AfWA CONGRESS Paper/ NAIROBI 2016

A.2.3
SUB THEME Innovations for increased availability and improved access
to water access to water supply

SUGGESTED TOPIC Energy neutral operations

AUTHOR Ayub Karanja $ Migwi Kinyua

Nairobi City and Sewerage Company Ltd.

EMAIL/PHONE karanjaaub@ymail.com, kmigwi@outlook.com

+254724507756, +254727590298

COUNTRY Kenya

TITLE OF THE WATER ENERGY NUTRIENT NEXUS SUSTAINABLE

DOCUMENT DEVELOPMENT OF RUAI WASTE WATER TREATMENT
 ABSTRACT
Many wastewater treatment facilities in developing countries especially sub-Saharan Africa fall
short of resource recoveries. Majority of plants employ stabilization ponds techniques which is
seen as alternative to conventional types of treatments which is believed to be less expensive to
initiate and operate. However, the techniques is less effective hence fall short of quality
standards required by various environmental bodies and agencies. In addition, the stabilization
ponds requires expansive size of land and various researches have proved that this techniques are
potential source of pollution of ground water through leakages from the ponds walling and
cracking of ground lining. Besides, the stabilization ponds produce bad foul during the dry and
humid weather conditions due to biological activities producing both methane and carbon
dioxide gases which contribute to greenhouse effects. This paper is intended to explore various
resource recovery technologies that should be employed in wastewater treatment facilities in
water scarce countries. In this regard, I will explore various technologies that can be employed in
various wastewater treatment facilities especially in big cities. One of the potential treatment
facility is Ruai wastewater treatment. It is the second largest stabilization pond in Africa with a
daily influent of 80,000 M3 equivalent of 80% wastewater generated in Nairobi City. The
proposed resources to be recovered can be broadly categorized into; water, energy and nutrients.
According to various researches, over 95 percent of waste water is water. If this water is
recovered, it can irrigate approximately 10,000 hectares of land at the rate of 8-10M3/Ha. The
waste water treatment in Ruai has a potential to generate various types of energies that can be
used onsite to run the operations and the surplus energy can be connected to national grid
system. The primary energy from wastewater treatment facility can be categorized into;
chemical, hydraulic and thermal energy. On the other hand waste water can be used to produce
biogas as a form of energy which can be packed and sold to fund the daily running of treatment
facility. On the other hand, most wastewater stabilization ponds contains algae in their final
stages of treatments. The photosynthetic algae contains bio-oils which can be used to produce a
range of fuels such as; diesel, gasoline and jet fuel. The algae grows very quickly and apart from
providing oils, it can well be used to mitigate greenhouse gases due its capacity to consume
carbon dioxide and hence reduce carbon footprint of a wastewater treatment plants. All these
resources can only be achieved if the country is willing to invest in this sector.
LIST OF FIGURES:

Fig. 1 Water scarcity in 2030 based on the Falkenmark Indicator ..2

Fig.2. Denote various sources of waste water and what can be obtained from them.....4

Fig. 3 High-rate activated sludge process 6

Fig. 4 denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation (DAMO)...6

Fig. 5 P recovery from Iron Phosphate Sludge7

Fig. 6 Nutrient/Resources Recovery...8

Fig. 7 MFCs ...10

Fig. 8 Biogas Production.11

Fig 9 Thermal Energy (Kinetic & Potential)11

Fig.10 Hydropower layout for Sewage treatment Plant12

Fig.11 MBR .14

Fig.12 Reverse Osmosis14

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... ii

LIST OF FIGURES: .................................................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. iv

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Resource Recovery from Wastewater Treatment Plant .................................................................. 2

1.2.0 Nutrient Recovery from Waste water treatment plant ................................................................ 3
1.2.1 Nutrient Recovery Motivation ............................................................................................... 3
2.0 Definition and Sources of Nutrients ................................................................................................... 5

2.1 Types, Process of P & N Recovery................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Calciumphosphorus precipitation................................................................................................. 5
2.3 High-rate activated sludge process; integrating anaerobic digestion & anammox........................... 5
2.4 Results of Nutrient/Resources Recovery ........................................................................................ 7
3.0 ENERGY FROM WASTEWATER ........................................................................................................... 9

3.1 Chemical Energy ............................................................................................................................ 9

A. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) ........................................................................................................... 9
B. Biogas .......................................................................................................................................... 9
C. Thermal Energy/Heat ................................................................................................................. 10
D. Hydro-Power ............................................................................................................................. 10
Recovery and Reuse of wastewater ................................................................................................. 1
Application for water re-use ............................................................................................................ 1
Treatment Technologies .................................................................................................................. 1
MBR .................................................................................................................................................... 2
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 2

What we can do? ................................................................................................................................. 2

Reference ................................................................................................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION
Kenya is one of the water scarce countries in the world and it is projected to have an industrial
crisis in the year 2025 according to UNESCO. The situation will deteriorate further as a result of
continued climate change and rapid population increase. Urban population increase will be a
driving pressure to water scarcity in these regions. It is very clear that depletion of fresh water
and pollutions are directly related to nations economic structure in relation to the global
economic position. Various studies have shown that 20% of water pollution and consumptions
are tied to the industrial processing of export items as well as direct consumption of goods and
services by the community (A. Ertug Ercin , 2013). Global water scarcity and stress is rapidly
increasing due to unexpected population growth especially developing nation. The driving
pressure being economic development and negative climate change. These trends have brought
concerns to various stake holders to have interests in fresh water intensity in a given chain of
production and supply in industries as well as specific geographical regions and boundaries in
relation to water trade and availability (Kathleen B. Aviso a, 2011). The cause of water scarcity
in these geographical locations can be directly attributed to natural phenomena as well as human
activities. The natural causes are;

Tran-boundary conflicts on resource sharing.

Climate change.

Shrinking water bodies and desertification.

The human activities include:

Poor governance and management of national and Trans border water basins.

Pollution and degradation of natural resources due to increased population

Poor investments in water supply and sanitation.

Water scarcity remains critical issue, unless we innovate sustainable technologies that will
manage the existing hydrological cycles. Wastewater is one of the potential resources unutilized
for a very long time. Many countries of the world have already started recovering some useful
resources from wastewater treatment facilities. As opposed to a static resource like a land, water
naturally occurs in a hydraulic cycle of rain, evaporation and runoff with a distinct spatial and
temporal variation of quality that determines its useful to the community (Rijsberman, 2004).
Water stress is expected to increase globally due to the projected population increase, climate
change and ultimate economic growth. The increased water scarcity trends have developed
interests among various stakeholders to monitor water intensity in the supply chain of products in
various industries in various geographical boundaries and regions. The water footprint of a
nation can be another important tool in management of available water resources. This can be
achieved through use of various models such as virtual water determination of various tradeoff
between trans-border countries (Aviso, 2010)

Fig. 1 Water scarcity in 2030 based on the Falkenmark Indicator (Source: Wallace 2000).

1.1 Resource Recovery from Wastewater Treatment Plant

Used to denote sanitation systems that aim to recover and reuse the resources that are contained
in wastewater and excreta. Wastewater contains resources, which can be removed for secondary
uses if treated properly.
Waste-related projects worth US$15.7 billion were supported by World Bank in various regions.
East Asia and Pacific has been receiving a major portion (37%) of support, with commitments of
up to US $3.1 billion in 2009, World Bank (2009). Why they invest in Wastewater Treatment?
Wastewater is a Re-N-E-W-able Resource.

Nutrients recycling
Energy generation (Hydro and thermal)
Water re-use

The World Banks estimated investments in MSW management across various regions. Source:
Data sourced from World Bank (2009)

Fig.2. Denote various sources of waste water and what can be obtained from them

1.2.0 Nutrient Recovery from Waste water treatment plant

1.2.1 Nutrient Recovery Motivation
There is limited and decreasing phosphorous resources.

There is Rise in phosphorous price due to high fertilizer demands.

Fluctuating price of N/urea in the world market.

All nutrients are interlinked to Energy price

N &P are major challenges for Waste & waste water Management
Table .1, NUTRIENT LOADINGS RAW SEWAGE

Point Concentration (mg/L) Per-capita loading rate

(G/capita/d)

Nitrogen 40 (20-85) 23

Organic N 15 (8-35) 8.5

Free ammonia 25 (12-50) 14.2

Phosphorus (with detergents) 8 (4-15) 4.5

Organic P 3 (1-5) 1.7

Phosphorus (without detergents) 4 2.3

With phosphorus removal can get to about 0.1 - 0.5 mgP/L. With nitrogen removal can get to
about 2 - 12 mgN/L. Source, Chapra, S.C. 1997.
2.0 Definition and Sources of Nutrients
Large-scale wastewater production is an inevitable consequence of contemporary societies and
continues to increase with increase in population. Wastewater contains both biological and
chemical substances and are usually hazardous to human populations , environment and must be
treated prior to disposal into streams, lakes, seas, and land surfaces domestic and agro-industrial
wastewater releases large amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen. These nutrients are directly
responsible for eutrophication (extraordinary growth of algae as a result of excess nutrients in
water bodies) (Lau et al., 1997; Trepanier et al., 2002). Consequently, disposal of wastewaters
produces a constant threat to dwindling fresh water on a global scale (Montaigne and Essick,
2002).

2.1 Types, Process of P & N Recovery

Calciumphosphorus precipitation

High rate aerobic/ Activated Sludge process

Nitrification/Anammox process

Denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation/DAMO etc.

2.2 Calciumphosphorus precipitation

Ca-P precipitation is a common method with low cost and ease of handling. Removal is
achieved by direct precipitation of calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite, Ca5 ((PO4)3OH)
(Yi and Lo, 2003), using calcite as seeding material (Donnert and Salecker, 1999a).

The hydroxyapatite crystallizes at pH 8.08.5 without inducing the precipitation of

calcium carbonates that usually negatively affect the process. Phosphorus removal
efciencies in this process ranged from 75% to 85% (Moriyama et al., 2001). Finally,
lime was also suggested as a pre-treatment of municipal wastewater before the biological
process (Marani et al., 1997).

2.3 High-rate activated sludge process; integrating anaerobic digestion &

anammox
This proposed treatment system could perform better and more economically compared
with current treatment technologies. The main expected advantages are:
 Significantly reduced energy consumption and even a considerable net energy output

Increasingly reduced GHG emissions and low or no odor

Low space compared to other treatment significantly reducing the land footprint.

Fig. 3 High-rate activated sludge process

Fig. 4 denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation (DAMO)

This is a microbial process occurring in anoxic waste water. During this process, methane is
oxidized with different terminal electron acceptors such as nitrate, nitrite and metals (Reimann et
al, 2015). In this case the process is coupled to nitrate and nitrite reduction and overall reaction is
given as:
CH4 + 4NO3- CO2 + 4NO2- + 2H2O

3CH4 + 8NO2- + 8H+ 3CO2 + 4N2 + 10H2O

Among the final byproducts of this process is nitrogen which if tapped can be a very important
ingredient for nitrogenous fertilizers and other products. This can be sold out to various
industries.

Fig. 5 P recovery from Iron Phosphate Sludge

2.4 Results of Nutrient/Resources Recovery

Phosphorous can be recovered from waste water by both chemical precipitation and
electrochemical process. The process can be useful technique for removing both phosphorous
and contaminants from waste water sludge. After waste water goes through primary and
secondary treatment, the remaining effluent can undergo tertiary treatment to recover
phosphorous. Iron chloride is added to the influent and iron phosphate is formed. Phosphate is
obtained by precipitating Sodium sulfate, where phosphorous can be obtained further by
oxidation reactions. The phosphorous is one of important ingredients of various agricultural
fertilizers and can be sold to various factories.

Fig. 6 Nutrient/Resources Recovery

N-E-W

Nutrients recycling

Energy (Onsite energy generation)

Water re-use
 3.0 ENERGY FROM WASTEWATER
Fossil fuel is the most commonly used source of energy globally due to their abundant in nature
and high energy density making them attract high demand in energy sector. However, fossil fuels
are source of pollution and their yield is not guaranteed in future. This is why different nations
are looking for alternative source of clean energy and waste water is a potential source of these
energies. Waste water have five (5) nearly five times the amount of energy needed for the
wastewater treatment process where the majority generated energy is of thermal energy.

3.1 Chemical Energy

A. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs)
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have been used to produce electricity from different compounds,
including acetate, lactate, and glucose. MFCs can now be used to generate electricity from
wastewater and while at the same time accomplishing biological wastewater treatment (removal
of chemical oxygen demand; COD).

B. Anaerobic digestion with biogas utilization.

During anaerobic digestion, wastewater is biologically digested into methane, carbon dioxide
and sludge. The methane produced is cleaned to remove other products such as hydrogen sulfide
and siloxane and finally obtain biogas. The biogas can further be used for heating bio-solids to
generate electricity.
Wastewater Further Waste
influent Liquid Methane to
treatment Generators

Mechanical Sedimentation
Filter Sludge
Tank Anaerobic
digester
Fig. 8 Biogas Production

C. Thermal Energy/Heat
Wastewater is highly loaded by organic substances. The mixture of solid and liquid residuals is
de-watered in a decanter, dried and burned during into steam generator (Evaporation plant).

Fig9 Thermal Energy (Kinetic & Potential)

D. Hydro-Power
Hydraulic Energy consists of installing micro-hydro water turbines in channels and
conduits before discharge. A variable flow turbine will ensure a constant supply of electricity.

Fig.10 Hydropower layout for Sewage treatment Plant

Where:

P is power in watts (w), is the water density (1000 kg/m3), g is the acceleration due to gravity
(9.81 m3 /s), h is the available net head (m), Q is the discharge flow (m3 /s) and is the efficiency
(Basically 75%-95%).

With a daily Water Outlet of 70,000 M3, 87.5% conversion rate of the inflow. The amount of
Water Outlet per Second is 0.81M3/s. This is the amount of power generated is:

Volume of water used = 0.81M3/s Gravity = 9.81M3/s

Water Density = 1000kg/M3 Net Head = 100 Metres

Efficiency = 90% Power = 0.715mW/h

N-E-W

Nutrients recycling Water re-use

Energy (Onsite energy generation)

Recovery and Reuse of wastewater
Water scarcity is increasingly driving innovations. Advanced wastewater treatment and
purification technologies are employed in various sectors to recover clean water.

Application for water re-use

* Recycled water can be used in industries, both inside a facility and the community.

* Typical uses for recycled water include and not limited to; surface irrigation.

* Other uses include recharging ground water, preservation or augmentation of ecosystems

like wetland or riparian habitat and industrial uses.

* Non portable water can be used for toilets flushing, irrigating landscapes, washing
vehicles and streets.

Treatment Technologies
* Treatment technologies are derived from physical, chemical and biological processes
used for wastewater and drinking water.
* All treatment technologies must comply with strict purification standards, and guarantee
processed water free from bacteria and viruses.
* The following typical technologies are used:
- Ultrafiltration - Ozonation
- Membrane bioreactor - Ultraviolet treatment
- Reverse osmosis - Advanced Oxidation
- Aerobic treatments - Forward osmosis
MBR
* Membrane separation technology is
recognized to be one of the most
promising high-tech.

* The membrane separation

technology use selective porous
membrane as medium. with the help
of some kind of driving force (such
as pressure difference, concentration
difference, potential difference, etc.), Fig.11 MBR
Low molecular substances like water
REVERSE OSMOSIS (Principles of
through the membrane, while
operation)
macromolecular substances trapped
to separate substances with different
molecular weight.

Fig.12 Reverse Osmosis

Conclusion
* In Kenya, 70% of municipal waste water can be recycled again, which means the
available water can be increased more than 50% by recycling waste water.

* However, the reuse efficiency of waste water is only about 0%, which is less than 15% of
the US, Japan and other countries. The reasons are as follows:

The price of drinking water is too low

The lack of unified and effective water management system

The lack of perfect laws and regulations

The lack of funding for waste water treatment

What we can do?

To reasonably adjust the price of drinking water

To introduce market mechanisms to establish an effective management system

To establish corresponding laws and regulations

To achieve diverse financing channels through various raising-funds channels

To raise the awareness of the public

* What we could do is not just to treat wastewater to acceptable standards, we try to make
it resources and to generate value for the utility and its customers.
Reference

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A. Ertug Ercin , M. M. (2013). Sustainability of national consumption from a water resources

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Kathleen B. Aviso a, b. R. (2011). Fuzzy inputeoutput model for optimizing eco-industrial

supply chains under. Journal of Cleaner Production 19 (2011) 187-196, 10.

Rijsberman, F. R. (2004). Water Scarcity: Fact or Fiction? International Water Management

Institute,, 14.

- Hong liu , R a m a n a t h a n r a m n a R a y a n a n , a n d B r u c e L o g a n ,2004.

Production of Electricity during Wastewater Treatment Using a Single Chamber Microbial Fuel
Cell.

- Justin Carter, 2009. Concepts in Integrated Resource Recovery

- Dr. Prasad Modak,2011.Waste,investing in energy and resource efficiency

- Advance water mgt. center; www.awmc.uq.edu.au

- Gossett, J.M., Belser, R.L., 1982 Anaerobic-digestion of waste activated sludge. Journal of
the Environmental division.

- Johns, M.R., 1995. Developments inWWT processing industry: a review in

Environmental science & Technology.

- Davis, A.C; and Cornell, DA. (1998). Introduction to environmental Engineering, 3rd
Edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, New York.

www.werf.org

Chapra, S.C. 1997. Surface water quality modeling. New York, McGraw-Hill.