UNIT-II Material

The History of Ethernet

Engineers Bob Metcalfe and D.R. Boggs developed Ethernet beginning in 1972. Industry
standards based on their work were established in 1980 under the IEEE 802.3 set of
specifications.

Ethernet specifications define low-level data transmission protocols and the technical details
manufacturers need to know to build Ethernet products like cards and cables.

Ethernet technology has evolved and matured over a long time period. The average consumer
can generally rely on off-the-shelf Ethernet products to work as designed and to work with each
other.

Ethernet Technology

Traditional Ethernet supports data transfers at the rate of 10 megabits per second (Mbps). As the
performance needs of networks increased over time, the industry created additional Ethernet
specifications for Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet. Fast Ethernet extends traditional
Ethernet performance up to 100 Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet up to 1000 Mbps speeds. Although
products aren't yet available to the average consumer, 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) also
exist and are used on some business networks and on Internet2.

For students: In the OSI model, Ethernet technology operates at the physical and data link layers
- Layers One and Two respectively. Ethernet supports all popular network and higher-level
protocols, principally TCP/IP.

Types of Ethernet

Often referred to as Thicknet, 10Base5 was the first incarnation of Ethernet technology. The
industry used Thicknet in the 1980s until 10Base2 Thinnet appeared. Compared to Thicknet,
Thinnet offered the advantage of thinner (5 millimeters vs 10 millimeters) and more flexible
cabling, making it easier to wire office buildings for Ethernet.

The most common form of traditional Ethernet, however, was 10Base-T. 10Base-T offers better
electrical properties than Thicknet or Thinnet, because 10Base-T cables utilize unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) wiring rather than coaxial. 10Base-T also proved more cost effective than
alternatives like fiber optic cabling.

Numerous other lesser-known Ethernet standards exist, including 10Base-FL, 10Base-FB, and
10Base-FP for fiber optic networks and 10Broad36 for broadband (cable television) cabling.
All of the above traditional forms, including 10Base-T have been made obsolete by Fast and
Gigabit Ethernet.

More About Fast Ethernet

In the mid-1990s, Fast Ethernet technology matured and met its design goals of a) increasing the
performance of traditional Ethernet while b) avoiding the need to completely re-cable existing
Ethernet networks. Fast Ethernet comes in two major varieties:

100Base-T (using unshielded twisted pair cable)

100Base-FX (using fiber optic cable)

By far the most popular of these is 100Base-T, a standard that includes 100Base-TX (Category 5
UTP), 100Base-T2 (Category 3 or better UTP), and 100Base-T4 (100Base-T2 cabling modified
to include two additional wire pairs).

More About Gigabit Ethernet

While Fast Ethernet improved traditional Ethernet from 10 Megabit to 100 Megabit speed,
Gigabit Ethernet boasts the same order-of-magnitude improvement over Fast Ethernet by
offering speeds of 1000 Megabits (1 Gigabit). Gigabit Ethernet was first made to travel over
optical and copper cabling, but the 1000Base-T standard successfully supports it as well.
1000Base-T uses Category 5 cabling similar to 100 Mbps Ethernet, although achieving gigabit
speed requires the use of additional wire pairs.

: (frame structure is refer to text book)

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Lans:

Each computer, mobile, portable or fixed, is referred to as a station in 802.11 [Wireless Local
Area Networks].

The difference between a portable and mobile station is that a portable station moves from point
to point but is only used at a fixed point. Mobile stations access the LAN during movement.

When two or more stations come together to communicate with each other, they form a Basic
Service Set (BSS). The minimum BSS consists of two stations. 802.11 LANs use the BSS as the
standard building block.

A BSS that stands alone and is not connected to a base is called an Independent Basic Service
Set (IBSS) or is referred to as an Ad-Hoc Network. An ad-hoc network is a network where stations
communicate only peer to peer. There is no base and no one gives permission to talk. Mostly
these networks are spontaneous and can be set up rapidly. Ad-Hoc or IBSS networks are
characteristically limited both temporally and spatially.
When BSS's are interconnected the network becomes one with infrastructure. 802.11
infrastructure has several elements. Two or more BSS's are interconnected using a Distribution
System or DS. This concept of DS increases network coverage. Each BSS becomes a component
of an extended, larger network. Entry to the DS is accomplished with the use of Access Points
(AP). An access point is a station, thus addressable. So, data moves between the BSS and the
DS with the help of these access points.

Creating large and complex networks using BSS's and DS's leads us to the next level of
hierarchy, the Extended Service Set or ESS. The beauty of the ESS is the entire network looks
like an independent basic service set to the Logical Link Control layer (LLC). This means that
stations within the ESS can communicate or even move between BSSs transparently to the LLC.

One of the requirements of IEEE 802.11 is that it can be used with existing wired networks. 802.11
solved this challenge with the use of a Portal. A portal is the logical integration between wired
LANs and 802.11. It also can serve as the access point to the DS. All data going to an 802.11 LAN
from an 802.X LAN must pass through a portal. It thus functions as bridge between wired and
wireless.

The implementation of the DS is not specified by 802.11. Therefore, a distribution system may be
created from existing or new technologies. A point-to-point bridge connecting LANs in two
separate buildings could become a DS.

While the implementation for the DS is not specified, 802.11 does specify the services, which the
DS must support. Services are divided into two sections

1. Station Services (SS)

2. Distribution System Services (DSS).

There are five services provided by the DSS

1. Association

2. Reassociation

3. Disassociation

4. Distribution
 5. Integration

4.a) Answer:
Channel Allocation Problem:

1) The MAC sub layer which is useful (or) important in LAN Network.
2) We can classify the channels as Static and Dynamic

a) Static Channel:

It defines, where the number of users is stable and traffic is not bursty.

b) Dynamic Channel:

IT defines, when the number of users using the channel keeps on varying the channel is
considered as a dynamic channel.

Static Channel Allocation:

1) The usual way of allocating a single channel such as a telephone trunk, among multiple
competing users is to chop up its capacity by using one of the multiplexing schemes such as
FDM.( Frequency Division Multiplexing)

2) FDM- If there are N users, the bandwidth is divided into N equal sized portions, for each user
being assigned one portion, and each user has a private frequency band and there is now no
interference among users.

3) Mostly, FDM Technique is suitable for when there is only a small and fixed number of users,
and each of which has a heavy (buffered) load of traffic.

4) FDM Is simple and efficient technique for small and constant number of users, each of which
has a steady (or) a heavy load of traffic.(eg: Carriers switching offices, FM Radio Stations)
Problems with FDM:

1) If fewer than N users are currently interested in communication, some portions of spectrum
will be wasted.

2) If more than N Users want to communicate, some of them will be denied permission, if some
users with allocated frequency hardly ever transmit anything.

3) Even the number of users is N and constant, when some users are in inactivity, no one use
their bandwidth, so it is simple wasted.

These are the some problems it cannot be handled by FDM.

Bursty Traffic:

The term burst transmission (or) data burst, it defines that any relatively high
bandwidth transmission over a short period.
For e.g., A download might use 2M Bits/s on avg, while having peaks bursting up
to say 2.4M/Bits/s
This Bursty traffic scenario, cannot handle by FDM and as well as TDM.
Thus, none of the static channels allocation methods work well with bursty traffic.
For bursty data traffic( peak traffic to mean traffic ratio is 1000:1)

The poor performance of static FDM can easily be seen with a simple queuing theory
Calculation.

Let us find the mean Time Delay T, to send a frame onto a channel of capacity Cbps. We assume
that the frames arrive randomly with an average arrival rate of lambda frames/sec, and the frames
vary in length with an average length of 1/ bits. With these parameters, the service rate of the
channel is C frames/ sec. A standard queuing theory result is

T = 1/C

Assumptions for Dynamic Channel Allocation:

There are 5 Key Assumptions: They are as Follows:

1) Independent Traffic
2) Single Channel
3) Collisions
4) Continuous (or) Slotted Time
5) Sense Assumption

Independent Traffic:

The model consists of N independent stations (E.g. Computers, telephones), each with a
program (or) user that generates frames for transmission.
The expected number of frames generated in an interval of length del t is , where lamda is
a constant ( the Arrival rate of new frames)
Once a frame has been generated, the station is blocked and dpoes nothing until the frame
has been successfully transmitted.

Single Channel:
A single channel is available for all communication. All stations can transmit on it and all can
receive from it. The stations are assumed to be equally capable, though protocols may assign
them different roles (e.g.: Priorities)

Collisions:

If two frames are transmitted simultaneously, (or) overlap in time, a collision occurs. All stations
can detect collisions. A collided frame must be retransmitted.

Continuous (or) slotted Time:

Time may be assumed continuous, in which case frame transmission can begin at any
instant.
In second case, the time may be slotted (or) divided into discrete intervals (called
slots).
Frame transmissions must then begin at the start of a slot.A slot contain 0,1 (or) more
frames, corresponding to an idle slot, a successful transmission (or) a collision,
respectively.

Multiple Access Protocols:

ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared communication

network channel.
It was developed in the 1970s by Norman Abramson at the university by Hawaii.
This system is used for ground based radio broadcasting, but the system has been
implemented in satellite communication systems.
Radio Broadcasting is a unidirectional wireless transmission over radio waves.
A shared communication system like ALOHA requires a method of handling collisions
that occur when two (or) more systems attempt to transmit on the channel at the same
time.
In the ALOHA system, a node transmits whenever data is available to send. If another
node transmits at the same time, a collision occurs and the frames that were transmitted
are lost.
ALOHA means HELLO ALOHA is a multiple access protocol at DLL and proposes
how multiple terminals access the medium without collision.

There are two different versions/Types of ALOHA:

1) Pure ALOHA
2) Slotted ALOHA

Pure ALOHA:

In pure ALOHA, the station transmit frames whenever they have data to send.
 When two (or) more stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and the frames are
destroyed.
In Pure ALOHA, whenever any station transmits a frame, it expects the
acknowledgement from the receiver.
If acknowledgement is not received within a specified time, the station assumes that the
frame has been destroyed.
If the frame is destroyed, because of collision, the station waits for a random amount of
time and sends it again. This waiting time must be random, otherwise same frames will
collide again and again.
Therefore pure ALOHA dictates that when time-out period passes, each station must wait
for a random amount of time before resending its frame. This randomness will help to
avoid more collisions.
In given fig, there are 4 stations that contended with one another for access to shared
channel. All these stations are transmitting frames. Some of these frames collide because
multiple frames are in contention for the shared channel.
Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2 survive. All other frames are destroyed.
Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be collision
and both will be damaged. If first bit of a new frame overlaps with just last bit of a frame
almost finished, both frames will be totally destroyed and both will have to be
retransmitted.

Slotted ALOHA:

Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA as chances of
collision in pure ALOHA are very high.
 In slotted ALOHA, the time of the shared channel is divided into discrete intervals called
the slots.
The stations can send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame is sent
in each slot.
In slotted ALOHA, if any station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the
beginning of the slot i.e. it misses the time slot then the station has to wait until the
beginning of the next time slot.
In slotted ALOHA, there is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the
beginning of the same time slot as shown in fig.
Slotted ALOHA still has an edge over pure ALOHA as chances of collision are reduced
to one-half.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols:

Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (transmission) and acts accordingly are called
carrier sense protocols.

Persistent CSMA and Non Persistent CSMA:

Persistent CSMA:
 This is a simple CSMA Scheme, in which when a station has data to send, it first listens
to channel to see whether anyone else transmitting at the moment, if it finds that channel
is idle, the station sends the data.
If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle and then transmits
a frame.
If any collisions occur at station waits a random amount of time and starts all over again.
This protocol is named as 1-persistant because the station transmits with a probability of
1 when the channel is idle.
If propagation delay is small, collisions happening are small. If delay is large then effect
becomes more and performance gets worse.

Non-Persistent CSMA:

In this protocol, a station senses the channel when it requires to sends frame, if no one
else is sending then the station begins to send.
If the channel is in use, the station doesnt sense the channel continuously to detect the
end of previous transmission for seizing it immediately.
Instead of it, the station waits a random period of time and then repeats the algorithm for
better channel utilization, but has longer delays than 1-persistent.

P-Persistent CSMA:

When a station becomes ready to send it senses the channel, if the channel is idle
transmits with a probability P and with a probability q=1-p it defers until next slot.
If the slot is idle, station either transmits or defers again with probabilities p and q.
This process continues until a frame gets transmitted or till another station begins
transmitting.
If there is a collision, station waits a random amount of time and starts again.

Bluetooth:
(FIG . refers to text book)
Bluetooth is, with the infrared, one of the major wireless technologies developed to
achieve WPAN. Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology used to connect devices of
different functions such as telephones, computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks,
cameras, printers and so on.

Bluetooth project was started by SIG (Special Interest Group) formed by four
companies IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba for interconnecting computing and
communicating devices using short-range, lower-power, inexpensive wireless radios.

The project was named Bluetooth after the name of Viking king Harald Blaatand
who unified Denmark and Norway in 10th century.
 Nowadays, Bluetooth technology is used for several computer and non computer
application:

1. It is used for providing communication between peripheral devices like wireless

mouse or keyboard with the computer.

2. It is used by modern healthcare devices to send signals to monitors.

3. It is used by modern communicating devices like mobile phone, PDAs, palmtops etc
to transfer data rapidly.

4. It is used for dial up networking. Thus allowing a notebook computer to call via a
mobile phone.

5. It is used for cordless telephoning to connect a handset and its local base station.

6. It also allows hands-free voice comml1nication with headset.

7. It also enables a mobile computer to connect to a fixed LAN.

8. It can also be used for file transfer operations from one mobile phone to another.

9. Bluetooth uses omnidirectional radio waves that can through walls or other non-
metal barriers.

Bluetooth devices have a built-in short range radio transmitter. The rate provided is
1Mbps and uses 2.4 GHz bandwidth.

Bluetooth is that when the device is within the scope of a other devices automatically
start the transfer information without the user noticing. a small network between the
devices is created and the user can accessed as if there were cables.

Bluetooth Architecture( diagram in text book)

Bluetooth architecture defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet

2. Scattemet

1. Piconet
Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven
active secondary (slave) nodes.
 Thus, piconet can have upto eight active nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations
within the distance of 10 meters.

There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.

The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-
to-many.

All communication is between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is not

possible.

In addition to seven active slave station, a piconet can have upto 255 parked nodes.
These parked nodes are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in
communication until it is moved from parked state to active state.

2. Scatternet
Scattemet is formed by combining various piconets.

A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.

Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first piconet and
deliver the message to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This node
is also called bridge slave.

Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.

A station cannot be a master in two piconets.

Bluetooth layers and Protocol Stack

Bluetooth standard has many protocols that are organized into different layers.

The layer structure of Bluetooth does not follow OS1 model, TCP/IP model or any
other known model.

The different layers and Bluetooth protocol architecture.

Data link layer :Bridges

A network bridge helps to join two otherwise separate computer networks together to enable
communication between them. Bridge devices are used with local area networks (LANs) for
extending their reach to cover larger physical areas.

How Network Bridges Work

Bridge devices inspect incoming network traffic and determine whether to forward or discard it
according to its intended destination. An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming
Ethernet frame - including the source and destination MAC addresses, and sometimes the frame
size - in making individual forwarding decisions.

Bridge devices operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

Types of Network Bridges

Several different kinds of bridge devices exist, each designed for specific kinds of
networks including

Wireless bridges - support Wi-Fi wireless access points

Wi-Fi Ethernet bridges - allows connecting Ethernet clients and interfacing them to a
local Wi-Fi network, useful for older network devices that lack Wi-Fi capability

Wireless Bridging
Bridging is especially popular on Wi-Fi computer networks. In Wi-Fi, wireless bridging requires
access points communicate with each other in a special mode that supports the traffic needing to
flow between them. Two access points that support wireless bridging mode work in pairs. Each
continues to support their own local networks of connected clients while additionally
communicating with the other to handle bridging traffic.

Network professionals sometimes use the term "BSS" - Basic Service Set - to refer to an access
point and its local clients.

Wireless bridging joins two BSS networks together.

Bridging mode can be activated on an access point through an administrative setting or
sometimes a physical switch on the unit. Not all access points support wireless bridging mode;
consult the manufacturer's documentation to determine whether a given model supports this
feature.

For more, see: What Wireless Bridging Can Do For Computer Networks

Bridges vs. Repeaters

Bridge and network repeater devices share a similar physical appearance; sometimes, a single
unit performs both functions. Unlike bridges, however, repeaters do not perform any traffic
filtering and do not join two networks together but instead pass along all traffic they receive.
Repeaters serve primarily to regenerate traffic signals so that a single network can reach longer
physical distances.

Bridges vs. Switches and Routers

In wired computer networks, bridges serve a similar function as network switches. Traditional
wired bridges support one incoming and one outgoing network connection (accessible through a
hardware port), whereas switches usually offer four or more hardware ports. Switches are
sometimes called multi-port bridges for this reason.

Likewise, bridges lack the intelligence of network routers: Bridges do not understand the concept
of remote networks and cannot redirect messages to different locations dynamically but instead
support only one outside interface.

: The Differences Between Routers, Switches and Hubs

Definition: Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals. With
physical media like Ethernet or Wi-Fi, data transmissions can only span a limited distance before
the quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the
distance over which data can safely travel.

Actual network devices that serve as repeaters usually have some other name.

Active hubs, for example, are repeaters. Active hubs are sometimes also called "multiport
repeaters," but more commonly they are just "hubs." Other types of "passive hubs" are not
repeaters. In Wi-Fi, access points function as repeaters only when operating in so-called
"repeater mode."

Higher-level devices in the OSI model like switches and routers generally do not incorporate the
functions of a repeater. All repeaters are technically OSI physical layer devices.

In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive electronic device that joins
multiple computers together.
Until the early 2000s, Ethernet hubs were widely used for home networking due to their
simplicity and low cost. While broadband routers have replaced them in homes, hubs still serve a
useful purpose. Beside Ethernet, a few other types of networks hubs also exist
including USB hubs.

Characteristics of Ethernet Hubs

A hub is a rectangular box, often made of plastic, that receives its power from an ordinary wall
outlet. A hub joins multiple computers (or other network devices) together to form a single
network segment. On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly with each
other.

Ethernet hubs vary in the speed (network data rate or bandwidth) they support. Original Ethernet
hubs offered only 10 Mbps rated speeds. Newer types of hubs added 100 Mbps support and
usually offered both 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps capabilities (so-called dual-speed or 10/100 hubs).

The number of ports an Ethernet hub supports also varies. Four- and five-port Ethernet hubs are
most common in home networks, but eight- and 16-port hubs can be found in some home and
small office environments. Hubs can be connected to each other to expand the total number of
devices a hub network can support.