TITLE: DEVELOPMENT OF A MATERIALS SELECTION

PROCESS IN
ENGINEERING DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING
The selection of proper materials is fundamental to engineering design.
Engineering materials are many hence a formalized selection process is
required to select a reliable material for a product. The objective of this
project was to develop an online material selection process based on
principles of decision theory and implement it as an information
processing routine on a computer system. A case study was undertaken
that involved selection of a material in the design of a reverted two stage
compound gear train. Selection was done in two stages: screening
followed by ranking. The first stage reduces the large material database
to a small candidate list which are locally available and meets the critical
property limits such as strength. The second stage involves ranking the
candidate materials using indices formulated from availability, cost and
machinability. Supporting information is then sought and used to narrow
down the ranked materials to a final choice allowing a definite match to
be made between design requirements and material attributes. This
material selection system helps the designer perform the rigorous
process of material selection for the gear train at fast speeds thus saving
time and money during design.
INTRODUCTION
The selection of a material is one of the most important decisions the
engineering designer has to make. Poor material choice can lead to
failure of a part or system or to unnecessary cost. The process of
materials selection is difficult one and typically involves multiple
conflicting material characteristics as well as large number of
constraints.

A good material selection process considers the limiting factors for a

particular design exercise which include material properties, material
processing, material cost and material availability. Through systematic
and optimizing approach, one can list all the limiting factors associated
with the design e.g. strength, hardness, cost and availability. Weighting
measure can be used to prioritize on what materials are more important
than others after which all available materials are listed and ranked.

For ranking purposes, indices like cost and availability of the various
materials are computed. After this task a list of the materials meeting the
limiting requirements is produced in which the materials are ranked from
the one with the highest composite index to the one with the least. In this
case, the material with the highest composite index based on cost and
availability is taken as the best for the application. Materials for other
engineering applications can be selected in the same way.

To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified

need or to solve a problem. If the plan results in the creation of something
having a physical reality, then the product must be functional, safe,
reliable, usable, manufacturable and marketable.
Design establishes and defines solutions to, and pertinent structures, for
problems not solved before, or new solutions to problems which have
previously been solved in a different way (Dieter, George., 1983).

Design is an innovative highly iterative, and a decision making process.

Decisions sometimes have to be made with too little information,
occasionally with just the right amount of information, or with an excess
of partially contradictory information. These decisions are made
tentatively, with the right reserved to adjust as more becomes known.

A designers personal resources of creativeness, communicative ability,

and problem solving skill are intertwined with knowledge of technology
and first principles. Engineering tools (such as mathematics, statistics,
computers, graphics and languages) are combined to produce a plan
that, carried out, produces a product that is functional safe, reliable,
competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable, regardless of who
builds it or who uses it.

The selection of proper materials is a key step in the design process

because is a crucial decision that links computer calculations and lines on
an engineering drawing with a real or working design. The enormity of
this decision process can be appreciated when its realized that there are
over forty thousand metallic alloys and probably close to that number of
non-metallic engineering materials, currently in use (Ashby, M., 1999)

Improper selection of a material, may lead not only to failure of the

material but also to unnecessary cost. Selecting the best material for a
part involves more than selecting a material that has the properties to
provide the necessary service performance; the processing of the
material into a finished part also has a key role to play. This is because
the properties of the part may be altered by processing resulting to a
change in the service performance of the part.

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OVERVIEW OF THE ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
There is no particular step categorization or step nomenclature universally
accepted, but generally the complete design process is outlined in below:

Recognition of need

Problem definition

Conceptual design

Preliminary design

Detailed design

Iteration
Production

Fig: Phases in Engineering Design Process (Adapted from: Madara Ogot &
Gul Kremer, Engineering Design: A Practical Guide).

It must be emphasized that engineering design is an iterative process

requiring the repetition of most steps based on what is learned at a later
stage. The primary iterations occur between the conceptual design and
preliminary design steps.

Recognition of need
The need for a product typically arises from these three distinct scenarios.
The need to design a new product or process that will solve a
particular problem or need where none exists.
The need to redesign: to design a product or process that
improves on an existing one. Improvements include lower
cost, highier efficiency, lower pollution and better
ergonomics.
The need for technology-push product or process: to design a
new product or process and generate need for it. For example , a
company develops a new technology and then seeks a market to
apply it.
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Problem definition
Its a crucial part in the design process and includes;
Condensed formal problem statement clearly stating objective
of the design process.
Listing of technical and non-technical design constraints.
Breakdown of the problem into smaller manageable sub-problems.
Compilation and ranking of customer needs. What exactly does
the customer expect in final product or process?
Definition of criteria to be used to evaluate the design.e.g testing
of prototypes developed in preliminary design step.

Conceptual design
A concept is a very preliminary description of the form, required principles
and technology for the solution. This stage is divided into two phases:
external and internal searches. An internal search entails the design team
developing several concepts from which the best suited to the need is
selected. The stage is creative, inventive and most difficult in engineering
design process. The external search includes performing literature
searches, looking at previous patents, talking with experts, and
benchmarking similar product. The conclusion of this stage results in the
generation and selection of few promising concepts that warrant further
development.

Preliminary design and evaluation

Feasible concepts are further developed by evaluating; leading to
selection of one concept. Selection is based on all design criteria
specified during problem definition, as well as cost estimates. System
and component design requirement that will dictate the detailed design
specifications are established. During this stage, working prototypes
(where appropriate) are constructed and evaluated. Based on test
results, parts of the design or the entire design may need to be redone
(iteration).

Detailed design
This stage of the design processes develops part geometry, technical
drawings, and tolerances. During this stage:
All hitherto undefined system specifications and design
requirements are defined such as operating parameters, test
requirements, design life, material requirements, and reliability
requirements.
Detailed manufacturing drawings are produced.
Detailed assembly drawings are generated.
 Testing is performed to evaluate components, validate computer
models and the design itself. Evaluation ensures all the conclusions
reached during preliminary testing stage are accurate. If errors are
found or if components do not meet anticipated design
requirements, a redesign is initiated (Iteration).
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Production
Prior to production, production process planning is carried out. This involves
Design drawings and specifications interpretation.
Production processes and machines selection.
Stock material selection.
Determination of production sequence of operations.
Determination of processing time.
The implementation involves successful testing of prototypes after
which the final solution is developed and preceded with full production.

Design Reviews
Design review (DR) is system that involves gathering and evaluating
objective knowledge about the product design quality and the concrete plans
for making it a reality , suggesting improvements at each point, confirming
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that the process is ready to proceed to the next phase.-JUSE Design Review
Committee, 1976 (Ichida, 1996). Design review ensures design meets all
requirements, and product quality is within cost and time constraints. DRs
should include:
Collecting and compiling relevant information.
Defining quality target.
Evaluating product and process designs and supporting operations.
Proposing improvements.
Defining subsequent actions and confirm readiness for the next stage.

MATERIAL SELECTION
Selecting materials usually begins in the preliminary design stage. The
problem of material selection usually involves the selection of materials for
a new product or new design, and re-evaluation of an existing product or
design to reduce cost, increase reliability and improve performance. In
selecting the appropriate material one must consider:
1. Material properties which affects the part perfomance.
2. Material processing which affects manufacturing costs and therefore
the final part cost.
3. Material cost.
4. Availability. Is the material available in desired quantity and time frame?
5. Regulatory properties; Code acceptance and repairability

The relative importance of the above factors depends on the applications.

For example in military and aerospace applications, pushing the materials
properties to the limits takes precedence over cost. For consumer products,
lowering cost typically plays the leading role. For an engineering project on a
tight schedule, material availability is important.
 2.3.1 MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS
Usually, a problem of material selection involves either selection of
materials for new product or design; or re-evaluation of an existing
design/product to increase reliability, reduce cost and improve
performance. Materials selection process, being a problem solving
process, is achieved through the following steps:
1. Determination of required critical properties from the design
operating conditions and enviroment. Material selection occurs
at every step of design process. At conceptual stage a wider
spectrum of materials should be considered to inspire more
innovative designs. In the material screening process , material
properties considered will depend on possible failure modes likely to
be encountered during service, as well as other desired
characteristics. By establishing all the possible failure modes for
each particular component and matching them with the associated
material properties, a list of material properties for the screening
process can be established. Table 2.1 below lists some of common
failure modes and associated influencing material properties.

Table 2.1: Adapted from Engineering Design by Madara Ogot., Gul

Kremer

S
Mode of failure US YS CS S FP E CR HD CE

Fatigue(High
cycle)
Fatigue(Low
cycle)
Yielding
Buckling
Wear
Thermal fatigue
Creep
Gross
deformation

KEY
US-Ultimate E- Modulus of
strength elasticity
YS-Yield strength CR-Creep rate
CS-Compressive yield
strength HD-Hardness
SS-Shear yield CE-Coeffient of
strength expansion
FP-Fatigue
 properties

2. Screening of large material database for candidate materials

that meet the critical material properties is determined in
steps. These critical properties can be divided into three groups
a) Non-discriminating parameters are those that must be met if
material is to be used at all. Examples include availability and
corrosion resistance.

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 b) Go/no-go parameters. These are minimum or maximum property
values which candidate materials must meet. Excess or under
values of these fixed parameters dont make up for other
deficiencies in other properties. Examples include cost and
strength.
c) Discriminating parameters. These are minimum or maximum
property values which candidate materials must meet, and where
any excess or under values can make up for other deficiencies in
other areas. Includes cost, density and strength.
Depending on material application, a characteristic that is
considered a go/no-go parameter for one application may be
considered discriminating or non-discriminating parameter in
another. For example in aerospace applications cost is a
discriminating parameter, whereas in consumer products, cost is
a go/no-go parameter.

3. Selecting the final material based on a trade-off of

discriminating parameters. This is done using desicion tools such
as pairwise comparison charts(ranking method), analytic hierarchy
process (AHP) and decision matrices. These tools will be discussed
later in the decision making section.

All materials

Non-discriminating parameters

go/no-go parameters

discriminating parameters

Final material

Fig. 2.2: Three general steps in material selection

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 2.3.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING MATERIALS SELECTION
There are several important factors that need to be considered during
material selection. These are commercial properties (Cost and
Availability), material properties(mechanical , physical, and environmental
resistance), material processing, and regulatory properties.

2.3.2.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

2.3.2.1.1 Mechanical properties

Mechanical properties of materials are those related to its ability to
withstand external mechanical forces such as tensile forces, compression
forces, twisting, bending, and sudden impact.

A. Strength
Strength is a measure of how a material withstands a heavy load without
breaking. Material strength information is used in engineering design in
order to prevent the failure of a product component by rapture. Following
are parameters of strength:
Elastic Limit: This is the force required to produce permanent
deformation.
Yield Point: This refers to the level of the load at which strain
continues at a constant stress.
Yield Strength: The amount of tensile force required to just cause a
well-defined permanent deformation in a material.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): This is the maximum strength of a
material and corresponds to the maximum load stress a structural
member can withstand before fracture.
Compressive Strength: This is the ability of a material to resist a
gradually applied compressive load.
Yield strength and tensile strength are the most significant values in many
engineering applications. Appreciable permanent deformation occurs
before the stress reaches the UTS value. Therefore, to guard against
permanent deformation in engineering components, information on elastic
limit of the candidate materials should be used in design. For ductile
materials, yield point information should be used instead of elastic limit
value. For this project, yield strength and compressive strength of
materials have been used as screening properties in the materials
selection process.

B. Rigidity
This is the resistance of a material to deflection under a bending force. Its
specified by the elastic modulus of a material .Modulus of elasticity is the
ratio of the applied stress to the corresponding strain in the elastic limit of
a material. The higher the value of the elastic modulus the more rigid the
material is.
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 C. Resistance to fatigue:
Fatigue is defined as the progressive and localized structural damage of a
material under cyclic loading. Thus, fatigue strength, expressed in terms
of the fatigue limit or endurance limit of a material means the stress
below which a material will not fail in fatigue. This value is used in design
of parts subjected to repeated alternating stresses over an extended
period of time. Since the strength of a material under cyclic loading is less
than the strength of the same material under static loading, resistance to
fatigue forms the basis for the design of components that are subjected to
cyclic loading.

D. Ductility
Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture. A material that experiences very little or no plastic
deformation upon fracture is termed brittle.

E. Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy
recovered. The associated property is the modulus of resilience, which is
the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material from an
unloaded state up to the point of yielding.

F. Toughness
Toughness is a mechanical term that is used in several contexts;
basically, it is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up
to fracture. Specimen geometry as well as the manner of load application
are important in toughness determinations. A related property is fracture
toughness which is indicative of a materials resistance to fracture when a
crack is present

G. Hardness
Another mechanical property that may be important to consider is hardness,
which is a measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation
(e.g., a small dent or a scratch. Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed over the years in which a small indenter is forced into the surface
of a material to be tested, under controlled conditions of load and rate of
application. The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which
in turn is related to a hardness number; the softer the material, the larger
and deeper the indentation, and the lower the hardness index number.

H. Damping capacity
The damping capacity of a material is defined as energy dissipated as
heat by a unit volume of the material during a completely reversed cycle
of stress. It is related to internal friction in the material and depends on
maximum stress. The critical value suggested for engineering design is
the value at the endurance limit. High damping capacity is desirable in
most machine parts to reduce accumulation of harmful resonant stresses,
vibration, and to decrease noise in machine tools.

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 I. Friction
Surface friction is an energy dissipative process which takes place with
relative tangential displacement of contacting solids in zones of real
contact between them, formed by the action of an external load. It is that
component of the load which resists lateral (tangential) motion of solid
surfaces, fluid layers or material elements in contact. Friction is described
by a ratio of friction force to normal load, termed the coefficient of friction,
. This value depends not only on the surface finish but also on the
contacting materials. It thus occurs that, in the process of engineering
design, decisions must always be made as to which materials and what
processes can be used according to the friction requirements of the
component.

J. Formability
Formability can be defined as the relative ease with which a metal can be
shaped through plastic deformation while avoiding machining operations.
Usually, shaping of the component is achieved by stretching it using
mechanical force. Formability determines the amount the material in
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question can be stretched or drawn without necking and failing . Forming
limit is thus defined as the extent to which the metal can be stretched
before failure occurs.

2.3.2.1.2 Mechanical failure modes

A. Fracture
Fracture refers to the local separation of an object or material into two or
more pieces under the action of stress. Fracture toughness is a property
which describes the ability of a material containing a crack to resist
fracture, and is one of the most important properties of any material for
virtually all design applications.

B. Fatigue
Fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs
when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. It occurs when a material is
subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are above a
certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the surface.
Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, and the structure will suddenly
fracture.

C. Wear
Wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from its "derivative"
and original position on a solid surface performed by the action of another
surface. It is related to interactions between surfaces and more
specifically the removal and deformation of material on a surface as a
result of mechanical action of the opposite surface.
 D. Creep
Creep is a slow or progressive deformation of a material with time under
constant
stress. It is triggered via thermal activation and is more severe in
materials that are subjected to heat for long periods near the melting
point.

E. Corrosion
Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineering material into its
constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. It
involves electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant
such as oxygen. A well-known example of electrochemical corrosion is
formation of an oxide iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms in solid
solution.Effects of corrosion are magnified by stress concentration and
cyclic loading.

F. Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which various metals, most
importantly high-strength steels, become brittle and fracture following
exposure to hydrogen. It results from unintentional introduction of
hydrogen into susceptible metals during forming or finishing operations

2.3.2.1.3 Physical properties

A. Density
Density is commonly defined as mass per unit volume. It is the weight of a
material per unit volume and is measured by weighing it in air and in a
fluid of known density. Different engineering applications demand different
density requirements from materials. Low density materials may be
preferred in some applications like in aircraft components (fuel economy).
On the contrary, weight is found to be advantageous in some cases such
as while making foundations and flywheels.

B. Electrical properties
Typical electrical properties include;
Resistivity which is the measure a materials ability to resist the flow
of electricity. The higher its value, the higher the resistance of the
material.
Resistivity changes with temperature.
Dielectric strength. Materials can be categorised in terms their
electrical properties as conductors, semiconductors or insulators.
For an insulator, the dielectric strength is the voltage required to
break down the insulation ( i.e., allow electrical conduction )
through a unit thickness of the material.
 C. Thermal properties
Typical thermal properties include
Thermal conductivity- Measure of the rate at which heat can be
conducted through a material. Its measured with the coefficient of
thermal conductivity, k.

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 The higher the coefficient, the better the thermal conductivity. For
cases where thermal insulation is required, materials with low
thermal conductivity are used.
Specific heat- is the amount of thermal energy required to increase
a unit mass of a materials temperature by 1 degree.
Coefficient of thermal expansion- it gives a measure of an objects
change in length per degree change in temperature.

2.3.2.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The manufacturing process influences amount of material wasted, surface
defects of the product, cost and to some extent material properties of
finished products. The material manufacturing process selected is
determined largely by its cost and properties of the material to be used.
Typical material processes considered during material selection process
are:

A. Machining
Machining operations can be classified as the ones in which material is
removed in chip form by means of a cutting tool or an abrasive wheel or
block. Some of the machining operations include: turning, grinding,
drilling, boring, reaming, milling, planing, shaping and broaching.
The designer differentiates the machining processes mainly on the basis of
the cost to achieve a certain shape, accuracy and surface finish. The
processes are usually costly and produce scrap and should therefore be
avoided if possible. The designer will specify abrasive methods when
he/she seeks high accuracy and surface finish or when the material is too
hard for other cutting tools.

B. Casting
Metal casting is the process by which a metal or metal alloy is poured into
a mould and hardened in the shape of the mold cavity. The casting
process involves:
Melting the metal.
Pouring the molten metal into the mold.
Allowing the metal to cooland solidify.
Removing the finished part from the mold.
This manufacturing process allows the creation of complex parts and can
be used to make small or large parts. In addition, it is well suited for mass
production. The types of casting processes available are sand casting,
pressure die casting, investment casting and ingot casting. The choice of
any of these processes depend mainly on the material, size, tolerances
involved and more importantly, on the number of pieces to be produced.

C. Forging
Forging involves plastic deformation of material between two dies to
achieve the desired configuration. Depending upon complexity, forging is
carried out as open die forging and closed die forging. In open die forging,
the metal is compressed by repeated blows using a mechanical hammer
and its shape is manipulated manually. In closed die

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forging, the desired configuration is obtained by squeezing the work piece
between two shaped and closed dies. On squeezing the die cavity gets
completely filled and excess material comes out around the periphery of
the die as flash which is later trimmed. Both open and closed die forging
processes are carried in hot as well as in cold state. In forging, favorable
grain orientation of metal is obtained.

D. Rolling
Rolling is the most extensively used metal forming process. The material
to be rolled is drawn by means of friction into the two revolving roll gap.
The compressive forces applied by the rolls reduce the thickness of the
material or changes its cross sectional area. The geometry of the product
depends on the contour of the roll gap. Roll materials are cast iron cast
steel and forged steel because of high strength and wear resistance. In
rolling the crystals get elongated in the rolling direction. In cold rolling,
the crystal more or less retains the elongated shape but in hot rolling they
start reforming after coming out from the deformation zone.

E. Extrusion
In extrusion, the material is compressed in a chamber and the deformed
material is forced to flow through a die. The die opening corresponds to
the cross section of the required product. It is basically a hot working
process; however, for softer materials cold extrusion is also performed. In
direct extrusion metal flows in the same direction as that of the ram.
Because of the relative motion between the heated billet and the chamber
walls, friction is severe and is reduced by using a lubricant. In indirect
extrusion, the metal flows in the opposite direction of the ram. It is more
efficient since it reduces friction losses considerably.

F. Drawing
Large quantities of wires, rods, tubes and other sections are produced by
drawing process which is basically a cold working process. In this process
the material is pulled through a die in order to reduce it to the desired
shape and size. In a typical wire drawing operation, one end of the wire
is reduced and passed through the opening of the die, gripped and
pulled to reduce its diameter. By successive drawing operation through
dies of reducing diameter the wire can be reduced to a very small
diameter. Annealing before each drawing operation permits large area
reduction.

G. Case Hardening
The purpose of case hardening is to produce a hard outer surface on a
specimen of low carbon steel while at the same time retaining the
ductility and toughness in the core. This is done by increasing the carbon
content at the surface by using solid, liquid, or gaseous carburizing
materials. The process consists of introducing the part to be carburized
into the carburizing material for a stated time, and temperature
depending upon the depth of case desired and the composition of the
part. The part may then be quenched directly from the carburization
temperature and tempered, or in some cases it must undergo a double
heat treatment in order to ensure that both the core and the

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case are in proper condition. Some of the more useful case-hardening
processes are pack carburizing, gas carburizing, nitriding, cyaniding,
induction hardening, and flame hardening.

H. Powder Metallurgy
The powder metallurgy process is a quantityproduction process that uses
powders from a single metal, several metals, or a mixture of metals and
non-metals. Essentially it consists of mechanically mixing the powders,
compacting them in dies at high pressures and heating the compacted
part at a temperature less than the melting point of the major ingredient.
Waste material and machining operations are reduced significantly.
However, the cost of materials and dies are high. Parts commonly made
by this process are: Oil impregnated bearings, incandescent lamp
filaments, cemented carbide tips for tools and permanent magnet.

I. Plastic Injection Molding

Plastic injection is the most common process for manufacturing
plastic products. It involves:
Heating a polymer to a molten state.
Forcing the molten polymer to flow into a mold.
Cooling and removing the molded part.
This process is suitable for large scale production. In such production
scale, the expenditure on tooling cost is high, and therefore its important
that the designer consults the manufacturer at an early stage in design.

2.3.2.3 COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES (COST AND AVAILABILITY)

These properties involve aspects of both direct cost of materials and
availability of materials. This is because availability of a material greatly
determines its cost. A material is selected bearing in mind the cost of
manufacture using available methods. Other costs include:
The cost of labour required to produce the finished product from
that material.
Cost of indirect materials (processing chemicals and cleaning
materials).
Cost of services incurred (electric power, gas, air, water, coal, and
fuel).
Tool replacement cost.
Depreciation of plant and machinery.

2.3.2.4 REGULATORY PROPERTIES

A. Code Acceptance
Professional Engineering oganisations provide performance oriented
codes, standards and evaluation procedures by which a product can be
tested and evaluated for compliance.This helps provide a uniform and
widely recognised basis for acceptance of new products.After the new
product has been tested to indicate conformance to the

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code, a technical report is issued describing the new system, the
information and the tests submitted , and the recommended usage.

B. Reparability
This is the ability of the of the damaged or failed equipment, machine or
system to be restored to acceptable operating condition within a specified
time. This property should be taken into account to avoid losses that
would be suffered if replacement was to be done for whole component or
equipment. The spare parts should be available and affordable.

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 3 CHAPTER THREE
LITERATURE REVIEW ON ENGINEERING
MATERIALS, THEIR
PROPERTIES AND CATEGORIES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Many at times, a materials problem is really one of selecting that material
which has the right combination of characteristics for a specific
application. This necessitates that the engineering designers have some
familiarity with the general characteristics of a wide variety of materials.

Engineering materials are classified on the basis of their chemical,

physical and mechanical properties. They include metallic materials
(metals and their alloys) and non-metallic materials (polymers,
ceramics and composites).

3.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

A material property is the measured magnitude of its response to a
standard test performed according to a standard procedure in a given
environment. An understanding of material properties and behavior puts
a designer in a position to choose a proper material for a given product.
Material properties are usually formalized through specifications namely,
Performance specifications which delineate the basic functional
requirements of the product and sets out the basic parameters from
which the design can be developed.
Product specifications which define conditions under which
components of the designs are purchased or manufactured.

3.2.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Mechanical properties of materials are those related to its ability to
withstand external mechanical forces such as tensile forces, compression
forces, twisting (torque), bending and sudden impact. They include;
strength and rigidity, resistance to fatigue, resilience and toughness,
hardness, ductility, damping capacity, friction, and formability. These
were discussed in detail in chapter 2.

3.2.1.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAILURE MODES AND

MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
In most modes of failure two or more mechanical properties interact to
control the material behavior. In addition, the service conditions met by
the material in general use are more complex than the test conditions
under which the material properties are usually measured.
The service condition may consist of a complex superposition of
environments such as fluctuating stress (fatigue) at high temperature (creep)
in a highly oxidizing atmosphere

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 (corrosion). Specialized simulation tests are developed to screen
materials for complex service conditions.

3.3 CATEGORIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Engineering materials can be classified into two major categories:
Metallic materials and Non- metallic material. These are further
subdivided into various classes as illustrated in the diagram below:

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Metal & Alloys Non-Metals

Composites Ceramics
Polymers
Non
Ferrous Ferrous

Steels Cast irons Titanium Copper Nickel Magnesium Aluminium

Carbon steels
Alloy steels
Low High
Carbon Carbon

High alloy
HSLA Stainless
Medium Carbon

Martensiti
Austenitic Ferritic c Duplex

Note: HSLA High Strength Low Alloy

Fig. 3.2: Categories of engineering materials

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 3.3.1 METALLIC MATERIALS
These consist of metals and metal alloys. In this category we have
ferrous and non ferrous metals. They have vast application due to
their good electrical and thermal conductivity. They can be classified
into ferrous and non ferrous metals.

3.3.1.1 FERROUS ALLOYS

Ferrous alloys contain iron as the prime constituent. Their widespread use
is accounted for by three factors:
Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the
earths crust
Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively
economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication
techniques.
Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored
to have a wide range of mechanical and physical properties. The
principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility
to corrosion.

3.3.1.1.1 STEELS
Steels are ironcarbon alloys that may contain appreciable
concentrations of other alloying elements. The mechanical properties
are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0
wt%. Steels are classified according to carbon concentration, namely,
into low, medium, and high carbon types.

A. Low-Carbon Steels
Have carbon content of less than 0.25 wt%. Microstructures consist of
ferrite and pearlite constituents. As a consequence, these alloys are
relatively soft and weak, but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in
addition, they are machinable, weldable. A sub group of low-carbon alloys
are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. They contain other
alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in
combined concentrations as high as 10 wt%, and possess higher
strengths.

B. Medium-Carbon Steels
Have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These
alloys may be heat treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then
tempering to improve their mechanical properties. They are most often
utilized in the tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered
martensite. The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities and
can be successfully heat treated only in very thin sections and with very
rapid quenching rates.

C. High-Carbon Steels
Have carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%. They are the hardest,
strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. Used in a hardened and
tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and capable
of holding a sharp cutting edge. The tool and die steels are high-carbon
alloys, usually containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten,

19
and molybdenum. These alloying elements combine with carbon to form
very hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds.

3.3.1.1.2 STAINLESS STEELS

The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion. Their predominant
alloying element is Chromium with a concentration of at least 11 wt%.
Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum
additions. They are divided into three classes:
Ferritic steels: contain 12-27% chromium.
Martensitic steels: contain 12% chromium and no nickel.
Austensitic steels: contain 18% chromium and 8% nickel

3.3.1.1.3 CAST IRONS

Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon content
above 2.14 wt %. However, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5
wt% C and, other alloying elements. They are easily melted and amenable
to casting. Cast irons are grouped into:

A. Gray cast Iron

The carbon content varies between 2.5 - 4.0 wt %, with Silicon content
varying between 1.0 - 3.0 wt%. The graphite exists in the form of flakes
(similar to corn flakes), which are normally surrounded by ferrite or
pearlite matrix. Its weak and brittle in tension as a consequence of its
microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed, and
may serve as points of stress concentration when an external tensile
stress is applied. Strength and ductility are much higher under
compressive loads. They are very effective in damping vibration energy.

B. Ductile (or Nodular) Iron

It is formed by adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the
gray iron before casting. Graphite forms as nodules or sphere-like
particles instead of flakes. The matrix phase surrounding these particles
is either pearlite or ferrite, depending on heat treatment. It is normally
pearlite for a cast piece. However, heat treatments for several hours at
0
about 700 C will yield a ferrite matrix .Castings are stronger and much
more ductile than gray cast iron. Ductile cast iron has mechanical
characteristics approaching those of steel.

C. White cast Iron and Malleable cast Iron

White cast iron contains low-silicon (less than 1.0 wt% Si) and undergoes
rapid cooling rates. Carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. It is
extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of being virtually
unmachinable. White iron is used as an intermediary in the production of
0
malleable iron. Heating white iron at temperatures between 800- 900 C
for a prolonged time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent
oxidation) causes a decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite,
which

20
exists in the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite
matrix, depending on cooling rate. The microstructure of malleable iron is
similar to that for nodular iron hence its relatively high strength and
appreciable ductility or malleability.

3.3.1.2 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

Steel and other ferrous alloys are consumed in exceedingly large
quantities because they have such a wide range of mechanical
properties, may be fabricated with relative ease, and are economical to
produce. However, they have some distinct limitations, chiefly:
Relatively high density,
Comparatively low electrical conductivity, and
An inherent susceptibility to corrosion in some common
environments.
Thus, for many applications it is advantageous or even necessary to
utilize other alloys having more suitable property combinations. Alloy
systems are classified either according to the base metal or according to
some specific characteristic that a group of alloys share.

3.3.1.2.1 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination
of physical properties, have been utilized in quite a variety of
applications since antiquity.

A. Copper
Unalloyed copper has excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. It is
soft, ductile, and has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked. It is
highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the
ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals. The
mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of copper may be
improved by alloying. Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or
strengthened by heat-treating procedures; consequently, cold working
and/or solid-solution alloying must be utilized to improve these
mechanical properties.

B. Copper alloys
Brasses
Zinc is the predominant alloying element. brasses are relatively soft,
ductile, and easily cold worked. Brass alloys having higher zinc content
contain both and phases at room temperature. The phase has an
ordered body centred cubic (BCC) crystal structure and is harder and
stronger than phase; consequently, + alloys are generally hot
worked. Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge
brass, muntz metal, and gilding metal.

Bronze
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin,
aluminum, silicon, and nickel. These alloys are somewhat stronger than the
brasses, yet they still

21
have a high degree of corrosion resistance. Generally they are utilized
when, in addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are
required.

Beryllium coppers
They possess a remarkable combination of properties: tensile strengths as
high as 1400 MPa, excellent electrical and corrosion properties, and wear
resistance when properly lubricated; they may be cast, hot worked, or
cold worked. High strengths are attained by precipitation-hardening heat
treatments. These alloys are costly because of the beryllium additions,
which range between 1.0 and 2.5 wt%. Applications include jet aircraft
landing gear bearings and bushings, springs, and surgical and dental
instruments.

3.3.1.2.2 ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Aluminium and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density
3
(2700Kg/m ), high ductility, high electrical- thermal conductivities, and a
resistance to corrosion. Since aluminium has a face centred cubic (FCC)
crystal structure, its ductility is retained even at very low temperatures.
The chief limitation of aluminium is its low melting temperature, which
restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used. Principal
alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and
zinc.

Aluminium alloys are classified as either cast or wrought. Some of the

more common applications of aluminum alloys include aircraft structural
parts, beverage cans, bus bodies, and automotive parts (engine blocks,
pistons, and manifolds).Recent attention has been given to alloys of
aluminum and other low-density metals (e.g. Mg and Ti) as engineering
materials for transportation, to effect reductions in fuel consumption. An
important characteristic of these materials is specific strength, which is
quantified by the tensile strengthspecific gravity ratio.

A generation of new aluminum-lithium alloys has been developed recently

for use by the aircraft and aerospace industries. These materials have
3
relatively low densities (between 25002600 Kg/m ), high specific moduli
(elastic modulus specific gravity ratios), and excellent fatigue and low-
temperature toughness properties.

3.3.1.2.3 MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

The most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density (1700
3
Kg/m ); hence its alloys are used where light weight is an important
consideration (e.g. in aircraft components).It is relatively soft, and has a
low elastic modulus. At room temperature magnesium and its alloys are
difficult to deform. Consequently, most fabrication is by casting or hot
working. It has a moderately low melting temperature. Chemically,
magnesium alloys are relatively unstable and especially susceptible to
corrosion in marine environments. On the other hand, corrosion or
oxidation resistance is reasonably good in the normal atmosphere (due
to impurities). Fine magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in air;
consequently, care should be exercised when handling it in this state.
22
These alloys are also classified as either cast or wrought, and some of
them are heat treatable. Aluminum, zinc, manganese, and some of
the rare earths are the major alloying elements. These alloys are used
in aircraft and missile applications.

3.3.1.2.4 TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that
possess an extraordinary combination of properties. The pure metal has
3 0
a relatively low density (4500 Kg/m ), a high melting point [1668 C], and
an elastic modulus of 107 GPa. Titanium alloys are extremely strong,
with room temperature tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa.
Furthermore, the alloys are highly ductile, easily forged and machined.

The major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other

materials at elevated temperatures. This property has necessitated
the development of nonconventional refining, melting, and casting
techniques; consequently, titanium alloys are quite expensive. In spite
of this high temperature reactivity, the corrosion resistance of titanium
alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high; they are virtually
immune to air, marine, and a variety of industrial environments
They are commonly utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles,
surgical implants, and in the petroleum and chemical industries.

3.3.1.2.5 THE SUPER ALLOYS

The super-alloys have superlative combinations of properties. Most are
used in aircraft turbine components, which must withstand exposure to
severely oxidizing environments and high temperatures for reasonable
time periods. Mechanical integrity under these conditions is critical; in this
regard, density is an important consideration because centrifugal stresses
are diminished in rotating members when the density is reduced. These
materials are classified according to the predominant metal in the alloy,
which may be cobalt, nickel, or iron. Other alloying elements include the
refractory metals (Nb, Mo, W, and Ta), chromium, and titanium. In addition
to turbine applications, these alloys are utilized in nuclear reactors and
petrochemical equipment.

3.3.1.2.6 MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS NONFERROUS

The discussion above covers the vast majority of non-ferrous alloys;
however, a number of others are found in a variety of engineering
applications. These include:

Nickel and its alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in many

environments, especially those that are basic (alkaline). Nickel is often
coated or plated on some metals that are susceptible to corrosion as a
protective measure. Monel, a nickel based alloy containing
approximately 65 wt% Ni and 28 wt% Cu (the balance iron), has very high
strength and is extremely corrosion resistant; it is used in pumps, valves,
and other components that are in contact with some acid and petroleum
solutions.

23
Lead, tin, and their alloys find some use as engineering materials. Both
are mechanically soft and weak, have low melting temperatures, are quite
resistant to many corrosion environments, and have re-crystallization
temperatures below room temperature. Many common solders are lead
tin alloys, which have low melting temperatures. Applications for lead and
its alloys include x-ray shields and storage batteries. Tin is used as a very
thin coating on the inside of plain carbon steel cans (tin cans) that are
used for food containers; this coating inhibits chemical reactions between
the steel and the food products.

Zinc is a relatively soft metal having a low melting temperature and a re-
crystallization temperature. Chemically, it is reactive in a number of
common environments and, therefore, susceptible to corrosion.
Galvanized steel is just plain carbon steel that has been coated with a
thin zinc layer; the zinc preferentially corrodes and protects the steel
.Typical applications of galvanized steel are familiar (sheet metal, fences,
screen, screws, etc.). Common applications of zinc alloys include
padlocks, automotive parts (door handles and grilles), and office
equipment.

Zirconium and its alloys are ductile and have other mechanical
characteristics that are comparable to those of titanium alloys and the
austenitic stainless steels. However, the primary asset of these alloys is
their resistance to corrosion in a host of corrosive media, including
superheated water. Furthermore, zirconium is transparent to thermal
neutrons, so that its alloys have been used as cladding for uranium fuel in
water-cooled nuclear reactors.

3.3.2 NON-METALLIC MATERIALS

These are the materials that do not exhibit metallic characteristics in their
properties. Examples are composites, ceramics, rubbers, plastics and
polymers.

3.3.2.1 POLYMERS
These are compounds of high molecular weight derived by the addition
of smaller molecules (monomers) or by the condensation of smaller
molecules with the elimination of water, alcohol and other solvents.
There are many different polymeric materials that are familiar to us
and find a wide variety of applications.

3.3.2.1.1 Plastics
They have a wide variety of combinations of properties. Some plastics are
very rigid and brittle; others are flexible, exhibiting both elastic and
plastic deformations when stressed, and sometimes experiencing
considerable deformation before fracture. Plastic materials may be either
thermoplastic or thermosetting.
 A. Thermoplastics
These are also known as thermo softening plastics. They have very weak
Van Der Waals forces. They are polymers that liquefy on heating and when
cooled, they form a very

2
4
glassy state. They are easily molded and extruded into films, fibers and
packaging materials. E.g. Polyvinylchloride, polyethylene

B. Thermosetting plastics
These are polymers that cure irreversibly. Once cooled and hardened, they
return to their shapes but cannot return to their original form. The curing
is by heating or through a chemical reaction. They can be used for
automobile parts, aircraft parts and tyres. Example are vulcanized rubber
and epoxy resins.

3.3.2.1.2 Elastomers
They have a cross linked structure with a looser mesh than thermosets.
Thus they have the ability to be deformed to quite large deformations,
and then elastically spring back to their original form. Their moduli of
elasticity are quite small. They are to produce automobile tyres. Example
is Natural poly-isoprene (natural rubber)

3.3.2.1.3 Fibers
Fibers are capable of being drawn into long filaments (100: 1 length-to-
diameter ratio). Fiber polymers are utilized in the textile industry, being
woven or knit into cloth or fabric. While in use, fibers may be subjected to
a variety of mechanical deformations: stretching, twisting, shearing, and
abrasion. Consequently, they must have a high tensile strength (over a
relatively wide temperature range) and a high modulus of elasticity, as
well as abrasion resistance.

3.3.2.2 CERAMICS
These are inorganic non-metallic materials made up of two or more
elements bonded together. They can be dense or light in weight but with
excellent strength and hardness properties. Typical properties of
ceramics include:
Ceramics are brittle, wear resistant, hard and oxidation-resistant.
They are very strong in compression but very weak in tension due to
presence of minute cracks.
They are also widely applicable in positions involving chemicals
because they are inert.
Ceramics are hard and strong.
Ceramics are divided into four sections of application, namely:-
Structural application ceramics e.g. bricks, roof and floor tiles.
Refractory applications: These are the ceramics used as kiln linings
and gas fire radiant.
Technical engineering applications: These include fire ceramics
used in space shuttle programmers.
Whiteware applications ceramics: Become white after the high-
temperature firing. E.g. porcelain, pottery, tableware, china, and
plumbing fixtures (sanitary ware).
2
5
3.3.2.3 COMPOSITES
These are engineering materials made from two or more materials with
significantly different chemical and physical properties and these
materials remain separate or distinct on the microscopic level within a
finished structure. The constituent material is either a matrix or
reinforcement.

The matrix, usually a polymer matrix, surrounds and supports the

reinforcement by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcement;
usually fibers, metals, ceramics and polymers impart their mechanical and
physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. Composites have
special properties like:-
Fire resistance.
Light weight.
Chemical and weathering resistance.
Good electrical properties.
High strength to weight ratio.

Composites fail by: Shock, impact and repeated cyclic loading causing
separation of the layers (de-lamination). Some composites are brittle and
have little reserve strength beyond initial onset of failure while others
have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the onset of damage. In
comparison with other materials, composites have poor bearing strength.
2
6
 4 CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON DECISION MAKING
AND
INFORMATION PROCESSING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering design is inherently a decision making process where choices
are constantly being made between alternatives, such as selection of
concepts, components, or the rating of client needs. The tools used in
solving these problems depend largely on the type of data available
4
(deterministic, probabilistic, or uncertain) .
Numerous methods have been developed to help design teams make the
correct choices by using structured approaches. The two widely used tools
include:
i. Rank order: Pairwise comparison charts (PCCs)
ii. Analytic hierarchy process(AHP)

4.1.1 RANK ORDER: PAIR WISE COMPARISON CHARTS

Dym and Little (2003) proposed using of PCCs based on the premise
that it is easier to differentiate between pairs of alternatives e.g. A is
better than B or A is similar to B. PCCs use a matrix structure to
compare each alternative individually with every other (Pair wise
comparison). The results from the comparison are summed to obtain an
overall rank order.
PCCs can be generated using the following steps:
1) In a table, the n items to be compared are listed as row and
column headings in an nn matrix. An additional column is added
at the end of the matrix to record the total score for each item.

Table 4.1- Structure of PCCs; Adapted from: Madara Ogot & Gul
Kremer, Engineering Design: A Practical
Guide.

Comparison criteria
Evaluate
d A B C D E F Total
A -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -5
B 1 -1 1 -1 0 0
C 1 1 1 1 1 5
D 1 -1 -1 0 -1 -2
E 1 1 -1 0 -1 0
F 1 0 -1 1 1 2
4
Taha, A., 2008
27
 Key
A-Size E-Availability
B-Weight F-Manufacturability
C-Strength
D-Cost

2) The first row is compared individualy to all other column items.

Scores of 1, 0, and -1 are assigned if the row item is better, similar,
or worse, respectively than the column item.
3) The row scores are totalled, yielding the overall score of thr first
alternative.
4) Steps 2 and 3 are repeated for all alternatives.
5) The ranking order for alternatives is compiled. The higher the
overall score, the higher the alternatives rank. From the table
above, strength (C) is ranked highest.

4.1.2 RELATIVE ORDER: ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS (AHP)

It is used when a relative score is required for a set of qualitative
alternatives.AHP determines by how much each alternative is better (or
worse) than the others. It is based on the fundamental scale which
captures individual preferences with respect to qualitative or
quantitative attributes.

Example
Consider two choices of materials all of which meet the basic properties
desired for a particular product. To select one material, the designer
specifies three main criteria: its availability, cost, and the manufacturing
process. Giving a weight of approximately 45% to availability, 35% to cost
and 20% to manufacturing process, the designer uses a systematic
analysis to rank these two materials. The table below ranks the three
criteria for the two materials:

Table 4.2: Criteria ranking for the three materials

Manufacturin Availabilit Composit

Criterion g Cost y e
process
(20%) (35%) (45%) weights
Material 0.63 0.42 0.33 0.4215
Index A
Estimates Material 0.37 0.58 0.67 0.5785
B

The problem involves a single hierarchy (level) with three criteria

(manufacturing process, cost, and availability) and two decision
alternatives (Material A and material B). The ranking of each material is
based on computing the following composite weights:

28
 Material A=0.2*0.63+0.35*0.42+0.45*0.33=0.4215
Material B=0.2*0.37+0.35*0.58+0.45*0.67=0.5785

Material B has the highest composite weight, and is therefore the best
material choice for the application.

4.2INFORMATION PROCESSING
4.2.1 Hypertext Pre-Processor (PHP)
PHP is a server-side scripting language. A server- side scripting language
allows the user to embed little programs (scripts) into the HTML of a web
page. When executed, such scripts allow the user to control what will
actually appear in the browser window with more flexibility than is
possible using straight HTML. Although to some extent PHP is similar to
JavaScript, the key difference between the two is that JavaScript is
interpreted by the web browser once the web page that contains the script
has been downloaded whereas PHP is interpreted by the web server
before the page is sent to the browser. Once interpreted, the results of the
script replace the PHP code in the Web page so that all the browser sees is
a standard HTML file. The script is processed entirely by the server, hence
the designation: server-side scripting language.
Some of the merits of PHP include:
Access to server-side resources.
Interpretation of scripts by the Web server thus
eliminating browser compatibility issues.
Reduced load on client.
PHP syntax is similar to that of C, C++, Java, or any other C-derived
language.

4.2.2 Definitions
The following definitions are commonly associated with PHP:
a) Constant:- This is an identifier (name) for a simple value and does
not change in the execution of the script. Constant identifiers are
always in upper case.
b) Expression:- This is anything that has value. The basic forms of
expressions are constants and variables.
c) Operator:- An operator is anything that you feed with one or more
values (or expressions) which yields another value. Examples of
operators are unary operators operating on one value and ternary
operator which select between two expressions depending on a
third one.
d) Open database connectivity (ODBC) is an application
programming interface (API) that allows one to connect to data
source.
e) A web server is a computer program that delivers (serves)
content, such as web pages, using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) over the World Wide Web (WWW). The primary function of a
web server is to deliver web pages which are basically HTML
documents to clients (i.e. a web browser). A full implementation of
HTTP also includes a way of receiving content from clients. This
feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of
files. A
2
9
 client initiates communication by making a request for a specific
resource using HTTP and the server responds with the content of
that resource, or an error message if unable to do so.
f) Mysql:- Mysql is a relational database management system
(RDBMS) that runs as a server providing multi-user access to a
number of databases. Many web applications use mysql as a
database component. PhpMyadmin, a free web based protocol
widely installed by web hosts worldwide, can connect to
local/remote MySQL servers to manage databases, tables, column
structure and individual data records. MySQL can be built and
installed manually from source code, though it is more commonly
installed from binary package - unless customizations are required.
g) Data base:- This is a collection of data typically describing
activities of one or more related organizations.
h) Data base management system (DBMS):- Software designed to
assist in maintaining and utilizing large collections of data.
i) Variables in PHP are represented by a dollar sign followed by the
name of the variable. It is possible to access Microsoft server from PHP
on a windows machine by simply using ODBC support and the correct
ODBC drive. Variables in PHP are always assigned by value i.e. when
you assign an expression to a variable, the entire value of the original
expression is copied into the destination variable.PHP also allows for
the assignment of value to a variable by reference. This means that
the new variable simply references to the original variable. Changes in
the new variable affects the original variable and vice versa.

4.2.3 How php Works

When a client visits a page on a database driven website, the clients
web browser requests for the web page using a standard URL. The web
server software (Apache) recognizes that the requested file is a PHP script
and so the server interprets the file using its PHP plug-in before
responding to the page request. Certain PHP commands connect to the
MySQL database and requests the content that belongs to the web page.
The MySQL database responds by sending the requested content to the
PHP script. The PHP script stores the content into one or more PHP
variables and then uses the echo function to output the content as part
of the web page. The web server sends the HTML to the web browser as it
would for a plain HTML file except that instead of coming directly from an
HTML file, the page is the output provided by the PHP plug-in.
3
0
 5 CHAPTER FIVE
CASE STUDY: SELECTION OF A MATERIAL FOR A
REVERTED
TWO STAGE COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN
5.1 INTR0DUCTION
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of
successively engaging teeth. This form of transmission is possible
because of the rigidity of the material from which the gear wheels are
made. From kinematical point of view, gear wheels may be assumed to be
completely rigid, such that there is no deformation whatsoever when the
gear wheel is subjected to force. Thus the kind of transmission of motion
that occurs in gear drives is known as a positive drive in which there
should be no loss of motion at all. This is as opposed to belt drives, for
instance, in which loss of motion may occur due to creep, slip or both
creep and slip of the belt relative to the pulleys.

5.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

Gears are generally classified according to the orientation of the teeth; as
follows:
Spur gears: The teeth are lengthwise parallel to the axis of rotation
of the gear wheel. The overall form of the gear wheel is actually
cylindrical.

Fig. 5.1: Spur gears

Helical gears: Similar to spur gears except that the teeth of a

helical gear are cut at an angle (known as the helix angle) to the
axis. Helical gears are made in both right and left hand
configurations.
3
1
 Fig. 5.2: Helical gears

Bevel gears:The teeth lie upon a cone rather than a right cylinder.
Variants of the bevel gears are the straight bevel, spiral bevel and
the hypoid gears.

Fig. 5.3: Straight bevel

Fig. 5.4: Spiral bevel

3
2
 Fig. 5.5: Hypoid bevel

Worm and worm wheel: A worm is a type of gear with one or

more cylindrical threads or starts (that resemble screw threads)
and a face that is usually wider than its diameter. A worm wheel, on
the other hand, is a helical gear that meshes with the worm.

Fig. 5.5: Worm and wheel gears

Gear drives have a number of advantages compared to the other

mechanical power transmission devices such as belt drives and chain
drives. The major advantages are the following:
They provide a constant speed ratio.
They dont exhibit chordal action, as in chain drives.
They are more compact as compared to belt and chain drives.
The range of speeds and loads with which gear drives may be used
is far broader than with belt and chain drives.
3
3
 5.1.2 GEARING TERMINOLOGY

Fig. 5.6: Illustration of gearing terminology; Adapted from Boston-

Gear

The following defined terms are generally applicable to gears:

Pitch circle is an imaginary circle that corresponds to the circumference
of the friction wheel that corresponds to the gear. The pitch circle of
meshing gears roll on each other without slipping.
Pitch circle diameter (D) is the diameter of the pitch circle of a gear or
pinion.
Addendum (a) is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of the
tooth.

Dedendum (d) is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of
the tooth space.
Outside diameter (D) is the diameter of the addendum circle. Thus 2
5
Root diameter (D) is the diameter of the root circle. Thus 2

Whole depth (h) is the total height of the tooth or the total depth of the

tooth space.
Thus
h
Working depth (2) is the distance that a tooth that projects into the
mating tooth space. Thus
5
The root circle is also known as the dedendum circle
3
4
Clearance (c) is thedistance between the top of the tooth and the bottom

of the mating tooth space. Thus;

Circular pitch (p) is the distance, along the pitchcircle, /from a point on
one tooth to a corresponding point on adjacent tooth. Therefore (z is the
number of teeth).
Module ( ) is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter of a gear wheel to the
number of
and that
m
teeth on the gear wheel. Thus . It therefore follows that the
arereally measures of the same
circular pitch and the / to
module quantity, different
scales.
Pressure angle or tooth shape () is the angle at which the pressure from the tooth of one gear #is passed on to the tooth of another gear.
Spur gears come in two pressure

!
angles: 14 " and 20.

Diametral pitch (P) is the ratio of the% number/of1/teeth on a gear

wheel to the pitch circle diameter of the gear wheel. Thus

Backlash (B) of a pair of meshing teeth is the amount by which the width
of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of a mating tooth on the pitch
circle. A small amount of backlash is usually desirable, or necessary. But if
it is excessive the gears will rattle under light loads or when running idle.
Face width (b) is the lengthwise width of the teeth in the direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of the gear wheel
Gear ratio (G) is the mathematical ratio of a pair of spur gears
determined by dividing the number of teeth on the larger gear with the
number of teeth on the pinion.

5.1.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR A GEAR TRAIN

Prior to the design of a gear train, the following data is usually required:
The power to be transmitted
The speed of the driving gear
The speed of the driven gear or the gear ratio
The centre distance

Also the following requirements must be met in design of a gear train:

The gear teeth should have sufficient strength so that they will
not fail under static loading or dynamic loading during normal
running conditions.
The gear teeth should have wear characteristics so that their life is
satisfactory.
The use of space and material should be economical.
 The alignment of the gears and deflections of the shafts must
be considered because of their effect on the performance of
gears.
The lubrication of the gears must be satisfactory.

3
5
 5.1.4 MODES OF GEAR FAILURE
Gear failure occurs as a result of a material having or lacking
particular attributes closely related to its mechanical properties. The
following are the various modes of gear failure common in practice,
and possible remedies:

Bending failure: Every gear tooth acts as a cantilever. If the total

dynamic load acting on the gear tooth is greater than its beam
strength, failure due to bending will occur i.e. the tooth will break.
To avoid such failure, the module and face width is adjusted such
that the beam strength is greater than the dynamic load.

Pitting: Its surface fatigue failure which occurs due to many

repetition of
6
Hertz contact stresses. The failure occurs when the surface
contact stresses are higher than the endurance of the material. It
starts with formation of pits which continue to grow resulting in the
rupture of the tooth. To avoid pitting, the dynamic load must be
less than the wear strength of the gear tooth.

Scoring: Excessive heat is generated when there is an excessive

surface pressure, high speed, or failure of lubrication system. This
causes a stick- slip phenomenon in which shearing and welding
takes place rapidly. To avoid scoring, proper design of parameters
such as speed, pressure and proper flow of the lubricant should be
carried out.

Abrasive wear: Foreign particles in the lubricant such as dirt,

dust or burr can cause loss of material from contacting surfaces of
teeth. This type of failure can be avoided by providing filters for
lubricating oil or by using high viscosity oil which forms a thicker
film and permits easy passage of such particles without damaging
the gear surface.

Corrosive wear: Corrosion of teeth surface is mainly caused due to

the presence of corrosive elements such as additives present in
lubricating oils. In order to avoid this type of wear, proper anti-
corrosive additives should be used.

5.2REVERTED COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN DESIGN

A reverted compound gear train is a type of parallel axis gear train. Gears
(Only spur and bevel gears are used in this case ), in the various stages of
speed transformation, though not being rigidly mounted on a single shaft;
do have a common axis of rotation. In a two stage reverted gear train, the
input and the output gears have a common axis of rotation. They are
more compact than non-reverted compound gear trains. Reverted gear
trains find applications in speed reducers, machine tools and automotive
transmissions.

6
Contact stress was originally conceived by Hertz (1896) in whose name it is often
referred.

3
6
 Fig. 5.7: A reverted two stage compound gear train in a manual
winch

For the reverted compound gear train, the input and output shafts must
be co-axial and therefore:
C1=C3 (5.1)

Moreover, it is common practice to make meshing gear wheels be of

equal face widths. In that case:

&
' * '+
,
(5.2
'( ')
)
b2 b3

Z2 Z3

C1 C3

Z1

Z4
b1 b4

Fig. 5.8: Schematic of a reverted compound gear train

37
In figure 5.8, the numbers of teeth on the gear wheels are denoted -(,

z2, z3 and z4. Further, the corresponding gear wheel pitch diameters
are D1, D2, D3 and D4.
Then the modules of the gear wheels can be determined as follows:
/( /) /* /+
.( .) .* .+

; ; ;
(5.3)
-( -) -* -+

As is well known, the modules of meshing gear wheels must be equal.

Therefore:
0 .* .+

&.( .)
(5.4)
The intra-stage gear ratios can be determined as follows:

2) /( -(
1( 2 ( /) -)
(5.5)

2 + / * - *
1* 2 * /+ -+
(5.6)
Introducing the following notation for normalized face widths, as
a matter of convenience:

' '
'3( . (( ; '3* . *(
(5.7)

5.2.1 THE DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

The design must satisfy all geometrical, kinematical and strength
constraints:

5.2.1.1 Geometric Constraints

According to Juvinall (1983), the face width of a gear wheel should lie
between 9-14 times its module. This constraint may be expressed
mathematically, as follows:
,
&
4 5 ' 3*
5 (+

4 5 '3(
(5.8) 5 (+
Furthermore, according to Juvinall (1983), gear wheels with standard
pressure angle of 20 should not have less than 18 teeth. This is the
condition for avoiding undercutting for gear wheels that are produced by
a generation process. However, according to Budynas and Nisbett (2008),
the number of teeth on a pinion that will avoid interference is determined
as follows:
 38

) )
-6 7 91:;)<=:3) ?( @( 91: )1:<=:3 A

)8 (5.9)
Where, BC is the speed ratio for a pair of meshing gear wheels, k is a factor that is equal

to 1 for standard full-depth teeth and 0.8 for stub teeth, is the pressure angle and DE is

the number of teeth on the pinion. For full-depth teeth, if we make BC=1 /6 and =20,

we find that DE16.

Mathematically, this constraint may be stated as

follows: (5.10)
-( 7 (F

&

,
-* 7 (F
5.2.1.2 Kinematic Constraints
Budynas and Nisbett (2008) recommend that the speed reduction ratio in
a single stage of a compound gear train should not exceed 1:10. Oonishi
(1988) recommends limiting the speed reduction in a single stage as
shown in table below.

Table 5.1: Recommended maximum gear ratio in single stage

Low High
Type of gear speed speed

Spur 7:1 5:1

Bevel 5:1 3:1

We shall limit the maximum speed reduction in a single stage to be 1: 6.

Bearing in mind that the gear train being designed is a speed reducer, this
leads to constraints that may be stated mathematically as follows:
1( 7 G. (FI (5.11)

&

1* 7 G. (FI,
The intra-stage gear ratios must take on such values as to obtain the
required overall gear ratio of the train. This constraint may be
expressed as follows:

1(1* 1 (5.12)

39
5.2.1.3 Strength Constraints
The load carrying capacity of any gear drive is limited by the heat of
operation, beam strength of teeth and wear-load capacity of gear
materials. In other words, a satisfactory gear drive must have the ability
to dissipate the friction heat of operation, must have teeth sufficiently
strong to carry the dynamic loads without breaking or shearing and must
be made of materials whose surface-endurance properties are adequate
to carry the dynamic loads without excessive wear.

A. Beam Strength
In studying the beam strength of gear teeth, Buckingham modeled the
teeth to be cantilever beams with the most severe condition of loading
assumed to be when the full load acting on the gear wheel is carried at
the tip of a single tooth. To reduce impact between meshing gear teeth,
as well as minimize noise, gears are normally designed in such a way that
a pair of teeth begins contact before the previously engaged pair of teeth
end contact. This nature of tooth contact is characterized by the contact
ratio, which is the average number of teeth in contact at any given time.
However, when the requirement of weight and size of gears are not
critical, a condition that includes the great majority of gears used in
machine design, it is safer to assume that the load is carried at the tip of
a single gear tooth.

7
Gear tooth bending stress is given by the Lewis equation :
KL
J'

'6M (5.13)

N is the transmitted force (newtons)

is the face width of the gear (mm)

b
is the circular pitch(mm)
Where:
O is known as the tooth form factor or Lewis form factor.
The value of y, in terms of the number of gear teeth is expressed as:
G.4()
G. (P+ ___________
y Q
20 full depth involute profile
G.S+(
G. (IP ___________
y Q 20 stub system

Now, from their definitions, the circular pitch and the module are related
as follows:

6 T. (5.14)
7
In 1892, Wilfred Lewis investigated for the strength of gear teeth. He derived an
equation which is now extensively used by industry in determining the size and
proportions of gear.

40
Therefore, from equations (5.13) and (5.14), the following can be readily
obtained:

KL T'.MJ'
(5.15)
Now, let us introduce the following notation:

U TM (5.16)
Then, from equations (5.15) and (5.16) the following can be readily
obtained:

KL '.UJ'
(5.17)
Figure 5.9, shows the pitch circles of a pinion Vand a gear in mesh, along with the forces and Vtorques acting upon the two gear wheels. ! is the input torque at
the pinion shaft and " is the load torque acting upon the shaft carrying the driven gear. Therefore:

W( KL(/(
) (5.18)

The tangential and radial components are given by:

KL( K( XYZ ; Fr1 K( Z[\

(5.19)

D2
F1

T2

Fr1 F1
Ft1

Ft1
T1
Ft1

D1

Fig. 5.9: Forces Acting Between Two Meshing Gear Wheels

41
The power input at the pinion shaft is denoted by ]! and can be expressed
as follows:

^( W(2(
(5.20)
Let us denote the pitch line velocity of the input pinion by _!. Then we can write the

following:
(5.21)

2( /(
`( )

From equations (5.18), (5.20) and (5.21), we can write the following:
^(
KL(

(5.22) `(

From equations (5.7), (5.17) and (5.22), we can write the following:
^(
'(.(U(J' '3(.)U(J'

(5.23)
`( (

Similarly, for the output stage pinion gear, we can write the following:
^(
'*.*U*J' '3*.)U*J'

(5.24)
`* *

If we denote the allowable bending stress of the gear material by abc, then we can write

the following:
(5.25)

J'd 7 '3(.^)((U(`(

Similarly, assuming that all the gear wheels in the train are made of the
same material, we can write the following:
J
'd 7 '3*.*)U*`*

^( (5.26)
The pitch-line velocities, _! and _e , may be expressed in terms of the input shaftrotational
velocity as follows:

2(/( 2(.( -(

`(
) )
)
(5.27)
`*
)

& 2*.* -* 2(1(.* -*f

42
Thus, from equations (5.25), (5.26) and (5.27), we can write the following:

)^(

J'd 7 '3(.(*U(2(-( (5.28)

& ^(
f

*
J'd 7 '3*1(.* U* 2(-*

B. Wear Strength
The contact conditions between spur-gear-tooth profile are similar to
those between two cylinders except that on the gear tooth profiles the
radius of curvature is constantly changing. If use is made of the contact
and pressure conditions between two cylinders as measure of the stress
on the surface of the gear teeth, it is necessary to first select some
definite part of the gear tooth for use as a basis of comparison.

In many cases, wear on gear teeth first becomes apparent at or near the
pitch line. Possibly one contributing cause for this effects is the fact that
one pair of teeth is usually carrying the entire load. When contact takes
place near the top or the bottom of the active profile, two pairs of mating
teeth are usually sharing the load. Again the impact or dynamic load is
usually imposed on the gear near the pitch line area. It is the intensity of
this dynamic load that is largely responsible for the surface fatigue of the
gear materials. Hence the radius of the curvature of the gear tooth profile
at the pitch line is selected as the one to use as a basis of comparison
with the Hertz equation (for cylinders).

The Hertz equation was modified to give the expression for the limiting
wear load for gear teeth by Buckingham and was presented by Oonishi
as follows

KL 88g/6'6 h )-i j

(5.29)
-6;-i

Where:
2
k is the contact stress factor (N/mm ) and is given by:

Jk) Z[\ )
8 (. + lm n where Jk8 is the compressive strength of the material.

kv is the velocity factor. For medium speed, surface finished gears it

is given by:
8g F.(
`6

F.(;`6 where is the pitchline velocity of the pinion.

Dp is the pitch circle diameter of the pinion (mm) in the meshing
pair of gears
bp is the face width of the pinion (mm) in the meshing pair of gears
8
For metals Jk is the same as the yield strength
43
 zg, zp are the numbers of teeth of the gear and the pinion,
respectively, in the meshing pair of gears

Adapting this equation to the load on the input stage pinion, we can write
the following:
)-)
KL( 5 88g/('( l n
(5.30)
-(;-)

By using equations (5.3), (5.5), (5.22) and (5.30), it follows that:

^( )
5 88g-(.('( l n
(5.31)
`( 1(;(

Similarly, for the output stage pinion, we can write the following:
^( )
5 88g-*.*'* l n
(5.32)
`* 1*;(

From equations (5.7), (5.31) and (5.32), we can write the following:

^ (
`( 5 88g-(.()'3( l1();(n
(5.33)

^ ( ) )
`* 5 88g-*.* '3* l1* ;(n
(5.34)
The contact stress for the pinions in the input and output stages can be
expressed as:
8 7
8 7
 ^(91(;(< (5.35)
)
) ` (8g -(.( '3(

^(91*;(< (5.36)
) `*8g-*.*)'3*

Denoting the allowable contact stress factor of the material by 8c , and assuming that all the gear
wheels in the train are made of the same material, it follows that:

^(91(;(<

8d 7 ) `(8g-(.()'3(
f
(5.37)
& ^(91*;(<

)
8d 7 ) `*8g-*.* '3*

44
Thus, from equations (5.27) and (5.37), we can write the following:

^(91(;(<

8d 7 8g.(*'3( 2( -()
f
(5.38)
& ^(91*;(<

* )
8d 7 8g.* '3* 2( -* 1(

45
 6 CHAPTER SIX

THE PROCESS OF MATERIAL SELECTION FOR THE

REVERTED
COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN
6.1 MATERIAL RANKING INDICES
In ranking of candidate materials for the gear train, the following factors
were considered: availability, material cost and manufacturing cost.

6.1.1 Availability Index

Availability of a material plays an important role in the selection process.
In obtaining the availability index we considered such factors as
availability of material in desired quantity and time frame, and the form in
which the material is supplied.
For the purposes of the selection process, indices of 5, 3 and 1 were
allocated for the locally available materials, not readily available materials
and locally unavailable materials respectively.

6.1.2 Material Cost Index

9
The prices of
10materials were obtained from local suppliers and are tabulated
in table 7.1 . Since low cost of a material is desirable, the cost index was
obtained as follows:

pq=L r3stu pq=L qv Lwt xtd=L

tu6t3=:gt .dLty:dx pq=L

qv tdkw .dLty:dx

HSLA Steel was the least expensive material at Kshs 290 and thus it had a
cost index of 1.
Example, for UNS S40500 ( 405 Stainless steel) the cost index is:

)4G
pq=L r3stu I+G = 0.39189

6.1.3 Manufacturing Index

Manufacturing index was obtained on basis of hardness. A material with
low Brinell hardness number (BHN) is easier to machine than one with a
high BHN. An average BHN of 60 for Electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) Copper
was chosen and given an index of 1, being considered to have the best
machinability. The other materials were then ranked on this basis.
{^| FG
zd3`vdkL`y:3i r3stu
{^| qv tdkw .dLty:dx
9
East African Foundries Ltd, Kensmetal Ltd and other local suppliers in Industrial
Area, Nairobi. 10 See appendix.
4
6
Example, for UNS S40500 ( 405 Stainless steel) the

manufacturing index is: zd3`vdkL`y:3i r3stu ()

FG
+ G. +S*SI
Thus the material that can be machined easily will have a higher
manufacturing index.

6.1.4 Composite index

The Composite index was obtained by multiplying the availability index by
a weight of 0.55, the cost index by weight of 0.35 and manufacturing
index by 0.1. Thereafter, summing was done for the weighted indices of
availability, cost of material and manufacturing cost for individual
materials.
Example, for UNS 40500 (405 Stainless steel) the composite index is:
pq.6q=:Lt r3stu G. PP } P G. *P } G. *4(S G. ( } G. +S*SI ). 4*PPP

Since the idea in all the indices was to maximize the individual index
ranking number, the material with the highest composite index would then
be preferred. To achieve this, all the candidate materials were ranked on
the basis of the composite index and then sorted to get the top fifteen
candidate materials. The material with the highest compound index was
selected as the best candidate for the design of a gear train based on the
chosen materials selection criteria. The list of the top fifteen candidate
materials based on their composite index is shown in Table 5.3 below:

Table 5.3: List of Top Fifteen Materials Based On their Composite Index

Manufacturin
UNS Cost g Availability Composite
Material
Number Name Index Index Index Index
K11576 HSLA Steel 1 0.387096774 5 3.13870968
K02801 A285-C Steel 0.76316 0.555555556 5 3.07266082
K02100 A516-60 Steel 0.76316 0.491803279 5 3.06628559
K02401 A516-60 Steel 0.76316 0.483870968 5 3.06549236
K01800 A515-70 Steel 0.725 0.550458716 5 3.05879587
K02002 A515-55 Steel 0.725 0.508474576 5 3.05459746
K02403 AL516-65 Steel 0.725 0.45112782 5 3.04886278
K02800 A515-60 Steel 0.725 0.45112782 5 3.04886278
K02700 A516-70 Steel 0.725 0.413793103 5 3.04512931
K01800 A516-55 Steel 0.65909 0.491803279 5 3.02986215
C89520 EnviroBrass2 0.28019 0.882352941 5 2.93630293
S40500 405 SS 0.39189 0.483870968 5 2.93554926
S41000 410 SS 0.39189 0.483870968 5 2.93554926
S40900 409 SS 0.31522 0.458015267 5 2.90612761
S44600 446 SS 0.31183 0.416666667 5 2.90080645

47
6.2 SUPPORT INFORMATION
Support Information gives a detailed profile of each candidate
material. The data requirements for support information differ greatly
from those for the screening or ranking step. Typically, it is the non-
quantifiable information which is sought. An example of Support
11
Information is :

UNS K02002 A515-55 Steel:

Material Composition: Iron 98%, Carbon 0.2%, Manganese 1.03%,
Phosphorous 0.04%, Sulphur 0.05%, Silicon 0.28%, Copper 0.20%.
Maximum plate thickness is 63.4mm.
Much stronger and tougher than ordinary carbon steels.
Ductile with elongation at failure equal to 22% for a 50mm
specimen.
Characterized by good corrosion resistance and high hardness.
Machinability is characterized by long, gummy chips . It can be
machined in the annealed condition.
Its welded by common fusion and resistance methods, but should
not be joined by oxyacetylene welding.
Available in many forms e.g. plate, round bar, forgings, tubings.

6.3MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM

The selection system consists of a server application (WAMP) and
database (Material Selection). The database stores information on a
sample of materials and their properties. Pertinent database server
software is MySQL. The server application comprises of Apache (server),
MySQL and PHP applications on a windows platform (operating system).
Server applications purpose include: data retrieval, updating the
database, enabling multiple client support and performing administrative
tasks.
11
Adopted from www.matweb.com

4
8
 6.3.1 Database Structure
The database should be structured such that it is easy to retrieve and
update information in it. The database structure used is as shown in the
Tables below:
Descriptio
Table Field Type n

1.Materials Uniqu
Properties Id int e identifier of the
material.
Holds value of UNS
UNS No varchar number
Holds material
Material Name varchar name
Holds material
Form varchar form

Holds value of yield

Yield Strength int strength
of the
material
Tensile valu
Strength int Holds e of tensile
strength of the
material
Holds value of density of
Density int the
material
valu
Elastic Modulus int Holds e of elastic
modulus of the
material
Holds value of hardness
Hardness int of the
material
Availability
Index int Holds value of availability
index of the
material
Holds value of cost index
Cost Index int of
the material
Manufacturing int Holds value of the
manufacturi
Index ng index of the
material
Composite Holds the value of
Index int composite
 index value of the
material

2.Login(Administrat Unique identifier of the

ion Id int table
login Purpose) Holds the username for
Username varchar the
administration
login.
Holds the password for
Password varchar the
administration
login.

49
Below is the implemented database using MySql relational database. It
shows two tables for materials properties and login (for administrators
login details):

The materials properties table is shown below:

50
 6.3.2 Material selection system
To start the materials selection system, run the local server (WAMP) on a
windows operating platform. Then, key in the URL address
http://localhost/material selection system/ to display the homepage as
shown below:

The homepage has three menu items: select material, material database,
and administration. On the select material menu item, the spur link
enables the user to start the process of material selection for the gear
train. The material database has links for viewing and searching the
material database. The third item, administration, allows the user to add
to and edit material in the database.
5
1
Clicking on the spur link, a list of locally available materials is displayed.
This is done by screening the material database using availability as the
non-discriminating parameter (if the material is not available it cannot be
used and therefore its dropped in the first stage of selection i.e. its not
displayed).

On selecting the calculate stresses option, a page for capturing

properties specified by the user is displayed. This page allows one to input
the design specifications for the gear.
5
2
The calculate button is used to compute the bending and contact
stresses as defined by equations (5.28) and (5.38) respectively. If the user
selects the calculate button without filling any fields an error report is
displayed highlighting the empty text fields in the html form as shown
below:

Filling the form with gear specifications e.g. data considered for our
selection process, it would appear as below:
5
3
On selecting the calculate button after successfully filling in all the text
fields, a new page loads showing the parameters used in calculating the
design stresses and a list of the qualified materials. The qualified
materials are ranked using composite index in a descending order
(starting with the one having the highest composite index to the one with
the least composite index).

This is the second stage in material selection where screening is done

using go/no-go parameters (These are minimum/maximum properties
values which candidate materials must meet). In selecting a candidate
material for the gear train, the bending stress was compared with the
materials yield strength (go/no-go parameter) while the contact stress was
compared with the materials contact stress factor (go/no-go parameter).
For any material to qualify it had to meet these two conditions:

Material yield strength bending stress(calculated) &

Material contact stress factor contact stress(calculated)

From the list of qualified materials above, UNS K11576 HSLA Steel was
ranked the highest with a composite index of 3.1387 while UNS S20910
22-13-5 Stainless Steel was the lowest ranked with an index of 2.8678.
5
4
Other than selecting materials, the system has interfaces for viewing and
searching the database. To view materials in the database, click on the
view database link to retrieve and display all materials in the database
as shown below:

To search for a particular material in the database, click on the search

database link in the material database menu item and a form for
entering the material specifications to aid in the search is displayed. For
example, using density as the search field and entering a value of
3
7850Kg/m , materials in the database matching this value are retrieved
and displayed.
5
5
The application also allows the administrator to manage the database by:
Adding new materials and,
Editing existing materials in the database
These two tasks require the administrator to log in (Logging in prevents
unauthorized users from altering contents in the database).To add new
materials to the database click on the add materials link and after a
successful login the form for entering materials properties value is
displayed:

Enter the material properties values and click the save button.
5
6
To edit materials in the database click on the edit materials link and
after a successful login the Administration Materials View page is
displayed with the edit and delete options:

Select edit link and the html form to edit materials properties is
displayed:

57
The user is required to enter values in all the fields. In case no change is
to be effected in a given field the previous value should be entered. Note
that the Id is a unique identifier of a material; therefore use the previous
Id as the new Id for the material when editing:

Click on save button to save the edited material properties in the

database.

Finally, to remove any material from the database click on the delete
link in the administration materials view.
5
8
 7 CHAPTER SEVEN: CLOSURE
7.1 DISCUSSION
The selection of a material for machine part or structural member is
one of the most important decisions the engineering designer has to
make. Poor material choice can lead to failure of a part or system or to
unnecessary cost. The process of materials selection is difficult one
and typically involves multiple conflicting material characteristics as
well as large number of constraints.

A good material selection process considers the limiting factors for a

particular design exercise which include material properties, material
processing, material cost and material availability. The selection of
candidate materials for the gear train was done in two stages; screening
of the large material database and ranking of qualified materials.

Screening was done in two steps. In the first step, using availability as the
non-discriminating parameter all locally unavailable materials were
eliminated from further consideration in the selection. The second step
used go/no-go parameters as the basis for screening. In this case, the
materials yield strength and the contact stress factor were considered as
the go/no-go parameters. Therefore, for any material to qualify it had to
meet these two conditions: material yield strength had to be greater than
the calculated bending stress and the material contact stress factor had to
be greater than the calculated contact stress.

After screening, the second stage involved ranking the qualified materials
using composite index. The composite index for a given material, by using
the Analytic hierarchy process (AHP), was obtained by multiplying the
availability index by a weight of 0.55, the cost index by a weight of 0.35,
and the manufacturing index by a weight of 0.1 and thereafter summing
12
the weighted indices . The material with the highest composite index
was ranked the best by the material selection system.

Different materials scored differently in the different indices (i.e.

availability, cost and manufacturing). No particular material was
exclusively favored by all factors. Some scored high on some indices and
poorly on others while others were just fair. For example, Low Carbon
Steels and Low alloy Steels scored highly in the availability index as well
as cost index. On the other hand, Aluminium alloys scored well in the
availability index but poorly in the cost index.

From the list of the five qualified materials, UNS K11576 HSLA Steel
was ranked the highest with a composite index of 3.1387. Considering
the first three materials and eliminating UNS S43600 436 Stainless
Steel on the basis that its in sheet form and hence it cannot be used in
gear manufacture, the decision on which material to use

12
Weighted index= weight *index.

5
9
relied on supporting information. The supporting information for the two
materials is given below:

UNS K11576 High Strength Low Alloy Steel

Material Composition: Fe 95-97%, C (0.1-0.2%), Mn (0.6-1%), P
(0.035%), S (0.04%), Si (0.15-0.35%), Cr (0.4-0.65%), Ni (0.7-1%),
Mo (0.4-0.6%), V (0.03-0.08%), Cu (0.15-0.5%), B (0.002-0.006%).
Maximum plate thickness is 64 mm.
Ductile with elongation at failure equal to 18% for a 50mm
specimen.
Much stronger and tougher than ordinary carbon steels.
Highly resistant to corrosion.
Available in many forms e.g. bar, plate, tube.

UNS K02002 A515-55 Steel:

Material Composition: Iron 98%, Carbon 0.2%, Manganese 1.03%,
Phosphorous 0.04%, Sulphur 0.05%, Silicon 0.28%, Copper 0.20%.
Maximum plate thickness is 63.4 mm.
Much stronger and tougher than ordinary carbon steels.
Ductile with elongation at failure equal to 22% for a 50mm
specimen.
Characterized by good corrosion resistance and high hardness.
Available in many forms e.g. plate, round bar, forgings, tubings.

From the supporting information, the two materials had almost similar
attributes, and thus UNS K11576 HSLA Steel was chosen as the best
material for the gear train design because of its higher composite index.

This online material selection system helps the designer perform the
rigorous process of material selection for the gear train by giving accurate
information at fast speeds thus saving time and money during design.
However, several challenges were encountered during the development of
this selection system. Among them were lack of easy access to
comprehensive and accurate information on the availability of the
different materials and their local cost.
6
0
7.2 CONCLUSION
Optimal selection of engineering materials is done in two stages:
screening followed by ranking. The first stage reduces the large material
database to a small candidate list which meets the critical property limits
as defined by the design equations. The second stage involves ranking
the candidate materials using composite index. Supporting information is
then sought and used to narrow down the ranked materials to a final
choice allowing a definite match to be made between design
requirements and material attributes.

The selection of a suitable material for the gear train was successfully
implemented as an information processing routine on a computer system.
Only data input was required, the application developed did the data
manipulation and output a list of suitable materials ranked in order of
preference. The selection of UNS K11576 HSLA Steel was therefore not
based on past experience but on stepwise selection from first principles,
considering the design problem was new.

7.3RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Documentation of concise and accurate information on the materials
available in the local market and their costs.
2. Future students to approach a local gear manufacturing industry to
test and check the workability of this materials selection system.
3. Future students to ensure full realization of an online materials
selection portal for all types of gears (bevel, worm and wheel).
4. Future students to develop this application further to incorporate
other engineering designs other than gear design so as to ensure
that we have a one-stop universal materials selection system.
6
1
7.4 REFERENCES AND APPENDICES
7.4.1 REFERENCES
1. MADARA OGOT and GL KREMER, Engineering Design. A
Practical Guide, Trafford Publishing Co., Inc, 2004.
2. RICHARD G. BUDYNAS AND J. KEITH NISBETT, Shigleys Mechanical
Engineering Design, 8th edition, McGraw Hill, 2008.
3. ODUORI, M.F, Class notes on gears for FME 212 Mechanics of
Machines.
4. MICHAEL F. ASHBY, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design,
2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.
5. RADING, G. O, Concise Notes on Materials Science and
Engineering, Trafford Publishing, 2007.
6. WILLIAM D. CALLISTER, DAVID G. RETHWISCH, Materials
th
Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 7 Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, 2007.
th
7. TAHA, A. H, Operations Research. An introduction, 8 Edition.
Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd, 2008.
8. POPOV, E, Mechanics of Materials, Upper Saddle River Prentice-Hall,
1976.
th
9. A Metals Handbook, 9 Edition. Vol.3: Properties & Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool Materials & Special Purpose Metals,
American Society Of Manufacturing Engineers (ASME).
10. Matweb.com, http://www.matweb.com
11. Metals Bank website, http://www.metalsbank.com
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_causes
13. Metals Handbook Desk Edition, Second Edition, American
Society for Metals (ASM), 1998.
62
7.4.2 APPENDICES

7.4.2.1 Tables

Table 7.1: Local Cost of Materials in Kshs per Kg

UNS Number Material Name Form Cost per kg

K11576 HSLA Steel Bar 290
K02801 A285-C Steel Plate 380
K01800 A515-70 Steel Plate 400
K02100 A516-60 Steel Bar 380
K02401 A516-60 Steel Bar 380
K02002 A515-55 Steel Bar 400
K02403 AL516-65 Steel Plate 400
K02800 A515-60 Steel Plate 400
K01800 A516-55 Steel Plate 440
K02700 A516-70 Steel Bar 400
S40500 405 Stainless Steel Tube 740
S41000 410 Stainless Steel Tube 740
S40900 409 Stainless Steel Plate 920
S44600 446 Stainless Steel Tube 930
S40300 403 Stainless Steel Plate 930
S43600 436 Stainless Steel Sheet 980
S30200 302 Stainless Steel Plate 920
S44200 442 Stainless Steel Plate 940
S34700 347 Stainless Steel Bar 940
S32100 321 Stainless Steel Bar 940
S31725 317LM Stainless Steel Bar 940
S31635 316Ti Stainless Steel Plate 940
S43400 434 Stainless Steel Plate 980
S30500 305 Stainless Steel Plate 1020
S31726 317L4 Stainless Steel Bar 1000
S34800 348 Stainless Steel Plate 1035
S21000 201 Stainless Steel Plate 1090
S20910 22-13-5 Stainless Steel Bar 1150
C89520 EnviroBrass2 Casting 1035
C89510 EnviroBrass1 Casting 1150
C61300 Aluminium Bronze 7% Sheet 1780
C60800 Aluminium Bronze 6% Tube 1670
C61300 Aluminium Bronze 7% Tube 1700
A95154 Aluminium 5154 Tube 2010
C11000 ETP Copper Sheet 2010
C10200 Oxygen free Copper Sheet 2025

63
C89320 - Casting 1610
C12200 DHP Copper Tube 2010
A96061 AL6061 Tube 2070
 C14200 DPA Copper Tube 2010
A95086 Aluminium 5086 Tube 2130
A95083 Aluminium 5083 Tube 2130
A96063 Aluminium 6063 Tube 2050
C61400 Aluminium Bronze D Sheet 1700
A92024 Aluminium 2024 Tube 2010
A92014 Aluminium 2014 Tube 2025
A97075 Aluminium 7075 Tube 2540

Table 7.2: Materials Ranking Indices

Manufacturin Availabilit
UNS Cost g y Composite
Material
Number Name index index Index Index
K11576 HSLA Steel 1 0.387096774 5 3.13870968
K02801 A285-C Steel 0.7631579 0.555555556 5 3.07266082
K01800 A515-70 Steel 0.725 0.550458716 5 3.05879587
K02100 A516-60 Steel 0.7631579 0.491803279 5 3.06628559
K02401 A516-60 Steel 0.7631579 0.483870968 5 3.06549236
K02002 A515-55 Steel 0.725 0.508474576 5 3.05459746
K02403 AL516-65 Steel 0.725 0.45112782 5 3.04886278
K02800 A515-60 Steel 0.725 0.45112782 5 3.04886278
K01800 A516-55 Steel 0.6590909 0.491803279 5 3.02986215
K02700 A516-70 Steel 0.725 0.413793103 5 3.04512931
S40500 405 SS 0.3918919 0.483870968 5 2.93554926
S41000 410 SS 0.3918919 0.483870968 5 2.93554926
S40900 409 SS 0.3152174 0.458015267 5 2.90612761
S44600 446 SS 0.311828 0.416666667 5 2.90080645
S40300 403 SS 0.311828 0.416666667 5 2.90080645
S43600 436 SS 0.2959184 0.408163265 5 2.89438776
S30200 302 SS 0.3152174 0.387096774 5 2.89903576
S44200 442 SS 0.3085106 0.387096774 5 2.8966884
S34700 347 SS 0.3085106 0.387096774 5 2.8966884
S32100 321 SS 0.3085106 0.387096774 5 2.8966884
S31725 317LM SS 0.3085106 0.387096774 5 2.8966884
S31635 316Ti SS 0.3085106 0.387096774 5 2.8966884
S43400 434 SS 0.2959184 0.382165605 5 2.89178799
S30500 305 SS 0.2843137 0.387096774 5 2.88821948
S31726 317L4 SS 0.29 0.36809816 5 2.88830982
S34800 348 SS 0.2801932 0.375 5 2.88556763

64
S21000 201 SS 0.266055 0.307692308 5 2.8738885
S20910 22-13-5 SS 0.2521739 0.295566502 5 2.86781752
C89520 EnviroBrass2 0.2801932 0.882352941 5 2.93630293
C89510 EnviroBrass1 0.2521739 0.909090909 3 1.82916996
 C61300 AL Bronze 7% 0.1629213 0.612244898 3 1.76824696
C60800 AL Bronze 6% 0.1736527 0.75 3 1.78577844
C61300 AL Bronze 7% 0.1705882 0.659340659 3 1.77563995
A95154 AL5154 0.1442786 1.034482759 1 0.70394579
C11000 ETP Copper 0.1442786 1 1 0.70049751
C10200 Oxygen free Cu 0.1432099 0.967741935 1 0.69689765
C89320 - 0.1801242 0.923076923 1 0.70535117
C12200 DHP Copper 0.1442786 0.923076923 1 0.6928052
A96061 AL6061 0.1400966 0.923076923 1 0.69134151
C14200 DPA Copper 0.1442786 0.895522388 1 0.69004975
A95086 AL5086 0.1361502 0.857142857 1 0.68336687
A95083 AL5083 0.1361502 0.779220779 1 0.67557466
A96063 AL6063 0.1414634 0.731707317 1 0.67268293
C61400 AL Bronze D 0.1705882 0.631578947 1 0.67286378
A92024 AL2024 0.1442786 0.5 1 0.65049751
A92014 AL2014 0.1432099 0.444444444 1 0.6445679
A97075 AL7075 0.1141732 0.4 1 0.62996063

Table 7.3: Materials properties

Yield Tensile Elastic Contact

UNS Strength Strength Density Modulus Hardness stress
Number (MPa) (MPa) (Kg/m3) (GPa) (BHN) (MPa)
K11576 690 795 7850 193 155 1.2053
K02801 205 380 7850 200 108 0.10267
K01800 260 485 7850 200 109 0.16515
K02100 220 415 7850 200 122 0.11824
K02401 220 414 7850 200 124 0.11824
K02002 415 550 7850 200 118 0.42075
K02403 240 450 7850 200 133 0.14072
K02800 240 450 7850 200 133 0.14072
K01800 205 380 7850 200 122 0.10267
K02700 290 485 7850 200 145 0.20546
S40500 205 415 7870 170 124 0.12078
S41000 405 415 7870 180 124 0.44524
S40900 240 450 7800 200 131 0.14072
S44600 275 485 7870 200 144 0.18475
S40300 205 485 7870 190 144 0.10807
S43600 365 530 7870 190 147 0.3426
S30200 205 515 7860 193 155 0.10639

65
S44200 275 515 7870 190 155 0.19448
S34700 205 515 8030 190 155 0.10807
S32100 205 515 8030 190 155 0.10807
S31725 205 515 8030 198 155 0.1037
S31635 205 515 7860 193 155 0.10639
S43400 365 530 7800 200 157 0.32547
S30500 240 585 8000 193 155 0.14582
S31726 240 550 8030 198 163 0.14214
S34800 240 620 8000 195 160 0.14432
S21000 260 655 8000 200 195 0.16515
S20910 380 690 8030 200 203 0.35277
C89520 121 176 7890 115 68 0.06221
C89510 119 185 7890 115 66 0.06017
C61300 240 540 7890 115 98 0.24472
C60800 130 345 8170 121 80 0.06824
C61300 193 447 7890 115 91 0.15826
A95154 75 205 2660 70 58 0.03926
C11000 105 250 8890 120 60 0.04489
C10200 180 205 8940 115 62 0.13766
C89320 125 241 7890 115 65 0.06639
C12200 205 250 8940 117 65 0.1755
A96061 145 241 2700 69 65 0.14888
C14200 205 250 8910 115 67 0.17855
A95086 117 262 2660 71 70 0.0942
A95083 110 270 2660 71 77 0.08327
A96063 195 225 2700 69 82 0.26926
C61400 205 485 7890 115 95 0.17855
A92024 290 440 2780 73 120 0.56289
A92014 414 483 1800 73 135 1.14718
A97075 455 530 2810 72 150 1.40489

Table 7.4: Expressions for evaluating the velocity factor for different
applications

Type of
Application Pitch line Velocity Finish
Velocity, g6 Factor, 8g

Low Cut gear Machining

E5
speed 3.05 ~E

Surface
Medium finished 5~10 Shaping
6.1 ~E
speed gear
Surface
Medium finished 10 ~ 20 Machined and
~E
speed gear 15
ground

66
Fig. 7.1: Chart for obtaining the modified Lewis form factor (Y)

67
7.4.2.2 THE CODE
A. Code of the Index page
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;
charset=iso-8859-1" /> <title>Materials Selection</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" /> <style type="text/css">
<!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<body>
<body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4>MATERIALS
SELECTION SYSTEM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="639" height="50" border="0" style="background-color:#C6C6FF"
align="center"; border:solid 4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:0.75;opacity:1.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<tr>
<td>
<div
id="menu">
<ul>
<li>
<h2>Select Material</h2>
Reverted Compound Gear Train
</h2> <ul>
<li><a
href="availablematerials.php">Spur</a
> </li>
<li><a
href="">Helical</a></li>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
<h2> Material
Database</h2> <ul>
<li><a href="MaterialsProperties.php"> View Database </a>
6
8
</li>
<li><a href="SearchMaterial.php"> Search
Database </a> </li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
<h2>
Administration</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="login.php">Add
Materials</a></li> <li><a
href="login2.php">Edit Materials</a>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
</tr>
<tr>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

B. Code to connect to the database

<?php
$DbConn =
mysql_connect("localhost","projectmech","wazito");
$Db = mysql_select_db("materialsselection",
$DbCon
n); if(!
$Db)
{
echo "Connection to DB was not successful";
}
else
{
}
?>
69
 C. Code to display locally available materials
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Materials Properties</title> <link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" />

<style
type="text/css">
<!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000;} --> </style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33"
height="20" alt="" /> </a> MATERIALS SELECTION
SYSTEM </li>
<li> Locally Available
Materials</a> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="100%" border="0"
align="center"style="background-color:#C6C6FF";
border:solid 4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:1;opacity:1;
filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<thead>
<tr>
<td colspan="8" align="center">
<a href="GetProperties.php"><strong>CLICK HERE TO CALCULATE
STRESSES</strong></a>

<?php
include 'DB.php';
$get_details="select * from materialproperties WHERE
AvailabilityIndex > '1'";
$get_details_res=mysql_query($get_details) or die(mysql_error());
if (mysql_num_rows($get_details_res)<1)
{
//print message
$display_block = "<p>There are no details for material properties in the
database try checking later.</p>";
}
else

7
0
{
// get info and build display
table $display_block ="
<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1 width=98%
font=medium> <tr> <td >
<strong>Id</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>UNS Number </strong></td>
<td> <strong>Material Name</strong>
</td> <td>
<strong>Form</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Yield Strength</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Tensile
Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Density</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Elastic
Modulus</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Hardness</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Availability
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Cost index</strong></td>
<td>
<strong>Manufacturing
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Composite index</strong></td>
</tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($get_deta
ils_res))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
$UNSNo=$info['UNSNo'];
$matN=$info['MaterialName'];
$Form=$info['FormId'];
$Yst=$info['YieldStrength'];
$Tst=$info['TensileStrength'];
$ava=$info['AvailabilityIndex'];
$cost=$info['CostIndex'];
$manu=$info['ManufacturingIn
dex'];
$compo=$info['CompositeInde
x'];
$elas=$info['ElasticModulus'];
$had=$info['Hardness'];
$de=$info['Density'];
$display_block.="<tr>
<td align=centre>$id<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$UNSNo<br></t
d> <td
align=centre>$matN<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Form<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Yst<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$Tst<br></td>
<td align=centre>$de</td>
<td
align=centre>$elas</td>
<td
align=centre>$had</td>
<td
align=centre>$ava</td>
<td
align=centre>$cost</td>
<td
align=centre>$manu</td
>

71
<td
align=centre>$compo</t
d> </tr>";
}
$display_block.="</table>";
}
print
"$display_block"; ?
>
</td>
</thead>
</table>
<div
id="searchreport">
</tr>
<tr>
</tr>
</thead>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

D. Code to enter gear specifications

<?php include 'DB.php';?>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Materials Properties</title> <link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" />

<script language="javascript" type="text/javascript"

src="xmlhttprequest.js"> </script> <script language="javascript"
type="text/javascript" src="functions.js"> </script> <script
type="text/javascript" > function validateGetProperties
{
var reduction1 =
document.getElementById('reduction1').value; var
reduction2 =
document.getElementById('reduction2').value; var
speed = document.getElementById('speed').value;
var putpower = document.getElementById('power').value;
var teethpinion =
document.getElementById('teethpinion').value; var
facewidth =
document.getElementById('facewidth').value; var length
= document.getElementById('length').value;
var Error = "The following field(s) need to be
attended to.\n"; var ErrorCounter = 0;
if( putpower == '') { Error += '-Please enter the Input power.\n';
ErrorCounter +=1; } if( speed == '') { Error += '-Please enter the Input
speed.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if( teethpinion == ''){ Error += '-Please enter the number of teeth in pinion.\n';
ErrorCounter +=1; }

7
2
if( reduction1 == '') { Error += '-Please enter the reduction 1.\n';
ErrorCounter +=1; } if( reduction2 == '') { Error += '-Please enter the
reduction 2.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; } if( length == '') { Error += '-
Please enter the module.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if( facewidth == '') { Error += '-Please enter the Normalized facewidth.\n';
ErrorCounter +=1; } if (ErrorCounter !=0)
{
alert(Error); return
false; }return true;
}
</script> <style
type="text/css"> <!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } ->
</style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1" align="center">
<h4><a href="index.php" ><img name="" src="images/2.png" width="31"
height="22" alt="" /> </a>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM </h4> </div>
</div> <div id="content">
<table width="800" height="315" border="0" align="center"style="background-
color:#C6C6FF";border:solid4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:0.5;opacity:0.5;filter:alpha(opacity=75);"
<formid="GetProperties"name="GetProperties"method="POST"action="getbes
tMaterials.php" onsubmit="return validateGetProperties()">
<thead>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<strong>CALCULATE BENDING AND CONTACT
STRESSES</strong> </td>
</tr>
</thead
>
<tbody
> <tr>
<td>Input Power </td>
<td><input type="text" name="power"
id="power" /> kW</td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Input Speed</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="speed" id="speed" />
rpm</label></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Number of teeth Pinion</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="teethpinion" id="teethpinion" />
</label>
7
3
</td>
</tr>
<td width="185" >Gear Ratio
</td> <td width="399" >
<label>
<input type="text" name="reduction1" id="reduction1" size="10"/> : <input
type="text" name="reduction2" id="reduction2" size="10"/>
</label></td>
<tr>
tr>
<tr>
<td>Module </td>
<td><label><input type="text" name="length" id="length"/>
mm</label></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Normalized Face Width
</td> <td>
<label><input type="text" name="facewidth"
id="facewidth"/></label> </td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Preference </td>
<td> <select name="preference" id="preference"> <option
value="0">All</option> </select>
</td>
</tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"
align="center"> <label>
<input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit"
value="Calculate" /> </label></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</form>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

E. Code to calculate design stresses and display qualified materials

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;
charset=iso-8859-1" /> <title>Get best materials</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" >
</script>
<style type="text/css"> <!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
7
4
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<body><bodybgcolor="#CC0000"background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33" height="26" alt=""
/></a>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="320" border="0" align="center
style="background-color:#C6C6FF":solid4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" > <tr>
<td>
<table width="647"
border="1" > <?php include
'DB.php';
?>
<?php
if(count($_POS
T))
{
$g1 =
$_POST['reduction1'];
$g2 =
$_POST['reduction2'];
$N = $_POST['speed'];
$h = $_POST['power'];
$b =
$_POST['facewidth'];
$z =
$_POST['teethpinion'];
$m =
$_POST['length'];
if(count($_POST))
{
if (!$g1 | !$g2 | !$N | !$h | !$b | !$z | !$m)
{
echo "Ensure all fields are filled and try!.";
}
else
{
$g3 = $g1 / $g2; //gear
ratio $y = (0.154 -
(0.912 / $z));
//start the expression for modified form
Factor $Y = (3.142 * $y);
$M = ($m * $m * $m /
1000000000); //start the
expression for Facewidth $fw
= $b * $m ;
//start conversion of speed from rpm into
rads/sec $w = (($N *2*3.142) / 60);

75
//start main formula
$D = ($b*$g3*$M*$Y*$w*$z); // Denominator of
the formula //real formula
$YIELD = $h*1000 / $D;
//for convenience, we divide the value above by 1000000 to match what we
recorded in the database.
$MATCHEDYIELD =
$YIELD/1000000; //echo
"$MATCHEDYIELD";
//start calculating for contact stress
//we start by finding (velocity factor)kv needed in the
formula //denominator for kv is
$Dkv = (12.2 + ($w * $z *
0.001*$m)); //velocity
factor(kv) is then given as $kv
= (12.2 / $Dkv);
//this will soon be
needed $g4 = ($g3 +
1);
//we will need the value of z as a
square $z2 = ($z*$z);
//now we embark on getting the value of the contact
stress ka //the numerator is given as
$Nka = ($h * $g4*1000);
// The denominator for ka
is $Dka =
($kv*$M*$b*$w*$z2);
//the contact stress is
given as $ka = ($Nka /
$Dka);
//divide by 1000000 for consistency with the
database $Mka = ($ka / 1000000);

//work out some formula needed for selection of

materials //check in the database for values that
meet this condition
$res = "SELECT * FROM materialproperties WHERE YieldStrength
>='$MATCHEDYIELD' AND ContactStress >='$Mka' AND AvailabilityIndex > '1'
ORDER BY CompositeIndex DESC";
$result = mysql_query($res) or die(mysql_error());
}
?>
<tr>PARAMETERS USED</tr>
<tr><td align="center">Bending Stress(MPa)</td><td align="center">Contact
Stress(MPa) </td><td align="center"> Modified Formfactor(Y)</td><td
align="center">Velocity Factor(Kv)</td><td align="center">Gear Ratio
(G)</td><td align="center"> Face width(mm) </td><td
align="center">Module(mm)</td><td align="center">Speed(rads/s)</td><td
align="center">Power(kW)</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><?php echo "$MATCHEDYIELD"; ?> </td><td
align="center"><?php echo "$Mka"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo
"$Y"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo "$kv"; ?></td><td
align="center"><?php echo "$g3"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo
"$fw"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo "$m"; ?></td><td
align="center"><?php echo "$w"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo
"$h"; ?></td></tr>

7
6
 </table>
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>
<table>
<div
id="searchreport">
<thead>
<td>
<?php
if (mysql_num_rows($result)<1)
{
//print message
$display_block = "<p>No results were found for your search.</p>";
}
else
{
// get info and build display
table $display_block ="
<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1
width=98%> <tr>QUALIFIED MATERIALS</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<strong>Id</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>UNS Number</strong> </td>
<td> <strong>Material Name
</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Form</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Yield Strength</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Tensile
Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Density</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Elastic
Modulus</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Hardness</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Availability
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Cost index</strong></td>
<td>
<strong>Manufacturing
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Composite index</strong></td>
</tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($res
ult))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
$UNSNo=$info['UNSNo'];
$matN=$info['MaterialName'];
$Form=$info['FormId'];
$Yst=$info['YieldStrength'];
$Tst=$info['TensileStrength'];
$ava=$info['AvailabilityIndex'];
$cost=$info['CostIndex'];
$manu=$info['ManufacturingIn
dex'];
$compo=$info['CompositeInde
x'];

77
$elas=$info['ElasticModu
lus'];
$had=$info['Hardness'];
$de=$info['Density'];

$display_block.="<tr>
<td align=centre>$id<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$UNSNo<br></t
d> <td
align=centre>$matN<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Form<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Yst<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$Tst<br></td>
<td align=centre>$de</td>
<td
align=centre>$elas</td>
<td
align=centre>$had</td>
<td
align=centre>$ava</td>
<td
align=centre>$cost</td>
<td
align=centre>$manu</td>
<td
align=centre>$compo</td
> </tr>";
}
$display_block.="</table>";
}
print "$display_block";
}
}
?>
</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

F. Code to view the material database

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Materials Properties</title> <link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" />

<style
type="text/css">
<!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}

7
8
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33"
height="20" alt="" /> </a>MATERIALS SELECTION
SYSTEM </h4>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="100%" border="0"
align="center"style="background-color:#C6C6FF";
border:solid 4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:1;opacity:1;
filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<thead>
<tr>
<td colspan="8" align="center">
<strong>MATERIALS PROPERTIES
</strong> <?php
include 'DB.php';
$get_details="select * from materialproperties";
$get_details_res=mysql_query($get_details) or
die(mysql_error()); if
(mysql_num_rows($get_details_res)<1)
{
//print message
$display_block = "<p>There are no details for material properties in the
database try checking later.</p>";
}
else
{
// get info and build display table
$display_block ="<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1 width=98%
font=medium> <tr>
<td >
<strong>Id</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>UNS Number </strong></td>
<td> <strong>Material
Name</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>Form</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Yield
Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Tensile
Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Density</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Elastic
Modulus</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Hardness</strong></td>
<td>

7
9
<strong>Availability index</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Cost index</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Manufacturing
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Composite index</strong></td>
</tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($get_deta
ils_res))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
$UNSNo=$info['UNSNo'];
$matN=$info['MaterialName'];
$Form=$info['FormId'];
$Yst=$info['YieldStrength'];
$Tst=$info['TensileStrength'];
$ava=$info['AvailabilityIndex'];
$cost=$info['CostIndex'];
$manu=$info['ManufacturingIn
dex'];
$compo=$info['CompositeInde
x'];
$elas=$info['ElasticModulus'];
$had=$info['Hardness'];
$de=$info['Density'];

$display_block.="<tr>
<td align=centre>$id<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$UNSNo<br></t
d> <td
align=centre>$matN<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Form<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Yst<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$Tst<br></td>
<td align=centre>$de</td>
<td
align=centre>$elas</td>
<td
align=centre>$had</td>
<td
align=centre>$ava</td>
<td
align=centre>$cost</td>
<td
align=centre>$manu</td>
<td
align=centre>$compo</td
> </tr>";
}
$display_block.="</table>";
}
print
"$display_block"; ?
>
</td>
</thead>
</table>
<div
id="searchreport">
</tr>
<tr>

80
</tr>
</thead>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

G. Code to search materials

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-
8859-1" /> <title>search for materials</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" >
</script>
<style type="text/css"> <!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } -->

</style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name=""src="images/2.png" width="33" height="26" alt=""
/></a>MATERIALS
SELECTION SYSTEM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
width="100% height="320 border="0 align="center"style="backgro
<table " " " und-
border:soli
color:#C6C6FF"; d 4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);
">
<tr>
<td>
<table width="647" >
<?php include
'DB.php';
?>
name="searchMaterials
<form id="searchMaterials" " method="POST"
action="SearchMaterial.php">
<tr>
<td colspan="4"><strong>SEARCH MATERIALS DATABASE
</strong> </td> </tr>
<tr>

8
1
<td width="136" >UNS Number</td>
<td width="181" ><input type="text" name="UNSNo"
id="UNSNo" /> </td>
<td width="143" >Yield Strength</td>
<td width="167" ><label> <input type="text" name="ystrength"
id="ystrength" /> </label></td>
</tr> <tr>
<td>Material Name </td>
<td><input type="text" name="material"
id="material" /></td> <td>Tensile Strength </td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="tstrength"
id="tstrength" /> </label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Form</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="formId"
id="formId" /> </label></td>
<td>Density</td>
<td>
<input type="text" name="density"
id="density" /></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Elastic Modulus </td>
<td><input type="text" name="elastic"
id="elastic"/></td> <td>Hardness</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="hardness"
id="hardness"/> </label> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit"
value="Search" /></td> <td><label></label></td>
</tr> <tr>
<td colspan="4"
align="center"><label></label></td> </tr>
</form> </table>
</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>
<table>
<div
id="searchreport">
<?php
if(count($_POST))

{
$UNSNo =
$_POST['UNSNo'];
$material =
$_POST['material'];

82
$formId = $_POST['formId'];
$ystrength =
$_POST['ystrength'];
$tstrength =
$_POST['tstrength'];
$density =
$_POST['density'];
$hardness =
$_POST['hardness']; $elastic
= $_POST['elastic']; }
$search_parts="";
$Sql="";
$counter
=0;
$res = "SELECT * FROM
materialproperties";
if(count($_POST))
{
if ($UNSNo !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE UNSNo LIKE '%$UNSNo%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND UNSNo LIKE '%$UNSNo%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if
($material !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE MaterialName LIKE '%$material%'";
}
else { $search_parts.=" AND MaterialName LIKE '%$material%'";
}
$counter +
+; } if ($formId !
='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE FormId LIKE '%$formId%'";
}
else
{ $search_parts.=" AND FormId LIKE '%$formId%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($ystrength !='')
{

83
 if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE YieldStrength LIKE '%$ystrength%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND YieldStrength LIKE '%$ystrength%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($tstrength !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE TensileStrength LIKE '%$tstrength%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND TensileStrength LIKE '%
$tstrength%'"; } $counter ++; } if ($density !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE Density LIKE '%$density%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND Density LIKE '%$density%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($hardness !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE Hardness LIKE '%$hardness%'"; }
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND Hardness LIKE '%$hardness%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($elastic !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE ElasticModulus LIKE '%$elastic%'";

84
}
else
{
$search_parts=" AND ElasticModulus LIKE '%$elastic%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
$search_order="ORDER BY CompositeIndex
DESC"; $Sql= $res."".$search_parts."".
$search_order;
}
else
{
$Sql=$res;
}

$result = mysql_query($Sql) or
die(mysql_error()); //Execute the SQL
query
?>
<thead>
<td>
<?php

if (mysql_num_rows($result)<1)
{
//print message
$display_block = "<p>No results were found for your search.</p>";
}
else
{
// get info and build display
table $display_block ="
<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1 width=98%>

<tr>
<td>
<strong>Id</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>UNS Number</strong> </td>
<td> <strong>Material Name
</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Form</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Yield Strength</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Tensile
Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Density</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Elastic
Modulus</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Hardness</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Availability
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Cost index</strong></td>
<td>
<strong>manufacturing index</strong></td> <td>

85
<strong>Composite
index</strong></td> </tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($re
sult))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
$UNSNo=$info['UNSNo'];
$matN=$info['MaterialName'];
$Form=$info['FormId'];
$Yst=$info['YieldStrength'];
$Tst=$info['TensileStrength'];
$ava=$info['AvailabilityIndex'];
$cost=$info['CostIndex'];
$manu=$info['ManufacturingIn
dex'];
$compo=$info['CompositeInde
x'];
$elas=$info['ElasticModulus'];
$had=$info['Hardness'];
$de=$info['Density'];

$display_block.="<tr>
<td align=centre>$id<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$UNSNo<br></t
d> <td
align=centre>$matN<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Form<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Yst<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$Tst<br></td>
<td align=centre>$de</td>
<td
align=centre>$elas</td>
<td
align=centre>$had</td>
<td
align=centre>$ava</td>
<td
align=centre>$cost</td>
<td
align=centre>$manu</td>
<td
align=centre>$compo</td
> </tr>";
}
$display_block.="</table>";
}
print "$display_block";

?>
</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>

86
 </div>
</body>
</html>

H. Code for login1 to Add materials properties

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;
charset=iso-8859-1" /> <title>login-addmaterials</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" >
</script>
<style
type="text/css">
<!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33" height="26" alt=""
/></a>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM LOGIN FORM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="320" border="1"
align="center"style="background-color:#C6C6FF"; border:solid 4px #990000;-
moz-opacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<tr>
<td>
<table width="647" >
<tr><tr><p>Hi, to add materials, you must be logged in. fill the form
below</p></td></tr> <?php include 'DB.php';
?>
<form method="POST" action="engineer.php"><table border="1"
align="center" ><tr> <td><span class="style5"><label
for="email"><strong>Username</strong></
</span><input type="text" name="username" id="search-text" size="30"
/></td> <td><span class="style5">
<label><strong>Password</strong></label></span>
<input type="password" name="password"
id="password"/></td><td> <input type="submit" id="search-
submit" value="login" /></td></tr></table>
</form></table></td> </tr>
<tr>

8
7
<td>
<table>
<div
id="searchreport">
<thead>
<td>
</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

I. Code for login 2( Editing materials)

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;
charset=iso-8859-1" /> <title>login-remove_materials</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" >
</script>
<style type="text/css"> <!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan"> <div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33" height="26" alt=""
/></a>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM LOGIN FORM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="320" border="1"
align="center"style="background-color:#C6C6FF";border:solid4px#990000;-
moz-opacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<tr>
<td>
<table width="647" >
<tr><tr><p>Hi, to add materials, you must be logged in. fill the form
below</p></td></tr> <?php include 'DB.php';
?>
8
8
<form method="POST" action="engineer2.php"><table border="1"
align="center" ><tr> <td><span class="style5"> <label
for="email"><strong>Username</strong></label> </span><input
type="text" name="username" id="search-text" size="30" /></td>
<td><span class="style5">
<label><strong>Password</strong></label></span><input type="password"
name="password" id="password"/></td><td>
<input type="submit" id="search-submit" value="login"
/></td></tr></table> </form></table></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<div
id="searchreport">
<thead>
<td>

</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>

J. Code to link the login 1 with the database

<?php
//ensure that all fields have been
filled include 'DB.php';
if($_POST['username']!="" | $_POST['password']!="")
{
$username =
$_POST['username'];
$password =
$_POST['password'];
$querytrylogin = "select * from login where username = '$username' And
password = 'password' ";
$resultlogin =
mysql_query($querytrylogin) or die
( mysql_error() );
$row =
mysql_fetch_row($resultlogin);
if(isset($row[0]))
{
header ("location:
AddMaterials.php"); exit;
}
else
{
die('Wrong username or
password'); exit;
}
}
else

8
9
{
die('Wrong username or password');
}
?>

K. Code to link the login2 with the database

<?php
//ensure that all fields have been
filled include 'DB.php';
if($_POST['username']!="" | $_POST['password']!="")
{
$username =
$_POST['username'];
$password =
$_POST['password'];
$querytrylogin = "select * from login where username = '$username' And
password = '$password' ";
$resultlogin =
mysql_query($querytrylogin) or die
( mysql_error() );
$row =
mysql_fetch_row($resultlogin);
if(isset($row[0]))
{
header ("location:
AddMaterials.php"); exit;
}
else
{
die('Wrong username or
password'); exit;
}
}
else
{
die('Wrong username or password');
}
?>

L. Code to add materials in the database

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-
equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Adding Materials</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" >
function validateAddProperties()
{
var UNSNo =
document.getElementById('UNSNo').value; var
material =
document.getElementById('material').value; var
formId =
document.getElementById('formId').value;

9
0
var ystrength =
document.getElementById('ystrength').value; var
tstrength =
document.getElementById('tstrength').value; var
density =
document.getElementById('density').value; var
hardness =
document.getElementById('hardness').value; var
elastic = document.getElementById('elastic').value;

var Error = "The following field(s) need to be

attended to.\n"; var ErrorCounter = 0;
if( UNSNo == '')
{

Error += '-Please enter the UNSNo number.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;

}
if( material == '')
{
Error += '-Please enter the material name.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( formId == '') { Error += '-the form field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( ystrength == '') { Error += '-the yield strength field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter
+=1;
}
if( tstrength == '') { Error += '-the tensile strength field is empty.\n';
ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( density == '') { Error += '-the density field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( hardness == '') { Error += '-the hardness field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( elastic == '') { Error += '-elasticity field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if (ErrorCounter !=0)
{
alert(Error); return false;
}
return true;
} </script> <style
type="text/css"> <!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33" height="26" alt="" />

91
</a>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM
</h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="639" height="315" border="0"
align="center"style="background-color:#C6C6FF";border:solid 4px #990000;-
moz-opacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<?php include
'DB.php'; ?>
<form id="AddMaterials"
name="AddMateri
als"
method="POST"
action="Save.php" onsubmit="return
validateAddProperties()"> <tr>
<td colspan="2">
<strong>ADD MATERIALS
PROPERTIES</strong> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="185" >UNS
Number</td> <td width="399"
><label>
<input type="text" name="UNSNo"
id="UNSNo" /> </label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Material Name
</td> <td>
<label><input type="text" name="material"
id="material" /></label> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Form</td>
<td>
<select name="formId"
id="formId"> <option> Please
Select </option> <option>
Plate </option>
<option> Sheet
</option> <option>
Tube </option>
<option> casting
</option> <option>
Bar </option>
<option> ANN
</option> </select>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Yield Strength(MPa)
</td> <td>

9
2
 <label> <input type="text" name="ystrength"
id="ystrength" /> </label>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Tensile Strength(MPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="tstrength"
id="tstrength" /> </label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Density (Kg/M^3)</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="density"
id="density" /> </label> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Young's Modulus(GPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="elastic"
id="elastic"/> </label> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Hardness</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="hardness" id="hardness"/>
</label></td> </tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Availability
index</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="availabilityindex" id="availabilityindex"/>
</label></td> </tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Cost
index</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="costindex" id="costindex"/>
</label></td> </tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Manufacturing
index</td> <td><label>
<input type="text" name="manufacturingindex"
id="Manufacturingindex"/> </label></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Composite
index</td>
<td><label>
9
3
 <input type="text" name="compositeindex" id="Compositeindex"/>
</label></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><label>
<input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit" value="Save" />
</label></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" align=centre><a
href="adminMaterialsProperties.php">Edit materials</a></td>
</tr>
</form>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

M. Code to save materials in the database

<title>Save materials to
db</title><?php include 'DB.php';
$UNSNo =
$_POST['UNSNo']; $material
= $_POST['material'];
$formId = $_POST['formId'];
$ystrength =
$_POST['ystrength'];
$tstrength =
$_POST['tstrength'];
$density =
$_POST['density'];
$hardness =
$_POST['hardness']; $elastic
= $_POST['elastic'];
$availability =
$_POST['availabilityindex']; $cost =
$_POST['costindex'];
$manufacturing =
$_POST['manufacturingindex'];
$composite = $_POST['compositeindex'];

//calculate for allowable contact stress

$Yst2 = ($ystrength*$ystrength);
$allowableka = 0.0004886 *$Yst2 /
$elastic;

$sql= mysql_query("INSERT INTO

materialproperties(UNSNo,MaterialName,FormId,YieldStrength,TensileStrength,De
nsity,Elastic
Modulus,Hardness,AvailabilityIndex,CostIndex,ManufacturingIndex,CompositeInd
ex,ContactStr ess)
VALUES('$UNSNo','$material','$formId','$ystrength','$tstrength','$density','$elasti
c','$hardness',
'$availability','$cost','$manufacturing','$composite','$allowableka')")
or
die(mysql_error());
if(!$sql) {
echo "error in saving";

9
4
}
else
{
echo "Material details were successfully saved in the database";
}
?>

N. Code to Administrations materials view

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Admin for Materials Properties</title> <link href="css/styles.css"
rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<style
type="text/css">
<!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } --> </style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33"
height="20" alt="" /> </a>MATERIALS SELECTION
SYSTEM </h4>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="100%" border="0"
align="center"style="background-color:#C6C6FF;
border:solid 4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:1;opacity:1;
filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >

<thead>
<tr>
<td colspan="8" align="center">
<strong>ADMIN'S MATERIALS VIEW
</strong> <?php
include 'DB.php';
$get_details="select * from materialproperties";
$get_details_res=mysql_query($get_details) or
die(mysql_error()); if
(mysql_num_rows($get_details_res)<1)
{
//print message

9
5
$display_block = "<p>There are no details for material properties in the
database try checking later.</p>";
}
else
{
// get info and build display
table $display_block ="
<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1 width=98%>

<tr>
<td>
<strong>Id</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>UNS Number</strong> </td>
<td> <strong>Material Name
</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Form</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Yield Strength</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Tensile
Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Density</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Elastic
Modulus</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Hardness</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Availability
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Cost index</strong></td>
<td>
<strong>Manufacturing
index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Composite index</strong></td>
<td> <strong>Edit</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Remove</strong></td>
</tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($get_deta
ils_res))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
$UNSNo=$info['UNSNo'];
$matN=$info['MaterialName'];
$Form=$info['FormId'];
$Yst=$info['YieldStrength'];
$Tst=$info['TensileStrength'];
$ava=$info['AvailabilityIndex'];
$cost=$info['CostIndex'];
$manu=$info['ManufacturingIn
dex'];
$compo=$info['CompositeInde
x'];
$elas=$info['ElasticModulus'];
$had=$info['Hardness'];
$de=$info['Density'];

$display_block.="<tr>
<td align=centre>$id<br></td>
<td
align=centre>$UNSNo<br></t
d> <td
align=centre>$matN<br></td
>

9
6
<td
align=centre>$Form<br></t
d> <td
align=centre>$Yst<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$Tst<br></td
> <td
align=centre>$de</td>
<td
align=centre>$elas</td>
<td
align=centre>$had</td>
<td
align=centre>$ava</td>
<td
align=centre>$cost</td>
<td
align=centre>$manu</td>
<td
align=centre>$compo</td
>
<td align=centre><a href=\"edit_material.php?id=$id\">Edit</a></td>
<td align=centre><a href=\"remove_material.php?
id=$id\">Delete</a></td> </tr>";
}
$display_block.="</table>";
}
print
"$display_block"; ?
>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>

</tr>
</thead>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

O. Code to edit materials in the database

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-
equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Edit db Materials</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" >
function validateAddProperties()
{
var UNSNo =
document.getElementById('UNSNo').value; var
material =
document.getElementById('material').value; var
formId =
document.getElementById('formId').value;
var ystrength =
document.getElementById('ystrength').value; var
tstrength =
document.getElementById('tstrength').value; var
density =
document.getElementById('density').value; var
hardness =
document.getElementById('hardness').value; var
elastic = document.getElementById('elastic').value;

9
7
 var Error = "The following field(s) need to be
attended to.\n"; var ErrorCounter = 0;
if( UNSNo == '')
{
Error += '-Please enter the UNSNo number.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( material == '')
{
Error += '-Please enter the material name.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( formId == '') { Error += '-the form field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( ystrength == '') { Error += '-the yield strength field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter
+=1;
}
if( tstrength == '') { Error += '-the tensile strength field is empty.\n';
ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( density == '') { Error += '-the density field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( hardness == '')
{ Error += '-the hardness field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( elastic == '') { Error += '-elasticity field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if (ErrorCounter !=0)
{
alert(Error); return false;
}
return true;
} </script> <style
type="text/css"> <!--
.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color:
#000000; } --> </style>
</head>
<body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-
11h06m27s26.png"> <div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1"
align="center"> <h4> <a
href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33"
height="26" alt="" /> </a>MATERIALS SELECTION
SYSTEM </h4>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
 98
border="1 align="center"style="backgrou
<table width="639" height="315" " nd-
border:soli
color:#C6C6FF"; d 4px #990000;-moz-
opacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity
=75);" > <?php
include
'DB.php';
if($_GET['id']!
="")
{
$select_row ="select * from materialproperties where
Id=$_GET[id]"; $rows=mysql_query($select_row) or
die(mysql_error());
if (mysql_num_rows($rows)<1)
{
echo "No items were selected for editing";
}
else
{
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($rows))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
$UNSNo=$info['UNSNo'];
$matN=$info['MaterialName'];
$Form=$info['FormId'];
$Yst=$info['YieldStrength'];
$Tst=$info['TensileStrength'];
$ava=$info['AvailabilityIndex'];
$cost=$info['CostIndex'];
$manu=$info['ManufacturingIn
dex'];
$compo=$info['CompositeInde
x'];
$elas=$info['ElasticModulus'];
$had=$info['Hardness'];
$de=$info['Density'];
}
}
?>
<form
id="AddMaterials"
name="AddMaterial
s" method="POST"
action="Save2.php" onsubmit="return
validateAddProperties()"> <tr> <td colspan="2">
<strong>EDIT MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR ID (<?php echo $id; ?>) IN THE
DATABASE</strong>
 </td><td>Previous
values</td> </tr>
<tr>
<td width="185" >Id</td> <td width="399" ><label><input type="text"
name="Id" id="newId" />(Use default Id)<td>

<?php

9
9
echo $id; ?
></td></label></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td width="185" >UNS
Number</td> <td width="399"
><label>
<input type="text" name="UNSNo" id="UNSNo" />
</label></td> <td><?php echo $UNSNo; ?
></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Material Name </td> <td>
<label><input type="text" name="material"
id="material" /> </label>
</td> <td><?php echo
$matN; ?></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Form</td>
<td>
<select name="formId"
id="formId"> <option> Please
Select </option> <option>
Plate </option>
<option> Sheet
</option> <option>
Tube </option>
<option> casting
</option> <option>
Bar </option>
<option> ANN
</option> </select>
</td> <td><?php echo
$Form; ?></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Yield Strength(MPa)
</td> <td>
<label> <input type="text" name="ystrength"
id="ystrength" /> </label>
</td><td><?php echo
$Yst; ?></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>Tensile Strength(MPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="tstrength"
id="tstrength" /> </label></td><td><?php echo $Tst; ?
></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Density (Kg/M^3)</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="density"
id="density" /> </label> </td><td><?php echo $de; ?
></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Young's Modulus(GPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="elastic"
id="elastic"/> </label> </td><td><?php echo
$elas; ?></td>

100
 </tr>
<tr>
<td>Hardness</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="hardness" id="hardness"/> </label></td>
<td><?php echo
$had; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Availability index</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="availabilityindex"
id="availabilityindex"/>
</label></td><td><?php echo $ava; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Cost index</td>
<td><label
<input type="text" name="costindex" id="costindex"/> </label></td>
<td><?php echo $cost; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Manufacturing index</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="manufacturingindex"
id="Manufacturingindex"/>
</label></td><td><?php echo $manu; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Composite index</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="compositeindex"
id="Compositeindex"/>
</label></td><td><?php echo
$compo; ?></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><label>
<input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit" value="Save" />
</label></td> <td colspan="2"><label>
<a
href="adminMaterialsProperties.php">Back</label
></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" align=centre>Use previous values if no change is to
be made.</td> </tr>
</form
> <?php
} ?>
</table
>

10
1
 </div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

P. Code to save edited materials

<title>Save materials to
db</title> <?php
include
'DB.php'; $id =
$_POST['Id'];
$UNSNo =
$_POST['UNSNo']; $material
= $_POST['material'];
$formId = $_POST['formId'];
$ystrength =
$_POST['ystrength'];
$tstrength =
$_POST['tstrength'];
$density =
$_POST['density'];
$hardness =
$_POST['hardness']; $elastic
= $_POST['elastic'];
$availability =
$_POST['availabilityindex']; $cost =
$_POST['costindex'];
$manufacturing =
$_POST['manufacturingindex'];
$composite = $_POST['compositeindex'];

//calculate for allowable contact stress

$Yst2 = ($ystrength*$ystrength);
$allowableka = 0.0004886 *$Yst2 /
$elastic;

//Density=$density,ElasticModulus=$elastic,Hardness=$hardness,AvailabilityInd
ex=$availabilit y,CostIndex=$cost,ManufacturingIndex=$manufacturing,
//CompositeIndex=$composite,ContactStress=$allowableka
// WHERE Id=$id;
//
$sql=mysql_query("REPLACE INTO materialproperties
(Id,UNSNo,MaterialName,FormId,YieldStrength,TensileStrength,Density,ElasticMo
dulus,Hardne ss,AvailabilityIndex,CostIndex,ManufacturingIndex,CompositeIndex,
ContactStress)
VALUES('$id','$UNSNo','$material','$formId','$ystrength','$tstrength','$density','$elast
ic','$hardn ess','$availability','$cost','$manufacturing','$composite','$allowableka')")
or
die(mysql_error());
if(!$sql) {
echo "error in saving";
}
else
{
echo " properties for the row selected were updated in the database.";
}
?>

10
2
 Q. Code to delete materials in database
<?php
include
'DB.php';
if($_GET['id']!
="")
{
$delete_item="delete from materialproperties where
Id=$_GET[id]"; mysql_query($delete_item) or
die(mysql_error());

header("location:
adminMaterialsProperties.php"); exit;
}
else
{
header("location:
login.php"); exit;
}
?>

R. Code for cascading style sheet

/* CSS Document */
body{padding:0px; margin:0px; background:#31DDCC 0 0 repeat-x;
color:#000033 font:10px/14px Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;}
#container{width:100%; margin:0 auto; position:relative; border-right-
color:#660000; border-bottom-color:#660000; border-left-color:#660000;
outline-color:#000099;} #incontent{width:632px; position:relative;}
#content{width:100%; height:100%; position:relative;
background:url(../images/gear7.jpg); } #heading{width:678px;
position:relative; clear:both; height:50px; background:#FEE7EB; background-
image:url(../images/transbg.gif); 0 0 no-repeat}
#title{width:632px; position:relative; margin:0 auto}
.button a{font:10px/14px Tahoma, sans-serif; color:#FFFFFF; text-decoration
:underline; } #topPan{width:100%; position:relative; clear:both;
height:80px} #logo{position:absolute; top:107px; right:29px}
/*menu*/
#menu
{ width:
100%;
background:
#eee; float:
left;
}
#menu ul
{ list-style:
none;
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
width:
12em; float:
left;
}
#menu a, #menu h2 {

103
font: bold 11px/16px arial, helvetica,
sans-serif; display: block;
border-width:
1px; border-
style: solid;
border-color: #ccc #888 #555
#bbb; margin: 0;
padding: 2px 3px;
}
#menu h2
{ color: #fff;
background:
#000;
text-transform: uppercase;
}

#menu a
{ color:
#000;
background:
#efefef; text-
decoration: none;
}
#menu
a:hover
{ color: #a00;
background:
#fff;
}
#menu li {position:
relative;} #menu ul ul
ul {
position:
absolute; top:
0;
left: 100%;
}
#menu ul ul
{ position:
absolute; z-
index: 500;
}
div#menu ul
ul { display:
none;
}
div#menu ul li:hover ul
{display: block;}
div#menu ul ul,
div#menu ul li:hover ul
ul, div#menu ul ul
li:hover ul ul {display:
none;}
div#menu ul li:hover ul,
div#menu ul ul li:hover
ul, div#menu ul ul ul
li:hover ul {display:
block;}

104