Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341

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Quaternary Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/yqres

Holocene landscape evolution and geoarcheology of low-order streams

in the Rio Grande basin, San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA
Daniel P. Carver, Jared M. Beeton
Earth Science Program, Adams State University, Alamosa, CO 81102, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This geoarcheological study investigates soil stratigraphy and geochronology of alluvial deposits to determine
Received 3 October 2013 Holocene landscape evolution within the Hot Creek, La Jara Creek, and Alamosa River drainage basins in the
Available online 10 July 2014 San Juan Mountains of Colorado. Geomorphic mapping and radiocarbon dating indicate synchronicity in patterns
of erosion, deposition, and stability between drainage basins. In all three basins, the maximum age of mapped
Keywords:
alluvial terraces and fans is ~ 3300 cal yr BP. A depositional period seen at both Hot Creek and the Alamosa
Holocene
Landscape evolution
River begins ~3300 to 3200 cal yr BP. Based on soil development, short periods of stability followed by alluvial
Geoarcheology fan aggradation occur in the Alamosa River basin ~2200 cal yr BP. A period of landscape stability at Hot Creek
Soil stratigraphy before ~1100 cal yr BP is followed by a period of rapid aggradation within all three drainages between ~1100
Geochronology and 850 cal yr BP. A nal aggradation event occurred between ~630 and 520 cal yr BP at La Jara Creek. These
Rio Grande geomorphology patterns of landscape evolution over the past ~3300 yr provide the framework for an archeological model that
San Luis Valley predicts the potential for buried and surcial cultural materials in the research area.
Colorado 2014 University of Washington. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction Mandel, 2002; Mandel, 2006; Robertson, 2006; Mandel, 2008).

Holocene alluvial deposits hold great potential for the preservation
of cultural materials in drainage basins of the upper Rio Grande
basin, San Juan Mountains, Colorado. In this article, results from
geomorphic and soil-stratigraphic investigations are used to con-
struct an archeological prediction model for the Hot Creek, La Jara
Creek, and Alamosa River drainage basins (Fig. 1). Temporal and spatial
patterns of deposition, erosion, and landscape stability were used to
generate the model, with a truism that in-situ cultural sites can only
be found on land surfaces, or buried in landforms, that are old enough
to contain them. Several recent studies have examined spatial and tem-
poral patterns of uvial landforms in the next drainage basin south, the
Conejos River valley (Johnson et al., 2010, 2011; Layzell et al., 2012). The
alluvial chronology from this study is compared with published
research in the Conejos River valley, and other sites in the region.
Landscape evolution in river systems is dynamic and has a strong
effect on the distribution and visibility of cultural materials
(Ferring, 1986; Mandel, 1992; Mandel and Bettis, 1992; Waters,
1992; Macklin and Passmore, 1995; Mandel, 1995; Mandel and
Bettis, 1995; Woodward et al., 1995; Freeman, 2000; Ferring,
2001; Huckleberry, 2001; Waters and Haynes, 2001; Bettis and
E-mail addresses: carver.dan1@gmail.com (D.P. Carver), jmbeeton@adams.edu
(J.M. Beeton).
For this reason, archeologists working in river basins can greatly
increase their predictive capabilities by understanding the patterns of
landscape evolution and knowing the ages of alluvial lls (Beeton and
Mandel, 2011). Therefore, a primary objective of this study was to as-
sess the soil stratigraphy and geochronology of alluvial landforms
such as oodplains, terrace lls, and alluvial fans. The aim is to develop
a descriptive map illustrating the locations and ages of alluvial lls, and
a geological interpretation of where cultural deposits are more and less
likely to be found.
Subsurface geoarcheological investigations can provide detailed de-
scriptions of buried landscapes which may go unseen by surface studies.
Buried landscapes that were stable long enough for soil development to
occur are marked by buried soils, if not eroded. Hoyer (1980) stated
that, if one assumes that the probability of human use of a particular
landscape was equal for each year, it follows that surfaces exposed the
longest would have the highest probability for containing cultural mate-
rials. Therefore, buried soils are a marker for both landscape stability
and potential subsurface archeological investigations (Artz, 1985;
Mandel, 1992; Holliday, 2004). Soils can dene where sediment was
preserved at a specic time, and provide bounding ages for buried, in-
situ cultural deposits.
For the purpose of generating a predictive model, the chronology of
early human occupation in the Rio Grande basin is dened by the follow-
ing somewhat arbitrary ages: Paleoindian (13,500 to 7500 cal yr BP),
Archaic (7500 to 1500 cal yr BP), Late Prehistoric/Ceramic (1500 to
400 cal yr BP), and Protohistoric (400 cal yr BP to historic) (Martorano

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2014.05.006
0033-5894/ 2014 University of Washington. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
332 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341
Locality 372230
Town
River
Highway
AR2 Rio Grande County
AR3
AR1 Alamosa River
LJ1 HC1
1730 Hot Creek
HC2
La Jara Creek
LJ2
Archuleta County
San Juan San Luis
Conejos County
0 km 10 km Mountains Valley
Figure 1. Shaded relief map of the study area showing all three drainage basins and study localities.
et al., 1999). Many of the occupants in the upper Rio Grande basin were
seasonal residents due to extreme winters, but a multitude of historical
and prehistoric sites illustrate the considerable use and habitation of the
basin (Martorano et al., 1999).
Study area
The study area is located in the Southern Rocky Mountains on the
southeastern edge of the San Juan Volcanic Field in southcentral
Colorado (Steven and Lipman, 1976; Gonzales and Karlstrom, 2011).
All three stream basins initiate at elevations above 3000 m and drain
eastward onto the oor of the San Luis Valley at approximately
2400 m. On the valley oor, Hot Creek joins La Jara Creek and ows
into the Rio Grande (Fig. 1). Historically, the Alamosa River also drained
into the Rio Grande but is now diverted for agricultural purposes.
The San Juan Mountains formed from Tertiary volcanism between
33 and 23 Ma (Lipman, 2007). The majority of exposed bedrock in the
research area consists of a complex layering of ash-ow tuffs (Fig. 2A),
basaltic to andesitic lavas, and ignimbrite sheets that are part of the
Platoro Caldera complex, one of the caldera complexes associated with
San Juan volcanism (Lipman, 1984; Lipman et al., 1996). Differential
erosion of these volcanic rocks has occurred in each drainage and inu-
ences stream morphology. Mapping by Atwood and Mather (1932) has
shown the San Juan Mountain region was covered by an ice cap that ex-
tended into the La Jara Creek drainage and 37 km down the Alamosa
River drainage during the Wisconsin glacial period (~7013 ka: Pierce,
2003). The semi-arid San Luis Valley is a 160 km (northsouth) by
75 km (eastwest) rift basin that is bounded on the west by the San
Juan Mountains and bounded on the east by the Sangre de Cristo Moun-
tains (McCalpin, 1996). The valley represents the upper-most section of
the Rio Grande Rift, where rifting began ~ 28 Ma resulting in an east-
sloping, half-graben (McCalpin, 1996). The basin is lled with up to
5000 m of Post-Eocene sediments derived from the surrounding
mountains (McCalpin, 1996).
Alluvium in the study area is derived from headward erosion of
tributaries, ridge-top soil erosion at higher elevations, arroyo, hillslope,
and fan erosion at lower elevations, and localized erosion of alluvial
US 160
Alamosa N
Alamosa County
Rio Grande
Colorado
Denver
San Juan San Luis
US 285 Mountains Valley
Sangre de
Cristo
Mountains
landforms. Johnson et al. (2011) suggest that headward erosion of trib-
utaries is a primary source of sediment in upper reaches of the nearby
Conejos River basin and notes that hillslopes above 3050 m in this
region are surprisingly stable and may not contribute signicantly to
sedimentation. The reasons for and extent of this hillslope stability are
unknown (Johnson et al., 2011). Steep-walled canyons and the drier
environment at lower elevations (26002400 m) result in more active
colluvial/alluvial fans, hillslope, and arroyo erosion. Sediment storage
is diachronous within each drainage basin, with erosion and deposition
sometimes occurring simultaneously within a basin.
Climate patterns in the study area are affected by multiple air masses
originating in the Gulf of Alaska, Gulf of California, and the Gulf of
Mexico or off the coast of the Baja Peninsula (Brenner, 1974). The sea-
sonality of air masses and a 1500 m range in elevation create a complex
array of climatic conditions. The majority of annual precipitation origi-
nates as frontal systems in the Pacic Ocean resulting in snow during
the months of October to May (Carrara et al., 1991). Seasonal melting
of the snowpack results in the ooding of streams and saturation of
riparian areas at lower elevations during the months of April through
June. The Arizona Monsoon intensies in July and brings thunder-
storms resulting in localized, rapid, and intense periods of precipi-
tation (Brenner, 1974; Carrara et al., 1991). Spencer and Romme
(1996) generalized eight vegetation zones (alpine, spruce-r forest,
meadows, aspen forest, mixed conifer, ponderosa pine forest, pinon-
juniper woodlands, and steppe) within the San Juan Mountains.
Riparian vegetation consisting of cottonwood (Populus angustifolia)
stands, sandbar willow (Salix exigua), and grasses (Somers and Floyd-
Hanna, 1996) are most commonly found in association with alluvial
landforms.
Approximately 288 archeological sites have been recorded along the
western margin of the San Luis Valley and in the Eastern San Juan
Mountains (Martorano et al., 1999). Madole et al. (2008) state that the
water table in the northern closed basin of the valley has been up to
1.5 m higher than present within the past 3000 yr. This may have caused
vast areas of the valley to become inundated with water. Due to the
presence of this wetland environment, travel through the valley may
have been more difcult at lower elevations of the valley oor and
 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341 333

A B

Ash-flow tuffs
A 0 cm

Bw1b1

Bw2b1 100 cm
Organic-rich
alluvium 984-728 cal yr BP

C D
A
0 cm

Bw

2341-2038 cal yr BP
1m Bk
3356-3239 cal yr BP

Bkw

Ab1

100cm

1264 963
cal yr BP
Burned-earth cultural feature

Figure 2. A. Landscape view of the La Jara River valley illustrating cliffs composed of 26 to 30 Ma ash-ow tuffs common in all three drainage basins (Tweto and Schoenfeld, 1979). B. The T-
2 ll at LJ2-5 showing soil stratigraphy and a radiocarbon age of soil organic matter from the most deeply buried soil in the prole. C. The T-2 ll at AR3-3 showing stacked paleosols and
radiocarbon ages determined on soil organic matter of buried A horizons. D. The T-2 ll at HC1-3 showing soil stratigraphy, a buried, in-situ, burned-earth cultural feature, and a
radiocarbon age determined on soil organic matter from the cultural horizon.

Table 1
Radiocarbon ages collected within the Hot Creek, La Jara Creek, and Alamosa River basins.

Stream/localitya Landform Material assayed Sample depth (cm) 13C () 14

C age (14C yr BP) Calibrated ageb (cal yr BP) Median calib. age (cal yr BP) Lab no.d

Alamosa River
AR3-1 Fan SOMc 130 21.3 2190 70 23412038 2202 ISGS-6854
AR3-1 Fan Charcoal 172 24.2 3065 20 33563239 3296 ISGS-A2113
AR3-2 T-1 Charcoal 60 23.7 905 20 910762 848 ISGS-A2114
Hot Creek
HC2-1 T-2 SOM 90 24.1 3020 70 33733003 3217 ISGS-6856
HC1-3 T-2 SOM 82 24.2 1180 70 1264963 1107 ISGS-6791
La Jara Creek
LJ2-5 T-2/fan SOM 114 24.1 960 70 984728 860 ISGS-6857
LJ2-4 T-1 SOM 70 25.8 680 70 728541 636 ISGS-6855
LJ2-8 T-1 Charcoal 47 23.7 485 20 536506 521 ISGS-A2112
a
Keyed to Fig. 1.
b
Calibration to calendar years was performed with CALIB 6.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993), using calibration data set intcal09.14c (Reimer et al., 2009) with 2-sigma.
c
SOM = Soil Organic Matter.
d
Illinois State Geological Survey, Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory.
334 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341

Table 2
Soil-stratigraphic data for representative proles in the Hot Creek, La Jara Creek, and Alamosa River basins.

Depth (cm) Horizon Color (dry) Structure Consistency Texture % Organic material

Wet Moist Dry

HC1-1. Coordinates: 37 17.87201 N 106 14.337 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

028 A 10YR 2/2 2, M, gr SS VFI H L 6.41
2843 Bw 2, f, sbk S VFI VH CL 5.37
4370 Ab1 10YR 3/2 2, M, sbk SS FI SH SCL 3.07

HC1-2. Coordinates: 37 17.88395 N 106 14.30411 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

030 A 10YR 3/3 2, gr SS FI H L 6.22
3076 Ab1 10YR 3/2 2, M, sbk SS FI H L 3.88

HC1-3. Coordinates: 37 17.81219 N 106 14.10959 W; Geomorphic surface: T-2; Slope: 01

019 A 10YR 4/3 2, gr SS FI H L 4.97
1951 Bw 10YR 5/3 3, c, abk S FI SH SL 3.41
5172 Bk 10YR 5/3 3, c, abk SS FR H L 3.76
7282 Bkw 10YR 5/3 3, c, abk SS FI SH L 2.87
82140 Ab1 10YR 3/2 2, M, gr SS FR VH CL 3.60
N140 Bwb1 Gley 1 2.5/10GY SS FI SH 2.47

HC1-4. Coordinates: 37 17.76198 N 106 14.05602 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

040 A 10YR 3/3 2, gr SS FI SH L 4.93
4090 Ab1 10YR 3/2 gr S FI H L 4.21

HC1-5. Coordinates: 37 17.64269 N 106 13.65431 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

020 A 10YR 3/2 gr SS VFR SO L 4.49
2051 Bw 10YR 4/3 1, f, sbk S FR SO SiL
4.10
51100 Ab1 10YR 3/1 gr SS FR SO SL 5.02

HC1-6. Coordinates: 37 17.08241 N 106 13.20719 W; Geomorphic surface: Colluvial fan; Slope: 510
012 A 10YR 3/2 m SS LO LO SL 5.54
1252 Bw1 7.5YR 3/2 1, vf, sbk SS FI SH L 3.41
52124 Bw2 7.5YR 3/2 1,M,sbk SS VFI SO L 2.95

HC2-1. Coordinates: 37 16.45824 N 106 11.2131 W, Geomorphic surface: T-2; Slope 01

011 A 2.5YR 4/3 1, vf, gr L 5.75
1137 Bw 7.5YR 5/3 1, M, sbk SiL 5.43
37100 Ab1 10YR 4/1 3,M, gr CL 7.34

LJ1-1. Coordinates: 37 18.4008 N 106 21.1764 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

032 A 10YR 2/2 f, gr SS FI H C 7.16
3265 Bw 10YR 4/3 2, M pr S FI VH C 3.42
6575 BC 10YR 4/2 1, sbk SS FR SH SL 1.68

LJ2-1. Coordinates: 37 9.509999 N 106 12.34739 W; Geomorphic surface: T-2 topped with colluvium; Slope: 515
05 A 10YR 3/2 gr SS FR SO SiL 8.70
544 C 2.5YR 6/3 m S 1.74
4480 Bw1b1 2.5YR 5/2 2, c, sbk SS FR SO SCL 3.22
80130 Bw2b1 2.5YR 5/2 2, c, sbk S FI SH SCL 2.92
130240 Cb1 2.5YR 5/2 m S 1.58

LJ2-2. Coordinates: 37 10.30098 N 106 12.65999 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1

042 A 10YR 3/2 gr S FI L 8.53
4267 C 2.5Y 5/2 m SL 2.36

LJ2-3. Coordinates: 37 10.314 N 106 12.69 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

025 A 10YR 3/2 gr SS FI SH SL 8.42
2536 Bw 10YR 3/2 1, c, gr SS FI SH L 2.07
3699 C 10YR 4/3 m 1.42

LJ2-4. Coordinates: 37 10.7454 N 106 12.65399 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

022 A 10YR 3/2 2, M, gr S FI SH SiCL 7.52
2239 Bw 10YR 4/3 1, f, sbk S FR H SiCL 3.49
3957 C 10YR 4/3 m SCL
5783 Ab 10YR 3/2 gr S Fl SH SiCL 4.06
57100 Organic- rich alluvium 10YR 2/1 M

LJ2-5. Coordinates: 37 10.75062 N 106 12.65238 W; Geomorphic surface: T-2; Slope: 01

027 A 10YR 4/3 gr SL 12.14
2748 C m 1.66
4894 Bw1b1 10YR 4/3 2, f, sbk S FR H SL 8.36
94114 Bw2b1 10YR 4/3 3,c,abk S FR SH L 5.55
N114 Organic- rich alluvium 10YR 3/1 m CL 6.46

LJ2-6. Coordinates: 37 1.04798 N 106 12.336 W; Geomorphic surface: Abandoned meander in the T-2; Slope: 01
046 A 10YR 4/3 1, gr SS VFR H SL 1.48
4676 C 10YR 7/2 m 1.13
7699 Bwb1 10YR 5/3 1, f, sbk SO VFI LO SL 0.74
N99 Cb1 10YR 4/3 m 0.56
 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341 335

Table 2 (continued)
Depth (cm) Horizon Color (dry) Structure Consistency Texture % Organic material

Wet Moist Dry

LJ2-7. Coordinates: 37 11.06999 N 106 12.34799 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope:01

06 A 10YR 3/2 gr SS FR H SiL 7.62
624 Bw 10YR 3/3 1, f, sbk SS FR VH SiL 7.71

LJ2-8. Coordinates: 37 11.87676 N 106 12.15762 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

010 A 10YR 4/3 1, vf, gr SL 7.19
1037 Bw 10YR 3/3 1, f, sbk L 7.15
3772 Organic- rich alluvium 10YR 2/1 m 7.18

AR1-1. Coordinates: 37 21.83076 N 106 39.18635 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

09 A 10YR 3/6 1, vf, gr SS FR SH SiL 7.87
948 Bw 10YR 4/3 1, vf, sbk SS VFR SO SiL 5.50
4880 C1 7.5YR 3/4 m SL
80128 C2 Gley 1 6/10Y & 2.5YR 4/6 m

AR2-1. Coordinates: 37 24.79386 N 106 27.5616 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 15

06 A 10YR 2/2 1,gr SL LO SiS 17.08
619 C 10YR 4/4 m 4.08

AR3-1. Coordinates: 37 23.1972 N 106 22.5618 W; Geomorphic surface: Alluvial fan; Slope: 15
019 A 10YR 3/1 1, vf, gr S LO S 8.80
1933 C 5Y 4/2 m S FI CL 5.92
3344 Ab1 10YR 3/2 gr S VFI SiCL 7.17
4455 Cb1 10YR 4/3 m SS FR SiCL 3.90
55127 Bwb2 10YR 4/2 1, M, sbk VS FI CL
127172 ABb3 2.5YR 4/2 3, M, abk VS FI SiC
172400+ C m

AR3-2. Coordinates: 3723.14614 N 106 22.23384 W Geomorphic surface T-1; Slope: 01

023 A 10YR 4/3 1, f, gr L 7.40
2362 Bw1 10YR 5/3 1, f, sbk SL 5.42
62100 Bw2 10YR 6/4 2, M, sbk L 5.29
100160 C

AR3-3. Coordinates: 37 22.8456 N 106 21.1464 W; Geomorphic surface: T-1; Slope: 01

012 A 10YR 3/2 gr SS FR 5.59
1244 Bw 10YR 4/3 2, M, sbk SS VFR 3.77
4470 BC 10YR 3/2 1, M, sbk S FI 4.80
70150 Organic- rich alluvium Gley 1 4/N, Gley 2 2.5/5BG & 10YR 3/2 m

Nomenclature for describing soil characteristics from Birkeland (1999, Appendix 1).
Structure: m-massive, sg-single grain, 1-weak, 2-moderate, 3-strong, vf-very ne, f-ne, M-medium, c-course, vc-very course, gr-granular, pl-platey, pr-prismatic, cpr-columnar prismatic,
abk-angular blocky, sbk-sub angular blocky.
Consistence: Wet; SO-nonsticky, SS-slightly sticky, S-sticky, VS-very sticky, Moist; LO-loose, VFR- very friable, FR-friable, FI-rm, VFI-very rm, EFI-extremely rm, Dry; LO-loose, SO-soft,
SH-slightly hard, H-hard, VH-very hard, EH-extremely hard.
Texture: C-clay, Cl-clay loam, L-loam, LS-loamy sand, S-sand, SC-sandy clay, SCL-sandy clay loam, SL-sandy loam, Si-silt, SiC-silty clay, SiCL-silty clay loam, SiL-silt loam.

may help explain the dense concentration of sites found along perennial
waterways and springs at the margins of the Eastern San Juan
Mountains and the valley.
Methods
This research focuses on identifying spatial and temporal patterns
of alluvial landforms in three drainage basins: Hot Creek (HC), La
Jara Creek (LJ), and the Alamosa River (AR). Each drainage basin con-
tains two or more localities composed of one or more described soil-
stratigraphic sections. Localities were numbered with 1 (as in HC1)
being the furthest upstream; this numerical sequence continues down-
stream. Soil-stratigraphic sections were also numbered. For example,
the third soil section (3) at the furthest upstream locality (1) along
Hot Creek (HC) is denoted as HC1-3. Data from soil-stratigraphic
sections containing cultural materials were recorded and submitted to
the Colorado Ofce of Archaeology and Historic Preservation (OAHP)
and are denoted as sites.
All studied stream localities are classied as second- or third-order
streams using Strahler's (1964) stream classication system. Soils and
sediments were described along active stream cutbanks using standard
procedures and nomenclature dened by Soil Survey Division Staff
(1993), Birkeland (1999), and Schoeneberger et al. (2002). If a soil-
stratigraphic section contains buried, stacked, or welded soils, the soils
are numbered from the top down (b1, b2, etc.) (Holliday, 2004). Succes-
sive terraces are assigned a numerical value based on their height above
the oodplain. For example, the frequently inundated current ood-
plain including the modern channel is the T-0. Higher terraces are num-
bered consecutively with T-1 as the lowest terrace, and the next higher
terrace as the T-2.
Laboratory analyses were performed on all A and B horizons and
some C horizons. Percent soil organic matter was determined using
loss on ignition (Ben-Dor and Banin, 1989) and soil texture was deter-
mined with the hydrometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1979). Charcoal
and bulk soil organic matter samples were submitted to the Illinois
State Geological Survey Isotope Laboratory for 14C age determination.
The samples were pretreated by removing modern roots and an acid
pretreatment was used to decalcify them. Charcoal samples also went
through acidbase-acid pretreatment. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
(AMS) was performed on three charcoal samples. Liquid Scintillation
Counting (LSC) was performed on ve bulk soil samples. The eight radio-
carbon ages were calibrated using Calib 6.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993)
and are reported as calibrated (cal yr BP) within the text. Raw, uncalibrat-
ed radiocarbon ages are given in Table 1. Bulk soil sample ages represent a
minimum age of buried land surfaces, whereas charcoal ages represent a
minimum age for sediment aggradation. Bulk soil ages were preferred
because they represent periods of landscape stability which is important
to the archeological prediction model.
336 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341
Figure 3. GIS map showing spatial patterns of alluvial landforms and locations of representative proles in the Hot Creek drainage basin. For use with the archeological prediction model,
use this gure with Table 3.
For the purpose of generating a usable archeological prediction
model that relates the ages of alluvial landforms to the potential for
nding buried, in-situ cultural materials, geomorphic maps were creat-
ed in ArcGIS 10.1. Landforms were mapped in the eld, dated using the
methods outlined above, and digitized on to high-resolution satellite
imagery. Changes in vegetation were used to further delineate landform
boundaries. ArcGIS 10.1 was used to overlay the base maps with USGS
7.5 quadrangles, streams, roads, and counties. The model works under
the assumption that the longer a land surface is stable and exposed, the
higher the potential for the deposition of cultural materials. Therefore,
landforms with well-developed buried soils and intact Ab horizons hold
the highest potential. These GIS maps, combined with data presented in
our tables, can be used by archeologists to predict the potential for buried,
in-situ archeological materials and to effectively design research projects
prior to eld work.
Results
Hot Creek
The Hot Creek drainage basin consists of an upper (HC1) and lower
(HC2) locality. This second-order stream forms a meandering channel
transporting primarily ne-grained sediment. The valley oor consists
of inundated regions with little to no stream channelization, an active
oodplain and channel (T-0), alluvial terraces (T-1 and T-2), and co-
alluvial fans (Table 2). Multiple beaver dams have caused sections of
Hot Creek to be ooded. Flooded regions extend to the hillslopes along
both sides of the valley and create low-energy, marsh-like environments
promoting net sediment deposition.
Soil stratigraphy in the Hot Creek drainage was described at seven
proles (Fig. 3, Table 2). Radiocarbon age determination on two soil
organic matter samples were obtained from two separate lls at Hot
Creek. Three soil-stratigraphic sections represent this basin (Fig. 4).
The T-1 ll at locality HC1 is composed of two layers of ne-grained
sediment and contains little to no identiable rock fragments. It consists
of an A-Bw surface soil on top of a buried A horizon (Fig. 4). This prole
is only sparsely exposed in cutbanks.
The T-2 ll at locality HC1 also is composed of two layers of ne-
grained sediment, but has an A-Bw-Bk prole in the surface soil with
Stage 1 calcium carbonate present as root casts within the Bk horizon
(Fig. 4). The buried landscape has an A-Bw prole. A burned-earth cul-
tural feature was found 82 cm below the T-2 surface in the Ab horizon
(Fig. 2D). The laminated and highly oxidized feature was 19 cm long
parallel to the paleo land surface and 6 cm thick (archeological site
 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341 337

Hot Creek La Jara Creek Alamosa River

T-1 T-2 T-2 T-1 T-2 T-1 T-1 Fan above T-2
HC1-5 HC1-3 HC2-1 LJ2-4 LJ2-5 LJ2-8 AR3-2 AR3-1
0 cm
A A
A A A A A A
Bw Bw
Bw Organic C
Bw Bw rich Ab1
C alluvium
536-506 Bw1
cal yr BP Cb1
50 cm Ab1 C
910-762
Bk 728-541 cal yr BP
Ab1 1264-963 Ab cal yr BP Bw1b1
Bkw cal yr BP Bw2 Bwb2
Organic-
rich
alluvium
Bw2b1
100 cm
Ab1 3373-3003
cal yr BP Organic- C
rich
984-728
alluvium cal yr BP 2341-2038
cal yr BP
ABb3
150 cm
Calibrated ages (cal yr BP)
Soil Organic Maer 3356-3239
Charcoal cal yr BP
Symbols T-2
T-2 connues to
Archaeological Feature C
400+ cm
200 cm

Figure 4. Columns showing representative soil proles, radiocarbon ages, and cultural materials in the T-1, T-2 and alluvial fan lls.

#5CN1477). Organic material from the cultural Ab horizon has been
dated to 1264963 cal yr BP (Table 1, HC1-3).
T-2 is the primary alluvial landform at the HC2 locality. Its ll con-
sists of an A-Bw prole overlying a continuous buried A horizon
(Fig. 4) and is mildly compacted by livestock. Soil organic matter from
Ab has been dated to 33733003 cal yr BP (Table 1, HC2-1). T-2 is
located just upstream of a major geomorphic constriction in the valley,
which would likely reduce stream velocity through this stretch and lead
to relatively long-term sedimentation and stability.
Alluvial landforms within the Hot Creek study area hold a ~3200 yr
record of sediment storage and landscape evolution. Radiocarbon
data suggest that starting ~3200 cal yr BP, material was being actively
removed from the upper stretches of the basin (HC1) at the same time
that deposition was occurring in the lower section of the basin (HC2).
Deposition migrated upstream to HC1 by ~2200 cal yr BP. A second geo-
morphic constriction is found at the furthest downstream extent of HC2.
Just upstream of the constriction a cumulic, over-thickened Ab horizon
is suggestive of reduced stream velocity and a depositional rate equal to
the rate of soil development.
La Jara Creek
The La Jara Creek Study Area consists of an upper (LJ1) and a lower
(LJ2) locality. This third-order stream has a large anthropogenic reser-
voir (La Jara Reservoir) at LJ1, an active ood plain complex (T-0), allu-
vial terraces (T-1 and T-2), and fan deposits. The headwaters of the
stream are in a glaciated plain (Atwood and Mather, 1932) near the
present site of La Jara Reservoir. Just down-valley from the reservoir,
the stream enters a steep-walled canyon and little sediment storage ex-
ists until entering the LJ2 locality, which is the rst broadening of the
canyon.
The soil stratigraphy of the alluvial landforms at La Jara Creek was
described in nine proles (Fig. 5, Table 2). Radiocarbon age determina-
tion on one piece of charcoal and two soil organic matter samples were
obtained from three lls at LJ2. Three soil-stratigraphic sections repre-
sent this basin (Fig. 4).
LJ1 contains two described landforms: a T-0 and T-1. The T-0 is
cobbly, generally inundated, and has little to no soil development, and
the T-1 ll is represented by one layer of ne-grained sediment. At
LJ2, ve soil-stratigraphic sections were described in the T-1 ll, which
is composed of two layers of ne-grained sediment. An A-Bw-C-Ab pro-
le has developed into the T-1 ll, and rests on top of a layer of organic-
rich alluvium. The Ab horizon is discontinuous beneath the T-1 terrace
and is commonly replaced with point bar material. Soil organic matter
collected from the Ab has been dated to 728541 cal yr BP (Table 1,
LJ2-4), and charcoal collected approximately 2.5 km downstream,
also at the base of the T-1 ll, has been dated to 536506 cal yr BP
(Table 1, LJ2-8), the youngest age for a ll in the research area.
At LJ2, co-alluvial fan deposits rest on a truncated, buried soil at the
top of the T-2 ll. The co-alluvial fan has an A-C prole and the T-2 ll
has a Bw horizon with a layer of clayey, organic-rich alluvium at the
base (Table 2, Fig. 2B). This organic-rich alluvium has been dated to
984728 cal yr BP (Table 1, LJ2-5). The T-2 ll is preserved primarily
on the eastern side of the La Jara Creek valley by scattered, large, basaltic
boulders that fell from the adjacent canyon wall. These boulders are
commonly found along the terrace slope that rises from the T-1 terrace
to the T-2 terrace. The boulders exceed the competence of the stream
and impede the streams ability to migrate into and erode the T-2 ll.
The alluvial landforms at the La Jara Creek study area hold a 1000 yr
history of landscape evolution in a dynamic and rapidly changing uvial
system. The two study localities represent the two primary regions of
sediment storage within the basin. Currently, La Jara Reservoir is the pri-
mary sediment storage feature at the upper locality. Just downstream of
the Reservoir, the creek enters a canyon. At the lower locality, the can-
yon widens and makes a near-90-degree turn and opens up to the
north. Sometime before 984728 cal yr BP, the organic rich alluvium un-
derlying the T-2 terrace began to aggrade. The organic-rich alluvium
found at the base of this ll is discontinuous and is likely a result of de-
position behind beaver dams. Though discontinuous, this material does
provide a maximum age for the T-2 ll. This is followed by a period of
stability represented by the ABb2 horizon. After the T-2 ll was depos-
ited, alluvial fan activity truncated the A horizon. The period of aggrada-
tion associated with the T-2 ll was followed by a rapid downcutting of
the stream before 728541 cal yr BP. Aggradation of the T-1 ll 2.5 km
downstream was occurring by 536506 cal yr BP.
Alamosa River
The Alamosa River is a third-order stream with a large drainage
basin and glaciated tributaries along the Continental Divide. It has a
338 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341
Figure 5. GIS map showing spatial patterns of alluvial landforms and locations of representative proles in the La Jara Creek drainage basin. For use with the archeological prediction model,
use this gure with Table 3.
greatest discharge, relative to the other two streams, and transports a
bed load of cobbles along with a suspended load. The active channel
readily forms shoots throughout its length which create medial point
bar deposits. Sections of the river run through a steep-walled and heavi-
ly forested canyon with a narrow valley bottom and very little sediment
storage. The study area was divided into three localities, none of which
are in the steep-walled canyon. From upstream to downstream, the lo-
calities are AR1, AR2, and AR3.
The alluvial landforms in the Alamosa River drainage were described
at ve proles (Fig. 6, Table 2). Radiocarbon age determination on two
pieces of charcoal and one soil organic matter sample was obtained
from an alluvial fan and the T-1 ll. Two soil-stratigraphic sections
represent this basin (Fig. 4).
The AR1 locality is found along Treasure Creek, a high-alpine,
second-order tributary of the Alamosa River, and the highest elevation
section of signicant uvial sediment storage in this valley. Treasure
Creek becomes the Alamosa River just below the AR1 locality. AR1 is lo-
cated in a glaciated, U-shaped valley with hanging valleys as tributaries.
The T-1 ll at AR1 is composed of a single layer of ne-grained sediment.
At AR1, an A-Bw-C prole has developed in the alluvium. The AR2 local-
ity is near the town site of Jasper. T-0 at AR2 is consistently present as a
highly oxidized cobble bed. Much of the present oxidation on the T-0
cobbles may be due to outwash from the abandoned Summitville
Mine, located just upstream. The dominant landform at AR2 is a T-1
terrace with ll composed of a single layer of ne-grained sediment. A
thin A-C prole was described in the T-1 ll (Table 2).
The AR3 locality contains the majority of stored alluvium within
the drainage basin. Three sections were described: one in a cobbly T-2
ll covered by an alluvial fan, and the other two in ne-grained T-1
ll. T-1 is the dominant landform while the discontinuous T-2 is only
present in the uppermost section of AR3 and is commonly draped in
alluvial fan deposits.
The T-1 ll was described in two locations at opposite ends of AR3.
This ll consists of an A-Bw-C prole (Fig. 4, Table 2). Charcoal was col-
lected from a depth of 60 cm, just above the Bw2 horizon and has been
dated to 910762 cal yr BP (Table 1, AR3-2).
At AR3, alluvial fan deposits are exposed in a 4-m-high and 30-m-
wide cutbank. Pulses of aggradation separated by the periods of land-
scape stability have resulted in a complex, stacked, A-C, Ab-Cb, Bwb2,
ABb3 sequence. Charcoal taken from the bottom of the ABb3 prole
has been dated to 33563239 cal yr BP (Table 1, AR3-1) and soil organic
matter taken near the top of the ABb3 prole has been dated to 2341
 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341 339

Figure 6. GIS map showing spatial patterns of alluvial landforms and locations of representative proles in the Alamosa River drainage basin. For use with the archeological prediction
model, use this gure with Table 3.

2038 cal yr BP (Table 1, AR3-1). The lower section of cobbles is strongly
solidied in a matrix of highly oxidized sand. The pentagonal shape of
the cobbles in the ll is suggestive of glacial outwash (Fig. 2C, Table 2).
The Alamosa River basin contains at least a ~3300 yr history of land-
scape evolution. This high-energy stream drains a large, high-elevation
basin and is susceptible to high run-off events from rapid spring melt off
and intense summer thunderstorms. As a result, the river has a highly
active channel and has little sediment storage relative to its basin size.
At ~3300 cal yr BP, alluvial fan deposition began directly on top of cob-
bles that are undated, but may be glacial outwash. This suggests that the
early and middle Holocene were a period of net sediment removal in the
basin. If deposition occurred during this time, those sediments were re-
moved by subsequent erosion. By ~ 2200 cal yr BP, landscape stability
had occurred in the alluvial fan, followed by at least two pulses of aggra-
dation separated by short periods of landscape stability, based on the
presence of stacked, weakly developed soils. Charcoal dated from the
T-1 ll suggests that by ~ 850 cal yr BP, nearly half of the current T-1
ll was deposited and aggradation was continuing. Terrace Reservoir,
the downstream of the AR3 locality, is now likely acting as the primary
sediment storage feature in the basin. Field investigations have mapped
two very high, unpaired terraces 2.7 km downstream of the Terrace
Reservoir dam that are undated, but based on their geomorphic position

Table 3
Preservation potential for buried cultural deposits in the Hot Creek, La Jara Creek, and Alamosa River basins. For use with the archeological prediction model, use this table with Figs. 3, 5,
and 6.

Cultural periods Hot Creek La Jara Creek Alamosa River

T-0 T-1 T-2 T-0 T-1 T-2 Alluvial fansa T-0 T-1 Alluvial fansa

Protohistoric + + + + +
Late Prehistoric/Ceramic +++ +++ ++ + +
Archaic +++ ++
Paleo-Indian

Symbols: Not possible, + low potential, ++ moderate potential, +++ high potential.
a
Only pertains to mapped alluvial fans.
340 D.P. Carver, J.M. Beeton / Quaternary Research 82 (2014) 331341
they are likely older than 3300 yr. Although these high terraces are
limited to a small area of the Alamosa River drainage basin, their ages
will be of interest to geomorphologists and archeologists.
Archeological prediction model
The Hot Creek study area holds the highest archeological potential
and age range of the three drainage basins due to the presence of two
buried land surfaces, a relative lack of channel migration, and conse-
quent sediment preservation (Table 3). Based on radiocarbon age deter-
mination, sediments beneath the T-2 surface at Hot Creek are between
the ages of ~ 3300 and 1100 cal yr BP, and they contain buried soils.
This results in a high potential for the preservation of Archaic and Late
Prehistoric/Ceramic materials. This potential was realized when a
hearth dated to ~1100 cal yr BP was recorded in the A horizon of a bur-
ied soil, 82 cm below the T-2 surface. A potential hunting blind with
lichen bridging was also recorded at HC1.
The La Jara Creek study area contains the youngest lls of the three
areas. Based on radiocarbon age determination, sediments beneath the
T-2 surface are between ~900 and 700 cal yr BP, and materials beneath
the T1 surface are less than ~700 cal yr BP. Due to the large area of T-2
ll preserved and the presence of a buried soil, there is a moderate po-
tential for the preservation of late-Prehistoric/Ceramic material within
this basin. A series of seventeen anthropogenic rock mounds of un-
known origin were found in linear succession on the T-2 surface, near
the terrace slope leading up from the T-1 surface. They are composed
of well-rounded, cobble-sized clasts, piled together in an oval shape.
Based on radiocarbon ages of the underlying T-2 ll these rock mounds
are younger than ~700 cal yr BP.
The Alamosa River holds low to moderate potential for buried in-situ
Archaic and Late-Prehistoric/Ceramic deposits. Based on radiocarbon
age determination, sediments were being stored in alluvial fans be-
tween ~3300 and 2200 yr BP. Multiple, weakly developed buried soils
in the alluvial fan probably represent short periods of stability separated
by the pulses of aggradation, which is good for archeological potential
because cultural materials that become buried shortly after being
dropped are more likely to be stratied and preserved (Holliday,
1992). The younger T-1 ll was aggrading by ~850 cal yr BP and holds
potential to contain Late Prehistoric/Ceramic cultural deposits, though
preservation potential is low, due to the lack of stability during that
time.
Discussion
Landscape evolution
Through the study of soil-stratigraphy and geochronology of alluvial
landforms in the research area, a model of the spatial and temporal
patterns of sediment storage is presented. A period of aggradation in
the T-2 ll at Hot Creek and in an alluvial fan in the Alamosa River
basin started at ~ 3300 cal yr BP. The burial of a cumulic A horizon at
Hot Creek at ~1100 cal yr BP, the aggradation of the T-1 ll in Alamosa
River drainage at ~850 cal yr BP, and the burial of an organic rich layer
at La Jara Creek at ~860 cal yr BP suggest a synchronous period of aggra-
dation between ~ 1100 and 850 cal yr BP. Johnson et al. (2011), de-
scribed and dated uvial terraces in the Conejos River drainage basin
just south of the Alamosa River basin that are similar in position and
soil stratigraphy. They determined three periods of aggradation, the
rst occurring at ~ 12,500 to 9500 cal yr BP, a smaller pulse at ~ 5500,
and nally widespread deposition at ~ 2200 to 1000 cal yr BP. The
youngest period overlaps with deposition in the Alamosa River and Hot
Creek drainage basins. Further, Layzell et al. (2012) mapped alluvium in
the Conejos River valley deposited between ~3500 and 1100 cal yr BP,
and Mann and Meltzer (2007) noted aggradation in northeastern New
Mexico between ~2000 and 1000 cal yr BP. These correlations indicate
a regional connection in the depositional patterns throughout the
drainage basins. Since these patterns extend over a large area, regional
climatological patterns may be a primary controlling factor on deposition,
erosion, and stability.
Conclusions
Two primary conclusions are made regarding geoarcheology and u-
vial landscape evolution within the three basins. First, the maximum age
of mapped alluvial landforms within the research area is ~3300 cal yr BP.
This age cap was expressed at both the Hot Creek and the Alamosa River
localities. As a result, the potential for nding in-situ cultural materials
buried in the alluvium of these three basins older than ~3300 cal yr BP
is limited. Second, the spatial distribution of sediment storage in alluvial
landforms is greatly inuenced by the underlying bedrock geology. In
all three basins, sediment storage occurs at regions just upstream of de-
ned valley constrictions or downstream of the transition to a widening
valley oor. Also, the preservation of the T-2 ll behind and beneath
boulders that fell from the canyon walls of La Jara Canyon further demon-
strates the role of geology in controlling sediment storage within these
basins.
Acknowledgments
Funding was provided by the Porter Scholarship Fund. Thanks to
Mark (Gary) Potter, Francisco Castillo, Kyle Bus, and Kailee Potter for
eld assistance, and thanks to Rob Benson for technical assistance.
Thanks to Angie Krall, Cal Ruleman, Vance Holliday, and Alan Gillespie
for editorial comments that made this a stronger manuscript.
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