. A second choice would be two layers of modified bituminous rubberized asphalt cold-
applied self adhering (use low VOC cold adhesive or there could be adverse effect on
plants) membrane, set in liquid rubberized asphalt with aromatic isocyanurate polyol
liquid waterproofing membrane.
3. A third choice would be cold liquid-applied polyurethanes. These systems are fully
bonded to the deck.
4. A fourth choice would be a composite thermoplastic waterproofing membrane with an
active polymer core and sealed seams. Note that some asphalt-modified polyurethanes
exhibit variable permeance due to thickness variations in installation: Too thin can
lead to osmotic permeance and blistering. Too thick can lead to exotherming.
5. Conventional (non PMR) configurations are sometimes employed with the insulation
below the membrane. In these instances where the designer prefers the conventional
configuration, membrane preferences should be either 80 mil reinforced PVC or 90
mil reinforced EPDM with all seams sealed and taped. Unlike IRMA roofs these
systems have the drawback that they do not position the roof membrane directly over
a permanent or semi-permanent substrate and typically do not provide insulating
assemblies that are highly resistant to water and physical damage. These roof designs
cannot prohibit or highly discourage the entrapment of water within the roof assembly
and the membrane and insulation design is not conducive to in-place reuse or recycle
in future roof iterations. A conventional configuration may be somewhat more
desirable in warmer climates, where the addition of a vapor retarder below the
insulation would not be required. See the discussion below, under Insulation
regarding vapor barriers. Note that as of this writing a conventional configuration is
required by some insurance underwriters.
The first objective is to design to avoid leaks. Construction oversight must find constructed
leaks. Existing roof substrates must be inspected for leaks. The easiest leaks to find are when
a membrane is fully bonded to a concrete substrate, as it is nearly impossible for the leak to
travel horizontally under the membrane.
Although some membrane manufacturers assert that their waterproofing membrane products
perform simultaneously as root barriers, a root barrier should always be installed over a
waterproofing membrane with vegetation above.
Matrix of Waterproofing Systems (in order of preference)
System Type Pros Cons

Reinforced hot fluid- Adheres to deck, Toxic odors
applied rubberized preventing lateral Accurate control of
asphalt migration of moisture kettle temperature
Centuries old, tested
material required
Modified bitumen set Adheres to deck, Membrane portion has

in liquid rubberized preventing lateral seams
asphalt migration of moisture
Based on centuries
old, tested material
Liquid-applied Adheres to deck, Relatively new

polyurethane preventing lateral material, not as proven
migration of moisture as systems above
Can be applied over
"green" concrete
Composite Expanding core, Proprietary

thermoplastic activated by moisture, Relatively new
membrane with an seals leaks material, not as proven
as systems above
active polymer core
Conventional (non Not adhered to deck;
PMR) single-ply lateral migration of
membrane moisture is possible
Provide for proper waterproofing terminations and counterflashing at or (preferably) above

grade, either lapped into through-wall flashing at the backup wall or (where this is not
possible) tucked into flashed reglets at the face as required by the specific material
supplier/manufacture. Refer to referenced NRCA manuals for guidance. Test substrates and
adjacent materials for bond and compatibility. The dryness of concrete substrates can be
tested with simple poly tests (ASTM D4263) for moisture content. Peel test initial
applications for proper bond to the substrate. In certain conditions such as when vapor drive
is to the interior or when a concrete deck has been given a smooth finish, the results of the
ASTM D4263 test procedure may not result in condensation being visible on the underside of
the plastic sheet even though the concrete slab may be relatively wet. In such cases, a drilled-
in moisture probe will give the relative humidity in the concrete, but it is not known at this
time what relative humidity is acceptable. The roofing industry is looking into this. There is
also a concern in the roofing industry that structural lightweight concrete decks may retain a
high relative humidity for an extended period of time and could thus adversely affect the
installed waterproofing membrane.
Caution is urged regarding the use of single ply roof membranes manufactured in the United
States in vegetative assemblies. US materials should not be justified based on European
precedents. There are substantial differences between the actual products and installation and
climate and very different performance results. Be sure that the membrane is the EXACT
same in every way to the physical characteristics and manufacturing as in the European
precedent. Also, the designer should verify that all of the conditions of the climate, adjacent
materials, and substrates are the same. Finally, is the quality of construction the same?
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As noted in the draft ASTM standard Standard Guide for Selection of Roofing/Waterproofing
Membrane Systems for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems, "exposed surfaces of the
roofing/waterproofing membrane system (e.g. flashings and penetrations) may become the
most important factor in determining the longevity of an installation. Consequently,
consideration should be given to providing protection for all surfaces of the
roofing/waterproofing system. For instance, membrane flashings should be protected with a
durable and U-V resistant protection layer or counter-flashing."
Consider adding a drainage mat directly above the root barrier, to promote removal of water
above the membrane. This mat should be of an interwoven type, rather than dimpled or high-
hat, to limit the loss of R-value due to the presence of the mat. It should have a compressive
strength suitable to carry the loads above (minimum 20,000 psf).
The use of electric leak detection (see below) is recommended for all systems. Electric leak
detection can precisely locate the source of leaks below the planting system. The leak
detection wiring can be left in place so that leaks can be located in the future, without
requiring overburden removal, though the presence of a root barrier or vapor retarder within
the roof assembly may limit its effective use. Some manufacturers require the detection
system to be left in place in order to include overburden removal in their warranties. Where
leak detection wiring remains, maintenance requirements shall include inspection and care of
these systems.
Insulation should be multi-layered extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam for PMR systems. The
compressive strength of XPS should be based on the expected loading requirements, such as
the weight of saturated growth medium, plants and vehicles; however, a minimum of 40 psi
compressive strength should be used. All seams in insulation layers should be staggered from
the layers above and below by a minimum of 6 inches. It is recommended (and required by
some insulation manufacturers) to include an aeration layer in direct contact with the
insulation board in order to maintain long-term thermal retention.
For both the PMR configuration and the conventional roof configuration, providing at least a
minimum code compliant slope to drain, typically 1/4 inch per foot (2%), is always
recommended. The "ideal" balance between a swift release of excess water, which is
beneficial, and the risk of damage/degradation of certain materials, which is undesirable,
should be sought. Steeper slope (up to 4%) may help with drainage and may help reduce
ponding, which could be desirable for wood or light steel framed systems susceptible to
excessive deflection. In accordance with NRCA, verify that deflection allowable under the
structural design does not result in ponding. Verify that local code, membrane manufacturer
or owner's standards do not require steeper slope. Benefits of steeper slope are offset by
excessively thick insulation (if tapered insulation is used), increased number of roof drains
with increase in associated piping, and potentially higher perimeter walls or parapets.
As noted in the draft ASTM standard Standard Guide for Selection of Roofing/Waterproofing
Membrane Systems for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems, "vegetative roof systems can be
adversely affected by either excessive or insufficient drainage capacity. The first concern of
the designer when addressing drainage should be to insure that the system can efficiently
percolate and discharge the underflow associated with mandated design storms. Unless
specifically designed to generate surface runoff, vegetative roof systems should not
experience ponding or surface flow when subjected to rainfall events that would be normal
for a typical year. All drains and scuppers should be protected from clogging caused by
accumulation of foliage or debris. Conventional 'beehive' or 'bonnet' strainers are not suitable
for this purpose. Chambers with removable lids are recommended for use at all drains and
scuppers. Surrounding all drains and scuppers and depressions where underflow concentrates,
coarse stone aggregate should be placed to facilitate percolation and horizontal flow toward
the drainage facilities. The second concern of the designer should be to avoid excessive
drainage of the vegetative roof system which may lead to perennially stressed conditions for
the plants and, in extreme conditions, plant mortality."
In all instances, materials, methods of installation and quality assurance/quality control

procedures must be more stringent when vegetative roof installation is involved.
Waterproofing materials cannot withstand decades of root and biological attack unaided.
Provide a root barrier, as discussed elsewhere, to protect the membrane. For information and
standards pertaining to waterproofing materials, consult the National Roofing Contractors
Association (NRCA) or ASTM International (ASTM).
Note 1: FM Global requires 8 inches of growth media with a PMR configuration . Hence,
they do not allow an extensive vegetative roof in this configuration, because an extensive
vegetative roof is less than 6 inches thick, by definition. FM Global is approving vegetative
roofs for fire resistance (mostly sedums), but not for wind uplift as of this writing.
Note 2: FM Global allows a vegetated roof over a steel deck with an appropriate FM fire test
and suggests)that vegetated roofs be evaluated for interior fire exposure (as regards a Class I
or Class II rating) in the same manner as for conventional roofing systems on metal deck.
For more information on waterproofing systems, refer to the Below Grade Systems chapter of
the Building Envelope Design Guide.
2. Protection Course
A protection course (PC) is typically only required for hot fluid applied systems. This is
typically a modified bitumen (MB) base ply approximately 80 mils thick with a sanded
surface. This MB ply gets embedded into the top layer of hot fluid applied membrane while
the membrane is still hot and tacky. This PC becomes integral with the membrane forming a
very robust monolithic system. Other materials, provided they are compatible with system
components, may be used for a protection course such as: asphaltic boards, (1/8" or 1/4"
thick, typically 4 by 8 foot sheets) and extruded polystyrene boards or PVC sheets, as
applicable for the waterproofing membrane system (e.g. do not use asphaltic board with PVC
membranes).
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3. Leak Detection
Verify the integrity of the waterproofing membrane prior to installing the overburden. Leak
detection should always be performed prior to the installation of protection boards and non-
conductive root barriers to allow more precise location of leaks.
Inexpensive methods for locating damaged waterproofing are available. These include spray
testing, standing water flood testing, flowing water testing and the electric leak detection
procedure. The latter can sometimes even locate leaks underneath overburden that is not too
deep.
A standing water test can be conducted by plugging the drains and creating dams to contain
water to a depth of 2" minimum at the high point for 2448 hours. See ASTM D 5957 for
guidance. For existing roof substrates, verify roof detailing exists to accommodate this test
method. Also, care must be taken so the weight of water retained does not exceed the load-
carrying capacity of the structural deck.
A flowing water test is conducted by applying a continuous flow of water across the entire
membrane without plugging drains for a period of 2448 hours.
Electric leak detection is the preferred method of leak detection where scope and funding
allow. Low and high voltage leak detection methods are available. There is, and probably will
continue to be, disagreement as to which method is better. Some of the pros and cons are
given below. Electric leak detection provides the precise location of leaks, but is generally
not acceptable for use with black EPDM membranes due to the high conductivity of carbon
black in the membrane.
Low Voltage (LV) Testing: With LV testing the surface of the roof membrane is moistened
(not flooded) to create an electrically conductive medium. A conductive wire loop is laid out
on the membrane around a section of the area to be tested. The wire can be left in place, so
that the roof can be retested for leaks after installation of overburden. LV testing can be done
in the rain. However, elements such as roof drains may need to be inspected and tested
separately because they must be isolated from the electric leak detection process. If a vapor
retarder is part of the roof system, it may limit the effective use of low voltage testing. Also,
concrete decks m ay not be able to be tested if a PMR/IRMA system is used or a conventional
configuration that is not mechanically fastened is used, unless a stainless steel grid screen is
installed on the deck, below the membrane, to create a conductive field.
High Voltage (HV) Testing: HV testing may take less time to perform compared to LV
testing. Also, areas immediately adjacent to elements such as drains can be tested. The
membrane must be dry. Laps may be more difficult to test than with LV testing. As a result,
white EPDM may be difficult to test, as well as black EPDM. Care must be taken not to
damage the membrane due to the high voltage. Tests must be run and baseline readings taken
to calibrate the equipment to prevent damage.
For more information on leak detection systems, refer to the WBDG Resource Page on
Membrane Integrity Testing.
4. Root Barrier
Typically, root barriers are in the form of HDPE (high density polyethylene) or reinforced
PVC. Depending upon the selection of plants, this membrane is between 10 mils to 30 mils
thick. If there are laps they should be thermally fused. In the case of certain highly aggressive
plants, a minimum 60mil thick HDPE with welded seams should be utilized. Bamboo
should not be used on a vegetative roof, due to the rhizomes (tips) that can penetrate many
root barriers.
In some cases, the manufacturer of the MB Protection Course will infuse this layer with a
root-inhibiting chemical, such as copper hydroxide. However, there is some evidence that,
over time, these chemicals will breakdown, which reduces effectiveness, and leach off the
roofs into the receiving runoff. Copper hydroxide root barriers are banned in several
European countries and Canada.
5. Insulation
Insulation should be located above the membrane, at least in cold climates or with high-
humidity occupancies. In cold climates and with high humidity occupancies the need for a
vapor retarder below the insulation would thereby create two vapor retarders (the
waterproofing and the vapor retarder below the insulation). It is recommended to avoid two
vapor retarders because any water that might get between them would be trapped and not be
able to dry outward or inward.
It is suggested that the designer either perform a dew point analysis or refer to the NRCA
Roofing and Waterproofing Manual for design calculations to determine if a vapor retarder
below the insulation is required. The safest route is to locate the insulation above the
waterproofing membrane in a protected roof membrane (PRM) or "IRMA" configuration,
thereby avoiding the issues related to double vapor barriers. When necessary, multi-level
drains to capture water from both the surface of the vegetative roof or ballast or paving and
from the surface of the waterproofing membrane.
Use only extruded polystyrene insulation because it does not absorb water, especially if
(when) the insulation is located above the waterproofing membrane as is recommended
above. Boards need to be specifically manufactured for this application. To account for the R-
value reduction due to the minor water absorption that occurs in PMR roofs, it is
recommended that the designer reduce the board's initial R-value by 10%.
E. Moisture Retention / Drainage Composites and Filter Fabric
1. Moisture Retention / Drainage Composites (Panels)
The primary function of these composites is to retain and store water for future evapo-
transpiration for the plants. These composites consist of a high-strength dimpled water-
retention polymeric core laminated with a top soil filter fabric and bottom protection fabric.
They retain various amounts of water, based on their design and thickness ranging from 0.06
gal/ft to 0.16 gal/ft.
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2. Filter Fabric
A separate filter fabric is not needed when using a Moisture Retention / Drainage Composite
that integrates a filter fabric. A separate filter fabric must be added for: 1) Moisture Retention
/ Drainage Composites that do not include a topside filter fabric, or 2) aggregate drainage
layers, or 3) Moisture Retention / Drainage Composites that are designed to be in-filled with
drainage aggregate. The primary function is to keep fines from the growing media out of the
drainage layer below.
This fabric is typically a non-woven polypropylene or polyester geotextile that is non-

biodegradable, tear resistant and has high water permeability. Fabric should also be used to
protect flashing membranes from direct contact with media at perimeters and penetrations.
Non-woven filter fabrics should not be used where the growing media has a high clay
content, as the non-woven material can get clogged, thus impeding water flow. Where the
growing media has a clay content greater than 15%, a woven filter should be utilized, due to
its superior capability to filter fine materials without clogging.
F. Plantings
1. Introduction
To quote Edmund and Lucie Snodgrass from their book, "Green Roof Plants," "their benefits
notwithstanding, vegetative roofs present a number of challenges that must be understood and
addressed if they are to succeed in North America as more than high-end amenities or
environmental anomalies. First, the paradigm must shift away from thinking of vegetative
roofs as 'regular' gardens, only elevated. They are not like regular gardens; unlike natural
landscapes, vegetative roofs have no equivalent in nature. They are engineered, fabricated
systems and thus present unknowns for most landscape designers, architects and installers."
2. Growing Media
The growing media should be a well-drained engineered mineral soil and must be carefully
designed for grain-size distribution, void ratio, moisture retention, etc. Aged compost should
have been covered to protect it from weed seeds. In cold climates the media should also be
resistant to breakdown from freeze/thaw. The organic matter content should be based on the
manufacturer's recommendations for the climate conditions, plantings and specific
application. Variation can exist from project to project. No two manufacturers or installers
will recommend exactly the same system for the same project. Due diligence is highly
recommended.
3. Irrigation
In many areas of the United States it is possible to design vegetative roofs without irrigation.
That being said, it is essential to provide hose bibs where an irrigation system has not been
used in case irrigation should become necessary. Even in arid climates, the demand for
irrigation water can be greatly reduced by introducing water at the bottom of the vegetative
roof profile. However, during the 2-3 year establishment period, most plants will require
water to be introduced at the top or near the top of the profile until the root system becomes
more fully extended. Spray irrigation should be avoided, except as a temporary means of
irrigation during establishment or during emergency drought conditions. The design of the
vegetative roof profile should encourage plant roots to grow to the base of the profile. Filter
fabrics should be 'root permeable.' The total thickness of the profile should not exceed the
natural root depth of the plants selected for the plant community.
Given the misunderstood maintenance requirements for roofs, it could be argued that
a permanent irrigation system is more efficient than random hand water by untrained
building maintenance personal (which is often the case).
A properly adjusted irrigation system (by experienced installers) will almost always
be more efficient than hand watering technique, if hand water is ever done. Where
permanent irrigation systems are installed, include inspection and repair provisions in
the ongoing maintenance.
In every project case, both from the client's expectation, regional location and site-
specific issues should be considered when talking about irrigation and it potential
implementation. The question that should always be asked...Is it better to use some
water, through proper irrigation layout and design and control/clock settings, to
maintain a vegetative roof to gain all the benefits of vegetative roofs, or not use any at
all and have a dead, brown, vegetative roof? A dead roof does nothing.
4. Vegetation
Also from Snodgrass, "Since extensive vegetative roofs are traditionally non-irrigated and
consist mostly of lightweight, inorganic medium, a plant specification list for a vegetative
roof is quite different from one for a ground-level garden. This point cannot be overstated;
most herbaceous perennials, including natives, that otherwise might work well for the
hardiness zone of a given roof still will not be suitable for a vegetative roof microclimate. In
addition, the average inorganic vegetative roof medium will not support most large root
systems or their nutritional requirements, further limiting plant choices to those with shallow
root systems and an ability to store water."
All vegetative roof planting plans should include drought-tolerant ever ground-covering
plants. Varieties should be selected that are adapted to the particular climate, keeping in mind
that conditions on roofs are more severe than on the ground. In general, initial plant densities
should be greater than recommended for similar ground plantings. In temperate climates,
varieties of Sedum are particularly well adapted for this purpose. Different ground-covering
plants that may appropriate in other climates include species of: Potentilla, Carex, Phlox,
Delosperma, Crassula, Portulaca, and Aloe. In some instances it will make sense to establish
a stable ground cover before introducing other plants. To provide a vigorous multi-seasonal
ground cover and to minimize problems associated with disease, insects, or climatic stresses,
it is best to avoid large drifts of a single species.
There are four methods for establishing plants: direct seeding, plug planting, pre-grown mats,
and modular systems.
1. Pre-vegetative Mats (most preferred.) Depending on the plant varieties, density of

planting, care during establishment and time of year, it will take a 3 to 6 month
growing season to propagate pre-vegetative mats. Suppliers of pre-vegetative mats
keep standard plant selections in inventory. These can often be purchased on short
notice. However, sufficient time for propagation must be provided when custom plant
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selections are desired. Many plants are not suitable for propagation in mats because
they cannot tolerate the harvesting and shipping process. Sedum is particularly well
adapted for establishment using mats. It is common practice in the production of pre-
vegetative mats to mix fast covering varieties with smaller quantities of slower
growing, but more rugged, varieties. The slower growing plants will eventually
dominate. Typical pre-vegetative mats are 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches in thickness and range
in size from 2 square feet to 25 square feet in area. The mats incorporate a fiber,
fabric or mesh reinforcing layer which prevents them from disintegrating during
shipping and handling. Pre-grown mats can be installed in association with any
vegetative roof assembly type. For best results, mats should be well integrated with
the underlying soil (avoiding bridging of the mats and air pockets) and irrigated
regularly during the first growing season.
2. Direct Seeding Method. Some succulents, including Sedum, can be established from
stem pieces (cuttings). Each node on the stem can generate roots that will grow into
the soil. In mild weather and with the assistance of temporary irrigation, Sedum
cuttings can be relied on to generate a uniform ground cover. Other plants can be
established from seed. These include Allium, Chrysanthemum, Talinum, Dianthus,
Achillea, and Phlox, as well as many grass varieties. In many instances seed and
cuttings may be sown together. The designer should consult the nursery or plant
provider for appropriate seasonal planting windows. When using the direct seeding
method, it is very important to provide a surface protective layer that will reduce
desiccation and protect the media and young plants from wind scour. Examples are
hydro-mulch, plant fiber blankets, and photo-degradable netting. Uniform foliage
cover should be achieved within 2 years in most cases. Be sure that cuttings are not
budding or in flower; the plants will be putting much of their energy into reproducing
and will not root as readily.
3. Plug Installation. There are many plants that cannot be reliably established from
cuttings or seed and which are also not suitable for the production of pre-vegetative
mats. For these plants, plug installation is the only option. Also, in order to increase
plant diversity, plugs can be installed into a foundation ground cover established
using direct seeding or pre-vegetative mats. The survival rate is generally better when
starting with plugs than with larger plants (e.g., quart- or gallon-sized plants). For
extensive vegetative roofs, 3-inch deep plugs are ideal. Roots should be dense and
extend the full depth of the plug. A minimum initial planting density, in most cases,
will be two plugs per square foot. More plugs, up to about 4 plugs/square foot, will
increase the rate of development of full plant coverage. Plugged installations typically
include ornamental varieties and mixtures of perennials. Allow 2 to 3 years for the
foliage cover to become fully developed. At least 30% of the plants in any drift should
be robust ground covering varieties or native grasses. Plugs should be propagated in
sterile nursery medium, according to the plant provider's recommendations. It is not
necessary or advisable to start plants in growth media. In temperate climates
temporary irrigation may not be necessary. Most plugs can be safely installed after the
ground is not frozen in the spring up to about one month before the anticipated first
hard freeze in the fall.
4. Modular- or Tray- Systems: Modular, or tray, systems provide small units (usually 4
to 8 square feet per module) with pre-installed media, accessory components, and
plants. Their use is limited to very controlled applications, due to the increased need
for maintenance. The use of the trays greatly increases the plastic surfaces areas that
retain heat. This causes the soil to dry out faster, causing more plants replacement.
This drying action increases the water flow, which causes a decrease in storm water
mitigation. Modules may be established at the nursery using the direct seeding or plug
installation method. Some nurseries will ship the modules immediately after they are
planted. Others will deliver modules with the plants fully 'grown out.' Custom plant
selections will require 4 to 12 months for propagation, depending on the variety.
Modules will require regular irrigation during the first growing season.
G. Ancillary Aspects
1. Slope
The minimum slope required by the International Building Code is 1/4 inch per foot. An ideal
slope would be somewhere around one inch per foot. On a roof that is too flat, inadequate
drainage can lead to damage to the membrane and plants. On the other hand, a steep slope
will provide better drainage, but can lead to slippage of materials.
2. Steep Slope Roof Installations
Figure 5. AMCOL International Building, Hoffman Estates, IL
To install extensive vegetative roof covers on pitches steeper than 2.5:12 (12 degrees)
supplemental measures will be required to prevent sliding instability. Varied building systems
have been developed to support vegetative covers on steeply pitched roofs. Pitched roof
systems sometimes merge into vertical facade vegetative techniques.
The systems used to stabilize pitched roof installations depend on the underlying structural
capacity and design, and the steepness of the roof. These systems are typically placed above
the waterproofing and are designed to accommodate movement of water through the
vegetative roof components. The first level of intervention is to employ a geotechnical
matting system (for example, "Enkamat") that physically ties together the growing media
and vegetation roots so the any localized slipping of material is held in check by the mass and
friction of the overall assembly.
As roof pitch increases above 4:12, a higher level of intervention is required to transfer the
weight of the vegetative roof system to the structural framing system for the building. A
professional specializing in sloped roof designs should be consulted for vegetative roofs on
pitches steeper than 2:12. These systems are typically "cellular"; a framing or geo-composite
material creates void cells when placed, which are then filled with the growing media and
planted, creating a "matrix" of reinforcing material and vegetative roof components. Cables
or tendons (in tension) within the matrix transfer the pull of gravity on the system upward to
the ridge of the roof, where it can be physically tied to the structural frame for the buildings.
Several manufacturers also provide rigid cribbing style framing systems that transfer the load
91
downward, and the weight of the vegetative roof "matrix" becomes a compressive load on the
eave or parapet of the building. Other methods such as adhered or fastened edging, composite
nailers, "stepped" EPS, etc. may also be employed. Consult a structural engineer familiar with
this type of construction.
3. Wind Resistance Systems and Structural Loading
Comply with applicable code requirements for loading criteria, typically ASCE 7 and
ANSI/SPRI RP-14 Wind Design Standard for Vegetative Roofing Systems. It is
recommended to at least follow RP-14, even if not required by code, to establish a minimum
level of performance.
Follow the project's structural engineer's advice regarding allowable loads. As noted in the
draft ASTM standard Standard Guide for Selection of Roofing/Waterproofing Membrane
Systems for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems, "The introduction of a vegetative roof system
to a new or existing structure has an effect on both the live and dead loads. The addition of
materials over the roofing/waterproofing membrane system associated with vegetative roof
systems usually increases the dead load in varying amounts, based on the number,
composition, and thickness of the layers of the system. Because of the transient water
retention capacity of vegetative roof systems, the live loads may increase as well. In
accessible roofs, the live loads created by human occupants should be taken into account.
Minimum live load allowances for access by pedestrians, as well as by maintenance
personnel apply in most jurisdictions... Consideration of appropriate design loads is the
responsibility of the project engineer and should be addressed before the vegetative roof
system is designed."
If the project is insured under FM Global, then also comply with FM Data Sheet 1-28. Note
that FM tends to assume the most conservative situation, such as requiring that the designer
assume that the vegetative cover may have blown off due to lack of moisture content. Given
the paucity of reliable data, some designers may wish to also make this assumption based on
criticality of performance, expected maintenance and other criteria.
FM Global calls for a minimum of eight inches of vegetative roof media if it is to be used as
ballast (FM Data Sheet 1-35, par. 2.2.3.2.2). In addition, the design should use a safety factor
of 1.7 for wind uplift calculations based on Data Sheet 1-28. These requirements may be in
excess of what would be required if the project is not FM insured.
Where a project requires compliance with FM Loss Prevention Data Sheets, those
requirements govern where they are more stringent than those noted herein. Calculations are
required to prove that the ballast is adequate in preventing uplift on a project-by-project basis.
If the project does not require compliance with FM Loss Prevention Data Sheets, then going
less than that noted in Data Sheet 1-35 should be backed up by calculations.
Once plant material is gone and bare media is exposed, perhaps due to drought or lack of
maintenance, there is an immediate threat that the soil may begin to blow away and the entire
roof can 'unravel.' It is prudent to include netting, or a wind blanket, at least until the plants
have established themselves. The plants can grow through the netting, but will hold the soil
together. The key to achieve a successful wind protection is devising a way to secure the
netting without using staples, stakes, etc., that can pose a risk to the waterproofing. The
materials should be resistant to UV (although they do tend to become rapidly concealed by
soil and plants).
There is usually a vegetation-free zone (often stone ballast or pavers) at the perimeter of the
roof, to prevent scouring, or soil loss and damage. Stone ballast or pavers are also used
around roof access and rooftop equipment. ANSI/SPRI RP-14 (Wind Design Standard for
Vegetative Roofing Systems) can be consulted for guidance with respect to the design of
these zones.
Certain high-wind, hurricane, and typhoon locations should not use vegetative systems
without serious consideration of these forces.
4. Wind and Fire Resistance
The wind and fire resistance standards are still under development by the vegetative roof
industry and codes/standards organizations. Fire properties of protection boards and thermal
barriers over a steel deck or underlayment over a steel deck with a PMR are of particular
importance, given the presence of combustible material associated with typical vegetative
roof assemblies. Specify that the membranes meet UL or FM Global requirements, and add
the vegetative system. The available criteria should be conservatively assessed, and
vegetative systems should be reviewed carefully by local building officials.
5. Modular Systems
Modular systems involve installing the vegetative roof system inside plastic trays. Use of
these systems does not relieve the designer from responsibility for considering the integrity of
the underlying waterproofing system, nor does it make location of damaged waterproofing
easier, it does provide cleaner and simplified access and vegetative roof replacement in the
case of potential leak repairs. However, these systems can be useful when designing small
gardens on residential property or terraced commercial roofs. They also preserve flexibility to
re-arrange landscape designs in the future. Owners who wish to engage in active gardening
will find modules a convenient way to do this without damage to their homes' waterproofing.
6. Solar Reflectance
Review project requirements for solar reflectance from adjacent buildings, mechanical
equipment, photovoltaic panels, etc., that may reflect sunlight onto the vegetative roof.
Reflected sunlight may burn localized areas. (Example: Localize burning of plants has been
documented as late as September in New England.)
7. Public Access
Public access is not recommended on extensive vegetated roofs, since this roof system is not
designed for the live load or disturbance. Limit public access volume and accessible areas. In
the accessible areas, provide guardrails to prevent falling and measures to protect the plants
from damage.
93
H. Maintenance and Warranties
Specify a maintenance period long enough to ensure the initial establishment of healthy
plants. A minimum two-year maintenance/warranty period should be included in the initial
construction contract, to ensure plant establishment, training of maintenance personnel, and
thorough remediation of local pest issues. Vegetative roof should thereafter be maintained by
trained personnel at least twice a year. Many vegetative installers will only warranty roof
with this type of maintenance policy. Take time to understand the installers' warranty.
Provide easily accessible inspection chambers in drainage outlets to ensure that the drainage
system can be cleaned of roots, displaced growth media and ballast, dead foliage, and other
debris, and otherwise be maintained.
In general, warranties insure the owner against defective products and/or inadequate
installation by the contractor. They can cover all products of the vegetative roof installation
including the waterproof membrane, root barriers, filter fabrics, growth medium, drainage
layers, etc. as well as the workmanship of the installation subcontractors. There are several
waterproofing manufacturers that will warrant the entire vegetative roof system, including
removal and restoration of the overburden, if they provide all of the materials in the original
construction.
Some items to consider regarding warranties on a project-by-project basis:
1. The durability of all components.

2. Are all features regarding the vegetative roof system, from waterproofing membrane
to growth medium, being provided by a single-source manufacturer and installed by
one contractor? Obtaining all components from one manufacturer ensures that all
components will be covered under one warranty and that there will not be disputes
over liability in case of an issue.
3. If the various manufacturers and/or contractors are involved, it is important to clearly
define the extent of each warranty and what those warranties cover. For instance, does
the membrane warranty also include reasonable uncovering and restoring the
vegetative assembly in order to perform the warranty work?
4. Are plants covered by the warranty? Many vegetative roof warranties do not cover
plant survival while some include it, provided the owner also purchases a
maintenance package.
Back to top
Relevant Codes and Standards
In the United States, vegetative roof designs are generally regulated using existing standards
for ballasted roofs. The International Code Council (ICC) code, used for guidance by many
municipal authorities and referenced by many state codes, recognizes roof gardens and
landscaped roofs. It requires that the 'wet weight' of the vegetative roof be treated as an
additional dead load. It also supplies live load requirements for maintenance-related foot
traffic and for regulated pedestrian access. ICC also provides standards for parapet heights
and requirements for railings.
Check with your local code official regarding the local code requirements for vegetative
roofs. Also consider compliance with the standards listed at the end of this page.
Trade organizations such as National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) are

developing guidelines for waterproofing with vegetative roof installations in mind. In
addition, ASTM International (ASTM), through the Green Roof Task Group E06.71, is in the
process of developing guidelines and testing procedures specifically for vegetative roof
products. For more information, see the ASTM's work group web site.
At present, the most comprehensive guidelines for vegetative roof construction, especially for
growth media, are those developed by Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftentwicklung
Landschaftsbau. e.V. (FLL) in Germany Guideline for the Planning, Execution and Upkeep
of Green-Roof Sites (Richlinien fr die Planung, Ausfhrung and Plege von
Dachbegrnung). These standards and guidelines include industry standard tests for growing
medium weight, moisture, nutrient content, grain-size distribution, etc. for 90% of the climate
zones in the United States. But they do not include plant recommendations. The 2008 edition
of the guide is available in English. FLL also certifies laboratories to conduct critical tests
such as the root penetration resistance of waterproofing membranes. Many vegetative roof
products available in the United States have FLL certification. Although its principles apply
to vegetative roofs in the United States, its specific recommendations apply to a central
European climate.
2.3Functional Elements of a Vegetated Roof System

A vegetated roof is composed of up to eight different systems or layers, from bottom to top,
that
are combined together to protect the roof and maintain a vigorous cover. Designers can
employ a
wide range of materials for each layer, which can differ in cost, performance, and structural
load.
The entire system as a whole must be assessed to meet design requirements.
95
2.4Border zone at parapet wall
2.5Benefits of vegetated roof
Primary Benefits
There are five main benefits to having a green roof. They include increased energy
efficiency, an increase in air quality, temperature regulation both on the roof and surrounding
areas, stormwater retention and increase in roof lifespan.
Energy Efficiency:
Investigating the potential for green roofs to reduce energy demands is important for two
reasons. First, reducing energy demands of a building lowers the air-conditioning costs for
that
building. Second, reducing energy demand reduces the strain on the earths fragile
environment
by reducing pollution. There are three major ways that green roofs help to reduce energy
consumption: by adding insulation and by providing shade.
Intuitively, adding a layer of soil and a layer of plants to a roof adds insulation to the
building it covers. Insulation slows down the rate of heat transfer between the inside and the
outside of a building. This rate of heat transfer depends on the temperature difference
between
the inside and the outside air. A well-insulated building will absorb less heat in the hot
summer
months, and will lose less of its cooled air, thus reducing air-conditioning costs. A study at
the
University of Waterloo found that buildings with green roofs typically have indoor air
temperatures that are 3-4oC lower than the air outside. Additionally, extra insulation from
green
roofs will cause buildings to lose less heated air in the winter.
Plants also prevent solar energy from reaching the roofs by providing shade. Solar energy
97
that reaches the surface of the roof heats it up, which heats up the air just above the roof by
convection. This increases the temperature difference between the inside and outside of the
building, and therefore increases the rate of heat transfer between the inside and outside air.
By
shading a roof with plants, the solar energy is prevented from reaching the roof in the first
place.
Thus, the increase in temperature difference does not occur and the heat transfer rate does not
increase.
Air Quality
Green roofs can help the local air quality by reducing smog and by producing oxygen.
Smog reduction occurs in two ways: reducing the particulate matter in the air, and lowering
the
ambient temperature.
Green roofs filter the air moving across them. They remove particulate matter as it passes.
According to the Green Roofs for Healthy Cities website, 1 of grass can remove between
0.2
and 2 kg of particulate matter. Also, the City of Toronto study found in a literature search that
2,000 of un-mowed grass on a roof could trap up to 4,000kg of particulate matter in its
foliage, thus removing it from the air.
Temperature Regulation
Green roofs create the opportunity to increase vegetation and soil in cities, thus providing
the required evaporative surface for natural energy consumption, without using up valuable
space. They can significantly reduce the near-surface air temperature, thus reducing
airconditioning costs and pollution.
Stormwater Retention
Stormwater is the precipitation that falls on impervious surfaces, flowing to the lowest point
as surface runoff. The majority of the stormwater that conveys from a rooftop within an
urban setting washes into the municipal storm sewer system. This can cause strain on the
drainage system during storm events and can lead to a number of problems including
flooding, sewage backup, congestion of waterways, and water quality issues. As the
stormwater flows over impervious surfaces it has the potential to obtain pollutants such as
gasoline, motor oil, bacteria, fertilizers and pesticides before entering the receiving water.
Locally green roofs can potentially alleviate overloading of municipal sewer systems by
stabilizing water flow and reducing stormwater runoff from 70% to 90% annually. During a
15
month period from 2002 -2003, a study in Portland, Oregon was conducted on the effects of
green roofs on stormwater retention. It was found that an extensive green roof with a growing
medium of 10-12 mm could retain 69% of total rainfall.
Roof Lifespan
The vegetation placed on top of a roof prolongs the life span of the roof in three ways.
Firstly, it protects the layers and outer membrane of the roof from ultra-violet rays.
This essentially slows down the wear of the roofing material. Secondly, it protects the roof
from
punctures, rips and other physical damage. This damage is mainly bestowed on the roof by
people, debris and weather.
Finally, the green roof protects the roof from extreme temperature changes as the plants
absorb
much of the heat and use the energy for photosynthesis in summer months. This is beneficial
because it minimizes the typical damage from expansion and stresses on the roofing material.
It
has been shown in previous studies that roofing temperatures can reach C with a black
roof
while the green roof in the same environment had a maximum temperature of C. The
green
roof can also protect the roof in harsh winter conditions by protection from frost and ice
formation.
Secondary Benefits
Therapy
The presence of greenery in cities, homes and offices has long been known to have
positive psychological effects on humans. A study conducted by the human-environment
research lab showed that communities with higher amounts of green space had a greater
sense of community, reduced risk of street crime, lower levels of violence and a better
capacity to cope
with life demands.
Agriculture
Some green roofs not only house plants, shrubs and other vegetation, but also grow
flowers, fruits, vegetables and herbs. As mentioned by Green Roofs for Healthy Cities
(GRHC),
growing food on green roofs provides opportunities such as the support of local economy in
terms of growing, processing and distributing food, fresher produce for the city as well as
some
income to help sustain the cost of the green roof.
99
Aesthetics
Green roofs have been credited with the ability to significantly improve the beauty of
buildings and to appeal to the senses of people. A green roof is a way to differentiate your
building from the rest and can also help mask the ugliness of a typical roof. The following
figure
demonstrates the visual difference between the common gravel roof and a green roof.
Noise Reduction
The different layers used in a green roof can contribute to noise reduction. The Federal
Technology Alert report states that the soil used in green roofs can absorb traffic and other
common outdoors noises. It is possible to reduce noise levels anywhere from 10 decibels to
46
decibels with a minimum of a 20 cm deep soil layer. This benefit is more applicable to
buildings
close to highways and airports.
Airborne Species
Whether intensive or extensive, green roofs can provide habitat (food, shelter, water and
breeding grounds) for many different species. The kind of species that will find shelter will
range from bees, butterflies, spiders, beetles and ants to birds and ducks. It must be noted
that green roofs will not fully replace the habitat lost when a building is constructed.
Species will use the space because it offers shelter from human noise and activity, traffic
noise as well as an escape from predators.
Costs:
A properly designed and installed green-roof system can cost 15 to 20 dollars per square foot
as a total cost (with the average cost decreasing with a larger area), not including the roof's
waterproof layers. In Europe, a well-designed and professionally installed fully integrated
green roof can cost anywhere between 100 to 200 euros per square metre depending on the
kind of roof, the building structure, and which plants are used.
Some cost can also be attributed to maintenance. Extensive green roofs have low
maintenance requirements but they are generally not maintenance free. German research has
quantified the need to remove unwanted seedlings to approximately 6 seconds/m/year.
Maintenance of green roofs often includes fertilization to increase flowering and succulent
plant cover. If aesthetics are not an issue, fertilization and maintenance are generally not
needed. Extensive green roofs should only be fertilized with controlled-release fertilizers in
order to avoid pollution of the storm water. Conventional fertilizers should never be used on
extensive vegetated roofs. German studies have approximated the nutrient requirement of
vegetated roofs to 5gN/m. It is also important to use a substrate that does not contain too
many available nutrients. The FLL guidelines specify maximum-allowable nutrient content of
substrates.
101
Chapter 14
Project Management
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, securing, managing, leading,
and controlling resources to achieve specific goals. A project is a temporary endeavor with a
defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, and often constrained by funding or
deliverables), undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about
beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast with
business as usual (or operations) , which are repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent
functional activities to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these
two systems is often quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct
technical skills and management strategies.
The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals [and
objectives while honoring the preconceived constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time,
and budget. The secondaryand more ambitiouschallenge is to optimize the allocation of
necessary inputs and integrate them to meet pre-defined objectives.
14.1-The traditional approach
A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the

"traditional approach", five developmental components of a project can be distinguished (four
stages plus control):
Typical development phases of an engineering project
1. initiation
2. Planning and design
3. execution and construction
4. monitoring and controlling systems
5. completion
Not all projects will have every stage, as projects can be terminated before they reach
completion. Some projects do not follow a structured planning and/or monitoring process.
And some projects will go through steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple times.
103
14.2-Project management triangle:
Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and delivered under certain
constraints. Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as "scope," "time," and "cost
These are also referred to as the "project management triangle", where each side represents a
constraint. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting the others. A further
refinement of the constraints separates product "quality" or "performance" from scope, and
turns quality into a fourth constraint.
The project management triangle
The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project. The cost
constraint refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. The scope constraint refers
to what must be done to produce the project's end result. These three constraints are often
competing constraints: increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost, a
tight time constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope, and a tight budget could
mean increased time and reduced scope.
The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable
the project team (not just the project manager) to organize their work to meet these
constraints.
Project Life Cycle:
The Project Manager

Manages temporary, non-repetitive activities and frequently acts independently of the
formal organization.
Marshals resources for the project.
Is linked directly to the customer interface.
Provides direction, coordination, and integration to the project team.
Is responsible for performance and success of the project.
Must induce the right people at the right time to address the right issues and make the
right decisions.
Project managers are also responsible for balancing and integrating competing
demands to implement all aspects of the Project successfully, as follows:
o Project Scope:
Specifying the specific work to be done for the Project.
o Project Time:
Setting the finish date of the Project as well as any interim deadlines for phases,
milestones, and deliverables.
105
o Project Cost:
Calculating and tracking the Project costs and budget.
o Project Human Resources:
Signing on the team members who will carry out the tasks of the Project.
o Project Procurement:
Acquiring the material and equipment resources with which to carry out Project
tasks.
o Project Communication:
Conveying assignments, updates, reports, and other information with team
members and other stakeholders.
o Project Quality:
Identifying the acceptable level of quality for the Project goals and objectives.
o Project Risk:
Analyzing potential Project risks and response planning.
Factors leading to the increased use of project management

Compression of the product life cycle
Global competition
Knowledge explosion
Corporate downsizing
Increased customer focus
Rapid development of Third World and closed economies
Small projects that represent big problems
Problems resulting from the use of piecemeal project management systems:

Do not tie together the overall strategies of the firm.
Fail to prioritize selection of projects by their importance of their contribution to the
firm.
Are not integrated throughout the project life cycle.

Do not match project planning and controls with organizational culture to make
appropriate adjustments in support of project endeavors.
An Overview of Project Management:
Project Initiation
Two important project planning documents will be discussed:
The Project Requirements Definition (PRD): What the project will deliver
(Alternatively referred to as the Statement of Work)
The Project Management Plan (PMP): How the project is to be delivered
We will also examine the supporting planning document as the quality management, risk
management, and contract plans.
Important To Do:
Receive Project Authorization
Write PRD
Assess Agency Capability And Capacity
Select Delivery Strategy
Establish Project Organization Structure
Write PMP
Write Supporting Plans
107
Capability: Experience And Skill Levels Of Project Team Resources
Capacity: Quantity Of Project Team Resources
1. Staff working on this project
Excavation team: 20 laborers

Concrete team: 20 laborers
Masonry team: 10 laborers
Electrical team: 10 laborers
Plaster team: 10 laborers
Paint team: 10 laborers
Tiling team: 5 laborers
Sanitary team: 5 laborers
Wood team: 5 laborers
Aluminum team: 5 laborers
Mechanical team: 5 laborers
2. Working time
For each team, the maximum working time is 8 hours per day
Working 7 days a week.
Week starts on Monday.
Material and Labor Prices:
MATERIAL LABOR UNIT PRODUCTIVITY

PRICE PRICE (For 10 labors)
Excavation (m3) 6$/m3 100m3/day/excavator
Concrete Columns (m3) 200$/m3 7 $/hour 6 m3 / day
Concrete Slabs (m3) 160$/m3 7 $/hour 10 m3 / day
Masonry (m2) 11$/m2 5 $/hour 50 m2 /day
Plastering (m2) 6$/m2 5$/hour 50 m2 /day
109
Painting (m2) 5$/m2 5 $/hour 200 m2 /day
Tiling (m2) 30$/m2 5 $/hour 100 m2 /day
Wood Doors (unit) 100$/unit 5$/hour 12 units /day
Aluminum Doors (unit) 200$/ unit 5$/hour 12 units /day
Mechanical Work(unit) 400$/unit 5 $/hour 20 units /day
Sanitary Work (unit) 200$/unit 5 $/hour 12 units /day
Electrical Work (unit) 25$/unit 5 $/hour 40 units /day

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS):
111
3- S-Curve:
Labor Units
Total Cost
113
Labor Cost
Material cost
Results:
Labor concrete 912040 $ 50 %

Masonry 23710 $ 1.3 %
Plastering and panting 175100 $ 9.6 %
Tiling 276250 $ 15.2 %
Doors and windows 51300 $ 2.8 %
Mechanical work 38800 $ 2.2 %
Sanitary 29000 $ 1.6 %
Electrical works 27425 $ 1.5 %
Cleaning 192 $
Foundation 281000 $ 15.8 %
Our project is assumed to be started at the 13th of April 2011

The early finish of the project is expected at the 5th of April 2012 (by Primavera)
The Total Duration of the project is: 357 Days
The total cost of the construction project is estimated to be about 1,817,542 $
The Total Labors Cost: 440,696 $ (19.4%)
The Price of 1m2 (excluding land price): 200 $
Sales
labor concrete
masonry
plastering and painting
tiling
Mechanical
sanitary
electrical work
foundation
115

Roula Mahmoud (C)

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LEBANESE UNIVERSITY

Project No. 27/1419/2013

1.1-Description of the Project:

The joints are categorized into 2 groups:

o Expansion joints : They are used to allow expansion and

o Contraction joints : The tensile stresses caused by

- Shrinkage properties of the concrete

Many of these factors are exclusive variables, sometimes difficult to establish. As a

Also, at the junction between tall and low

There is a considerable divergence of opinion on spacing of movement joints (expansion and

2.4-Joint in the Project :

3.1.2- Strength and Stability:

3.1.3- Drift reduction:

3.1.4- Creep, Shrinkage & Temperature:

3.1.5-Determination of long term deformations:

AutoCAD: used for architectural drawings, design drawings, and explicative

ETABS Version9.2 (Extended Three Dimensional Analysis of Building System): used

3.2.3-Structural Design Loads:

Self-weight of the structural elements based on preliminary dimensioning of the

Live loads :: LL = 5 KN/m2

Concrete compressive strength : fcu = 25/30MPa

Live load 1: LL1

Wind X, Wind Y + generation

Earthquake: EQX, EQY

4.3-Etabs model with structural joints:

Story Height Elevation SimilarTo

Static Load Cases:

CASE TYPE Auto Load SW multiplier

Due to earth quake: (from static a

Mode 1: T = 3.8128 S Mode 8: T = 2.7079 S

Mode 20: T = 0.0157 S

STORY4 D1 1681.189 1681.189 37.372 28.324 1681.189 1681.189 37.372 28.324

STORY3 D1 1755.649 1755.649 37.351 28.519 3436.8377 3436.8377 37.361 28.424

STORY2 D1 2239.4 2239.4 36.65 27.801 5676.2379 5676.2379 37.081 28.178

STORY1 D1 2499.883 2499.883 36.6 27.805 8176.121 8176.121 36.934 28.064

Check: Participating mass ratio 90 % in X and Y direction

One-way slabs on beams:

One-way joist floor system:

Selecting The Slab Thickness :

But not less than

And need not more to be more than :

Ratio of clear spans in long to short direction of two-way slabs

Live load: LL = 5 KN/m2 (For Schools)

We should compute deflection!!

The Equivalent Frame Method EFM:

Slabs without Special Shear Reinforcement:

Where in this case

Check of the Punching Shear :

Punching Shear < 1

Max. Displacement = 27.5 mm

Bottom steel X& Y direction:

7.1 Types Of Columns :

There are three major types of reinforced concrete columns:

7.2-Hints for design according to the ACI code:

There are two cases to take into consideration:

I will Take c = 40mm

4) Spacing for vertical bars:

Action of Shear Wall under Load Cases:

8.1. ACI Requirements for the design of shear walls:

- R.C SHEAR WALL -

Check the max. shear strength:

For wall subjected to a net axial compression:

If Shear reinforcement should be provided in two orthogonal directions

Shear strength Requirements: