DRAFT

GUULEED HAGOOG

SHAQADOON | SHACABKA, HARGEISA, SOMALILAND

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT MA
Contents
1. Module 1: Leadership........................................................................................... 4
1.1. Definition of leadership.................................................................................. 4
1.2. Characteristics of Effective Leadership..........................................................5
1.3. Leadership Styles........................................................................................... 9
1.3.1. Authoritarian (Autocratic)......................................................................10
1.3.2. Democratic (Participative).....................................................................10
1.3.3. Delegative (Free rein)............................................................................11
1.4. The Leadership Grid..................................................................................... 12
1.5. Democratic Leadership or Participative Leadership.....................................14
1.5.1. Pros and Cons of the Democratic Leadership........................................14
1.6. Transactional and Transformational Leadership...........................................16
1.6.1. Transactional Leader..............................................................................16
1.6.2. Transformational Leader........................................................................17
1.7. Leadership and Power.................................................................................. 19
1.7.1. Sources of Power................................................................................... 19
1.8. Gender and Leadership................................................................................ 20
1.8.1. Gender stereotypes of transformational and transactional leadership. .20
1.8.2. Gender Differences in Observed Leadership Styles...............................21
1.8.3. Women vs. men: which make better leaders?.......................................22
1.9. Decision Making and Leadership..................................................................23
1.9.1. Types of decision................................................................................... 24
1.9.2. Decision making conditions...................................................................25
1.9.3. Decision making Process.......................................................................25
1.10. Ethics in Leadership.................................................................................. 28
1.10.1. Ethical Leadership................................................................................. 31
1.10.2. Why Practice Ethical Leadership?..........................................................32
1.10.3. How Do You Practice Ethical Leadership?..............................................33
2. Module 2: Youth Organizations Management.....................................................38
2.1. Starting and Sustaining a Youth Organization..............................................38
2.1.1. Vision and Mission Statements..............................................................39

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 2.1.2. Addressing Community Needs...............................................................40
2.1.3. The Pillars of Sustainability: Planning, Management, Evaluation...........40
2.1.4. Committed Leadership..........................................................................41
2.1.5. Relationships with Stakeholders............................................................42
2.1.6. Diversity in Funding Sources.................................................................43
2.2. Values, Mission and Vision the Compass...................................................44
2.2.1. Values.................................................................................................... 44
2.2.2. Vision Statement................................................................................... 45
2.2.3. Mission Statement................................................................................. 46
2.2.4. Communicating Your Values, Vision and Mission...................................48
2.3. Planning, Evaluating and Managing.............................................................49
2.3.1. Planning................................................................................................. 49
2.3.2. Evaluation.............................................................................................. 54
2.3.3. Management.......................................................................................... 56
2.4. Community Participation and Empowerment...............................................58
2.4.1. Cultivating New Leaders........................................................................59
2.4.2. Promoting Wide Civic Engagement........................................................61
2.4.3. Inviting Community Members to Shape a Vision...................................61
2.4.4. Organizing Projects for Peoples Participation........................................61
2.4.5. Engaging Community Members in Advocacy.........................................62
2.4.6. Advocating for Governance Structures that Support Engagement........62
2.4.7. Mobilizing and Educating Voters............................................................63
2.5. Partnership with other Youth Organizations and Government......................63
2.5.1. Relationship with SONYO.......................................................................64
2.5.2. Relationships with National and Local Organizations.............................64
2.5.3. Coordinating Efforts............................................................................... 65
2.5.4. Running Collaborative Projects..............................................................66
2.5.5. Forming Advocacy Coalitions.................................................................66
2.5.6. Relationships with International NGOs...................................................67
2.5.7. Relationships with Government.............................................................67
Appendices............................................................................................................... 68

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1.Module 1: Leadership
1.1. Definition of leadership
What is leadership? Such a simple question, and yet it continues to have as
many definitions as the context of leadership varies. Many of the leadership
scholars have defined leadership, and yet it is reality that they never actually
paused to define leadership. Lets start with what leadership is not.

Leadership has nothing to do with seniority or ones position in the

hierarchy of an organization. Too many talk about an organizations
leadership referring to the senior most executives in the organization. They
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are just that, senior executives. Leadership doesnt automatically happen
when you reach a certain pay grade. Hopefully you find it there, but there
are no guarantees.

Leadership has nothing to do with titles. Similar to the point above, just
because you have a senior-level title, doesnt automatically make you a
leader. In any case it is a fact that you dont need a title to lead. In fact,
you can be a leader in your place of worship, your neighborhood, in your
family, all without having a title.

Leadership has nothing to do with personal attributes. Say the word

leader and most people think of a domineering, take-charge charismatic
individual. We often think of icons from history like a hero in the past or
famous presidents. But leadership isnt an adjective. We dont need
extroverted charismatic traits to practice leadership. And those with
charisma dont automatically lead.

Leadership is not management. This is the big one. Leadership and

management are not synonymous. Managers need to plan, measure,
monitor, coordinate, solve, hire, fire, and so many other things. Typically,
managers manage things. Leaders lead people.

So, again, what is Leadership?

Lets see how some of the most respected business thinkers of our time
define leadership, and lets consider its limitations.

Peter Drucker: The only definition of a leader is someone who has

followers.

This definition provides the basic element of leadership but seems to be

narrow in our context. This instance of tautology is so simplistic as to be
dangerous. A new Army Captain is put in the command of 200 soldiers. He
never leaves his room, or utters a word to the men and women in his unit.
Perhaps routine orders are given through a subordinate. By default his troops
have to follow orders. Is the Captain really a leader? Commander yes,
leader no.

Warren Bennis: Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality.

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Every spring you have a vision for a garden, and with lots of work carrots and
tomatoes become a reality. Are you a leader? No, youre a gardener. Bennis
definition seems to have forgotten others.

Bill Gates: As we look ahead into the next century, leaders will be those
who empower others.

This definition includes others and empowerment is a good thing. But to

what end? There are empowered others from rioting hooligans to pirates.
Gates definition lacks the parts about goal or vision.

John Maxwell: Leadership is influence nothing more, nothing less.

Minimalism is nice but this reduction is too much. A robber with a gun has
influence over his victim. A manager has the power to fire team members
which provides a lot of influence. But does this influence make a robber or a
manager a leader? Maxwells definition omits the source of influence.

So what is leadership in our context?

DEFINITION: Leadership is a process of social influence, which maximizes

the efforts of others, towards the achievement of a goal.

Notice key elements of this definition:

Leadership stems from social influence, not authority or power

Leadership requires others, and that implies they dont need to be
direct reports
No mention of personality traits, attributes, or even a title; there are
many styles, many paths, to effective leadership
It includes a goal, not influence with no intended outcome

Lastly, what makes this definition so different from many of the academic
definitions out there is the inclusion of maximizes the efforts. Engaged
followers give discretionary effort. Technically a leader could use social
influence to just organize the efforts of others.

1.2. Characteristics of Effective Leadership

Here are some key characteristics that every good leader should possess,
and learn to emphasize.

Honesty

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Whatever ethical plane you hold yourself to, when you are responsible for a
team of people, it is important to raise the bar even higher. Your organization
and its employees are a reflection of yourself, and if you make honest and
ethical behavior a key value, your team will follow suit.

Ability to Delegate

Finessing your vision is essential to creating an organized and efficient

organization, but if you do not learn to trust your team with that vision, you
might never progress to the next stage. It is important to remember that
trusting your team with your idea is a sign of strength, not weakness.
Delegating tasks to the appropriate departments is one of the most
important skills you can develop as your organization grows.

The key to delegation is identifying the strengths of your team, and

capitalizing on them. Find out what each team member enjoys doing most.
Chances are if they find that task more enjoyable, they will likely put more
thought and effort behind it. This will not only prove to your team that you
trust and believe in them, but will also free up your time to focus on the
higher level tasks, that should not be delegated. Its a fine balance, but one
that will have a huge impact on the productivity of your organization.

Communication

Knowing what you want accomplished may seem clear in your head, but if
you try to explain it to someone else and are met with a blank expression,
you know there is a problem. If this has been your experience, then you may
want to focus on honing your communication skills. Being able to clearly and
succinctly describe what you want done is extremely important. If you cant
relate your vision to your team, you wont all be working towards the same
goal.

Training new members and creating a productive work environment all

depend on healthy lines of communication. Whether that stems from an
open door policy to your office, or making it a point to talk to your staff on a
daily basis, making yourself available to discuss interoffice issues is vital.
Your team will learn to trust and depend on you, and will be less hesitant to
work harder.

Sense of Humor

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Morale is linked to productivity, and it is your job as the team leader to instill
a positive energy. That is where your sense of humor will finally pay off.
Encourage your team to learn from mistakes instead of crying. If you are
constantly learning to find the humor in the struggles, your work
environment will become a happy and healthy space, where your employees
look forward to working in, rather than dreading it.

Confidence

Part of your job as a leader is to put out fires and maintain the team morale.
Keep up your confidence level, and assure everyone that setbacks are
natural and the important thing is to focus on the larger goal. As the leader,
by staying calm and confident, you will help keep the team feeling the same.
Remember, your team will take cues from you, so if you exude a level of
calm damage control, your team will pick up on that feeling. The key
objective is to keep everyone working and moving ahead.

Commitment

If you expect your team to work hard and produce quality content, youre
going to need to lead by example. There is no greater motivation than seeing
the boss down in the trenches working alongside everyone else, showing
that hard work is being done on every level. By proving your commitment to
the work and your role, you will not only earn the respect of your team, but
will also instill that same hardworking energy among your staff. Its
important to show your commitment not only to the work at hand, but also to
your promises.

Positive Attitude

You want to keep your team motivated towards the continued success of the
company, and keep the energy levels up. Whether that means providing
snacks, coffee, relationship advice, or even just an occasional beer in the
office, remember that everyone on your team is a person. Keep the office
mood a fine balance between productivity and playfulness.

If your team is feeling happy and upbeat, chances are they wont mind
staying that extra hour to finish a report, or devoting their best work to the
brand.

Creativity
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It is during these critical situations that your team will look to you for
guidance and you may be forced to make a quick decision. As a leader, it is
important to learn to think outside the box and to choose which of two bad
choices the best option is. Dont immediately choose the first or easiest
possibility; sometimes it is best to give these issues some thought, and even
turn to your team for guidance. By utilizing all possible options before
making a rash decision, you can typically reach the end conclusion you were
aiming for.

Intuition

Guiding your team through the process of your day-to-day tasks can be
honed down to a science. But when something unexpected occurs, or you
are thrown into a new scenario, your team will look to you for guidance.
Drawing on past experience is a good reflex, as is reaching out to your
mentors for support. Eventually though, the tough decisions will be up to you
to decide and you will need to depend on your gut instinct for answers.
Learning to trust yourself is as important as your team learning to trust you.

Ability to Inspire

Creating a business often involves a bit of forecasting. Especially in the

beginning stages of a startup, inspiring your team to see the vision of the
successes to come is vital. Make your team feel invested in the
accomplishments of the organization. Whether everyone owns a piece of
equity, or you operate on a bonus system, generating enthusiasm for the
hard work you are all putting in is so important. Being able to inspire your
team is great for focusing on the future goals, but it is also important for the
current issues. When you are all mired deep in work, morale is low, and
energy levels are fading, recognize that everyone needs a break now and
then. Acknowledge the work that everyone has dedicated and commend the
team on each of their efforts. It is your job to keep spirits up, and that begins
with an appreciation for the hard work.

Enlist others to follow

An individual can be a leader only if he/she has people who are ready to
follow his/her lead. Therefore, to be a leader, one has not only to form a
vision of a better future, but has to persuade others to come along on the
march to that future. This means that a leader has to be a salesperson. The
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potential followers are the customers. The envisioned future is what the
leader is selling. It is not enough for the leader to build a better mousetrap
(i.e., vision of the future); he/she has to convince others that the envisioned
future is better than the present and worth working for.

Foster collaboration

A leader cannot make the envisioned future real by him/herself. The leader
negotiates with the followers over what steps they should all take to make it
happen. No leader brings about a better future on his/her own.

Fostering team work

A leader realizes that a group of individuals, each doing their own thing,
doesnt succeed like a team of individuals working together. Instead, the
leader tries to create a cooperative atmosphere in which followers
collaborate (work together) to build the future.

Empower followers

A leader knows that people who never lift a finger to help themselves do not
appreciate what others do for them. However, worse, those who do not help
themselves eventually make themselves incapable of helping themselves.
We all seem to agree with the wisdom: Give a person a fish and you have
fed him/her for a day. Teach an individual to fish, and you have empowered
that person to feed him/herself for a life time.

1.3. Leadership Styles

Leadership style is the relative consistent pattern of behavior that
characterizes a leader. Leaders' styles encompass how they relate to others
within and outside the organization, how they view themselves and their
position, and - to a very large extent - whether or not they are successful as
leaders. If a task needs to be accomplished, how does a particular leader set
out to get it done? If an emergency arises, how does a leader handle it? If the
organization needs the support of the community, how does a leader go
about mobilizing it? All of these depend on leadership style.

The style of an organization's leadership is reflected in both the nature of

that organization and its relationships with the community. If a leader is
suspicious and jealous of his power, others in the organization are likely to
behave similarly, in dealing with both colleagues and the community. If a
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leader is collaborative and open, she is likely to encourage the same
attitudes among staff members, and to work collaboratively with other
organizations.

In many ways, the style of its leader defines an organization. If the

organization is to be faithful to its philosophy and mission, its leader's style
must be consistent with them. An autocratic leader in a democratic
organization can create chaos. A leader concerned only with the bottom line
in an organization built on the importance of human values may undermine
the purpose of its work. For that reason, being conscious of both your own
style as a leader and those of others you hire, as leaders can be crucial in
keeping your organization on the right track.

If you think about leaders and how decisions are made, there really are about
three distinct styles with many variations in-between. At one extreme we
have the autocratic leader that makes almost a unilateral decision on how to
proceed. At the other extreme we have a laissez faire leader that allows the
followers or employees to make all the decisions. In the middle of these two
extremes, we have democratic leaders which allow for more participation in
the decision making process. Kurt Lewin and colleagues did leadership
decision experiments in 1939 and identified three different styles of
leadership, in particular around decision-making.

1.3.1. Authoritarian (Autocratic)

This type is used when the leader tells his/her group what he/she wants to be
done and how he/she wants it to be done, without getting the advice of
his/her people. They retain most of the authority for themselves. They make
decisions confidently and assume that group members will comply; they are
concerned with group members attitudes toward decisions. They are
considered task-oriented because they place heavy emphasis on getting
tasks accomplished.

Typical autocratic behaviors include telling people what to do, asserting

themselves, and serving as models for team members. Leader tells his
employees what he wants done and how he wants it done, without getting
the advice of his people. Leader dominates followers and he/she lack
confidence in others. He/she decides by himself without consultation. He/she
exercises one way of communication. He/she does not exercise delegation.
Followers expect continual direction is expected from a leader.
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Some of the appropriate conditions to use authoritarian leadership are when
you have all the information to solve the problem, when you are short on
time, and when your group is well motivated.

Some people think that this style includes yelling, using demeaning
language, and leading by threats and abuse of power. This is not the
authoritarian style; it is an abusive, unprofessional style of leadership.

1.3.2. Democratic (Participative)

Participative leaders share decision making with group members. This style
involves the leader including one or more group members in determining
what to do and how to do it. It encompasses so many behaviors that it can
be divided into three subtypes: consultative, consensus, and democratic.

Consultative leaders confer with group members before making a decision.

However, the leader maintains the final decision-making authority. This is not
a sign of weakness; it is a sign of strength that your group will respect.
Consensus leaders are called that because they strive for consensus. They
encourage group discussion about an issue and then make a decision that
reflects general agreement and will be supported by group members. All
workers who will be involved in the consequences of a decision have an
opportunity to provide an input. A decision is not considered final until all
parties involved agree with the decision. Another criterion of consensus is
that the group members are willing to support the final decision even if they
do not agree with it totally.

Democratic leaders confer final authority on the group. They function as

collectors of group opinion and take a vote before making a decision. The
participative leadership style encompasses the teamwork approach.
Predominant behaviors of the participative leader include coaching team
members, negotiating their demands, and collaborating with others. This
style is well suited to managing competent people who are eager to assume
responsibility. Such people want to get involved in making decisions and
giving feedback to management.

Participative leadership is normally used when you have some of the

information, and your group members have some of the information. This
allows them to become a team (rather than just a group) and allows you to
make a better decision. This style is seen as appropriate for the information

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age workers, in which most organization employ educated knowledgeable
workers rather than physical laborers. With information and technology
changing rapidly, even bright and skilled managers need input from direct
reports.

Participative leadership does have some problems. It often results in

extensive and time consuming committee work. Sometimes participative
management is carried to extremes. Team members are consulted about
trivial things that management could easily handle independently. Another
problem is that many managers still believe that sharing decision making
with team members reduces their power.

1.3.3. Delegative (Free rein)

In this style, the leader allows the team (or individual) to make the decision.
Free-rein leaders turn over virtually all authority and control to the group.
Leadership is provided to the group indirectly rather than directly. Group
members are presented a task to perform and are given free rein to figure
out how to perform it best. The leader does not get involved unless
requested. Team members are allowed all the freedom they want as long as
they do not violate policy. In short, the free rein leader delegates completely.

However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This
style sometimes works effectively with well-motivated and experienced
employees. These people are self-sufficient and may not need help or
emotional support from the manager. A problem with free-rein leadership,
however, is that group members perceive the free-rein leader as uninvolved
and indifferent. Yet, free-rein leaders believe they are helping subordinates
develop self-sufficiency.

1.4. The Leadership Grid

The leadership grid is another behavioral approach of styles of leadership
based on two dimensions i.e. concern for people and concern for production
(job). People centered leaders are more concerned for their subordinate's
feelings and relationship while job centered leaders are those leaders who
consistently emphasize getting the job done without much concern for their
subordinates.

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 1 COUNTRY CLUB TEAM LEADER

2
PEOPLE

3
IMPOVERISHED AUTHORITARIAN

5
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9

TASK

Authoritarian (High Risk Low Relationship)

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People who get this rating are very much task oriented and are hard on their
workers (autocratic). There is little or no allowance for cooperation or
collaboration.

Heavily task oriented people display these characteristics. They are very
strong on schedules; they expect people to do what they are told without
question or debate; when something goes wrong they tend to focus on who
is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what is wrong and how to
prevent it. They are intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be
someone's creativity). Therefore, it is difficult for their subordinates to
contribute or develop.

Team Leader (High Risk High Relationship)

This type of person leads by positive example and endeavors to foster a

team environment in which all team members can reach their highest
potential, both as team members and as people. They encourage the team
to reach team goals as effectively as possible, while also working tirelessly to
strengthen the bonds among the various members. They normally form and
lead some of the most productive teams.

Country Club Leader (low task, high relationship)

This person uses predominantly reward power to maintain discipline and to

encourage the team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost
incapable of employing the more punitive coercive and legitimate powers.
This inability results from fear that using such powers could jeopardize
relationships with the other team members.

Middle of the road Leader

Middle of the Road requires adequate organizational performance through

balancing the necessary to get out with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level and provides a weak balance of focus on both people and
the work. Doing enough to get things done, but not pushing the boundaries
of what may be possible.

Impoverished Leader (low task, low relationship)

A leader who uses a "delegate and disappear" management style, since they
are not committed to either task accomplishment or maintenance of
relationships they essentially allow their team to do whatever it wishes and
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prefer to detach themselves from the team process by allowing the team to
suffer from a series of power struggles. According to current definition of
leadership, this type of manager does not qualify as a leader.

The most desirable place for a leader to be along the two axis at most times
would be a 9 on task and a 9 on people -- the Team Leader. However, do not
entirely dismiss the other three. Certain situations might call for one of the
other three to be used at times. For example, by playing the Impoverished
Leader, you allow your team to gain self-reliance. Be an Authoritarian Leader
to instill a sense of discipline in an unmotivated worker. By carefully studying
the situation and the forces affecting it, you will know at what points along
the axis you need to be in order to achieve the desired result.

1.5. Democratic Leadership or Participative Leadership

What is a democratic leadership? While there is no clear definition of it,
democratic leadership has been identified as behavior that influences people
in a manner consistent with such basic democratic principles as distribution
of responsibility and empowerment (Castil, 1994), self-determination,
inclusiveness, equal participation, and deliberation (Fishkin, 1991). A
democratic Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve
other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors
and other stakeholders. Democratic leadership encompasses the teamwork
approach.

Predominant behaviors of the democratic leader include coaching team

members, negotiating their demands, and collaborating with others. This
type of style involves the leader including one or more employees in on the
decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it). However,
the leader maintains the final decision making authority, he or she invites
other members of the team to contribute to the decision-making process.
This not only increases job satisfaction by involving employees or team
members in whats going on, but it also helps to develop peoples skills.
Employees and team members feel in control of their own destiny, and so
are motivated to work hard by more than just a financial reward. Using this
style is not assign of weakness, rather it is a sign of strength that your
employees will respect.

This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your
employees have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know
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everything -- this is why you employ knowledgeable and skillful employees.
Using this style is of mutual benefit it allows them to become part of the
team and allows you to make better decisions.

As participation takes time, this style can lead to things happening more
slowly than an autocratic approach, but often the end result is better. It can
be most suitable where team working is essential, and quality is more
important than speed to market or productivity.

1.5.1. Pros and Cons of the Democratic Leadership

Most of us would like to think that the democratic style could be effectively
applied to any group of employees. However, when we start to scratch
beneath the surface, the pros and cons of democratic leadership becomes
apparent:

Pros of the Democratic Leadership Style

Why should you adopt a participative leadership style? Today, so many

workers are intelligent, highly skilled professionals. Motivating employees
who are knowledge workers is based on making them feel valued. There is
simply no better way to make people feel valued than to ask them,
genuinely, for their advice. You can pat people on the back and recognize
their efforts but this is not as effective in motivating people as involving
them in important decisions. The second main reason to be participative is a
corollary of the first. Employees who play a part in deciding what to do feel a
much greater amount of ownership over making it happen.

In addition, much of todays work has a high knowledge component that

requires people to think and solve problems. Our work is increasingly mental
work. Management has often been described as getting work done through
others. At one time, much of that work involved tasks, doing things that had
a greater physical than mental component.

With such work, delegation is the key means of getting work done through
others. But when a team needs to think creatively to solve complex
problems, improve productivity or develop a new product, the best way to
get such mental work done through people is to ask them for their
suggestions. This switch to mental work makes the managers job one of
asking employees what to do rather than telling them, a complete 180
degree change of direction from days gone by.
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If the work you manage has a high mental component, you simply cant get
it done without involving people in decisions.

Cons of the Democratic Leadership Style

Democratic leadership does have some problems. The democratic leader

depends on the knowledge of his followers or employees. If the workforce is
inexperienced, this style is not very effective. You simply need a fair amount
of experience to make good decisions.

The other drawback of the democratic style is the time it takes for all this
collaborative effort. It often results in extensive and time-consuming
committee work. When you ask people for their opinions it takes time for
them to explain what they think and for others to understand what they are
saying. Sometimes participative management is carried to extremes. Team
members are consulted about trivial things that management could easily
handle independently. If the business need is urgent, the democratic leader
needs to switch styles.

Therefore, to summarize, the pros and cons of this style are pretty much in
alignment - strength also becomes weakness. You get more input, but it
takes time. People can share their knowledge, but they have to understand
the process first. Therefore, the democratic leadership style is most effective
when you have a workplace that has experienced employees and you can
afford to spend the time necessary to develop a thorough solution.

1.6. Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Number of Leadership theories evolved on the basis of Trait, Behavioral,
Transformational, Situational, and Charisma. Researchers and thinkers made
efforts linking some of the theories across these leadership islands. But each
model has its own pros, cons, assumptions & limitations. Latest researches
are conducted on Situational & Transformational leadership styles.
Leadership gurus presented new models as variations to the already existing
models. Max Weber, Macgregor Burns, Bernard M. Bass, Warren Bennis &
Nanus are few important researchers in the area of transformational
leadership. The following topic details the difference between transactional
and transformational leadership theories.

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Understanding the difference between transactional and transformational
leadership is vital in getting the whole concept of transformational leadership
theory.

As a starting point, let us review our everyday life. In general, a relationship

between two people is based on the level of exchange they have. Exchange
need not be money or material; it can be anything. The more exchange they
have the stronger the relation. Your manager expects more productivity from
you in order to give good rewards. In this way, if something is done to
anyone based on the return then that relation is called as Transactional
type. In politics, leaders announces benefits in their agenda in exchange to
the vote from the citizens. In business, leaders announces rewards in turn to
the productivity. These relation is all about requirements, conditions and
rewards (or punishment). Leaders who show these kind of relationship are
called Transactional Leaders.

In life, at one point of time, things happen without expectation from other
side. Say, moms dedicated service to her kid. Mom doesnt expect anything
from the child and the service she provides in raising the child
is unconditional, dedicated, committed. Mom plays a major role in shaping
up the kids future life. This type of relation is called as Transformational.
Leaders do exist in this world with these behaviors. Transformational Leaders
work toward a common goal with followers; put followers in front and
develop them; take followers to next level; inspire followers to transcend
their own self-interests in achieving superior results.

1.6.1. Transactional Leader

Approaches followers with an eye to exchanging one thing for another
Burns

Pursues a cost benefit, economic exchange to meet subordinates current

material and psychic needs in return for contracted services rendered by
the subordinate . Bass

1.6.2. Transformational Leader

Recognizes and exploits an existing need or demand of a potential
follower (and) looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy
higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower Burns

18
The leader who recognizes the transactional needs in potential followers
but tends to go further, seeking to arouse and satisfy higher needs, to
engage the full person of the follower to a higher level of need according
to Maslows hierarchy of needs Bass

Transformational Leader facilitates a redefinition of a peoples mission and

vision, a renewal of their commitment and the restructuring of their systems
for goal accomplishment. It is a relationship of mutual stimulation and
elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into
moral agents. Hence, transformational leadership must be grounded in
moral foundations. (Leithwood, as cited in Cashin et al., 2000, p.1)

As exactly said by Bass the transactional leaders work within the

organizational culture as it exists; the transformational leader changes the
organizational culture. Following table shows difference of transactional and
transformation leadership.

Transactional
Leadership Transformational Leadership
Leaders are aware of Leaders arouse emotions in
the link between the their followers which
effort and reward motivates them to act beyond
Leadership is the framework of what may be
responsive and its described as exchange
basic orientation is relations
dealing with present Leadership is proactive and
issues forms new expectations in
Leaders rely on followers
standard forms of Leaders are distinguished by
inducement, reward, their capacity to inspire and
punishment and provide individualized
sanction to control consideration, intellectual
followers stimulation and idealized
Leaders motivate influence to their followers
followers by setting Leaders create learning
goals and promising opportunities for their
rewards for desired followers and stimulate
performance followers to solve problems
* Leadership depends Leaders possess good
19
 visioning, rhetorical and
management skills, to develop
on the leaders power strong emotional bonds with
to reinforce followers
subordinates for their * Leaders motivate followers
successful completion to work for goals that go
of the bargain. beyond self-interest.

Initial studies portrayed Transactional Leadership and Transformational

Leadership as mutually exclusive, but Bass viewed the transactional &
transformational leadership as continuum rather than opposites. The
transformational leadership style is complementary to the transactional style
and likely to be ineffective in the total absence of a transactional relationship
between leaders and subordinates.

Elements of transformational leadership

Vision: the transformational leader conceives of leadership as helping

people to create a common vision and then to pursue that vision until it's
realized. She elicits that vision from the needs and aspirations of others,
gives it form, and sets it up as a goal to strive for. The vision is not hers: it is
a shared vision that each person sees as his/her own. The conception behind
transformational leadership is thus providing and working toward a vision,

Communicate the vision: Transformational leaders are able to

communicate meaning and elevate the importance of the visionary goal to
the employees. They frame a message around a great purpose with an
emotional appeal that captivates employees and other operational
stakeholders.

Modeling the vision: Transformational leaders not only talk about a vision,
they enact it. They walk the talk by stepping outside the executive suit and
doing things, that symbolizes the vision. Walking the talk is important
because employees and other stakeholders are executive watchers who look
for behavior to symbolize values and expectations. The more consistent the
behaviors of the leader with his/her statements are, the more employees will
believe and follow these statements. Modeling the vision is based on watch
what I do, not what I say.

20
Build commitment: Transforming a vision into reality requires employee
commitment and involvement. Transformational leaders build this
commitment in several ways. Leaders' words, symbols, stories, build a
contagious enthusiasm that energizes people to adopt the vision as their
own. Leaders demonstrate a can do attitude by enacting their vision and
staying on course. Their persistence and consistency reflect an image of
honesty, trust and integrity.

Empowerment: Transformational leaders build commitment by empowering

and involving employees in process of shaping organizations vision. The job
of the transformational leader is not simply to provide inspiration and then
disappear. It is to be there, day after day, convincing people that the vision is
reachable, renewing their commitment, priming their enthusiasm.
Transformational leaders work harder than anyone else, and, in the words of
a spiritual, "keep their eyes on the prize".

1.7. Leadership and Power

To exercise influence, a leader must have power, the potential or ability to
influence decisions and control resources. Power is the ability to influence
others and to resist the influence of others. It is a relation among social
actors in which one actor A can get another social actor B, to do
something' that B would not otherwise have done.

Hence, power is recognized as the ability of those who possess power to

bring about the outcomes they desire. The basic prerequisite of power is that
one party believes that he or she is dependent on the other for something of
value. Effective leaders use power appropriately, and know when and how to
be directive and when to delegate. At the same time, they know how to be
consultants, providing guidance instead of issuing commands.

1.7.1. Sources of Power

There are different sources of power including reward power, coercive power,
legitimate power, expert power and referent power.

Reward power: People comply with the wishes of or directives of

another because it produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can
distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over
them. These rewards can be anything such as money, promotions,

21
 interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, important
information and preferred work shift or sales territory.
Coercive power: It is power that is dependent on fear. This is the
power to force someone to do something against his or her will. It rests
on the application or threat of physical sanctions such as the infliction
of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement,
or he controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In
organizations it includes, withholding money, dismissal, suspension or
demote etc.
Legitimate power: This is power that emanates from the structural
position of formal organization. It represents the power a person
receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarch of an
organization. It includes acceptance by members of an organization of
the authority of the organization. Legitimate power is that which is
invested in a role. President, police officers, supervisors and managers
all have legitimate power. When superiors either fall from power or
move onto other things, it can be a puzzling surprise that people who
used to fawn at their feet no long do so.
Expert Power: Is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special
skill, or knowledge that the leader has. When a leader has knowledge
and skill that someone else requires, then he has Expert power. This is
a very common form of power and is the basis for a very large
proportion of human collaboration, including most companies where
the principle of specialization allows large and complex enterprises to
be undertaken.
Referent Power: It develops out of admiration of another person and
a desire to be like that person. If you admire someone to the point
modeling your behavior and attitudes after him or her, this person
possess referent power over you. Referent power explains why
celebrities are paid millions of dollars to indorse products in
commercials.

1.8. Gender and Leadership

Do women lead differently than men? This question has captured the interest
of many organizational behavior scholars. It is the subject of ongoing public
debate as more women enter leadership roles at work. Many people see a
difference, but others do not think gender is a factor in leadership.

22
 1.8.1. Gender stereotypes of transformational and
transactional leadership
Considerable research has been conducted both on actual leadership style
differences between men and women and on gender stereotypes in the
leadership domain. These issues continue to have considerable relevance,
because despite years of training and education on diversity issues, there
remains a dearth of women at executive levels of organizations (U.S.
Department of Labor, 1992).

Most researches examine two general explanations for this phenomenon.

First, there may be actual differences in the leadership behaviors exhibited
by men and women. This line of thinking suggests that effective leadership
behaviors are exhibited by members of one gender more than members of
the other gender are. Historically, effective leadership behaviors have been
associated with men more than women have. Second, there may be
stereotypes associated with effective leadership that preclude many women
from being considered for promotion and/or career development
opportunities, because women do not fit a leadership stereotype (Heilman,
Block, Martell, & Simon, 1989).

1.8.2. Gender Differences in Observed Leadership Styles

Several studies have investigated differences between the leadership styles
of men and women. Eagly and Johnson (1990), in their meta-analytic review
of these studies, concluded that women were found to lead in a more
interpersonally oriented leadership style and men were found to lead in a
more task-oriented style, but only in laboratory experiments and research
that assessed the leadership style of people in field settings not within
organizations. However, this difference was not found in organizational
studies comparing occupants of the same managerial role. Women, however,
were rated as more democratic or participative while men were rated as
more autocratic or directive, and this difference was not moderated by type
of study. The literature summarized in Eagly and Johnson's (1990) review
focused on differences between men and women in consideration and
initiating structure styles and in participative versus democratic leadership
styles. However, over the last two decades, considerable attention has been
devoted to transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1985; Burns,
1978).

23
Several writers argue that women have an interactive style that includes
more people oriented, and participative leadership. They suggest that
women are more relationship oriented, cooperative nurturing, and emotional
in their leadership roles. They further assert that these qualities make
women particularly well suited to leadership roles at a time when companies
are adapting a stronger emphasis on team and employee involvement. Some
say that male are task oriented whereas, female are people oriented
leadership. One leadership style that women do adopt more readily than
their male counterpart is employee involvement. Scholars explain that
women are more participatory than men are and better in interpersonal
relationship.

The evidence suggests two conclusions. First, the similarities between men
and women outweigh the differences. Second, women prefer a more
democratic leadership style, while men are more directives. Some studies
show differences in male preferences in leadership.

According to Burns (1978), transforming leadership occurs when a leader

engages with a follower in such a way that both parties are raised to higher
levels of motivation and morality with a common purpose. Transformational
leadership was later conceptualized as leadership that raises levels of
awareness about the importance and value of designated outcomes and
promotes development and vision in subordinates (Bass, 1985).

Transformational leaders exhibit charisma, use symbols to focus employee

efforts, encourage followers to question their own way of doing things, and
treat followers differently but equitably based on follower needs (Bass &
Avolio, 1993).

Transactional leadership, in contrast, is a set of leadership behaviors that

emphasizes exchanges or bargains between manager and follower, and
focuses on how current needs of subordinates can be fulfilled. These
exchanges can be economic, political, or psychological in nature; the primary
characteristic that distinguishes transactional from transformational
leadership is that there is no enduring purpose that holds leaders and
followers together (Burns, 1978). Transactional behaviors include contingent
reward, which involves an interaction between leader and subordinate based
on exchange of resources, and management-by-exception, in which leaders
intervene only when problems emerge (Bass & Avolio, 1993). Most leaders
24
engage in both transactional and transformational leadership behaviors, but
do so in differing amounts (Bass, 1985).

Transformational and transactional leadership, then, are viewed as

augmenting the traditionally researched leadership styles of initiating
structure and consideration (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Seltzer & Bass, 1990).

Though the review by Eagly and Johnson (1990) did not include studies of
transformational and transactional leadership, some subsequent studies
have shown gender differences in these styles of leadership. In a sample of
middle to upper level managers in Fortune 500 high-tech industrial firms,
Bass and Avolio (1992) found that female managers were rated as more
transformational than male managers by both male and female
subordinates. Differences were also found for transactional leadership:
female managers were rated as exhibiting significantly more contingent
reward behaviors and fewer management-by-exception behaviors, than male
managers.

Similar results were obtained by Druskat (1994), who studied evaluations of

female leaders in all-female religions orders and evaluations of male leaders
in all-male religious orders in the Roman Catholic Church. Female leaders
were evaluated as being more transformational by female subordinates than
male leaders who were evaluated by male subordinates. Female leaders
were also rated as exhibiting fewer management-by exception behaviors by
their female subordinates than male leaders as evaluated by their male
subordinates.

1.8.3. Women vs. men: which make better leaders?

Researchers long have suggested that women employ a different leadership
style from men. In addition, even though women make up a small fraction of
CEOs at the largest corporations in the Ethiopia and beyond, their leadership
style might actually be more effective than men's.

Female preferences

More participatory
More adoptive
To be transformational
To use an interactive style
To share power and information
25
 To use personal power
To try to enhance peoples self-worth
Try to make people feel they are part of the organization

Male preferences

Less participatory
Less adoptive
To be more transactional
To use formal power
To guard information

1.9. Decision Making and Leadership

You probably agree that decision making is a part of everyday life. The fact
that you attend this training on leadership is the product of your decision to
be part against other alternative available to you. Whether you are at some
meeting or in the playground, you are almost constantly making decisions,
sometimes working on several at the same time.

These may be minor or major, but some of these might have proved to be
effective decisions viz. appropriate, timely and acceptable. Some of your
decisions might have been wrong, but you knew that there was something
worse than a few wrong decisions and that was indecisions. Making decisions
has been identified as one of the primary responsibility of any leader.
Decisions may involve allocating resources, appointing people, investing
capital, introducing new products. If resources like men, money, machines,
materials, time and space were abundant, clearly any planning would be
unnecessary. But, typically, resources are scarce and so there is a need for
planning. Decisions making is at the core of all planned activities. We can ill
afford to waste scarce resources by making too many wrong decisions or by
remaining indecisions for too long a time.

Definition

Decision making is a response to a situation requiring a choice. It is

surrender. Decision making is a conscious and human process involving both
individual and social phenomena based upon factual and value premises,
which lead to the choice of one behavioral activity from among one or more
alternatives with the intention of moving towards some state of affairs. It

26
means to reduce the number of alternatives, know the consequence of each
alternative, and select the best out of the available alternatives.

Problem solving is a process in which we perceive and resolve a gap between

a present situation and a desired goal, with the path to the goal blocked by
known or unknown obstacles. In general, the situation is one not previously
encountered, or where at least a specific solution from past experiences is
not known. In contrast, decision making is a selection process where one of
two or more possible solutions is chosen to reach a desired goal. The steps in
both problem solving and decision making are quite similar. In fact, the terms
are sometimes used interchangeably.

A problem is decided by purposes. If someone wants money, and when he or

she has little money, he or she has a problem. Nevertheless, if someone does
not want money, little money is not a problem. For example, manufacturing
managers are usually evaluated with line-operation rate, which is shown as a
percentage of operated hours to potential total operation hours.

Therefore manufacturing managers sometimes operate lines without orders

from their sales division. This operation may produce more than demand and
make excessive inventories. The excessive inventories may be a problem for
general managers. However, for the manufacturing managers, the excessive
inventories may not be a problem.

1.9.1. Types of decision

Most of managers decision falls in to one of two categories:

Programmed decision

None-programmed decisions

Programmed decision: - is a decision which is fairly structured or recurred

with some frequency (or both). They are typically handled through structured
or bureaucratic techniques (standard operating procedures).

None programmed decisions: - a decision that is relatively unstructured

and occurs much less often than a programmed decision. Most important
decisions made in organizations are non-programmed in nature. These kinds
of decisions are made by mangers using available information and their own
judgment.

27
 1.9.2. Decision making conditions
Since there are different types of decision there are also different conditions
in which decisions made.

Decision making under certainty: - when the decision maker knows with
reasonable certainty what the alternatives are and what conditions are
associated with each alternative, a state of certainty exists.

Decision making under risk: - a more common decision making condition

is a state of risk .under a state of risk, the availability of each alternative and
its potential pay offs and costs are all associated with probability estimates.
A decision is made under conditions of risk when a single action may result in
more than one potential outcome, but the relative probability of each
outcome is known. When making decision under a state of risk, managers
must accurately determine the probabilities associated with each alternative.

Decision making under uncertainty: - Most of the major decision making

in contemporary organization is done under a state of uncertainty. The
decision maker does not know all the alternatives, the risks associated with
each, or the likely consequences of each alternative. The decisions to be
made under condition of uncertainty are unquestionably the most difficult
one. In such situations a manager has no knowledge whatsoever on which to
estimate the likely occurrence of various alternatives. Decisions under
uncertainty generally occur in cases where no historical data are available
from which to infer probabilities or in instances which are so novel and
complex that it is impossible to make comparative judgment. Most major
decisions in organizations today are made a state of uncertainty, managers
making decisions in these circumstances must be sure to learn as much as
possible about the situation and approach the decision from a logical and
rational perspectives.

1.9.3. Decision making Process

Most models of problem solving and decision making include the following
steps:

1) Define the problem

Defining the problem: (with input from yourself and others) Ask
yourself and others, the following questions:
a) What can you see that causes you to think there's a problem?
28
 b) Where was it happening?
c) How was it happening?
d) When was it happening?
e) With whom was it happening? (HINT: Don't jump to "Who is
causing the problem?"
f) Why was it happening?
g) Write down a five-sentence description of the problem in terms of
The following is happening and should be: ..." As much as
possible, be specific in your description, including what is
happening, where, how, with whom and why.
Defining complex problems:
a) If the problem still seems overwhelming, break it down by
repeating steps a-f until you have descriptions of several related
problems.
Verifying your understanding of the problems:
a) It helps a great deal to verify your problem analysis for
conferring with a peer or someone else.
Prioritize the problems:
a) If you discover that you are looking at several related problems,
and then prioritize which ones you should address first.
b) Note the difference between "important" and "urgent" problems.
Often, what we consider to be important problems to consider
are really just urgent problems. Important problems deserve
more attention. For example, if you're continually answering
"urgent" phone calls, then you've probably got a more
"important" problem and that's to design a system that screens
and prioritizes your phone calls.
Understand your role in the problem:
a) Your role in the problem can greatly influence how you perceive
the role of others. For example, if you're very stressed out, it'll
probably look like others are, too, or, you may resort too quickly
to blaming and reprimanding others. Alternatively, you are
feeling very guilty about your role in the problem; you may
ignore the accountabilities of others.

2) Look at potential causes for the problem

29
 It's amazing how much you don't know about what you don't know.
Therefore, in this phase, it's critical to get input from other people who
notice the problem and who are affected by it.
It's often useful to collect input from other individuals one at a time (at
least at first). Otherwise, people tend to be inhibited about offering
their impressions of the real causes of problems.
Write down what your opinions and what you've heard from others.
Regarding what you think might be performance problems associated
with an employee; it's often useful to seek advice from a peer or your
supervisor in order to verify your impression of the problem.
Write down a description of the cause of the problem and in terms of
what is happening, where, when, how, with whom and why.

3) Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problem

At this point, it's useful to keep others involved (unless you're facing a
personal and/or employee performance problem). Brainstorm for solutions to
the problem. Very simply put, brainstorming is collecting as many ideas as
possible, and then screening them to find the best idea. It's critical when
collecting the ideas to not pass any judgment on the ideas -- just write them
down as you hear them. (A wonderful set of skills used to identify the
underlying cause of issues is Systems Thinking.)

4) Select an approach to resolve the problem

When selecting the best approach, consider:

Which approach is the most likely to solve the problem for the long
term?
Which approach is the most realistic to accomplish for now? Do you
have the resources? Are they affordable? Do you have enough time to
implement the approach?
What is the extent of risk associated with each alternative?

5) Plan the implementation of the best alternative (this is your

action plan)

Carefully consider "What will the situation look like when the problem
is solved?"

30
 What steps should be taken to implement the best alternative to
solving the problem? What systems or processes should be changed in
your organization, for example, a new policy or procedure? Don't resort
to solutions where someone is "just going to try harder".
How will you know if the steps are being followed or not? (These are
your indicators of the success of your plan)
What resources will you need in terms of people, money and facilities?
How much time will you need to implement the solution? Write a
schedule that includes the start and stop times, and when you expect
to see certain indicators of success.
Who will primarily be responsible for ensuring implementation of the
plan?
Write down the answers to the above questions and consider this as
your action plan.
Communicate the plan to those who will involve in implementing it
and, at least, to your immediate supervisor.

6) Monitor implementation of the plan

Monitor the indicators of success:

Are you seeing what you would expect from the indicators?
Will the plan be done according to schedule?
If the plan is not being followed as expected, then consider: Was the
plan realistic? Are there sufficient resources to accomplish the plan on
schedule? Should more priority be placed on various aspects of the
plan? Should the plan be changed?

7) Verify if the problem has been resolved or not

One of the best ways to verify if a problem has been solved or not is to
resume normal operations in the organization. Still, you should consider:

What changes should be made to avoid this type of problem in the

future? Consider changes to policies and procedures, training, etc.
Consider "What did you learn from this problem solving?" Consider new
knowledge, understanding and/or skills.
Consider writing a brief memo that highlights the success of the
problem solving effort, and what you learned as a result. Share it with
your supervisor, peers and subordinates.
31
 1.10. Ethics in Leadership
Consider a dilemma: Youre the director of a community-based human
services organization that includes sites in several towns. A state budget
crisis is threatening to reduce your funding by 30%. The head of the state
funding agency suggests to you that you simply close down a site. That
means both laying off dedicated staff members and denying services to a
community and a group of people that has come to rely on you. Perhaps
more important, it means deciding among several communities, to all of
which youve made a commitment. How do you handle the situation?

Or think about this: You get wind from a contact at a foundation about a
grant possibility that would be perfect for a collaboration with another
organization. At the same time, you realize that your organization could
probably successfully apply alone, and end up with a much larger amount of
money than if you applied with a partner. In that case, the service youd
provide would be somewhat narrower, but still helpful to the people you work
with, and the funding would help with your administrative expenses. On the
other hand, the other organization, with which you have a good working
relationship, is in financial difficulty, and a grant like this would do a great
deal to help it survive. What will you do?

These are ethical questions. Leaders of organizations, initiatives, and

institutions not to mention politicians face them nearly every day, and
have to make decisions. The decisions they make, as well as the ways by
which they make those decisions, determine whether or not they are ethical
leaders. Whether you direct a small organization, are in charge of a group in
a larger organization, head a large agency or institution, or simply
sometimes take an informal leadership role in your daily life, the issue of
ethical leadership is one you cant avoid. This section is about ethical
leadership: what it is, why its important, and how to practice it.

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ETHICAL LEADERSHIP?

We cant really discuss ethical leadership without looking first at ethics. Ask
100 people or 100 philosophers, for that matter what they mean by
ethics, and you might get 100 different answers. The struggle to define
ethical behavior probably goes back to prehistory, and serves as a
cornerstone of both ancient Greek philosophy and most major world
religions.
32
Many people would define ethics and morality as identical, but it is helpful to
view them somewhat differently. Ethics are based on a set of social norms
and/or logically coherent philosophical principles; morality is based on a
(usually broader) set of beliefs, religious and cultural values, and other
principles which may or may not be logically coherent. Morality can,
however, form the basis for an ethical system.

Even the meaning of ethics is open to interpretation. Some of the different

ways that the term is defined:

Situational ethics. Whats right depends on the context of the situation.

Whats right in one situation may be wrong in another.

Cultural relativism. Whatever a culture deems right is ethical for that

culture. No one has any right to judge the ethics of another culture
except on its own terms.

Professional ethics. Many professions law, medicine, and

psychotherapy are perhaps the most familiar, but the list is long and
varied have their own specific codes of ethics, which all members of
those professions are expected to follow. Members of those professions
are considered ethical in their practice if they adhere to the code of
their profession.

Value-based ethics. The assumption here is that everyone has a set of

values she lives by. A person is behaving ethically if her behavior
matches her values.

Rule-based ethics. If you follow the rules of your organization, your

peer group, your culture, your religion, etc. youre behaving ethically.

None of the conceptions in this list is perfect, but these last two, in
particular, have a glaring problem: not all value systems or rules reflect what
is right, by most peoples definition. In the 1980s, for instance, many people
considered the ideas in Robert Ringers 1977 book, Looking Out for #1
which explains human behavior in terms of selfishness and self-preservation
to be an excellent foundation for a value system of self-centeredness. In a
more extreme case, Hitlers value system, which many Germans adopted in
the 20th century, glorified Aryan supremacy, and resulted in the murders of
millions of people.
33
Ethical behavior reflects a value system that grows out of a coherent view of
the world, based on equity, justice, the needs and rights of others as well as
oneself, a sense of obligation to others and to the society, and the legitimate
needs and standards of the society.

This is hardly meant to be a perfect definition. Just what constitutes the

legitimate needs and standards of society, for instance, has been argued
over for centuries, and is constantly changing as societies evolve.

So, given that even the definition of ethics can be unclear, how do you
ensure that your decisions and actions are ethical? Again, there seem to be
as many answers to this question as there are people willing to answer it.
One good set of answers comes from the West Virginia University Extension,
in a course for volunteer leaders devised by Patricia Pinnell and Shirley
Eagan. It takes the form of four questions to ask yourself about any decision
or action you take:

Kid on Your Shoulder: Would you do it if your kids were watching?

Front Page of the Newspaper: Would you like to see it published on

page 1 of your local newspaper?

Golden Rule: Would you be happy being on the receiving end of the
decision or action? (i.e., Treat others as you would like them to treat
you.)

Rule of universality: Would it be okay if everyone did it?

If you can honestly answer yes to all or most of these questions, then its
likely that your decision or action is truly ethical.

1.10.1. Ethical Leadership

Ethical leadership really has two elements. First, ethical leaders must act and
make decisions ethically, as must ethical people in general. But, secondly,
ethical leaders must also lead ethically in the ways they treat people in
everyday interaction, in their attitudes, in the ways they encourage, and in
the directions in which they steer their organizations or institutions or
initiatives.

Ethical leadership is both visible and invisible. The visible part is in the way
the leader works with and treats others, in his behavior in public, in his
34
statements and his actions. The invisible aspects of ethical leadership lie in
the leaders character, in his decision-making process, in his mindset, in the
set of values and principles on which he draws, and in his courage to make
ethical decisions in tough situations.

Some important components of ethical leadership (well discuss

these more later under How do you practice ethical leadership?):

The ability to put aside your ego and personal interests for the sake of
the cause you support, the organization you lead, the needs of the
people you serve, and/or the greater good of the community or the
world.

The willingness to encourage and take seriously feedback, opinions

different from your own, and challenges to your ideas and proposed
actions.

The encouragement of leadership in others.

Making the consideration and discussion of ethics and ethical questions

and issues part of the culture of the group, organization, or initiative.

Maintaining and expanding the competence that you owe those who
trust you to lead the organization in the right direction and by the best
and most effective methods.

Accepting responsibility and being accountable.

Perhaps most important, understanding the power of leadership and

using it well sharing it as much as possible, never abusing it, and
exercising it only when it will benefit the individuals or organization you
work with, the community, or the society.

1.10.2. Why Practice Ethical Leadership?

Most people would probably agree that leaders ought to be ethical (although
there might be a lot of disagreement about what that means), but there are
a number of good reasons why ethical leadership makes sense.

1. Ethical leadership models ethical behavior to the organization

and the community. Leaders are role models. If you want your
organization or initiative and those who work in it to behave
35
 ethically, then its up to you to model ethical behavior. A leader and
an organization that has a reputation for ethical behavior can provide
a model for other organizations and the community, as well.

2. Ethical leadership builds trust. Leadership except leadership

gained and maintained through the use of force and intimidation is
based on trust. People will follow an ethical leader because they know
they can trust him to do the right thing as he sees it.

3. Ethical leadership brings credibility and respect, both for you

and the organization. If youve established yourself as an ethical
leader, individuals and groups within and outside the organization, will
respect you and your organization for your integrity.

4. Ethical leadership can lead to collaboration. Other organizations

will be much more willing to collaborate with you if they know that
youll always deal with them ethically.

5. Ethical leadership creates a good climate within the

organization. If everyone in the organization knows that power will be
shared and not abused, that theyll be dealt with respectfully and
straightforwardly, that theyll have the power to do their jobs, and that
the organization as a whole will operate ethically in the community,
theyre likely to feel more secure, to work well together, and to be
dedicated to the organization and its work.

6. If you have opposition, or are strongly supporting a position,

ethical leadership allows you to occupy the moral high ground.
This is especially important if your opposition is ethical as well. You can
look very small in comparison if your ethical standards are not up to
theirs, discrediting your cause and alienating your allies.

7. Ethical leadership is simply the right way to go. Everyone has an

obligation to themselves, to their organization, to the community, and
to society to develop a coherent ethical system that seeks to make the
world a better place. Leaders, for the reasons already stated, and
because of the responsibilities of leadership, have a particular
obligation in this respect.

8. Ethical leadership affords self-respect. Because you know that

you consistently consider the ethics of your decisions, actions, and
36
 interactions, you can sleep at night and face yourself in the morning
without questioning your own integrity.

1.10.3. How Do You Practice Ethical Leadership?

While this section generally refers to leaders as if they were the people at
the head of organizations, initiatives, and communities, the Tool Box
recognizes that anyone might take on a leadership role at any time. The
question of ethical leadership isnt only to be considered by people with
official leadership titles Director, Coordinator, Chair, etc.. The general
guidelines for ethical leadership, with only a little adjustment, could double
as general guidelines for ethical living. Putting the greater good above your
own personal interests, for instance, is one of the ways that most societies
and cultures define heroism. Thus, this section isnt only for those who are
designated as leaders: its for everyone.

Just as most people arent born leaders, but learn to be so through

experience and hard work, people even highly ethical people learn to
practice ethical leadership over time. Here, well present some general
guidelines for ethical leadership, and then look more specifically at what
being an ethical leader entails.

Three necessary characteristics of a useful ethical framework are:

Internal consistency. Each of its principles should fit with all the others,
rather than contradicting any of them.

Proactivity. It should tell you what to do, not what not to do.

Dynamism. It should be constantly reexamined and readjusted as your

ethical thinking evolves.

Having such a foundation doesnt make you an ethical leader, but it helps
your development as an ethical person, a necessary characteristic for an
ethical leader.

Your Ethical Framework Should Agree With That Of The Ethical

Framework, Vision, And Mission Of The Organization Or Initiative.

If you dont buy into the ethical stance of the organization, you shouldnt
take the job in the first place. An organization that is dedicated to
collaborative decision-making and equal status as an ethical principle, for
37
instance, cant be ethically led by someone who truly believes her ethical
duty is to make decisions for everyone.

An exception here is when youve been hired to change the ethical

framework and/or the culture of the organization. This might happen if a
previous director proved to be highly unethical misusing funds, treating
staff members abusively or with disrespect and a major shift in the
organizational climate is called for. In that case, youre expected to model
and import a different set of ethical standards and assumptions, in order to
restore the integrity of the organization.

An implication for ethical leadership here is that the vision and mission of the
organization must be uppermost in any decision-making. An ethical leader
does nothing to compromise the philosophy or the vision and mission of the
organization. You should not, for example, accept funding that would require
the organization to do something contrary to its best interests or ethical
standards (e.g., use methods that it believes are ineffective or harmful).

An interesting ethical question arises when an organization is offered money

by a funder whose philosophy or world view is contrary to that of the
organization (a corporate foundation whose parent corporation has an anti-
gay stance, for instance, or mistreats its workers in some way). One way of
looking at this situation is that its simply unethical to take money from such
a source. Another is that, as long as the funder doesnt require you to
endorse or act on its unethical stance or behavior, it is better that the money
goes to your organization than to one that does in fact support the funders
philosophy. Some would see this as taking money under false pretenses,
others as using it well. The right answer here really depends on the ethical
standards of the organization.

Ethics Should Be a Topic of Discussion.

Just as an ethical framework must be constantly reexamined, both the ethics

of an organization and the ethics of everyone in it should be regularly
discussed by all concerned. Everyones ethical assumptions, including the
leaders, should be open to questioning, and everyone should be willing to
hear that questioning without defensiveness and to consider it seriously. Only
by serious discussion of ethical questions, and being willing to examine your
38
own ethical assumptions can you continue to develop your ethical
understanding. It was mentioned above that an ethical framework grows out
of all you learn and experience. If you extend that statement to its logical
conclusion, it follows that your ethical framework continues to grow as you
continue to learn and have experiences, and that process if youre
consciously examining ethical questions goes on throughout life.

Ethics should be out in the Open.

You should be able and willing to explain your ethical framework and your
ethical decisions, and to stand by them (unless youre convinced by
someone elses argument that theyre wrong or lacking in some way).
Furthermore, you have a responsibility to stand up for what you believe in,
not just to talk about it.

Ethical Thought Must be connected to Action.

The best intentions in the world mean nothing if they remain intentions. Just
holding an ethical viewpoint or philosophy doesnt constitute ethical
leadership. That viewpoint or philosophy must be translated into action, in
both general and specific instances (i.e. in the way you treat people and
steer the organization over time, as well as in the individual decisions you
make).

Ethical leadership is a shared process.

Everyone in an organization or community should have the chance to

exercise it and to follow through with exercising it when appropriate. That
may be a matter of questioning a decision or action, of initiating one, of
being a role model in a given situation, or of upholding the integrity of the
organization.

Remember that, as a leader, youre a role model whether you choose to be

or not. People will take their cues about the way the organization should be,
about organizational culture, and about what constitutes ethical behavior,
from you. Remember that, and act accordingly. (That means paying attention
not only to what you say and do, but to the appearance of it: regardless of
the reality, you shouldnt do anything that looks or could be interpreted as
unethical.)

39
As an ethical leader, you should encourage others to take leadership roles,
and mentor them when they do. This fosters the development of ethical
leaders within the organization or community, which improves its functioning
and gives it more resources when a problem or crisis arises. In addition, it
trains a new group of leaders who can assume more responsibility as time
goes on thus relieving pressure on you and take over leadership when
you move on to something else.

Dont take yourself too seriously.

In addition to the serious business of understanding and making ethical

choices, ethical leadership encompasses maintaining your perspective and a
sense of humor. Leaders are human, and need to remain so. Once you start
protecting your leadership turf too vigorously, your effectiveness as well as
your claim to ethical behavior is likely to diminish.

Treat everyone with fairness, honesty, and respect all the time.

This seems almost too obvious to include here, but its one of the most
important pieces of ethical leadership. The way youre viewed and who you
actually are can be judged by how you treat others, regardless of how
society views them. All men are created equal doesnt mean that
everyones the same, or has equal potential and talents, but it does mean
that everyones of equal worth, and deserves to be treated so.

Treat other organizations in the same way you treat other people
with fairness, honesty, and respect.

That means being open in all your dealings, informing other groups of what
youre doing that may affect them, being a good and reliable collaborator,
etc.. If youre known as someone whos always honest and fair, that
reputation will attach itself to your organization as well, and other
organizations will want to work with you.

Collaborate inside and outside the organization.

Collaboration brings more possibilities and more ideas into whatever you do,
builds bonds among organizations and among people within an organization,
spreads power and responsibility so that more voices are heard and stress is
reduced, and increases opportunities for funding and creative programming.
Collaboration also establishes you as someone whos willing to share power
40
and resources, and whos more concerned with doing a good job and
providing the best services possible than with protecting turf and authority.

While collaboration is often desirable, we dont mean to imply that you have
an obligation to collaborate in every situation especially when it would
bring no benefit to your group or organization, or would involve other entities
with which you would prefer not to work. When collaboration can be mutually
beneficial, when it can lead to better outcomes for the people you work with,
or a more powerful alliance for your cause, or when it can afford gains to all
the collaborating groups, its generally the way to go. Refusing to collaborate
simply because of turf issues or reluctance to admit that another
organization might be able to do a good job is not generally the stance of an
ethical leader.

Take your leadership responsibility seriously, and be accountable for

fulfilling it.

One director of a community-based organization included as part of his job

description Catch the flak and pass on the praise. As a leader, you are
responsible for what happens under your leadership. Just as you hold others
accountable for doing their jobs and for their errors in judgment, you have to
hold yourself and allow others to hold you accountable as well. As an
ethical leader, you should build accountability into your position, whether its
formal or informal, and be prepared to deal straightforwardly with the
consequences of your decisions and actions.

Taking responsibility and working to correct mistakes and improve

unacceptable performance are part of a leaders job, as is making sure that
the organizations dealings with everyone are ethical. Blaming others even
though others may have made the mistakes or failed to do their jobs in
specific situations doesnt remove the leaders overall responsibility for
making sure that those things dont happen, and simply makes her look like
a coward.

Thats the reason that a jury convicted the Chairman and CEO of Enron, Ken
Lay and Jeffrey Skilling, regardless of their defense that they didnt know
about the illegal accounting that inflated the companys standing. Even if
that were true, they should have known it was their responsibility, and the
jury held them accountable.

41
Constantly strive to increase your competence.

People depend on leaders to be competent: its the reason for the trust that
is placed in them, the reason for their leadership in the first place. Its your
responsibility as an ethical leader to maintain and increase your
competence, so that you can continue to steer the organization in the right
direction, and those you lead can continue to trust your leadership.

Part of that responsibility is recognizing and admitting what youre not good
at, and either getting better at it, or delegating it to someone who is good at
it. (Few CEOs would think of handling the financial management of their
companies; thats why they hire financial officers.) Another aspect of
competence is not taking on responsibilities you cant handle, or tasks you
dont have the time or resources to do.

Maintaining and increasing competence can be accomplished in many ways.

Continuing education (actual courses, either at an educational institution or
online), attendance at conferences and workshops, professional reading,
regular meetings with others in similar positions to discuss leadership issues,
keeping a journal of lessons learned on the job, acquiring knowledge and
ideas from a variety of people all these and other methods can be used to
help you become a more effective leader.

Never stop reexamining your ethics and your leadership.

As weve pointed out several times in this section, ethical leadership doesnt
end its practiced all the time and over time. Cincinnatus, a 5th Century
B.C. Roman, was called from plowing his field and made dictator in order to
save a Roman army in danger of defeat. Quickly defeating the enemy, he
gave up his dictatorship after only 16 days and went back to his farm...but
he remained a leader regardless, simply because people saw him as one. He
was so much regarded as a leader, in fact, that, according to the Roman
writer Livy, he was called upon again to be dictator 20 years later, when he
was over 80.

Ethical leadership doesnt end, and neither should your effort to continue to
explore and practice ethical leadership.

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2.Module 2: Youth Organizations Management
2.1. Starting and Sustaining a Youth Organization
Solutions to large global challenges often start with small, local actions.
When you see a need or a problem in your community, you can make a
difference by standing up and taking action. An artist may see youth in his
neighborhood with nothing to do after school and start an informal art
program. An educator may notice that young girls from poor families dont
attend school regularly and set up a Saturday tutoring program. A nurse may
learn that women in her community are uninformed about basic health
services and organize informational workshops.

But, no matter what kind of challenge or opportunity you face, you can
accomplish more when you have more resources and people supporting your
goal than when you act alone. This is why you start a youth organization

Starting a youth organization requires many kinds of support. You need

volunteers, people who provide resources and advocates who believe in your
efforts. Launching projects and activities demands multiple skills and forms
of support. You need to make plans, reach out to the community, recruit
volunteers, raise funds, monitor projects and evaluate results. Sustaining a
youth organization over time demands an even greater level of commitment,
skills, systems, support and resources.

This unit provides an overview of the key components to start and sustain a
youth organization. As we discussed in the introduction, when a youth
organization is legitimate accountable, transparent, and connected to the
community then it deserves to be sustained. Sustainability refers to the
capacity of a youth organization to maintain its activities over time. Often,
when we hear the term sustainability, the first thing that jumps to mind is
money. But sustainability is about much more than that. It starts with the
organizations vision and mission.

2.1.1. Vision and Mission Statements

Your organizations vision describes the long-term changes you seek and how
peoples lives will be better thanks to your work. Your mission is the unique
way your organization contributes to turning that vision into reality. It is
necessary that you put your vision and mission into writing.

43
When the leaders of a youth organization share a powerful vision and a clear
mission, the organization has a much better chance to be successful. Without
a vision, your organization will find it hard to inspire others to join your
cause. An ill-defined mission leaves a youth organization without focus and
direction. Organizations with unclear missions often dissipate their energy in
many unrelated projects or activities, leaving little impact.

Writing vision and mission statements is one of the most important things
you, the founders of a youth organization, do. Vision and mission statements
set the tone for your future work. In the beginning, set aside time for your
core leadership team to come together and define your organizations aims
and means to accomplish them.

As your organization gains experience, or as new needs emerge in the

community, you will likely need to refine your mission. Imagine a lawyer who
wants to help migrant workers in his city. He starts a youth organization
called Migrant Workers Support Network (MWSN). Initially, his mission is
broad: Help migrant workers. Later, he realizes the mission is too broad and
his organization lacks focus. So he narrows the mission to: Advocate for the
rights of migrant workers in detention. Now he knows exactly where to
channel the organizations resources. But as time passes, he discovers other
unaddressed needs that his organization can meet, such as improving
housing and working conditions, so he decides to redefine his mission again:
Support migrant workers to live with safety, security and dignity in our
community.

Periodic review and reaffirmation of the mission is part of the ongoing

strategic planning process. If at any point your staff, board and key
volunteers disagree about what your organization should be doing, or if your
funders and partners show signs of losing confidence, that might signal the
need to revisit your mission.

2.1.2. Addressing Community Needs

A youth organization must be able to translate its mission into projects and
activities that have measurable impacts welcomed by the community.
Projects must be thoughtfully designed and carried out by qualified people in
order to effect lasting change and receive long-term funding.

44
When you are starting out, start small. MWSN has a basket of ideas for
projects to empower migrant workers: an after-work education program,
recreational activities to build community, an art workshop for the children of
migrant workers and a public education campaign about how migrant
workers contribute to society. But its leaders wisely realize that doing all
these at once would be biting off more than they can chew. Instead, they
pick one or two projects and do them well. This way, the organization can
build up a track record of success and learn what it takes to be effective. If
you are uncertain about the best place to start, conduct a simple community
survey or needs assessment.

As your organization matures, its projects and activities will evolve in

response to the changing needs of the community as well as your own
lessons learned. You might decide to expand some activities and cut back on
others or completely restructure your programs.

MWSN has launched an after-work education program for migrant workers

and found that there was high interest but low participation. After conducting
a survey, the organization found the reason was that the immigrants did not
have child-care facilities in the evenings. MWSN solved this by partnering
with another group to add child-care assistance to the program.

Organizations must regularly evaluate how well their projects and activities
meet the communitys needs and interests. You need to end programs that
are no longer relevant or effective and focus on those that are, especially
when money is scarce. When your organization can show that it is meeting
community needs and producing measurable results, you will stand a good
chance of securing the resources and support to be sustainable.

2.1.3. The Pillars of Sustainability: Planning,

Management, Evaluation
Sustainability requires systems for planning, management and evaluation.
Regular planning must take place at multiple levels: project plans,
fundraising plans, overall organizational plans, short-term term plans, and
long-term plans. Planning systems enable you to organize your work,
respond to needs and anticipate challenges. Management systems are the
tools to establish clear responsibilities and procedures for handling
everything from money and staff to projects and timelines. Finally, evaluation
systems inform you of the results you are achieving. To be accountable, you
45
need to report results not just to your funders and supporters, but also to the
community you serve.

Sometimes, new organizations do not think about setting up systems. After

all, most people start organizations because they want to contribute to a
cause, not because they want to create administrative procedures, develop
budgets and write reports. But you must set down at least simple policies
and basic procedures. At a minimum, you need to set up a database to track
income and expenses, and establish fiscal controls such as who can approve
payments and who can sign checks.

As your organization WHAT IS EVALUATION AND WHY IS IT

grows, you will have more IMPORTANT?
things to manage: projects,
Evaluation is the systematic review and
people, money, assessment of the benefits, quality and value of a
relationships. You can program, activity or organization as a whole. An
develop more evaluation asks:
What worked?
sophisticated systems as
What could have worked better?
you need them. When you Why did certain things work or not work?
begin to raise larger sums What difference did the work make for our
of money from multiple community?
sources, then you can What did we learn and how do we use that
knowledge?
acquire financial
management software and detailed accounting procedures. Having clear
policies and procedures and well-defined roles and responsibilities for
management will help your organizations projects, activities and overall
organization run smoothly. And when that happens, your donors and
supporters will have confidence their resources are being used well.

2.1.4. Committed Leadership

Building and sustaining an organization takes people with different kinds of
knowledge and skills: project managers, proposal writers, website
developers, fundraisers and survey takers, to name a few.

But, above all, organizations need leaders people committed to the

organization and willing to spend time and effort directing its work. Typically,
the leadership group consists of an executive director, senior staff and the
board of directors. An organizations leaders take on extra responsibility for

46
making sure the organization has a clear mission, effective programs and
efficient management of its resources.

When an organization is starting up, it is common for the founder to invite

friends, family members and colleagues to join the board. However, as an
organization matures, the founder and board will need to bring in new
leadership from outside. The founder and founding board members of the
MWSN might realize they need a banker or business owner with financial
expertise to advise on budgets, or someone from the faith community to ask
churches to provide food and shelter to migrants. Board members should
make a list of the kinds of experts their organization needs and draw up a
plan for recruiting them. New board members from outside can bring fresh
perspectives and energy to the organization.

Sustainable organizations continuously cultivate new leadership at all levels

the board of directors, staff, volunteers, and program participants and
beneficiaries. Organizations that are dependent on just one leader, or a small
clique of leaders, have shortcomings that can affect their longevity and
effectiveness. Some organizations have shut down when their founders
departed because there was no one else with enough knowledge or
commitment to keep them going. Others have lost the trust of the
community when founding leaders refused to make space for new leaders to
come on. Still other organizations have become irrelevant and ineffective
because they failed to attract new and diverse talent. Your organization
should constantly work to identify and recruit new talent, build their
leadership skills, and move them into positions of responsibility.

2.1.5. Relationships with Stakeholders

Groups and individuals that care about the same issues and interact with
many of the same people as your organization are stakeholders in your
organization. They have a stake in your work.

Relationships with a broad range of stakeholders business and

professional associations, donor organizations, faith institutions, coalitions,
unions, political parties and informal community groups allow an
organization to thrive. Stakeholders provide your organization resources
not just financial support but also in-kind support. For example, one of the
MWSNs stakeholders owns a printing business. The stakeholder prints
materials for MWSN at reduced cost. Or a professional association with a
47
BUILD YOUR TRACK RECORD
Even if you have a lot of good ideas, start small. Pick one or two projects that your group can do well. If immig

stake in MWSNs work may recruit professionals from a particular field to

mentor migrant workers.

Building relationships with stakeholders creates a network of allies who will

champion your organizations cause and defend its rights, and those of your
community. Imagine that MWSN has been working to get the local
government to consider passing legislation to protect the rights of migrant
workers. The organization is more likely to be successful if it can get letters
of support from many stakeholders other organizations, businesses, faith
leaders and community leaders.

Strong relationships are based on shared goals, trust and mutual benefit.
Regardless of where your organization is in its lifecycle whether it is just
starting or well established you need to invest time and energy in building
relationships with these diverse stakeholders. The relationships will change
over time, but they are always critical to your organizations sustainability.

2.1.6. Diversity in Funding Sources

An organization should not rely on a single funder, such as a wealthy
business owner, or a single type of funder, such as foundations, for its
survival. If your source of funding changes priorities or faces financial
problems, your organization may become insolvent and have to close. To
avoid that, your organization should seek a wide variety of funding sources,
including foundations, businesses, governments and individuals. An
organization may also generate income by selling products or services and
holding community fundraising events. With diversified funding, if one source
of funding ends, others can help make up for the loss.

Building a diversified funding base requires the collective effort of an

organizations staff, board and volunteers. You will need a fundraising plan
48
that lays out objectives, strategies, tasks and timelines. Involve all your staff,
board members, volunteers, and even community members in helping to
raise funds. Create a fundraising committee to coordinate the work and
monitor progress.

Building a diversified base of funding takes time. Keep in mind that many
organizations start without formal grants or long-term sources of funding.
They get volunteers and startup donations, then seek funding from
foundations, government agencies and the general public once they have
results to show for their efforts. Some funders give seed grants to new
organizations. Seed funders understand that new organizations do not have
long records of success and are willing to take a risk on a good idea and the
people who will carry it out. When courting a seed funder, write up a detailed
proposal describing what you plan to do and how you plan to do it, as well as
a description of the qualifications of the organizations leaders.

Many organizations struggle in their first years with only one or two funding
sources. However, this is the time to build a diverse base of funding for the
future.

2.2. Values, Mission and Vision the Compass

An organizations values, vision and mission are its compass. They guide every
decision an organization makes and every action it takes. Putting into writing your
values, vision and mission is one of the first steps you must take when you found an
organization. These statements will direct the rest of your journey and communicate
to your stakeholders who you are and what you stand for.

An organization is more likely to be successful when its leaders agree on its core
values, share a powerful vision for change and establish a clearly defined mission.
Conversely, an organization without clear values, vision and mission lacks a moral
compass to guide its decisions. Without a clear vision, it will struggle to inspire
others to join. Without a clear mission, it will lack focus and direction. Such an
organization will likely find itself engaged in projects that have little connection to
the community it seeks to serve.

In this chapter, we will explore how an organization develops values, vision and
mission statements to guide its work. We will follow the steps taken to found the
hypothetical organization Young Women Unite, which was created to empower
young women to combat violence in their community.

49
Typically, an organizations founders hold preliminary discussions of their values and
vision without putting anything in writing. But later, after formalizing your core
leadership team, including a board of directors and key volunteers, your team needs
to put into writing your organizations values, vision and mission. This will build a
sense of ownership and investment in your organization. After the statements are
drafted, the board of directors must officially adopt them.

2.2.1. Values
Values are the principles an organization commits to uphold in all aspects of its
work. Accountability and transparency are two values all organization s must share.
Your organization should discuss and agree on others that are important to who you
are. Some organizations identify values related to the quality of their work, while
others define their values in relation to how they work with others. Still others
choose values that say something about their view of the world.

For example, Young Women Unite might state its core values as:

Non-violence all women and girls have the right to live in violence-free
families and communities.
Respect all women and girls have the right to be treated with respect and
dignity.
Empowerment All women and girls have a right to make their own
decisions and control their own lives.
Partnership Civil society must work together to bring about peaceful
communities. No single organization or other entity can do it alone.
Community Leadership Efforts to build peaceful communities should be
led by women and girls from the community.

Once an organizations leaders agree on their core values, they should use them to
guide decisions about:

Projects and activities. For example, Young Women Unites first project was a
series of Know Your Rights workshops for women, with messages and
approaches based on the organizations core values. This initiative focused on
building the participants critical thinking and empowering them to speak out.
Internal operations. An organizations employees should be treated in a way
that reflects the organizations values. Young Women Unite made sure it
always treated its staff, volunteers and constituents with respect. It also
nurtured young women to move into leadership positions in the organization.
External relations. Young Women Unite ended a partnership with another
organization because it did not respect the ideas and opinions of young
women.

50
It is important to discuss each value and define what it means to the group.
Sometimes, people use different words to mean the same thing. One person might
say nondiscrimination while another says inclusiveness, but they both mean
that the organization should serve and involve all segments of the community.
Other times, people use the same word but mean different things. Two people might
list leadership, but one means the organization should strive to be a leader in its
field while the other means the organization should train leaders.

There might also be values that only one or two people identify. You should discuss
these as well and include them in your core values if the group agrees that they are
important. If the group decides not to add them to the list, make sure those who
stated them are comfortable not including them. Try to agree on a final list of four to
seven core values. More than that will blur the focus of your organization.

2.2.2. Vision Statement

A vision statement describes how you want the world to be. It is a picture of the
world you seek to create. It tells how peoples lives, communities or society at large
will be better as a result of your organizations work. A vision statement is big and
bold, such as Young Women Unites:

We envision a society in which all people are safe in their homes, schools and
communities; are treated with respect and dignity; and have equal opportunities to
develop and activate their leadership abilities.

It is a good idea to involve the community you serve in drafting your organizations
vision.

An organizations vision statement is a powerful tool for motivating staff and

volunteers and inspiring others to join you. For example, the staff of Young Women
Unite has been working hard and is tired. The leadership team organizes a day
where the board and staff come together to share a meal and re-energize
themselves. Each one reads the vision out loud and talks about what it means to
her. Similarly, when members of the board or staff are out in the community
recruiting volunteers, they talk about how the Young Women Unites vision and
mission inspired them to get involved.

Different organizations can share a common vision for what they are trying to build.
It is likely that a number of them share a vision of a world where all people and
families have access to quality housing, health care, jobs and education. But no
single organization can achieve all these things on its own. Making this vision a
reality takes the combined efforts of many groups working together.

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 2.2.3. Mission Statement
An organizations mission statement concisely states the main purpose of the
organization. It answers the question of why you exist. It describes who you are,
what you do and the end results you seek. For some organizations, it might identify
a geographic region or specific target population you serve.

Mission statements have two parts. The first is the core mission statement the
one or two sentences that communicate what you do and the long-term changes
you work to achieve. The second part briefly describes the strategies or types of
activities you use to achieve your mission.

Here is the mission statement for Young Women Unite:

The mission of Young Women Unite is to build the capacity of young women to end
violence in our community. We do this by:

Providing educational workshops in schools and community centers.

Training peer educators to be youth leaders who teach others and speak out
on this issue.
Developing curricula and training for other organizations to conduct
workshops in their communities.

Do some research to write a sharply focused mission statement? At the outset, the
founders of Young Women Unite knew they wanted to combat violence in their
community, particularly against women. But to determine their organizations exact
mission, they needed to research what others in the community were already doing
to address the problem. They found that one womens group focused on intervening
directly in domestic conflicts and another nurtured youth leadership, but no one ran
educational programs to end community violence. The research helped Young
Women Unite define their mission, which filled a gap in the community and
complements the work of other organizations. The mission statement guides an
organizations leaders in choosing what projects and activities to carry out,
especially during important points in an organizations lifecycle.

When an organization gets started and has limited resources, it needs to

think carefully about finding projects that are fundamental to achieving the
mission. Young Women Unite might decide that its target population needs
information about the issues surrounding violence and about their rights to
do something about it, so they start with Know Your Rights workshops.

52
WRITING A MISSION STATEMENT
Whether you are drafting your first mission statement or revising your existing one, writing this document is no

When an organization is growing, it is important to make sure new projects

and activities are closely aligned with the mission. Organizations at this stage
should be sure to seek out and accept only funding that supports their
mission.
When an organization faces funding cuts and must end a project or let staff
go, think about which projects are most fundamental to your mission.

Revising Your Mission

An organization should periodically review and update its mission statement. The
best time to do this is at the beginning of a strategic planning process. As your
organization matures, it will likely refine its mission to better capture what your
organization is uniquely suited to do. An organization that began with a broad
mission may decide to narrow it to provide clearer direction and focus. Or, an
organization that began with a narrow mission may decide to broaden it because it
has the capacity to address other community needs.

Organization s are more likely to change the second half of their mission statement
describing core strategies and activities than the first half, which describes the
organizations primary purpose. Organizations commonly revise their strategies and
activities in response to shifting community needs or changes in the environment.
When Young Women Unite was founded, it focused on its peer-educator initiative
and Know Your Rights workshops, which brought down community violence in a
53
few years. Noticing its success, several other youth organizations contacted Young
Women Unite to request similar workshops for their members and volunteers. After
reassessing their values, vision and mission, Young Women Unites leaders decided
to expand their organizations work by training other organization s to deliver
educational workshops.

Organizations should revisit their values, vision and mission statements every three
to five years. As your organization matures, it will need input from stakeholders,
including its community members, project participants, partners and even funders.
Find out if your stakeholders understand your organizations values, vision and
mission. Do they think they are still relevant and, if not, what changes do they
suggest? In addition, revisiting the values, vision and mission provides new
members the opportunity to shape and take ownership of these statements. It is
common for an organization to make small changes and refinements to its values,
vision and mission statements every few
years. However, an organization that radically
changes its core principles often will not be PUT YOUR VALUES,
seen as stable, and supporters might lose VISION AND MISSION IN
WRITING
confidence in it.
Often, the people who
2.2.4. Communicating Your
found an organization
Values, Vision and Mission
neglect to put their values,
An organization must communicate its
values, vision and mission to all of its vision and mission into
stakeholders: project participants, the writing. This is a
broader community, and current and
fundamental mistake. Later,
potential funders and partners. If they are
going to trust you, work with you, support you as new members join the
and hold you accountable, then they need to organization, they might
understand who you are and what you do. bring in different values. It
Organization leaders also need to make sure
that the staff, board members and volunteers is important for the
fully understand the values, vision and organizations leaders to
mission, and reinforce them in their day-to- discuss and formally agree
day work. Communication is at the heart of
in writing on the shared
achieving this understanding.
values that will guide the
When you recruit new people to join
organization. Without the
your organization, share your values
and vision with them. Ask them how written statements, you risk
they understand and relate to them. running into serious
disagreements. 54
 Someone who does not share your values or believe in your mission should
not be invited to join.
When you have board and staff meetings, write your values, vision and
mission statement up on large sheets of paper and place them where
everyone can see them. Start your meeting by reading them aloud, then use
them to guide discussions and decisions.
If you have a website, post your values, vision and mission publicly and make
sure they are easy to find. Many organizations put them under About Us or
Who we are and what we do.
Provide orientation and training on the values, vision and mission to all board
members, staff and volunteers. These are your organizations ambassadors.
They must be able to communicate your organizations values, vision and
mission.
When you meet prospective
partners, allies, supporters
or donors, start by AVOID FUNDING THAT DEVIATES
explaining your values, FROM YOUR MISSION
vision and mission. Prepare Your organization should have a plan that sets
a one-page sheet with your out clear goals for advancing your mission and
formal statements and a identifies projects that will accomplish those
folder with information goals. Then, you fundraise for your priorities!
about your projects, flyers, When you find an opportunity for new funding
and a few photos of what or a new partnership, stop and ask: Does it fit
you do. our mission? An organization that drifts away
from its mission for the sake of funding can
In the business world, companies
soon find itself running unrelated projects. As
sell tangible merchandise and
a result, the organization can become
services, for example, a computer,
fragmented, its impact will be diminished, and
a television, a table, an airplane
its stakeholders may lose confidence.
ride. As an organization, you sell
your values, vision and mission. If
you cannot communicate them effectively, you will not be able to get others to buy
them.

2.3. Planning, Evaluating and Managing

Once your organization has a clear mission, you have to translate it into projects
and activities that the community needs, wants and values. Query your community
to make sure they welcome your initiatives. When projects are thoughtfully
designed, carefully planned, and rigorously carried out by qualified people, they will
have an impact. If your organization can show that its work makes a difference in

55
peoples lives and communities, your stakeholders the community, donors and
partners will likely support you for many years.

This chapter walks you through the steps to plan, evaluate and manage your
organizations work. We provide examples drawn from Youth Voices for Democracy,
a hypothetical organization that educates youth about democracy and increases
their community participation.

2.3.1. Planning
Planning keeps you focused on your goals and enables you to organize your work
and allocate your resources efficiently. Organizations that plan do better than ones
that do not because they have clear direction and focus. With planning, you will
anticipate problems and prevent them or solve them before they become crises.
Here we discuss two broad types of planning: strategic planning and project
planning.

What is Strategic Planning?

Strategic planning is a systematic way of assessing where your organization is now

and where it wants to be in the future. It answers questions about what it will look
like, what it will be doing and what it will have accomplished five to 10 years from
now. A strategic plan starts from an organizations values, vision and mission, then
lays out its direction, priorities and goals. The plan keeps an organization on
mission. It guides decisions about project development, new partnerships and
allocation of resources, especially staff time and money. It provides a basis for
monitoring progress and assessing results.

Organizations use various approaches to strategic planning. Some spend months

gathering input from a broad range of stakeholders, including the board, staff,
project participants, partner organizations, funders and others, before drawing up
their strategic plan. Others bring board and staff together for a one-day
brainstorming meeting to do the same thing. Regardless of how you do it, the
planning process involves the following steps:

1. Identify the key issues and questions: Strategic planning is an opportunity

to step back and look at the big picture of your organization. Our hypothetical
Youth Voices for Democracy might want to answer the question: Do we want to
and are we ready to grow? If so, how much and what type of growth is
manageable? Or Youth Voices might have learned that several of its funders are
planning to reduce their contributions. In light of that, the organization needs to
refocus its operations on projects that are core to its mission.
2. Give your organization a SWOT: It is vital that you step back from your day-
to-day work and assess your organizations strengths, weaknesses, opportunities

56
 and threats. This is called a SWOT analysis. The quickest and easiest way is to
have board members, staff and key volunteers conduct this analysis. These key
players know a great deal about the organization and its environment. If time
and resources allow, get outside perspectives as well, especially from project
participants, funders, volunteers and organizational partners. You can do this by
using surveys, interviews, community meetings or focus groups. A SWOT
analysis helps you grasp the key issues facing your organization and make wise
decisions about how to address them. Youth Voices wants to grow, but through
the SWOT analysis, it learns that its internal systems are weak and its staff is
unprepared for expansion. So Youth Voices instead decides to focus on building
internal capacity for the next year to prepare for expansion.
3. Hold a meeting to discuss the findings of the SWOT analysis and make
decisions about priorities, goals and objectives.

57
 Once you have
done a SWOT,
you will be
prepared to set
relevant and
realistic goals for
the organization.
Based on what
they learned
from the SWOT
analysis, Youth
Voices has set
goals for
strengthening its
internal systems
improving
management
structures and
providing more
training for staff
and for
improving
current projects.
It also has
decided not to
take on new
projects over the
next three years.
4. Prepare a final
strategic plan: You need to write the results of your analysis and prioritizing in
a final document that serves as your strategic plan. It does not have to be
elaborate or lengthy. Most organizations prepare simple one- or two-page
documents that present the organizations values, vision, mission and main
goals. Others are more thorough and include the findings of the SWOT along with
detailed objectives for each goal.
5. Share the plan with your stakeholders. Send a copy to your funders and
your partners. You can hold a community meeting to present the plan to your
constituency. Make a special effort to give project participants who provided
input for the plan the opportunity to comment and make suggestions. If you
have a website, post the plan on it. If you send out a newsletter, include the plan
in it.
58
6. Carry out and monitor the plan. An organizations board, staff and key
volunteers all need to work together to make sure the final plan gets
implemented. The executive director sees to it that all of the organizations
projects and activities are aligned with the plan and that staff understand its
goals and organize the work around it. The board of directors also needs to align
its priorities with the plan. If the plan calls for a project that needs new resources
and expertise, then the board might need to set objectives for raising additional
funds and recruiting new board members with the needed expertise. At a
minimum, the board should formally review the plan once a year to assess
progress.

Strategic planning helps an organization to remain relevant and responsive to the

needs of its community. It brings focus and common purpose to its leaders.
Organizations should carry out strategic planning every three to five years. Some
may find at the end of three years that things are going well, the environment is
stable, and they just need to keep doing what they have been doing. Others might
find that things have changed. Maybe the organization has new staff and board
members who do not share a common vision, or perhaps other organizations are
doing similar work and competition for funding is greater. In this case, it would be
helpful for the organization to go through the in-depth planning process again and
develop a new plan.

Sometimes, organizations face major threats or unexpected opportunities e.g.,

the loss of a grant or a change in the political environment before they reach
their three-year goals. When that happens, an organization may need to change
course quickly. Once an organization has its strategic plan, it will need to do project
planning.

What is Project Planning?

A project plan sets goals and objectives for a specific project, identifies the
resources needed to achieve it, and lays out the key tasks, responsibilities and a
timeline. Whether your organization is developing its first projects or continuing
long-established ones, you must have in-depth knowledge of the community you
serve. In the past, organizations and their donors emphasized the needs part of the
assessment. Today, growing numbers of organizations also are assessing the
strengths and assets that community members can contribute to solve their
problems. In conducting its assessment, your organization should ask community
members about the knowledge and experience they already have, as well as things
they are interested in learning and doing.

Suppose Youth Voices for Democracy has held educational workshops to teach
youths about their rights and responsibilities in a democratic society. Now, Youth
59
Voices wants to expand the project in a particular low-income neighborhood to
support youth involvement in the community. By carrying out a needs and assets
assessment, Youth Voices can identify not only the individuals to enroll in the
program but also the knowledge and skills they bring with them. The assessment
might find that youth who are out of school have no access to computers. As a
result, they have low computer literacy and little familiarity with social media tools
that help youth access information, connect to other youth groups, and organize
their neighborhood. At the same time, the assessment might find that youth are
eager to learn and have ideas to improve their community. So Youth Voices might
decide to open a new computer learning center as a first step.

Projects based on a careful assessment of needs and strengths are likely to be

relevant, useful and trusted by the target audience, raising their chances for
success. Once you have determined the needs and interests of your target
audience, you are ready to develop a detailed project plan. There are many different
formats for this. Often, international donors have particular formats they want their
grantees to use. Find out if this is so and make sure you use them.

A project plan needs to define what you want to accomplish for the target
population. In other words, what will be different in the lives of people who
participate in the project? The plan also describes what your organization will do
and the resources it needs to achieve these results.

One format for a project plan is called a Logic Model. This helps you map out a
project, starting with what you want to achieve and working backward to describe
the activities you believe will produce those outcomes. From there, identify the

60
resources needed to carry out those activities.

Although you read a Logic Model from left to right, it helps to work from right to left
as you develop it. When read from left to right, Logic Models describe program
basics over time from planning through results. Reading a Logic Model means
following the chain of reasoning or If...then... statements that connect the
programs parts. Once you have developed a project plan using a Logic Model or
another tool, you will need a more detailed work plan. As your organization
matures, you will adjust your projects and activities according to the changing
needs of the community and your own experience. For example, after Youth Voices
opened its new computer learning center, it found that some participants wanted to
build on their new skills and start an Internet radio show. Youth Voices then added a
new technology training component focused on radio production.

2.3.2. Evaluation
Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the outcomes, quality and performance
of a project, activity or the organization as a whole. Evaluation is a tool for
answering the question: What difference did our work make in peoples lives and
communities? In other words, it measures what you achieved for the people you
61
serve. Organizations need to assess community needs and strengths regularly, and
evaluate the results of their projects.

An evaluation should ask:

What did we do that worked?

What could have worked better?
Why did certain things work (or not work)?
What did we learn and how can we use that knowledge to strengthen our
work?

Every day, an organizations staff and volunteers see the people they serve learning
new skills, achieving their goals and improving their lives. They can share stories
about particular individuals whose lives have been transformed. Many organizations
also keep track of the number of people they serve. For example, Youth Voices
counted the number of youth who attended classes at the computer learning center
each month and the number of youth reached through its Introduction to
Democracy workshops.

But for organizations to be truly accountable to their stakeholders and to their

mission, they must also quantify the outcomes, such as higher student test scores
or higher numbers of students who demonstrated ability to apply what they learned
in the workshops to their jobs.

The first step of evaluation is to define the outcomes you want a project to achieve.
Do this at the design phase of a project. Going back to Youth Voices computer
learning center and their Internet radio training project, the desired outcomes for
participants were to:

Acquire the technological skills to produce an Internet radio show.

Learn how to develop program content for a radio show.

Apply these skills to produce a weekly, one-hour radio show about a topic of
interest to youth in the community.
Have greater confidence to speak out on issues that concern them.

The next step is to determine how to measure the outcomes. Youth Voices could
collect data in a number of ways. They could administer a test to assess
participants knowledge and skills at the beginning and again at the end of the
project to measure how much they learned. Project staff and volunteers could write
down their observations each month, noting changes they see in each participants
skill and confidence. They could hold focus groups at the beginning, middle and end
of the project to ask participants for feedback. What are they learning? How are

62
they using what they learn? What more do they want to learn and what will they do
with their new skills after the project?

Your organizations staff and volunteers should agree on an evaluation plan that is
feasible with the time and resources you have. If you create a plan with many ways
of collecting information at many points in time, it may be too complicated and
time-consuming to implement. Once you agree on your approach, you should:

Train all staff, volunteers and participants who will be collecting data to use
the collection tools properly.
Set up a system for storing the data. Assign someone to set up and maintain
a file in a file cabinet and/or on a computer for all the tests, surveys or
notes from interviews and focus groups.
Choose a small group of people to compile the data. This could include
collecting test results or putting all the survey comments into one list.
Have a mix of staff, volunteers and possibly participants review the data and
identify the key findings. Did participants gain new knowledge and skills?
Were they able to apply them? Why or why not?
Use the evaluation results to improve your project. If an evaluation finds that
participants are not learning a particular skill, consider revising the training
curriculum or finding better trainers. Too often, the results are sent to donors
but are not used to help organizations improve their programs.
Summarize the data and share your analysis. Evaluation helps you tell your
story to stakeholders. It provides you with both data and anecdotes that
demonstrate how your work makes a difference.

When organization leaders invest in evaluation and involve everyone in the

organization, it is a powerful tool for learning, improvement and growth.

What is Participatory Evaluation?

Participatory evaluation invites project participants and stakeholders, such as family

members and teachers of youth participants, to help shape and carry out
evaluation. Stakeholders are typically involved at all steps of evaluation, including
formulating the key questions, gathering and analyzing the data, identifying the key
findings and lessons learned, and developing the recommendations and action plan
to improve project performance.

If Youth Voices decides to use participatory methods to evaluate its radio project,
participants themselves will help decide what to evaluate and what questions to
ask. They will also be involved in collecting data, such as designing and conducting
a survey of community members who have listened to the broadcasts to find out
63
how much they learned. Or the participants might record their own observations
about how community members used the broadcast information.

When stakeholders especially community members are involved in designing

and carrying out an evaluation, the results are likely to be more relevant and useful
to the organization and the community.

2.3.3. Management
Just as you need many kinds of plans, you need many systems for managing your
organization. Decide who has responsibility for each aspect: money, people,
projects and facilities. Because Youth Voices is a small organization, the executive
director is responsible for most of its organizational management while the staff is
responsible for managing projects. As the organization grows and hires additional
staff, however, someone other than the executive director may take on specific
management roles, such as for finances or human resources.

Like any manager in business or government, an organization manager is

responsible for planning, organizing and monitoring tasks needed for an
organization to run smoothly. But the context is different for an organization. Its
work often is difficult to measure and communicate. Its goals are ambitious but its
resources are limited. It works to improve peoples lives and communities, not make
a profit. It faces multiple and sometimes competing demands from its
stakeholders, many of whom have different expectations for what the organization
should do and how it should operate. An organization is rarely fully staffed, so
individual staff members often fill multiple roles. Funding limitations mean the staff
works without adequate training, equipment, supplies or facilities.

In this environment, basic management tasks are both more critical and more
challenging for organizations.

What are Management Tasks?

1. Assigning people and resources to tasks. Staff should have written job
descriptions that define their primary responsibilities, but in small
organizations, staff often have to take on additional projects or administrative
tasks. When Youth Voices prepares for a site visit from a funder, the office
needs to be cleaned, the files need to be organized, and several project
participants should be prepared to attend the meeting and share their
experiences. These tasks do not fall under anyones job description and
everyone needs to help. The executive director should call a staff meeting to
review the tasks that need to get done and assign the additional
responsibilities. This way everyone knows who is responsible for what. Good
managers do not just delegate responsibility. They also make sure people
64
 have the authority, resources, knowledge and skills to get the job done. If the
executive director of Youth Voices sets up a system for making sure bills are
paid and reports to donors are sent out on time, she will assign specific
responsibilities to staff members, train them on the system, create a master
calendar of deadlines, then monitor their work.
2. Motivating people. Some people who work for an organization are highly
motivated by the organizations mission. They devote their careers to civil
society because they want to make a difference. This is often the case with
an organizations first staff members who work long and hard to establish the
organization. As the organization grows and hires new staff, the newcomers
may not all share the same commitment to the organizations mission. A
good manager inspires the staff to believe in the organizations mission and
support its goals. A good manager helps the staff see how their tasks,
however big or small, contribute to the success of the organization.
3. Monitoring activities to make sure plans are accomplished. If plans are not
accomplished, the organization manager must figure out why and solve the
problem. While reviewing the reports prepared by project staff, Youth Voices
executive director finds that one staff members reports lack information
required by the funder. In discussing the problem with this staff member, she
learned that the employee never received a copy of the requirements and
that the project did not have a system for collecting the needed data. After
discovering what the problem was, the executive director was able to find a
solution. Good managers identify problems and make corrections before they
become crises.
4. Ensuring communication and coordination. Organizational managers look at
the organization as a whole. They need to make sure that staff assigned to
different projects or areas communicate with each other. In the fast-paced
environment of an organization, staff members sometimes neglect to share
information or ask for help. To avert this, Youth Voices holds regular staff
meetings to review the status of all projects. This regular communication has
many benefits. For example, when the staff members leading Youth Voices
educational workshops learn about the new radio program, they encourage
their workshop participants to listen and suggest topics for future programs.

What is Participatory Management?

As an organization manager, you also will have to create structures for

management and decision making. A number of approaches are available to you.
The participatory approach involves staff in programmatic and management
decisions. A manager asks staff for input, then makes the decision alone. In the
team approach, senior staff make decisions collectively. In the fully democratic
approach, all staff and managers discuss and reach consensus on major decisions.
65
However you manage your organization, you should find ways to involve staff and
create a formal structure through which they can add their input. This will help build
a sense of ownership and investment in the organization, its work and its future.

Above all, good managers understand that people whether paid staff, volunteers
or board members are an organizations greatest asset. An organizations ability
to deliver high-quality work depends directly on the skills, energy, commitment and
talents of the people who carry out the work. Organization managers need to invest
in their people. This means making sure that staff members get training to do their
jobs effectively and opportunities to grow professionally.

It can be hard for executive directors, especially those who are founders of an
organization, to delegate tasks to others. But for an organization to succeed, its
staff members need to grow. Executive directors and other managers must be
willing to entrust tasks to others.

Finally, as an organization manager, you need to create a positive work

environment in which all staff and volunteers are treated with respect and
recognized for their contributions. You can recognize individual staff members
accomplishments with something as simple as a thank you at a staff meeting.
When a team has worked particularly hard on a project, you might take them to
lunch and feature their efforts in your newsletter. Spending small sums in your
organization budget for staff and volunteer recognition is appropriate. People who
work for an organization need to know their commitment and competence are
recognized and valued.

Good managers and good management practices are crucial for an organization to
sustain itself over time. Even the smallest organizations need to set up basic
systems for management. Suppose you raise your first $500 at a community
fundraiser. You should immediately record who gave you the donations, keep track
of how you spend the money, and maintain a file with all of your receipts.

As your organization grows, you will have more things to manage: projects,
activities, people, money, relationships. You can develop more sophisticated
systems as you need them. Once you begin to raise larger sums of money from
multiple sources, you should invest in financial management software and develop
detailed accounting procedures. When donors and supporters see that an
organization is well managed, they will have more confidence that their resources
are being used wisely and for the proper purposes.

2.4. Community Participation and Empowerment

People and communities are the heart of why an organization exists. Regardless of
the issues they address, all organizations were created to make peoples lives better
66
and communities stronger. Yet organizations can be more than humanitarian
organizations to ease suffering. They can also be empowerment organizations to
spur people to realize their aspirations for better lives and communities. To achieve
this potential, organizations need to give community members the knowledge, skills
and confidence to address their own needs and advocate on their own behalf.

A good way to begin is for your organization to open doors for community members
not only to participate in projects, but also to help plan, manage and evaluate them.

Your organization can facilitate broader civic participation in a number of ways, by:

Investing in leadership development and supporting new leaders to define

problems, identify solutions and establish action plans.
Organizing visioning sessions that invite community members to share
their dreams for their lives and communities, then combining them into a
collective vision.
Coaching community members to be their own advocates and voice their
concerns to elected officials and government decision makers.
Advocating for the creation of structures and mechanisms that make
government and elected officials accountable to citizens.
Mobilizing people to vote.

Participation and empowerment are mutually reinforcing. When people participate,

they learn new skills, gain confidence and develop their own voice and ability to
control their lives. And when people feel empowered, they are more likely to
participate. In this chapter, well illustrate this by showing how another hypothetical
organization, Health for All, approaches community participation and
empowerment.

2.4.1. Cultivating New Leaders

Organizations need to cultivate new leaders within their communities, whether they
are geographic or based on addressing a shared problem. You do this by building
peoples skills and providing them with opportunities to step into leadership roles.
By cultivating new leaders, you ensure that your organizations work will go on after
the founders are gone. Equally important, you create a situation in which people
affected by a problem are part of its solution.

The leaders you cultivate will amplify your organizations work in a number of ways,
by:

Educating others in the community about the issue.

Serving as the messengers in public education campaigns.

67
 Advocating with government or elected officials and by attending meetings or
giving testimony.
Mobilizing others to get involved, speak out and take action.

Health for All has been providing health-education workshops targeting low-income
women and has been successful in helping them adopt good health practices. Now,
Health for All wants to start a Womens Leadership Project to train low-income
women to become community leaders on health issues.

The organization is going to recruit a few women who participated in the workshops
to begin meeting weekly. The organization will focus discussions on what it means
to be a leader, what kind of leadership is needed in their community and what kind
of leaders the women want to be. The project will hold training workshops designed
to build basic skills, such as how to:

Analyze a community problem.

Develop solutions.
Plan events and projects.
Manage tasks, timelines and resources.
Run a meeting.
Speak in public.
Deal with conflict.

While providing formal training is important, remember that people learn by doing.
The most effective leadership programs guide participants through the process of
picking an issue to tackle, identifying solutions, and then carrying out an action
plan. Health for Alls Womens Leadership Project will guide its participants to:

Identify an issue, such as why so many women in the community have been
getting sick from preventable illnesses.
Analyze the root causes. For example, funding for the government primary
care clinic was slashed, with the result that many women are being turned
away. Also, government-funded health-education campaigns have been cut.
Identify and prioritize what they want to change. They decide they not only
want funding restored, but also the clinic to develop better outreach and
education for women with low literacy levels.
Pinpoint who they need to influence the person with the power to restore
funding and decide what kind of message is most likely to persuade that
person.
Finally, the women leaders mobilize other women in the community to sign a
petition, send letters, or stage a vigil in front of the regional office of the
health ministry.

68
After new leaders graduate from your training, find ways to continue nurturing
and supporting them. You can do this by:

Hiring them as staff. If Health for All secures additional funding to expand its
health-education projects, it can hire leadership-project graduates to conduct
outreach, coordinate workshops or even provide training.
Engaging them in advocacy. If Health for All decides to advocate for greater
public funding for maternal and child health clinics, for example, it can invite
graduates of the leadership project to help design the campaign, craft the
messages, and advocate with public officials.
Supporting them to become engaged in other community projects and
coalitions. Health for All can introduce newly trained leaders to other
organizations and coalitions where they might get taken on as staff or
volunteers. In this way, Health for Alls leadership project benefits the whole
sector.
Creating opportunities for them to implement their own ideas. If the new
leaders have an idea for a project such as a public awareness campaign on
the importance of prenatal care for pregnant women with HIV then Health
for All might help them raise funds to launch the project. The confidence they
glean from this project might propel some of them to found their own
organization, which would be an ally of Health for All.

2.4.2. Promoting Wide Civic Engagement

Your organization can promote civic engagement in ways other than grooming new
leaders. After all, not everyone is cut out to be a leader. Your organization can
create opportunities for people who are not leaders to contribute to bettering their
communities. Generating broad civic engagement will ultimately help your
organization accomplish its mission.

The ways that organizations can promote civic engagement range from simply
creating opportunities for people to articulate their vision of the future to mobilizing
them to get out and vote. Organizations can be instrumental in getting people to
realize that they have a voice and a vote!

2.4.3. Inviting Community Members to Shape a Vision

For people who have never had a say in shaping their future, a powerful way to
begin is to invite them to share their hopes and dreams for their lives and their
communities. Health for All could hold visioning sessions with different segments of
the community, such as youth, elders, adult women, or men, or in different
neighborhoods of the city. In the sessions, you could ask participants questions such
as: If everyone in your community had health care, what would it look like? What
would be different?
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Health for Alls Womens Leadership Project could bring together women from a low-
income neighborhood to create a collective vision for a community that fosters
womens health. Visioning processes often ask questions such as: In your vision for
the future, what would womens lives be like? What would the community look like?
What kinds of resources would it have to support womens health?

2.4.4. Organizing Projects for Peoples Participation

Helping people to form a collective vision for their community is the first step to get
them to see that they have a voice in shaping their future. The next step is to help
them see that they can make a difference. Organizations can organize various
activities in which people can make changes large or small to improve their
communities.

Health for All, for instance, could sponsor mural projects in the neighbor-hood,
inviting youths to paint the walls with scenes of a healthy community. Health for All
could also organize neighborhood clean-up days, where people come out to clean
their streets and parks. The organizations board members could help by appealing
to businesses to donate supplies for these activities.

Your organization could also seek to make the government a partner to support
such efforts. This would provide opportunities for officials and lawmakers to build
goodwill with the public and strengthen your organizations ties with the
government.

2.4.5. Engaging Community Members in Advocacy

You need to involve community members in speaking about the issue your
organization deals with. The people who are most affected by an issue are the most
credible messengers to government officials and other decision makers. In countries
with sufficient margins of freedom, organizations can organize people to sign
petitions, write letters, make phone calls and provide testimony. Your organization
needs to support them by furnishing information and other tools to be effective.

For example, if Health for All advocates with the health ministry to improve
sanitation in the region, it could recruit and train community members to speak out
on the matter. Community members could help shape the key messages for an
advocacy campaign, then present testimony and facts to government officials about
the impact of poor sanitation in their communities. It would be especially powerful if
a few community members told personal stories of how the health of their children
has been affected. Health for All staff could work with community members to draft
their talking points and coach them on delivering them.

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In countries where the political environment discourages community activism, your
organization needs to carefully consider its advocacy strategies. You want to make
sure that your community is well-informed about any risks of government reprisals.

2.4.6. Advocating for Governance Structures that

Support Engagement
In countries where civic activism is legally permitted but not widely practiced, an
appropriate role for organizations would be to advocate for the creation of
mechanisms of civic engagement. Organizations could work together to advocate
for:

The adoption of requirements that local elected bodies hold open meetings
for citizens to voice their views on new laws under consideration (i.e., public
hearings).
The use of community advisory committees or citizen oversight commissions
by government ministries to receive community input and answer community
questions.
Greater transparency in the decision-making process and access to
information for citizens, such as requirements to publish voting records or
make certain documents available for public scrutiny.

Organizations can educate officials to recognize the value of such structures and
mechanisms in helping them to meet their mandates and generate greater public
support through increased accountability. At the same time, organizations need to
educate their communities that officials are accountable to them, and citizens have
a right to hold officials accountable. To do so, the communities need information and
access to officials, both of which organizations can provide.

Health for All, for example, is leading a coalition of organizations to press the health
ministry to create a citizen advisory committee to provide input and feedback on
the ministrys health programs.

The organizations see a role for themselves in recruiting and training community
members to serve on the committee. Health for All encourages graduates of its
Womens Leadership Project to apply for seats on the committee. The organizations
want to make sure that the committee is structured in a way that it is outside the
control of the government or a particular organization.

2.4.7. Mobilizing and Educating Voters

Finally, organizations can promote voting as a form of civic engagement. The
political system permitting, organizations can register voters, educate them about

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the importance of elections, sponsor forums for candidates to meet community
members and mobilize voters to turn out on Election Day.

2.5. Partnership with other Youth Organizations and

Government
An organization cannot achieve its vision for a better society on its own. Community
needs are too numerous and societys problems are too complex. Your organization
needs to work with other organizations and your government to accomplish your
goals.

Through partnerships with other organizations, and the public sector, you gain
access to new resources, including funding and in-kind support as well as
information, expertise and skills. When an organization is just starting, it might find
rent-free space for its activities through relationships with other organizations, a
local government office or a university. Partnerships with other organizations might
allow you to reach new target populations with your public education messages and
broaden your base of popular support for your mobilization efforts. In short,
partnerships can be an important vehicle for young organiations to build visibility
and capacity.

Partnerships take different forms, ranging from informal and casual to formal and
structured. You can have relationships where you talk to each other regularly to
share information, ideas and experiences. You can also have highly organized,
collaborative relationships where you design projects, raise money and run the
projects together.

When you are developing your near-term project plans and long-term strategic
plans, think carefully about who you want to build partnerships with and what form
the partnerships should take.

In this chapter, we use a hypothetical organization, Citizens Fighting Corruption,

which focuses on rooting out local corruption, to explore how different partnerships
are built, and the benefits and challenges they present.

2.5.1. Relationship with SONYO

Somaliland National Youth Organizations Umbrella (SONYO) is the premier youth
umbrella organization working to empower the youth for a better Somaliland.
SONYO, as a youthful initiative, has been working as a vibrant vehicle for voicing up
the concerns of the youth in Somaliland.
Founded in 2003, SONYO Umbrella came into existence with the constant support of
many individuals, young people, youth organizations, groups, friends, development
partners and well-wishers. This brief history note is a reflection of the journey of

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SONYO Umbrella and the impact it has had over the period. The founding congress
of SONYO marked the first time that a large group of young people met to deliberate
on the future of the country and their role in it. This General Assembly meeting was
aimed at mainstreaming youth leadership in all spheres of national life.

SONYO beneficiaries are always regarded for the way they made SONYOs programs
and projects reflective from their needs through provision of constructive critique,
practical feedbacks and pragmatic recommendations. The funding partners of
SONYO are acknowledged for their substantial role in consolidating SONYO as a
reliable institution which has both the organizational capability and the expertise to
implement its wide-ranging programmes.
The eight years that SONYO existed can be described as an experience that
contains various significant lessons and successful reflections and that consists of
two successive phasesfrom idea to action. Many programmes and projects have
been conducted while lessons were being learnt. In the beginning, the Umbrella
used to have 3 chairs, one long table and 4-meters square sign board while
currently it has fixed and current assets amounting hundreds of thousands of dollars
a difference made with vision, commitment, unanimity and values.
It is essential that youth organizations register at SONYO to benefit from the
different range of membership benefits. SONYO supports youth organizations in
building their capacity to write proposals and manage funds. They also are source of
funding for certain projects and programs. The umbrella is also the center for
networking the different youth organizations in the country and their international
counter parts.

2.5.2. Relationships with National and Local

Organizations
Other organizations can be sources of information and ideas, partners for projects,
and allies for your cause. Get to know the ones working in your community their
issues, target populations and services. They can be especially helpful when you are
just starting up and trying to define your mission and carve out your niche. Later, as
you plan new projects and activities, you will want to know who is doing similar
work so you can coordinate your efforts and avoid duplication. Make it a point to get
to know other organizations in your area, even if they are pursuing different
missions. They probably care about your issue and may become strong allies.

You also need to know who is working on your issue in other cities and at the
national and international levels. Organizations can learn from each other by
sharing experiences and lessons learned. If Citizens Fighting Corruption wants to
address corruption at the municipal procurement office, it could learn about
strategies used by groups in other cities and how effective they were.
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Organizations working on the same issues in different places can work together to
address the root causes that cross geographic boundaries? When anti-corruption
groups from various localities get their heads together, they might realize that
whats really needed is a national law. That would open the possibility for them to
coordinate their efforts in a nationwide campaign to pressure legislators to pass
such a law.

But make no mistake, effective partnerships take time to build. Organizations often
see each other as rivals, competing for resources, support, visibility and even public
praise. To begin to see each other as partners, you need to get to know each other
and build trust. You can start by contacting another organization for a meeting to
get acquainted.

Once you know each other, you can share information about activities, conferences,
training opportunities and funding opportunities. Telephone calls, meetings and
email are good ways to keep in touch. Another way to build trust is to support one
anothers work by publicizing and attending each others events, volunteering for
each others activities, and providing letters of support for grant proposals.

Citizens Fighting Corruption has conducted a survey about perceptions of

corruption. After compiling the results, it invites other organizations to a briefing to
share and discuss the results. That opens communication channels with other
groups that have the same concern about corruption. Likewise, Citizens Fighting
Corruption makes every effort to accept invitations from other organizations to
expand its network of allies.

2.5.3. Coordinating Efforts

As organizations build trust with each other, they can coordinate their efforts more
closely. Before you combine your efforts, however, make sure you agree on certain
things:

A shared vision. While each organization should have its own distinct mission,
a shared vision will help like-minded groups set common goals and deliver a
common message for change. For example, if anti-corruption organizations
working in different parts of a country come together to develop a shared
vision for what a corruption-free government looks like, they can establish a
national platform that will provide a clear direction and sense of purpose for
all.
Common goals and a coordinated strategy for achieving them. Citizens
Fighting Corruption and its related organizations know all too well that they
face potent opposition from the beneficiaries of corruption. By forming a
united front with like-minded organizations, Citizens Fighting Corruption

74
 reduces the opportunities for corrupt elements to play organizations off each
other and nullify their efforts.
Coordinated outreach and education. Create a division of labor among
cooperating organizations as to who shares information or conducts trainings
with different target audiences. This is needed to avoid duplication of effort.
Citizens Fighting Corruption is working with another organization that focuses
on fair elections. Both want to educate voters to recognize election fraud and
blow the whistle on it when they see it. The two organizations realize that
they can increase their effectiveness by pooling their knowledge and skills in
joint education workshops and campaigns. Those steps enable them to
expand their work into new neighborhoods.

Coordination does not mean you do everything together. It does mean you talk and
decide what you will do individually and what you will do jointly. Keep in mind that
each organization is autonomous and has its own internal priorities and decision-
making processes.

2.5.4. Running Collaborative Projects

Sometimes organizations develop close collaborative bonds by designing and
carrying out projects together. Through collaborative projects your organization can:

Reach more people and broaden your constituency.

Carry out new kinds of projects and expand your range of skills and expertise.
Attract new resources. If you have limited management capacity or project
experience, you may not qualify for grants from large foundations or the
public sector. Partnering with an experienced organization could make your
organization eligible for such funding.

Lets say Citizens Fighting Corruption sets up informational meetings with other
organizations working in the same neighborhood. It gets to know an arts and culture
organization, and the two start talking about how they can reach people with low
literacy levels. They decide to work together to create street theater performances
with anti-corruption messages. In working together, the anti-corruption organization
learns about staging theatrical performances and the arts and culture group learns
about the corruption issue.

Its good to start with something easy. For example, your organization could partner
with another to co-sponsor a one-time training event that benefits everyone.
Afterward, the organizations can assess what worked well, what did not, how each
benefited, and whether you want to work together again.

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 2.5.5. Forming Advocacy Coalitions
Organizations that seek to change laws and government practices are more likely to
be successful when they join forces. Effective advocacy requires large numbers. The
more people you have on your side, the louder your voice is, and the stronger the
pressure you are able to bring to bear. If a coalition already exists, join it. If none
exists, think about starting one. That will make your organization a leader among its
peers. Such a step will take time and commitment. You may have to recruit staff and
board members who can invest the time and energy to do it well.

Lets return to Citizens Fighting Corruption and its struggle to root out corruption in
the local government procurement office. It is looking to form a coalition of diverse
stakeholders, such as organizations from the health care, education, and housing
sectors. They all seek contracts from the city government and are concerned about
corruption in the process of granting them. Citizens Fighting Corruption sees that by
unifying these organizations into a broad coalition, they can all speak with one voice
and increase pressure to reform the government procurement office.

In order for the coalition to succeed, Citizens Fighting Corruption needs to make
sure there is agreement on the following points:

A shared commitment to the coalition based on shared values and vision.

Clear roles and responsibilities for each partner.
A defined decision-making structure.
Open communication and transparency. Have clear understandings about
what information you will share and will not share and how you will share it,
such as through regular email, phone calls and meetings.
An agreed-upon process for dealing with conflict or disagreements.

2.5.6. Relationships with International NGOs

Relationships with international NGOs offer your small NGO access to information
about global standards and practices that affect your work. The international
organizations are important members of your support network who will speak up
and defend you when necessary. Through contacts with international NGOs, Citizens
Fighting Corruption learns about international conventions, model laws from other
countries and advocacy strategies that have been effective elsewhere. Taking on
corrupt politicians, government workers and business owners can be a dangerous
undertaking. The more relationships the NGO has with anti-corruption activists
nationally and internationally, the more people there will be looking out and
demanding protection should Citizens Fighting Corruption be threatened.

Building relationships with international NGOs can be challenging for local NGOs.
The international NGOs, with their size, resources and visibility, often dictate

76
agendas. But they also need small NGOs. International NGOs do not have your
detailed knowledge of local issues and your relationships with local stakeholders.
You have a lot to offer. Remember that.

2.5.7. Relationships with Government

Organizations need to build relationships with the government elected and
appointed officials to accomplish their mission. At times, the relationships may be
confrontational; at other times they may be cooperative.

The role of organizations is to hold governments accountable. Sometimes, an

organization may monitor a particular government agency or elected official to
make sure they are doing their jobs and spending public resources appropriately. If
they are not, thats when organizations need to speak up and demand changes.

Lets say the advocacy coalition formed by Citizens Fighting Corruption was
successful in getting the government procurement office to adopt an anti-corruption
plan and appoint a commissioner to oversee it. The next goal for the Organization is
to monitor implementation of the plan.

Organization also need to cooperate with governments in providing outreach,

education or services. Organizations and governments can work together to develop
solutions to community needs, run joint projects, or carry out public awareness
campaigns. For example, through meetings with the new anti-corruption
commissioner at the government procurement office, Citizens Fighting Corruption
saw a need to educate other organizations about the governments new contracting
procedures, which were formulated to prevent corruption. As a gesture of goodwill,
Citizens Fighting Corruption offered to do this with its own funding and not ask the
government for funding.

Building a cooperative relationship with a government ministry takes time. You need
to find allies people in the ministry who have influence and share your values,
vision and goals. Then you need to work to build trust with them.

Organizations must think carefully and strategically about their relationships with
government ministries and elected officials. When you build strong relationships
with people in government and make them your allies, you can accomplish a lot
together. But you also need to maintain balance and perspective so you can speak
up when the government does not do its job. And sometimes collaboration with
government may not be in an organizations interest if the government does not
have citizens trust or if the government is oppressive or corrupt.

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Appendices
Leadership Styles Self-Assessment

Directions
This questionnaire contains statements about leadership style beliefs. Next to each statement,
circle the number that represents how strongly you feel about the statement by using the
following scoring system:

Almost Always True - 5

Frequently True - 4

Occasionally True - 3

Seldom True - 2

Almost Never True 1

Be honest about your choices as there are no right or wrong answers - it is only for your
own self-assessment.

Almost Frequentl Occasionall Seldo Almost

Always y True y True m True Never
True True

1. I always retain the final decision making 5 4 3 2 1

authority within my department or team.

2. I always try to include one or more employees 5 4 3 2 1

in determining what to do and how to do it.
However, I maintain the final decision making
authority.

3. I and my employees always vote whenever a 5 4 3 2 1

major decision has to be made.

4. I do not consider suggestions made by my 5 4 3 2 1

employees as I do not have the time for them.

5. I ask for employee ideas and input on upcoming 5 4 3 2 1

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 plans and projects.

6. For a major decision to pass in my department, 5 4 3 2 1

it must have the approval of each individual or
the majority.

7. I tell my employees what has to be done and 5 4 3 2 1

how to do it.

8. When things go wrong and I need to create a 5 4 3 2 1

strategy to keep a project or process running on
schedule, I call a meeting to get my employee's
advice.

9. To get information out, I send it by email, 5 4 3 2 1

memos, or voice mail; very rarely is a meeting
called. My employees are then expected to act
upon the information.

10. When someone makes a mistake, I tell them not 5 4 3 2 1

to ever do that again and make a note of it.

11. I want to create an environment where the 5 4 3 2 1

employees take ownership of the project. I
allow them to participate in the decision making
process.

12. I allow my employees to determine what needs 5 4 3 2 1

to be done and how to do it.

13. New hires are not allowed to make any 5 4 3 2 1

decisions unless it is approved by me first.

14. I ask employees for their vision of where they 5 4 3 2 1

see their jobs going and then use their vision
where appropriate.

15. My workers know more about their jobs than 5 4 3 2 1

79
 me, so I allow them to carry out the decisions to
do their job.

16. When something goes wrong, I tell my 5 4 3 2 1

employees that a procedure is not working
correctly and I establish a new one.

17. I allow my employees to set priorities with my 5 4 3 2 1

guidance.

18. I delegate tasks in order to implement a new 5 4 3 2 1

procedure or process.

19. I closely monitor my employees to ensure they 5 4 3 2 1

are performing correctly.

20. When there are differences in role expectations, 5 4 3 2 1

I work with them to resolve the differences.

21. Each individual is responsible for defining their 5 4 3 2 1

job.

22. I like the power that my leadership position 5 4 3 2 1

holds over subordinates.

23. I like to use my leadership power to help 5 4 3 2 1

subordinates grow.

24. I like to share my leadership power with my 5 4 3 2 1

subordinates.

25. Employees must be directed or threatened with 5 4 3 2 1

punishment in order to get them to achieve the
organizational objectives.

26. Employees will exercise self-direction if they 5 4 3 2 1

are committed to the objectives.

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27. Employees have the right to determine their 5 4 3 2 1
own organizational objectives.

28. Employees seek mainly security. 5 4 3 2 1

29. Employees know how to use creativity and 5 4 3 2 1

ingenuity to solve organizational problems.

30. My employees can lead themselves just as well 5 4 3 2 1

as I can.

In the fill-in lines below, mark the score of each item on the questionnaire. For example, if you
scored item one with a 3 (Occasionally), then enter a 3 next to Item One. When you have
entered all the scores for each question, total each of the three columns.

Ite Ite Ite

Score Score Score
m m m

1 ______ 2 ______ 3 ______

4 ______ 5 ______ 6 ______

7 ______ 8 ______ 9 ______

10 ______ 11 ______ 12 ______

13 ______ 14 ______ 15 ______

16 ______ 17 ______ 18 ______

19 ______ 20 ______ 21 ______

22 ______ 23 ______ 24 ______

25 ______ 26 ______ 27 ______

28 ______ 29 ______ 30 ______

81
 TOT TOT TOT _______
_______ ________
AL AL AL _

Authorit Partici Deleg

arian pative ative
Style Style Style

(autocra (democ (free

tic) ratic) reign)

This questionnaire is to help you assess what leadership style you normally operate out of. The
lowest score possible for any stage is 10 (Almost never) while the highest score possible for
any stage is 50 (Almost always).

The highest of the three scores indicates what style of leadership you normally use. If your
highest score is 40 or more, it is a strong indicator of your normal style.

The lowest of the three scores is an indicator of the style you least use. If your lowest score is
20 or less, it is a strong indicator that you normally do not operate out of this mode.

If two of the scores are close to the same, you might be going through a transition phase, either
personally or at work, except if you score high in both the participative and the delegative then
you are probably a delegative leader.

If there is only a small difference between the three scores, then this indicates that you have no
clear perception of the mode you operate out of, or you are a new leader and are trying to feel
out the correct style for yourself.

Final Thoughts
Normally, some of the best leaders operate out of the participative mode and use the other two
modes as needed. An example of an exception would be a leader who has a new crew or
temporary work-force. That leader would probably need to operate out of the authoritarian
mode most of the time. On the other hand, a leader who has a crew of professionals or a crew
that knows more than she or he does, would probably operate out of the delegative mode.

Leaders who want their employees to grow, use a participative style of leadership. As they
"grow" into their jobs, then they are gradually given more authority (delegative) over their jobs.

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