Lecture 15: Evolutionary Forces, continued; Why Sex?

Sex is risky, complex and inefficient. So why is it so common?

Independent study outcomes

1. ways in which sexual reproduction increases genetic variability

Sexual reproduction (you get a half of each parents alleles, and then, you are complete different
from your parents or sibling (providing that you dont have identical twins)\
(Whereas asexual reproduction produces genetically identical clones from the parent.
Sexual reproduction can shield certain recessive alleles, (give rise to genetic variability.)

2. differences between mutation and sexual recombination in generating new

genetic variants

Mutation creates new alleles while sexual recombination makes a new combination of different
alleles.
They both generate new genetic variants, but mutation is like to think outside the box, and sexual
recombination is a shuffle.

Lecture outcomes

Effect of genetic drift on allele frequencies and genetic variation within a

population
Smaller a population, the more dramatic the effect is
Because population number is never infinite, it fucks with HWE. Thus Genetic drift is always
happening.
Bottleneck Vs. founder, random deviations from parental allele frequencies.
We don't need those two to have genetic drift, it is always happening.
Unpredictable events. Its more like a random walk, the bigger population size smaller the degree
of random deviation. (So the deviation range is approaching 0 as the population size is
approaching infinite.
It is not like selection, we cant predict the events of genetic drift, and it is unpredictable.
Some alleles frequencies will be left to fixation, others will just be lost.
Genetic drift reduces genetic variation
Genetic drift could enhance/ or oppose selection depends on the case. (More often, it counteracts
with selection.

Effect of genetic drift on variation (differences) between populations

Increase the degrees of which populations differ from each other.
(same alleles) In one population it decreases, in another it gets extinct.

Whether or not mutations are directed toward the needs of the organism
Mutation is not random, but not directed towards the needs of the organism either.
General fitness effects of mutations
It is not RANDOM (some loci are subject to mutations than the other)
They are random in the sense it is a mistake. (error)
Does not help the fitness level. Its not directed toward the needs of the organism.
Vast majority of mutations have no effects with respect to fitness. (CUZ THERE IS JUST TOO
MUCH GENETIC CODES)
The ones who does, are harmful
Mutation often reduces fitness and so it often opposes selection. However, mutation also provides
raw material for adaptive evolution.

Why most mutations that affect fitness are harmful

Many more ways to mess things up than make it better. (What we already have already working
pretty well, so change it most likely will make it work worse.)

Effect of gene flow on genetic variation within a population

Gene flow. (Immigrants/ emigrants) migration opposes selection (low fitness)
Increase genetic variation within a population

Effect of gene flow on variation (differences) between populations

Gene flow Reduce variation between population
Equalizing themmmmm

How various evolutionary forces interact with (reinforce or oppose) one another
Gene drift most normally opposes selection (however, rarely it can help too)
Mutation most normally opposes selection (could help too in some rare cases)
Gene flow most normally opposes selection (could sometimes help.)
Nonrandom mating is (technically) not a evolutionary force even though it is often discussed with
them, and it can also interrupt HWE.

Difference between reproduction and sex

Sex is associated with genetic recombination, (while reproduction doesnt necessarily have to do
that.)
Sex generates new recombination of alleles. (Mutations generates NEW alleles)
Sexual reproduction give rise to offspring distinct from either parent and usually from each other
( twinsies) (four identical brothers of armadillos )
Reproduction can happen without sex (asexual, binary fission) Sex can happen without
reproductions (BLESS THE CONDOMS)
More seriously though, more about bacteria, (parasex pseudosex) genetic material flow from each
other, but there is no reproduction of offspring.
Reproduction: forms an additional individual. VS. Sex: genetic recombination

Effect of sex on genetic variation

Sex Increases genetic variation.
Types of asexual reproduction
Binary fission (bacteria)
Facultatively asexual (Quaking aspen)
parthenogenesis (mollies fishies they are obligately asexual: need sperm to trigger the process but
not the information in the sperm )
(FIRST life forms almost certainly reproduce asexually. Most living thins reproduce mostly
asexually. Only plants and animals are the exceptions mostly)

Types of sexual reproduction (monoecious, dioecious, simultaneous vs sequential

hermaphroditism)
Monoecious: plants, individual plant have both male/female functions. They produce male/female
gametes. (sea slugs WTF )
Simultaneous hermaphroditism: the individual is both male and female at the same time.
(plants or those messed up sea slugs)
Sequential hermaphroditism. The individual change sex throughout the course of life.
(Clownish NEMOOOOO NOOOOOO. So in Finding NEMO 2, Nemo is going to be a girl)

Dioecious (two household) Male and female function found in different individuals.

Examples and predictions of size-advantage model of sex change

If the size affects the reproductive success interchanges between male and female. Then Nemo,
who has the ability to become a girl whenever he pleases, will now become a girl.
Protogyny : Female to male (the silver kinda fishie Bluestreak Wrasse)
Protandry : Male to female (Finding Nemo 2 Clown fish)