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MAINTAINING

A BALANCE

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 1 21/5/08 1:07:44 PM


CHAPTER 1

Temperature regulation
Most organisms are active in a limited temperature
range

Introduction Metabolism is the sum total of all


chemical reactions occurring within
Most organisms are active within a
a living organism. Each step of a
limited temperature range, despite
metabolic pathway in cells is catalysed
the large fluctuations in temperature
by enzymes.
that occur in the outside environment.
Metabolism is divided into two:
Organisms that live in environments
anabolic and catabolic. Those reactions
where they may be subjected to
that involve building up large organic
extremes of temperature have
compounds from simpler molecules are
adaptations that enable them to keep
termed anabolic reactions, for example
their internal temperature within a
a large polysaccharide molecule
relatively narrow range. Organisms
such as starch being made from
must also maintain a relatively constant
small monosaccharide units such as
balance of chemicals within their bodies
glucose, a product of photosynthesis in
if they are to remain functionally active.
plants. (You may have heard the term
One of the main reasons why the
anabolic used to describe steroids.
maintenance of a constant temperature
Discuss the meaning of the term in this
and chemical balance is so important
context.)
is to ensure efficient metabolism
Chemical reactions that involve
maintaining optimum conditions for
breaking down complex organic
the functioning of enzymes, the organic
compounds to simpler ones are termed
catalysts that control all chemical
catabolic reactions. For example, in the
reactions in cells.
digestion of food, large food molecules
Enzymes function under such as proteins are broken down into
balanced conditions small units called amino acids, which
can then be easily absorbed from the
All metabolic reactions in living cells gut into the bloodstream.
are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes Chemical reactions may be classified
are protein molecules, present in cells, according to whether they use up or
which act as biological catalysts, release energy. Anabolic reactions are
controlling the rate of each step of the usually endergonic reactions, requiring
complex chemical reactions that take an energy input. Catabolic reactions
TR place in cells. Catalysts are chemical usually give out energy and so they are
substances that can accelerate (speed exergonic reactions.
up) chemical reactions, but they remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction
Additional information
and can be reused. They function very
and websites rapidly at low temperatures, making
anabolic steroids them ideal for cell functioning.

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 2 21/5/08 1:08:01 PM


TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Enzymes and metabolism


identify the role of enzymes in metabolism
metabolism, describe their
chemical composition and use a simple model to describe
1.1
their specificity on substrates
By understanding the chemical altered if the enzyme is to function (see TR
composition, functions and Fig. 1.1).
characteristics of enzymes, we
Cofactors
can better understand their role in
controlling chemical reactions in cells Some enzymes have a non-protein
group such as a vitamin (e.g. riboflavin Enzymeco-enzyme
and therefore metabolism in living substrate complex
organisms. = B2, pantothenic acid = B5) or a
metal ion (e.g. zinc, copper or iron)
The chemical composition of that binds with the protein part and
enzymes helps to form the active site. This is
termed a co-enzyme or cofactorit
Enzymes are protein molecules and are can be easily separated from the
made by living cells. They are globular protein part of the enzyme, but its
proteins, meaning that they have long presence is essential for the enzyme
chains or sequences of amino acids that reaction to occur because the enzyme
have been folded into a specific shape. cannot function without the cofactor.
Their effective functioning relies on A functional enzyme may therefore
their shape. The molecule on which an consist of protein only, or it may be Figure 1.1 The
enzyme acts is called a substrate. An in the form of an enzymecofactor chemical structure of
the enzyme lysozyme
enzyme fits together with its substrate complex (where the enzyme part of (a) represented
molecules at a precise place on the the complex is a protein). Poisons are in ribbon style;
surface of the much larger enzyme substances that have harmful effects (b) represented as
a three-dimensional
molecule, called the active site (much on living organisms. Some poisons model; (c) showing
like a key fits a particular lock). The exert their toxic effect by disabling the formation of an
shape of this active site must not be cofactors and thereby inhibiting enzyme enzymesubstrate
complex

enzyme made groove of active site


of protein fits shape of substrate

active site
substrate
active site

(a) (b) (c)

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 3 21/5/08 1:08:01 PM


MAINTAINING A BALANCE

TR functioning. The heavy metals mercury oxygen and glucose may be chemically
and cadmium replace zinc cofactors combined to release energy. In the
in some enzymes and inhibit their laboratory, we can activate this reaction
functioning. by adding heatwe burn the glucose
and cause it to react with oxygen in the
Teaching strategy The role of enzymes in air to release energy as light and heat.
enzymes reduce
activation energy
metabolism In the human body, we cannot add
The following functions of enzymes heat to glucose and oxygen to initiate a
lead to their effective role in reaction and so an enzyme is necessary
metabolism: to lower the required activation energy,
so that glucose can react with oxygen
Acceleration of chemical reactions to release energy. (See Fig. 1.2.)
Enzyme catalysts are able to speed
Action on specific substrates
up (or slow down) reactions without
a change in temperature. This is Enzymes are therefore substrate-
extremely important in cells, since heat specific, meaning that one particular
damages living tissue. For a chemical enzyme can work on only one
reaction to begin, activation energy is particular substrate molecule, because
necessary (see Fig. 1.1). The role of the active site is reciprocally shaped to
an enzyme is to lower the activation bind with that molecule. The enzyme
energy needed to start a reaction, so itself is not chemically changed in
that the reaction can proceed quickly, the reaction and so it can be reused
without a change in temperature. in subsequent reactions. Enzyme-
controlled reactions are always
Lowering of activation energy reversible.
In chemical reactions that occur in the
non-living world, heat could provide Characteristics of enzymes
the necessary activation energy for a Enzymes, due to their protein nature,
chemical reaction, but in the living are sensitive to temperature (heat
world, heat burns tissue. It is important and excessive cold) and to pH (a
SR TR to remember that an enzyme does not measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
provide activation energyit reduces a substance).
the amount of activation energy
needed (by bringing specific molecules Temperature-sensitive
Student worksheet together, rather than relying on them Enzymes within cells function best
enzymes colliding randomly). For example, at the body temperature of the living

(a) (b)
Figure 1.2 Scheme
uncatalysed
of activation energy
energy supplied

required for chemical


reactions: (a) without
a catalyst, activation activation
energy must be energy
catalysed
supplied for a
chemical reaction; activation
energy
(b) catalysts accelerate
specific reactions by reactant reactant
energy released

lowering the amount


of activation energy
needed to initiate the
reaction
product product

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 4 21/5/08 1:08:04 PM


TEMPERATURE REGULATION

optimum
temperature
optimum pH optimum pH
for pepsin for trypsin
Rate of reaction

Rate of reaction
30 40 50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(a) Temperature of reaction (C) (b) pH of reaction

Figure 1.3 (a) Graph


showing the effect of
temperature on the
organism in which they occur. In in an acidic or alkaline medium. For rate of enzyme action;
(b) graph showing the
most living things, enzymes function example, the protein-digesting enzymes pH-specificity of two
normally at temperatures up to pepsin and rennin, found in gastric digestive enzymes
40C; above this temperature their juice in the stomach, function best in
efficiency (rate of reaction) decreases. a strong acid. The enzyme salivary
At temperatures above 60C, most amylase, found in saliva, helps break
enzymes stop functioning altogether. down starch and it functions best in a
This is because heat causes the weak alkaline medium. The action of
hydrogen bonds that maintain the form amylase on starch stops when the food
of the enzyme to break and this, in passes into the stomach, because of the
turn, alters both the structure and shape low pH of gastric juice. Extremes of pH,
of the moleculethe molecule is said like temperature, cause the enzymes to
to denature. Any change in shape denature.
that affects the active site will alter the
functioning of the enzyme because Substrate-specific
the altered active site is no longer Enzyme molecules are specific,
reciprocally shaped to the substrate acting on only one type of substrate;
molecule. Excessive cold also causes therefore, each enzyme catalyses one TR
the enzyme to change shape and its particular chemical reaction involving
functioning to slow down or stop, but the substrate for which it is specific.
the change in shape due to extreme This is due to the lock-and-key fit of
cold is often reversible. the active site to the substrate molecule Teacher resource
(described, overleaf in more detail in terminology related to
pH-sensitive the section How enzymes work). enzymes
Each enzyme has its own narrow Examples of enzyme specificity are:
range of pH within which it functions amylase acts on starch, changing it
most efficiently. Levels of alkalinity or to glucose
acidity outside of the optimum pH for rennin acts on the protein in milk,
an enzyme have a similar effect to that causing it to curdle
of temperature changethey alter the the enzyme catalase, present in most
shape of the enzyme and slow down or living cells (e.g. potato/meat/apple)
stop its functioning. Within cells, most acts on toxic hydrogen peroxide and
enzymes function at or near neutral, but converts it to harmless water and
enzymes in the digestive tract function oxygen gas.

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 5 21/5/08 1:08:05 PM


MAINTAINING A BALANCE

1.2 What is pH?


iden
identify
ntify the pH as a way of describing the acidity
of a substance
pH is a w way of describing the acidity pH scale runs from 0 to 14, where 7
of a sub
substance. The pH scale is used (the midpoint) represents a neutral
tto measure the acidity or alkalinity solution. The presence of hydrogen
of a substance, as shown below (see ions in a solution makes it more acidic
Fig. 1.4). pH is a logarithmic value of and so solutions with a pH below 7
the concentration of hydrogen ions are acidic and those with a pH above
(H+) in solution. Since it is a logarithmic 7 are alkaline or basic. The further
value, the greater the hydrogen ion away from the neutral value of 7, the
concentration, the lower the pH. The stronger the respective acid or base.
Figure 1.4 pH scale

blood (pH 7.4)


saliva (pH 6.5)
hydrochloric acid (stomach acid)

tomato juice, acid rain


grapefruit, soft drink
lemon juice, vinegar

liquid drain cleaner


ammonia solution
Great Salt Lake
distilled water

baking soda

soapy water
black coffee
battery acid
examples

sea water

bleach
urine

pH 10

pH 11

pH 12

pH 13

pH 14
pH 0

pH 1

pH 2

pH 3

pH 4

pH 5

pH 6

pH 7

pH 8

pH 9

strong weak weak strong


acid acid base base
neutral
increasing increasing
acidity alkalinity
pH scale

PFA
How enzymes work: models to describe enzyme specificity on
H2 substrates
Enzymes are large, globular protein molecules allows the reaction to be
molecules with one or more rapidly catalysed and the products of
indentations on their surface called the reaction are released. To validate
active sites. For an enzyme to this model, predictions were made and
catalyse a reaction, the small substrate tested. The results led to the proposal
molecules must temporarily bind to of the currently accepted amended
these active sites. At first a lock-and- version of the model, known as the
key model was proposed: it was induced-fit model. This model is
thought that the active site is rigid based on the realisation that proteins
and the small substrate molecule is are not rigid. Evidence suggests that the
reciprocally shaped and fits into the binding of a substrate to the active site
active site, like a lock fits a key. Once of an enzyme induces the enzyme to
this enzymesubstrate complex has alter its shape slightly, to fit more tightly
formed, the close proximity of the around the substrate. (See Fig. 1.5.)

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 6 21/5/08 1:08:06 PM


TEMPERATURE REGULATION

1 substrate is sucrose, which is glucose fructose


composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
2 substrate binds
to the enzyme 4 products are released
bond

3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks

enzymesubstrate
active sites complex fit in
lock-and-key
arrangement 5 enzyme is free
to bind other
enzyme substrates

(a)

1 substrate is sucrose, which is glucose fructose


composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
2 substrate binds
to the enzyme 4 products are released
bond

3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks

induced fit: the


active sites binding of the substrate
induces the enzyme to
change shape and fit 5 enzyme is free
more tightly to bind other
enzyme substrates

(b)

Figure 1.5 Sequence of steps in the induced-fit/lock-and-key model of specificity of enzymesubstrate


action: (a) lock-and-key model of enzyme functioning; (b) induced-fit model of enzyme functioning

The rate of enzyme reactions The rate of an enzyme-


Enzymes are highly efficientthey work controlled reaction is affected by the
rapidly, having a high rate of reaction concentration of the substrate. If an
or turnover number (the number of enzyme and substrate have a high
substrate molecules that one enzyme affinity for each other, the reaction
can act on in 1 minute). Catalase is the will proceed more rapidly than for an
fastest acting of all enzymes, having a enzyme and substrate that have a low
turnover number of 5 million substrate affinity for each other. The higher the
molecules per minute. substrate concentration, the greater
Enzymes are highly effectiveonly the rate of enzyme reaction, until all
minute traces are needed to bring about available enzymes are being used to
reactions and they can be reused. catalyse reactions. This point is known

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 7 21/5/08 1:08:09 PM


MAINTAINING A BALANCE

SR TR as the saturation point. Increasing


the substrate concentration beyond the
saturation point will not increase the maximum

Rate of reaction
rate of reaction, since all enzymes are
working at their maximum turnover rate
Student worksheet
and will have to be reused to act on
graphs related to
enzyme activity the additional substrate. The only way
to increase the reaction rate would be
to increase the enzyme concentration.
(See Fig. 1.6.)

Substrate concentration
Figure 1.6 Graph showing the effect of substrate
concentration on enzyme activity

Investigating enzyme activity


FIRST-HAND
F IRS
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or
resources and perform a first-hand investigation to
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS test the effect of:
H11.1; H11.2; H11.3 increased temperature
H12.1; H12.2; H12.3; change in pH
H12.4 change in substrate concentrations on the activity
H13.1 of named enzyme(s)
H14.1; H14.2; H14.3
Background information In each of the investigations that follow,
the activity of a named enzyme will be studied.
Enzymes are protein molecules that are made There are a variety of enzymes that are
by living cells and function as catalysts within suitable to use for this investigation. Each
the cells. They accelerate the rate of reaction has its advantages and disadvantages (see
without themselves being changed. A substrate Table 1.1).
is another name for a reactant in an enzyme-
Table 1.1 Advantages controlled reaction.
and disadvantages of
enzymes

Chemical reaction Evidence of enzyme Determining enzyme


Enzyme and source Substrate catalysed activity activity

Catalase Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide Creates a fizzing effect Measure the height of
(potato or any fresh converted to water and bubbles
plant or animal tissue) oxygen

Amylase Starch Starch converted to Starch no longer Starch can be stained


(commercially available (available as powdered glucose present with iodine. Time
or found in saliva) starch that can be how long until starch
mixed with water, or disappears: enzyme
boiled potato) active no more
starch present

Rennin Milk protein Converts soluble Milk curdles and a Time how long milk
(available as junket (caseinogen) caseinogen protein precipitate forms takes to curdlethis
tablets) into an insoluble form indicates rate of
(casein) enzyme activity

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 8 21/5/08 1:08:09 PM


TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Task conclusions, it is necessary to use a control: SR


remove the factor you are testing and compare
Students will need to plan and conduct the results with the experiment when the factor
three separate experiments so that they was present. The comparison should show
can investigate the effect of each factor that if the factor is missing (the control), the
independently. That is, in each experiment only
same result is not obtained, proving that it is Experiment
i t report
t
one variable is changed to ensure the validity
the presence of that factor which brings about investigating enzyme
of the investigation. The effect of each of the
the result. Set up two sets of apparatus for activity
following factors on enzyme activity will be
each runone with the factor being tested
investigated:
increased temperatureExperiment 1 (experimental apparatus) and one without the
factor (control apparatus). Validity also depends
TR
change in pHExperiment 2
change in substrate concentrations on keeping variables constant and ensuring
Experiment 3. reliability and accuracy.
There are several ways in which this can be Identify the independent and dependent
tackled. Group work is recommended, as each variables and plan how you will keep all
other variables constant Teaching strategy for
experiment (especially the effect of temperature
the investigation and
on enzyme activity) is fairly labour-intensive. Ensure reliability and accuracy: read the
teacher resource
Biology Skills on pages xxii (and, in
valid investigations
Planning the scientific investigation particular, take note of 12.4 e and f) to
Students should consult the teacher and use determine how you will ensure:
the information on the Student Resource CD to reliability: the same method should yield
decide whether they will investigate the activity of the same results when repeated by other
the same enzyme and its substrate for all three people (this may require modication
experiments, or whether they will use a different and inter-group co-operation after a test
enzyme for one or more of the experiments. run) and averaging and/or comparison of
To plan the investigation, a variety of results
sources should be consulted, including the accuracy: the results should comply
information in the table on the previous with similar scientic information (e.g.
page, the Student Resource CD and the data from other scientic sources such
text on pages 35 on the role of enzymes as scientic journals); accuracy also
in metabolism. relies on choosing precise measuring
Teachers may like to guide the class through equipment and using it correctly to avoid
planning and conducting one of the three experimental error
experiments on enzyme activity and then Results: choose suitable format(s) to
allow the students to plan and conduct represent your data (e.g. tables, graphs
the other two experiments on their own. the correct type of graph and the line of best
(Teachers resource material, The ve steps
t).
of investigation, available on the Teacher
Additional information is available on the
Resource CD, may be useful.)
Teacher Resource CD.
For each experiment, students need to:
identify the enzyme and substrate to be
Reporting on the investigation
used
discuss with the teacher the sources For each experiment, write up a practical report
from which both the enzyme and the under the standard scientic headingsaim,
substrate that you have chosen to use hypothesis, materials, safety, method, results,
can be obtained conclusion and discussion.
research the chemical reaction that the Results: data from results should be
enzyme catalyses and write out a word measured, recorded in the form of a table
equation for this reaction and then graphed.
determine a method to measure the Conclusions: read the aim of each
activity of the enzyme in a laboratory. experiment again, consider your hypothesis TR
Research and list all safety precautions to and then write a valid conclusion based on
be taken and the hazards of any chemicals that your results (no inferences).
may be used. Discussion: any suggested modications
to the method, materials or equipment
Ensuring the validity of the and explanations of unexpected results or Sample experiments
investigation experimental error should appear under this on investigating
A valid experiment is one that actually tests heading. Answer all discussion questions as enzyme activity and
what it sets out to test. To arrive at valid well. practical reports

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 9 21/5/08 1:08:13 PM


MAINTAINING A BALANCE

1.3 Home
Homeostasis
maint
and feedback mechanisms
maintaining a balance
Of all liv
living
ving organisms the mammalian in mammals and vascular tissue in
body hahas best perfected keeping plants)
internal functioning constant, no matter the control of water and salt balance
changes occur in the external
what cha (osmoregulation) and of pH and
conditions in the environment. The waste products (brought about
module Maintaining a balance has as mainly by the kidneys in mammalian
its central theme the maintenance of bodies).
internal stability, called homeostasis, An organism is healthy as long as
within living organisms. In this module, homeostasis is maintained. When a
we will study regulatory systems in person visits a doctor for a medical
both plants and animals that act to check-up, the doctor will monitor their
maintain a balance in their internal wellbeing by carrying out standard
environments: checks, including measuring their
temperature regulation (brought body temperature and taking blood
about mainly by the skin in samples to compare the patients blood
mammals and by leaves in plants) composition with a standard set of
control of chemical substances values that indicate the normal range
available to cells, transported for optimal metabolic efficiency.
through organisms (by blood vessels

Homeostasis
describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms
maintain a relatively stable internal environment
The word homeostasis comes from the for example a power cut, could have
Greek words homoios, meaning like or drastic results if the organisation cannot
the same and stasis, meaning state. This continue to work independently of the
implies a state of balance or constancy, outside changes. The fluctuations need
where conditions stay the same in to be monitored and counter measures
the internal environment of living must be put in place. For example, if
organisms to allow them to function there is a power failure and a hospital
efficiently, despite fluctuations in the does not have a back-up plan, many
external environment. lives will be lost.
Homeostasis is defined as In order to maintain a constant
the maintenance by an organism
internal environment, the following two
of a constant or almost constant
steps are essential:
internal state, regardless of external
1. detect the change
environmental change.
Any organised infrastructure, 2. counteract the change.
whether a living organism or a non- In a similar way, living organisms
living enterprise, needs careful control must have mechanisms in place to
and certain constants if it is to run enable them to function independently
smoothly and efficiently, particularly of external changes and to maintain
when external circumstances fluctuate a relatively constant internal state. In
or change. If we consider the smooth this chapter, we look at homeostasis
running of a hospital or even a and how living organisms maintain a
household, a sudden external change, constant internal environment.

10

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 10 21/5/08 1:08:14 PM


TEMPERATURE REGULATION

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY

Discuss the following analogy, which should help us to understand the importance of maintaining
constant internal conditions in an organisation such as:
a hospital
a home.
In order to maintain a constant internal environment in the event of a power cut, how would people
within the hospital or home:
1. detect the changehow will people become aware that the power supply has been cut off?
2. counteract the changewhat measures could be put in place within each organisation to
temporarily overcome the problem until things return to normal?
Compare the efciency of these measures and relate this to the importance of the functioning of
the organisation.

When we consider our analogy in living organisms have a better back-


more detail, it becomes evident that up plan than others when it comes
some organisations are better equipped to maintaining a constant internal
to cope with change than otherspart environment.
of the back-up plan in a hospital is Living organisms have developed
to have its own emergency generator, mechanisms that ensure that they are
which can be put into use in the event able to maintain a constant or almost
of a power failure; however, most of constant internal state, regardless
us do not have emergency generators of changes from the stable state of
in our homes. It is interesting (and conditions in the external environment.
not unexpected) to note that certain

The importance of a constant internal environment


explain why the maintenance of a constant internal
environment is important for optimal metabolic
1.4
efficiency
Living organisms are made of cells, must be maintained within a narrow
which must function efficiently to range of conditions, for example
maintain life. All chemical reactions temperature, volume (the amount
within cells must occur efficiently of cells or of fluid such as blood or
and be effectively co-ordinated cytoplasm) and chemical content in
to bring about optimal metabolic the internal environment must be kept
efficiency. stable so that enzymes can function
Each cell is surrounded by a small effectively and metabolic efficiency can
amount of fluid called intercellular or be maintained. Enzymes are extremely
interstitial fluid and this, together with sensitive to the temperature and pH
the cytoplasm inside cells, makes up of the environment and changes in
their internal environment. Cells are concentrations of these, as well as
extremely sensitive to changes in their nutrients such as glucose and oxygen,
internal environment and any imbalance affect their activity. Cells cannot
adversely affects their functioning. The tolerate any build-up in levels of waste
internal environment of an organism products such as carbon dioxide or

11

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

other metabolic wastes, as these inhibit Metabolites


enzyme functioning. For any chemical reaction to proceed,
Metabolic efficiency relies on a reactants must be present. Metabolites
constant (or almost constant) level of are chemicals that participate in
the following variables in the internal chemical reactions in cells. Some (for
environment: example, glucose and oxygen) are
temperature and pH (optimal range) taken in from the outside environment,
for enzyme functioning whereas others are products of other
concentration of metabolites metabolic pathways (for example
(reactants) ATP, the type of energy produced by
water and salt concentration chemical respiration).
(osmotic pressure), which Many metabolic reactions rely on
determines the volume of cells or the availability of ATP energy in cells. If
fluid such as blood) cells cannot produce sufficient energy,
absence of toxins that may inhibit there is a ripple effect and other
enzyme functioning. metabolic activity will be adversely
affected. The production of energy
The importance of maintaining relies on chemical respiration, which
a constant level of each in turn relies on an ample supply
variable of metabolites such as glucose and
pH and temperature (for enzyme oxygen, as well as respiratory enzymes
functioning) and their cofactors.
A lack of any of these metabolites
All chemical reactions necessary for
may therefore slow down or stop
the cells survival and functioning
chemical respiration, affecting overall
are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes
metabolic efficiency.
only function within a narrow range
of temperature and pH; outside of Water and salt concentrations
these ranges, narrow variations cause (osmotic balance)
a decrease in the activity of enzymes All chemical reactions in living
whereas greater variations cause the organisms take place in water. For
enzymes to denature, rendering them chemical reactions to proceed, the
non-functional. This reduces metabolic reactants must be dissolved in water
efficiency. therefore the water concentration of
Further problems with extreme cells and their surrounding fluid is
temperatures are that: of enormous importance. Dissolved
very low temperatures could substances such as salt affect the
cause the water in cells to freeze. osmotic balance of fluids and so
This brings about changes in the the concentration of slats and other
concentration of solutes in the dissolved substances must also be
cytoplasm, which in turn affect maintained within a narrow range.
the pH and osmotic balance of the
cell. When water freezes it expands An absence of toxins
and this may cause the cell and/or A build-up of carbon dioxide and/or
organelles to rupture (burst). other wastes (as a result of chemical
very high temperatures cause both reactions in the cells) may be toxic to
enzymes and other proteins (such cells, affecting enzymes either directly
as those in membranes of organelles or indirectly. Some interact directly by
and the cell) to denature, further blocking the active site of enzymes,
disrupting cell functioning and while others act indirectly by altering
metabolic activity. the optimal conditions for enzyme

12

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 12 21/5/08 1:08:17 PM


TEMPERATURE REGULATION

STUDENT ACTIVITY

An explanation involves nding a cause and effect relationship. (Refer to the TR


verb scaffold for explain on the Teacher Resource CD.)
Analyse the above explanations of the importance of maintaining a constant
internal environment in terms of each variable, and in the form of a table:
state the underlying cause(s) of the phenomenon (the change to the internal
environment) Verb scaffold
outline any intermediate effects explain
state clearly the overall effect on metabolic efciency.

functioning (for example, carbon and so these wastes must be removed


dioxide alters the pH of fluid). In either to ensure metabolic efficiency.
case, enzyme functioning is inhibited

Negative feedbackthe mechanism of homeostasis


explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
detecting changes from the stable state
1.5
counteracting changes from the stable state
Homeostasis involves an enormous substances) in the internal environment
amount of co-ordination and control in of an organism are maintained within a
a living organism. In mammals, both narrow range. Within each organism,
the nervous system and endocrine these variables have an ideal or Figure 1.7 Graph
(hormonal) systems are involved. normal value, called the set point. showing homeostasis
Homeostasis is brought about in two Homeostasis does not maintain the as the maintenance of
stages: exact set point, but homeostasis is a relatively constant
internal environment
1. detecting change: sensory cells or maintained as long as there is only a around an ideal value
receptors present within the body narrow range of fluctuation (increase or set point. The
detect change in the temperature and decrease) of the variable around value of the variable
fluctuates within a
and/or chemical composition the set point. (See Figure 1.7.) narrow range and
within the body. This change in the If the fluctuation is large and is maintained by a
environment is called a stimulus. exceeds the normal range, a negative negative feedback
mechanism
2. counteracting change:
effector organs (such
as muscles or glands)
then work to reverse the upper value that triggers
change. A response that a response to counteract
Normal range

the increase
successfully reverses the
change will return the body set point (ideal value)

to homeostasisits relatively
constant state. lower value that triggers
Homeostatic mechanisms a response to counteract
ensure that variables (such the decrease
as temperature or the Time
concentration of chemical

13

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 13 28/5/08 1:44:21 PM


MAINTAINING A BALANCE

feedback mechanism comes into Note: The secondary-source


operation in response to this change; investigation to model a feedback
it is termed negative because it system (see page 20) may be done at
counteracts the change (the stimulus), this point in time OR after temperature
returning the body to within the normal regulation.
rangei.e. to a state of homeostasis.

1.6 Temperature regulation and the nervous system


Temp

outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and


responding to environmental changes
Any change in the external The structures of the nervous system
environment could affect the balance involved in the stimulusresponse
in the internal environment of the pathway of co-ordination are:
organism and so a mechanism is receptorssensory cells, sometimes
needed to ensure homeostasisthe in sense organs (for example,
maintenance of a stable internal olfactory receptors in the nose)
environment, despite fluctuations in the a control centrethe central
external environment. The mechanisms nervous system, which includes
that allow this to occur are based on a brain and spinal cord
negative feedback system, co-ordinated effectors (e.g. muscles and glands)
by the nervous system. nerves, which link all the other
parts, relaying messages from one
Introduction to the nervous part to another in the form of
system electrochemical nerve impulses.
Co-ordination The stimulusresponse pathway
The function of the nervous system is A stimulus is detected by a receptor,
co-ordination and this takes place in a message is carried by nerves to a
three steps: control centre and a response is
1. It detects information about an triggered (see Fig. 1.8).
animals internal and external For example, if you touch a hot
environments. stove with your finger, receptors in
2. It transmits this information to a your skin detect the heat and pain, and
control centre. the result is that you withdraw your
3. The information is processed in the finger rapidly. How is this co-ordinated?
control centre, generating a response This rapid reaction requires a link
to ensure the maintenance of a between the receptors that detect the
Figure 1.8 Flow chart relatively constant internal state. stimulus and the effectors, the muscles
showing the stimulus
response pathway

control
stimulus receptor effectors response
centre

14

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

(or sometimes glands) that carry


out a response. The co-ordination
is carried out by the nerves and Co-ordination pathway Example

the central nervous system (brain


and spinal cord) of the body. See Loud noise
(change in
Figure 1.9, which illustrates the environment)
stimuli
role of the nervous system in the
stimulusresponse pathway.

The role of the nervous detected by


system in homeostasis
hair cells in ear
The role of the nervous system (sensory cells in
sense organ) receptors
in homeostasis is co-ordination.
A pathway exists, whereby a
stimulus is detected by a receptor,
a message is carried by nerves to convert stimuli to impulses
a control centre and a response I +
auditory nerve I +
is triggered. In homeostasis, the (sensory nerve I +
response usually counteracts carrying nerve messengers + I
impulses) + I
the stimulus (change), reducing + I
I +
its effect so that a balance is I +
maintained. This is termed a transmit impulses
negative feedback mechanism.
Detecting change: brai n
(brain and spinal
cord)
CNS
receiving stimuli
Sensory cells called receptors
detect stimuli (changes in the process information and trigger
internal or external environment new impulses
of an organism). In their most
simple form, receptors consist of (motor nerve
motor
messengers nerves
single cells, scattered over the carrying nerve
body of an organism. In their impulses)

more complex form, receptors


have become concentrated in
transmit impulses
particular areas to form sense
organs such as the eye, ear
muscles
and tongue. In many animals (muscles or
effectors
glands)
(including humans), receptors
in sense organs detect stimuli
in the external environment.
However, there are also receptors react
that are sensitive to internal
stimuli within the body. These head jerks
(reaction) response and looks
interoreceptors within the
back
body are important in detecting
changes related to homeostasis
that is, internal stimuli such as
changes in pH, body temperature,
osmotic pressure and the chemical Figure 1.9 The role of the nervous system in detecting
composition of blood. and responding to environmental change

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Receptors may be named according of receiving a stimulus. It is carried


to the type of energy or molecules out by structures in the body known
they detect. Those receptors important as effector organsthese are often
in our study of homeostasis are muscles and/or glands. The response
thermoreceptors, which detect reaches the effectors from the CNS
internal changes in temperature, and and causes the body to correct any
chemoreceptors, which detect the deviation from the normal balanced
concentration of certain chemicals state, thereby maintaining homeostasis.
inside the body (for example, carbon
dioxide levels) in the blood. Other The role of the nervous system
receptors that you may come across in thermoregulation in humans
in your studies (e.g. if you study the
Causes of temperature change
biology option Communication) are
within the body
photoreceptors (sensitive to light, found
in the eye) and mechanoreceptors Heat gain within the body may arise as
(sensitive to movement or vibrations, a result of:
found in the ear). normal cell functioning
(metabolism): the oxidation process
Co-ordination: the role of the nervous of chemical respiration in cells
system in processing information releases heat energy
The brain and spinal cord make up the muscle contractions: a large
central nervous system (CNS). The proportion of the energy needed for
peripheral nervous system consists of any muscle activity is converted into
nerves, which carry information to and heat during muscle functioning (this
from the CNS. The information carried explains why we get hot when we
by nerves is messages transmitted in the exercise)
form of electrochemical nerve impulses. hot food and drinks
Incoming information passes from heat (radiant energy) from external
sensory receptors via sensory nerves sources such as the sun, radiators
to the CNS, which in turn transmits and heaters.
outgoing information to effector organs Heat loss from the body results from:
via motor nerves. The role of the CNS is radiation of heat from the body to
to process incoming information, analyse
cooler surroundings
it and then initiate an appropriate
convection: air currents (wind)
response. Within the CNS, information
remove warm air surrounding the
is processed and analysed by a number
body and replace it with cool air
of interconnecting nerve cells (neurons)
evaporation (for example sweating):
and then a message is generated and
when liquid droplets on the body
transmitted, stimulating the effector
surface evaporate, heat is required
organs. Some actions involving the
nervous system may take place to change them from liquid
voluntarily, but all of those involved (droplets) to gas (water vapour).
in homeostasis take place without any We are familiar with the fact that
conscious thoughtthey are involuntary vaporisation requires heatfor
and many are inborn, unconditioned example, a kettle heats water and
reflexes in response to a particular turns it to steam. In temperature
stimulus. regulation, heat from an organisms
body is used for evaporation,
Counteracting change: responding cooling the internal environment of
A response is a reaction in an the body down in the process.
organism or its tissues, as a result (See Fig. 1.11.)

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

(a) (b) Figure 1.10 Humans


are able to maintain a
relatively constant body
Detecting change as it circulates throughout the brain. temperature despite
Thermoreceptors are present The central receptors are present in fluctuations in the
both outside and inside the body. the hypothalamus of the brain (see external environment

Peripheral receptors are located in Fig. 1.11) and are sensitive to extremely
the skin and central thermoreceptors small temperature changes (a fraction
monitor the temperature of the blood of a degree).

Figure 1.11 Flow


chart showing the
regulation of body
temperature in
skin blood vessels dilate; blood humans
carries heat to the skin surface
body temperature
decreases: hypothalamus
in hypothalamus control centre detects shuts off cooling
change and activates cooling mechanisms mechanisms

sweat glands activated,


high increasing evaporative
cooling
begin here
STIMULUS: increased body
temperature (e.g. when or begin here
exercising or in hot HOMEOSTASIS STIMULUS: decreased
surroundings) body temperature body temperature (e.g.
low due to cold surroundings)

skin blood vessels constrict,


keeps control centre warm and
body temperature increases: reduces heat loss from skin hypothalamus control centre
hypothalamus shuts off surface detects change and activates
warming mechanisms warming mechanisms

skeletal muscles
activated; shivering
generates heat

17

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY

In pairs, discuss the familiar responses that you are aware of in your own bodies on a hot day or
when you have been exercising, as opposed to your body responses on a really cold day. Try to
work out how these responses bring about heating or cooling.

Co-ordination conduction. The hypothalamus


The hypothalamus is also the control stimulates the erector muscles in the
centre for temperature regulation skin to contract, raising the hairs.
in the mammalian body and so the This is more effective at trapping
receptors do not have to transmit the heat where the hair is thicker, for
information very far in order to elicit a example on our heads (and all over
response. The anterior hypothalamus on animals with thick fur).
has a heat-loss centre, which sends Vasoconstrictionconstriction
messages to effectors to cool the body (narrowing) of the arterioles to the
down, and the posterior hypothalamus skin: people who are very cold
has a heat-gain centre, which initiates tend to appear pale-faced, with
responses that help the body to blue-tinged lips, fingers and toes
warm up. due to poor circulation. Heat is
carried throughout the body in
Counteracting change
the bloodstream. To prevent too
The main homeostatic organ involved much heat being lost from the
in temperature regulation in humans is body surface, the muscular walls
the skin. Effectors that assist the body
of the small blood vessels known
to cool down when it has overheated,
as arterioles constrict so that most
or to warm up if it has overcooled,
blood flow is redirected to the core
include the blood vessels (arterioles) in
(centre) of the body, preventing heat
the skin, sweat glands and hair erector
loss from the cooler body surface.
muscles in the skin, and the muscles
Shivering is brought about by rapid,
of the body. The thyroid gland, which
affects overall metabolic rate, is also an small muscle contractions, which
effector. (See Fig. 1.11.) generate heat in the body.
Increased metabolism: the heat-gain
Warming the body centre stimulates the activity of the
If the body becomes too cold, the heat- thyroid gland, causing it to speed up
gain centre of the hypothalamus metabolism.
stimulates responses in the effector (See Fig. 1.12.)
organs to generate and/or retain heat
Cooling the body
within the bodyon a cold day we get
goose bumps on our skin, become If the body becomes too hot, we
pale and shiver: become red, sweaty and sluggish, signs
Raised hairs on the body (goose that our heat-loss mechanism has been
bumps) are an attempt to trap activated to bring about cooling of the
a layer of warm air around the body. The heat-loss centre of the
body to reduce the amount of heat hypothalamus stimulates the effector
lost by radiation, convection and organs to lose heat:

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

(a) blood vessel constricts (b) blood vessel dilates Figure 1.12
(vasoconstriction) (vasodilation) Temperature-regulating
responses of the skin:
(a) vasoconstriction
conserves heat;
(b) vasodilation brings
about heat loss;
(c) sweating brings
increased about heat loss
heat loss
across
epidermis

epidermis epidermis
heat conservation increased heat loss
evaporation
(c) water
vapour hair

sweat pain
droplet heat receptors

sweat pore

epidermis

sweat
duct

sweat
gland

increased heat loss

Vasodilationdilation (expansion) Animals that do not have sweat


of the arterioles to the skin: blood glands still lose heat by evaporation;
carrying heat is directed towards the for example, dogs pant, and rodents
surface of the body so that heat can and kangaroos lick their bodies so
be lost by conduction, convection that the saliva evaporates and cools
and radiation to the surroundings. them down. A cooling process based
Sweating: Sweat glands, the main on evaporation occurs in plants
heat-loss structures in the body, are as wellwater evaporates from
activated by the heat-loss centre in the leaves, removing the heat of
the hypothalamus. Liquid sweat is vaporisation from the plant in the
secreted through the sweat pores process. This loss of water from the SR TR
onto the surface of the skin and plant is known as transpiration.
heat is removed from the body to Decreased metabolism: the heat-
evaporate the liquid. (If you stand loss centre causes the thyroid gland
in the sun and the heat from the to lower the rate of metabolism,
Student worksheetthe
sun evaporates the sweat, you will generating less heat. This accounts
role of the nervous
not cool down as quickly as in the for why we feel tired and lethargic system in the stimulus
shade, where heat is being removed on hot days. response pathway for
from your body for evaporation.) temperature regulation

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Model of a feedback system


SECONDARY
S EC SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE gather, process and analyse information from secondary
sources and use available evidence to develop a model of
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
a feedback mechanism
H12.2; H12.3; H12.4
H13.1 Background information chart, an annotated sequence of diagrams or
a combination of these, or it may be an actual
H14.1f; H14.3 To maintain homeostasis, organisms working model accompanied by a written
must monitor any changes in the internal explanation. This model will then be applied to
environment and then correct the deviations. explain the negative feedback mechanism of
Monitoring change and then responding to temperature regulation in the human body. (See
it is termed feedback. The type of response PFA H2.)
determines whether this feedback is positive 1. To develop a model to show the sequence
or negative. If the response counteracts or of steps typical of a negative feedback
cancels out the change (stimulus), this is known mechanism:
as negative feedback and this mechanism
(a) Gather information from a variety of
ensures that a constant internal environment is
sources, looking at several negative
maintained. Temperature regulation is a typical
feedback mechanisms in both the
feedback mechanism. Most living systems rely
living and non-living world (see the
on negative feedback to maintain homeostasis.
recommended websites on the Student
If the body implements a response that
Resource CD).
increases (enhances) the change (stimulus),
(b) Present your model in a simple and
this is termed positive feedback. Positive
concise format that can be applied to
feedback is very unusual in living systems and
explain specic examples of negative
occurs only in rare and specic instances. For
feedback loops typical of living
example, during childbirth the stretching of the
organisms.
uterus wall causes the muscles of the uterus
(c) Represent each of the following on your
to contract. The contractions cause the uterus
wall to stretch further; this in turn increases model:
the contractions, eventually resulting in the (i) stimuli: stimulus increases/decreases
SR birth of the baby. Within the body, most positive (ii) co-ordinating (control) centre
feedback systems are part of some broader (iii) effectors
overall mechanism that maintains homeostasis. (iv) responses.
There are many examples of negative 2. Use your model to explain how temperature
feedback in everyday life, both in living systems regulation in humans is a negative feedback
Relevantt websites
b it and and in the non-living world. For example, the mechanism.
questionsnegative thermostat control of oven temperature in the 3. Answer the questions below.
feedback model kitchen or the cooling and heating of buildings
Discussion questions
by air-conditioning units both rely on a negative
TR feedback mechanism. Within biological systems, 1. Draw a ow-chart diagram of your model of
examples include the regulation of temperature a negative feedback mechanism.
in the organisms, as well as maintaining the 2. Use the websites listed to develop a general
concentration of the many chemicals present. In model for a negative feedback mechanism
mammals, chemical balance in blood includes and then compare your model with negative
Answers to student maintaining the glucose (blood sugar) level, feedback in temperature regulation in
worksheet the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration, humans.
regulating pH levels and much more. Negative
feedback loops in the human body are
Temperature
meticulously co-ordinated by the nervous and/
Model regulation
or endocrine (hormonal) systems.
The stimuli
Task
The co-ordinating (control)
Students are required to develop a model centre
to demonstrate the concept of a feedback
mechanism. The model should entail a The effectors
generalised representation of a negative
The negative feedback loop
feedback loop and may take the form of a ow

20

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

3. Using the model of a negative feedback


Heat ________ centre of the hypothalamus
mechanism that you have developed or sends nerve impulses to effector organs:
the generalised one given to you by your
teacher, use different-coloured pens to Effectors Responses
annotate the model with the various stages
of temperature regulation in humans.
4. Validating your model: 6. Complete the table below by naming the
(a) Describe ways in which the application effectors and summarising the responses
of your model to temperature control is that occur in each when body temperature
an accurate representation of a negative decreases in mammals.
feedback mechanism.
(b) Describe any limitations of this model for Heat ________ centre of the hypothalamus
temperature control. sends nerve impulses to effector organs:
5. Complete the table below by naming the
effectors and summarising the responses Effectors Responses
that occur in each when body temperature
increases in mammals.

Temperature limits of living organisms

identify the broad range of temperatures over which life


is found compared with the narrow limits for individual
1.7
species
Temperature tolerance in not only proteins, but also nucleic
living things acids; this destruction of DNA results in
cell death. It is therefore not surprising
Temperature is one of the many
that habitats that offer temperature
limiting factors that can determine the
conditions that are fairly stable and
presence of life on Earth. Without these
limiting factors (such as water, nutrients, those that fall within a relatively narrow
light, oxygen and a balanced pH) living range are highly sought after and result
organisms cannot survive. A reduction in much competition. Most living things
in the accessibility of these resources live at temperatures between 10 and
restricts the metabolic processes or 35C. Active growth in most plants
growth within an organism. Chemical occurs between 5 and 40C. Some
reactions that occur in cells take species of plants and animals have
place only within a relatively narrow moved and adapted to occupy niches
range of temperatures, due to the where temperatures fall outside of the
temperature sensitivity of enzymes. optimal temperature range, expanding
For example, tissue temperatures the range of temperatures over which
greater than 42C are lethal to most life can be found.
organisms, as important enzymes begin
The broad range of temperatures
to denature at this temperaturethe
weak hydrogen bonds in enzymes over which life is found
break and temperature increases; the The diverse array of living organisms on
changed shape of the enzymes (and Earth are found across a broad range of
their distorted active sites) results in a temperaturesthere are living creatures
reduced ability to function and this has that can survive in temperatures as low
adverse effects on metabolism. Extreme as 70C (at the poles) or as high as
temperatures (above 100C) denature 56C in deserts and 350C (in hot vents

21

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

in the sea). However, individual species including extremes such as salinity,


cannot survive in an environment with drought and flood.)
a temperature range this large; they One of the hottest environments on
need much narrower ranges. Earth is in the vicinity of submarine
There is an enormous variation hydrothermal vents, where temperature
in temperature over the Earth. The can reach 350C. These extreme
average variation in environmental environments support a community
temperature is more prominent on land of creatures including microbes such
(89 to 60C) compared with ocean as the hyperthermophilic microbe
water (2 to 30C), although near Pyrolobus fumarii, which grows
submarine hydrothermal vents ocean optimally at 106C but can withstand
temperatures can exceed 350C. This temperatures of 113C. The most
vast range of temperatures found on heat-tolerant animal known is the
Earth has been beneficial in allowing Pompeii worm (Alvinella pompejana),
diversity of niches for species. Species discovered by French scientists in the
that occupy habitats with extreme 1980s (see Fig. 1.13). These polychaetes
conditions (such as very hot water, live in tubes on the sea floor near
ice or extreme salt conditions) are hydrothermal vents and they show
sometimes referred to as extremophiles. extraordinary tolerance to an extremely
wide range of temperaturesthey have
The narrow limits of temperature been recorded living in water with
for individual species the tail end at 80C and the head end
Much like enzymes, species have at 22C. Scientific research into how
an optimal range of temperatures at Pompeii worms can withstand such
which they can function. For each extreme temperatures seems to suggest
living species, this is a fairly narrow that they are insulated to some degree
temperature range within which they by a fleece-like covering of bacteria
can live comfortably. The temperature on their backs. They have a symbiotic
range in which a species can survive relationship with the bacteriathe
is termed its tolerance range for worms secrete mucus from tiny glands
temperature and is usually only a few on their backs to feed the bacteria
degrees outside of the range at which
it is comfortable. There are exceptions
(e.g. the Pompeii worm described
below), but very few organisms
can survive in a broad range of
temperatures.
Tolerance ranges for individual species
Water-holding frog (Cyclorana
platycephala) 3 to 39C
Platypus (Ornithorhynchus
anatinus) 8 to 34C
Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus
saligna) 1 to 34C
Silky oak (Grevillea robusta)
found in alpine regions 0 to 38C.
(The tolerance range of an organism
is the degree to which an organism
can tolerate and survive a significant
variation in environmental factors, Figure 1.13 Pompeii worm

22

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

STUDENT ACTIVITY

Source an image of hydrothermal vents and/or the organisms that can be found living in their
vicinity.
The term hypothermophilic means extremely heat loving and is derived from Greek. Try to match
the English meaning with its Greek word roots.

in return (see the interactive website the immense temperatures of fires. SR


on the Student Resource CD). Other Australian plants such as the banksia
organisms living in this community rely on the intense temperature of
include vent crabs and tubeworms. fires for seed release; and bottlebrush
Deserts are another environment trees have buds in a protected position
Student
d t activity
ti it
where there are extreme temperature beneath the barkthese buds resprout
temperature and living
conditions. In some deserts, the after fire. things
difference between day and night In contrast to extreme heat, freezing
temperatures is very large. The Sahara environments also provide extreme
desert in North Africa is the location conditions. Microbes including bacteria,
of the most heat-tolerant insect lichen (a symbiotic association between
the Sahara desert ant (Cataglyphis algae and fungi) and fungi (yeasts)
bicolor). It can maintain its core body have been found in environments
temperature at approximately 56C for where the temperature range is 17C
an extended period of time, when the to 20C. Some multicellular organisms,
surface temperature is 70C. Australia such as the Arctic fox, can withstand
also has a large number of plants and even colder temperatures such as
animals that can survive the extreme 70C, having adaptations such as
temperatures associated with deserts countercurrent exchange and shunting
these will be studied in the secondary- blood vessels within their limbs. Polar
source investigations that follow. bears can survive temperatures as cold Figure 1.14
Animals that live in
Some organisms can withstand as 50C. temperature extremes:
(a) arctic fox; (b) camel
(a) (b)

23

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

1.8 Temp
Temperature
endot
regulation in ectothermic and
endothermic organisms

compare responses of named Australian ectothermic


and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist
temperature regulation
The terms ectotherms and endotherms become active at night if the daytime
relate to the ability of an animal to temperature is too hot. If the ambient
regulate its body temperature. (Therm temperature rises beyond the brown
relates to temperature; ecto means snakes tolerance level, it will seek
outside and endo means within.) shelter in the shade during the day
Ectothermic organisms depend on an and become active in the later part of
external sourcethe environmentfor the day when it is cooler, or even at
heat energy. Fish, amphibians, reptiles night. If the ambient temperature drops
and most invertebrates fall into this below the optimum, snakes bask in the
category. Endotherms rely on internal sunlight to gain additional heat. In very
sources such as metabolic activity for cool weather, the snake becomes less
heat energy. Birds and mammals are all active, slowing down its metabolism
endothermic. and using fat reserves. If the cold
The ambient temperature is the period is prolonged (e.g. in winter), the
temperature of the environment snake will hibernate in a sheltered spot.
the air or water in the immediate The central netted dragon
surroundings of an animal. (Ctenophorus nuchalis) is an Australian
desert-adapted lizard that inhabits
Ectothermic organisms central Australias plains and open
Under laboratory conditions, the body scrub. It is able to withstand variations
temperature of ectotherms tends to in body temperature from 13 to 44C.
fluctuate (rise and fall) over a wider In low ambient temperatures the dragon
range of temperaturesit is influenced will lie in the sunlight and alter its
by the ambient temperature and the body position to expose more of its
organism has only a limited ability to body surface area to the suns rays,
control its body temperature. In nature, increasing its core body temperature.
these organisms adapt their behaviour
to regulate their body temperature and
so if it is measured in the wild (using
a radio telemetry device), their body
temperature does not show as wide a
range of fluctuations.
The eastern brown snake
(Pseudonaja textilis) is found in hot,
dry areas of Australia, along the eastern
seaboard. Brown snakes are found
across most of Australia, inhabiting a
range of habitats from open grasslands
to desert scrub, but not in rainforest
areas.
Brown snakes are usually diurnal
(awake during the day), but may Figure 1.15 Central netted dragon

24

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

It shelters from cold winds and may of heat loss from the body can be
move out into the sun on warmer days. adjusted by altering the flow of blood
If the ambient temperature rises above near the body surface. Evaporative
its heat tolerance level, the central cooling such as sweating, panting or
netted dragon will retreat into the licking saliva onto the body surface is
shade of rocks and vegetation or into a another common cooling mechanism.
burrow and reduce its activity to avoid Evaporative cooling brings with it the
overheating. It will then emerge at night risk of water loss. Animals that live
to hunt when it is cool. in hot, dry climates have to develop
mechanisms for cooling that do not
Endothermic organisms allow too great a loss of water.
Under laboratory conditions and Endotherms also show adaptations
in nature, the body temperature of in their behaviour to help regulate their
endothermic organisms tends to remain body temperature. Body temperature in
stable (within a couple of degrees), humans is approximately 37C and that
despite variation in the ambient of birds is 40C (these may fluctuate
temperature. An endothermic organism within about 1.5C).
has the ability to control its body The fairy penguin (Eudyptula
temperature and maintain it at a stable minor) is found along the southern
level within a very narrow range. If Australian coastline and in Tasmania
the ambient temperature rises above and New Zealand. It is the smallest of
or drops below the animals tolerance all penguins and lives in burrows in
level, endothermic mammals and birds coastal sand dunes, not in the ice and
are able to adjust their metabolic rate to snow like most penguins. (For those
control heat loss. students living in or visiting Sydney,
In low ambient temperatures, the the colonies of fairy penguins on the
main source of heat in the body of harbourside at Manly are well worth
endotherms is that generated as a seeing.)
result of the metabolic activity of their Fairy penguins have feathers that
cells, particularly the muscle and liver provide an insulating layer; trapping a
cells. The size of an animal also plays layer of air close to the skin reduces
a significant role in the regulation of the amount of heat lost. This layer
body temperaturea small body loses of air can be altered depending on
heat much more quickly and so small the ambient temperature. In cold
mammals often have a high metabolic conditions the feathers are lifted
rate. away from the skin, increasing the air
Some endotherms have special heat- layer and providing a greater degree
producing tissue called brown fat, of insulation. In hotter conditions
which can be quickly metabolised in the fairy penguins feathers lie flat
cold conditions. The common bentwing against the skin, trapping a smaller
bat (Miniopterus schreibersii) produces amount of air. Penguins also have
brown fat in late summer and through behavioural mechanisms to regulate
autumn when food is abundant. In the body temperature, moving into the
cold winter months, periods of torpor water to cool down in hot conditions
can last up to 12 days. The brown fat or huddling close together in cold
is metabolised and used to increase the conditions to reduce the surface area
body temperature, allowing these bats of each penguin exposed to the cold.
to fly after periods of torpor. They may also retreat to their burrows.
If the ambient temperature is high, The mountain pygmy possum
endotherms have a physiological (Burramys parvus) lives above
cooling mechanism as wellthe rate 1400 metres in the alpine regions of

25

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

in minimising heat loss. In prolonged


cold during the winter months, they
hibernate and go into a state of
torporthe pygmy possums curl into
a ball, drawing all appendages (legs,
nose, ears and tail) in towards the body
to reduce the surface area exposed to
the cold. They also use a burrow to
shelter from the cold in shorter periods
of low ambient temperature.
To avoid overheating, mountain
pygmy possums are nocturnal
marsupialsduring the day they shelter
in rock crevices and this behaviour
Figure 1.16 allows them to avoid exposure to
Fairy penguins south-eastern Australia. It has short excessive temperatures (and predators)
legs, a round body and small ears and to keep their metabolic rate low
with limited circulation, which assist during the heat of the day.

Adaptations and responses of Australian organisms


for temperature regulation
SECONDARY
S EC SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
INVE analyse information from secondary sources to describe
adaptations and responses that have occurred in
BIOLOGY SKILLS
Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
H12.3; H12.4
Background information adaptation will be dealt with in more detail when
H13.1
you cover evolution and genetics in Module 2.)
H14.1 What is an adaptation? Adaptations can be divided into three major
Have you ever experienced what it is like to groups: behavioural (the way an organism
spend winter outdoors in the freezing cold of acts), structural (the physical characteristics
the Snowy Mountains, or summer in the hot, dry of the organism) or physiological (the way the
desert regions of central Australia? Most of us organisms body functions). Organisms will
are not very comfortable at these temperatures, show a combination of adaptations to deal with
yet indigenous Australian ora and fauna live temperature regulation.
there year after year. These organisms are
able to do so because they are well suited Behavioural adaptations
to their unusual environments, as a result of Behavioural adaptations are displayed by
evolutionary change by natural selectionthat both ectotherms and endotherms. The main
is, the process of adaptation. An adaptation behavioural adaptation seen in animals is that
is a characteristic that increases the survival they alter the position of the body and increase
and reproductive chances of an organism in its or decrease the amount of exposure of their
environment. surface area to the sunlight. Many organisms will
Note: An adaptation is not a change that an seek shade or shelter in burrows if the ambient
SR organism makes in response to the environment, temperate exceeds their tolerance level. Frill-
to help it survive. Adaptations usually begin as necked lizards (Chlamydosaurus kingii) bask
variations that arise randomly in individuals and in the sun until they reach an adequate core
have a genetic basis (i.e. they can be inherited). body temperature and will then retreat into the
Natural selection acts upon these variations, shade. During the hottest part of the day the
Student
d t activity
ti it so that those that suit the organism to its red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) will seek shade
adaptation and environment are passed on within a population and sit in a position where its hind legs and tail
responses to change survival of the ttest. (The genetic basis of are shaded by the rest of the bodythey are

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

positioned at right angles to the body, with the weather during winter. (See the Student
tail pointing forward, to reduce the large surface Resource CD for additional information.)
area exposed to sun. The water-holding frog As these migratory waterbirds inhabit many
(Cyclorana platycephala) retires to a burrow countries, there is a need for international co-
in extreme temperature conditions. It survives operation to recognise and to conserve these
hot, dry conditions by living in burrows below species. Over the past 30 years, this has come
the surface. In extremely arid conditions, it lives about through international conventions on
within a cocoon made from secreted mucus and migratory species, and bilateral agreements
its cast-off skin, which is shed after rain and with Japan, China and more recently the
then dries out, forming a waterproof covering. Republic of Korea have assisted with
This minimises exposure to heat as well as conservation of the species and their habitats.
reducing water loss and dehydration. The ight path, East AsianAustralian Flyway,
Nocturnal activity is another common launched in 2006, has also been acknowledged
behavioural adaptation seen in animals that as one of eight major waterbird yways, which
live in habitats where the daytime temperature cover 22 countries.
is very hot. Nocturnal animals remain relatively
inactive during the heat of the day, so that they Structural adaptations
do not generate additional metabolic body heat Structural adaptations that assist with
as a result of increased activity. (Increased temperature control include insulation such as
activity must be supported by greater energy fur, hair, feathers, insect scales and coats that
production, which relies on a higher metabolic enable a layer of air to be trapped to reduce
rate.) Nocturnal activity is seen in many reptiles the amount of heat lost. The feathers of the
and birds that inhabit hot, arid areas and the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) act as an
few mammals that are able to survive desert insulator to reduce heat gain or loss. Blubber
conditions (for example, the bilby, Macrotis is another form of insulation to reduce heat
lagotis). Some organisms like the common loss from organisms living in water, such as
wombat (Vombatus ursinus) and the brown the Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus
snake are diurnal, but change their normal doriferus). This signicantly minimises heat
active periods from daytime to night during hot loss.
weather. The surface area to volume ratio is also an
Migration is another behavioural adaptation important structural component of temperature
that can assist in the regulation of body regulation, as larger animals have a smaller
temperature. Migrating organisms physically surface area to volume ratio, which means they
move to a different habitat that is within their will not lose as much heat as smaller animals.
tolerance range. The grey plover (Pluvialis Larger animals such as the common wombat
squatarola) breeds in the Northern Hemisphere (Vombatus ursinus) have large, compact bodies
between May and August and then migrates that have relatively small surface areas from
to Australia over August and stays until April. which they can lose their internally produced
This migration allows the birds to avoid severe heat; therefore the wombat loses very little heat Figure 1.17 (a) Red
kangaroos lying in a
shaded position;
(a) (b) (b) water-holding frog

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

may be part of a daily cycle of temperature


change and, because the body temperature
drops to almost the same temperature as the
air around it, brings with it the advantage of a
slower metabolism, in addition to helping them
to conserve energy, which is in short supply as
they do not eat and drink in this state.
In contrast, the mountain pygmy possum
hibernates during cold winters to reduce the
amount of energy required to keep its body
warm.
The common wombat (Vombatus ursinus)
slows its metabolism down to a third of its
normal metabolic rate on hot days, particularly
when sheltering in its burrow. This is a useful
strategy, as wombats do not have sweat glands
Figure 1.18 Bilby to assist in heat loss.
Organisms can also regulate the blood
to its surroundings, which is mostly helpful in ow to increase or decrease the amount of
the cooler months. heat lost to the surroundings. Since blood
Colouration of animals also assists carries heat and usually the body temperature
temperature regulation, since dark colours of an organism is higher than that of its
absorb light (and associated heat) and so these surroundings, vasodilation of capillaries near
animals can tolerate colder temperatures (e.g. the skin surface increases the amount of heat
the diamond-backed python, Morelia spilota). released. This mechanism is used in the red
kangaroo (along with a behavioural adaptation
Physiological adaptations of licking the forearm to increase heat loss as
Physiological adaptations focus on the the saliva evaporates). Blood ow can also be
inner body functions. Metabolic activity is increased or decreased at extremities to control
important for the functioning and the survival temperature. The bilby (Macrotis lagotis) has
of individuals, but this activity also generates an extensive network of capillaries throughout
heat within the body. The rate of this activity the ear which aid in releasing heat to its
can be altered to ensure that an individual has surroundings. Furthermore, a mechanism called
a better chance of surviving conditions below countercurrent exchange allows the warm blood
or above their tolerance range for temperature. in arteries (owing from the heart towards the
Hibernation and torpor are examples where extremities) to heat the cooler blood in the veins
organisms lower their metabolic rate to coming back from the cold extremities, before
conserve energy and, as a result, reduce the this blood is returned to the heart. This occurs in
amount of metabolic heat energy that they the feet of platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)
generate within their own bodies. Another as well as the ns of the Australian fur seal, so
advantage of hibernation and torpor is that that the internal core temperature is not lowered
the organism requires very little food in this by cool blood returning from limbs that have a
state because it does not need to expend large large surface area exposed to the cold water.
amounts of energy trying to regulate its body Change to colouration can occur in some
temperature by other means (e.g. shivering or organisms in response to exposure to high or
sweating). low temperatures. As previously mentioned,
Hibernation is an extended period of colour plays a role in temperature regulation
inactivity in response to cold, where the body because darker colouration assists in the
temperature does not drop below 30C, but absorption of light to gain heat. If the colour of
the heart rate and oxygen consumption drop an organism can change, this enables it to live
considerably. (Oxygen consumption is a good and remain active over a wider temperature
indicator of metabolic activity involved in range. For example, the male Australian alpine
generating energy.) Hibernation is a form of grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis), commonly
mild torpor and is less intense, but may last for referred to as the chameleon grasshopper, is a
a longer period of time. dark, almost black colour at temperatures below
A state of torpor is a short-term hibernation 15C (for example, during the cool parts of the
where the body temperature drops much lower day such as morning) and as it basks in the sun
(below 30C) and metabolism, heart rate and it becomes a paler blue colour to reect light
respiratory rate decrease, accompanied by a and avoid overheating. Its blue colouration is
reduced response to external stimuli. Torpor typically seen at temperatures above 25C.

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

In addition to this physiological change


linked to behaviour, they also show other
behavioural methods of reducing overheating
such as seeking shade or exposing themselves
to wind. In this way the Australian alpine
grasshopper increases the amount of time that
it can be active during the day.
As is evident from the above examples,
some adaptations are a combination of
structural, behavioural and physiological
features. For example, a red kangaroo licks its
paws to cool itself down through the evaporation
of water on its skin. The location of many blood
vessels near the surface of the skin in the
forearms and paws is a structural adaptation;
the dilation of arterioles in hot conditions to
direct more blood ow through these vessels is
physiological; and the licking activity to impart
saliva for evaporative cooling is behavioural. Figure 1.19
Australian alpine
Task depending on the organisms selected for
grasshopper
study. (Kosciuscola tristis)
1. Select TWO named Australian animals
has blue colouring at
that you will use for an in-depth study of Discussion questions higher temperatures
temperature regulation. One should be an
See the Student Resource CD for discussion and an almost
ectotherm and one an endotherm.
questions. black colour at low
Some suggested examples are: temperatures


Australian ectothermsblue-tongue
lizard, water-holding frog, brown Adaptations and responses
snake, broad-headed snake, thorny of Australian organisms for
devil, Kangaroo Island tiger snake and temperature regulation:
crocodile http://www.environment.gov.au/events/iydd/
Australian endothermsred kangaroo, pubs/fauna.pdf
emu, duck-billed platypus and spinifex Australian desert-dwelling animals and their TR
hopping mouse. adaptations
2. Analyse information from secondary
sources relating to these animals and http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/
then answer the questions on the Student abstract/20/6/1278
Resource CD. Read information in the Body-temperature regulation studies in Skillprocessing and
textbook (pages 2429) and on the Student some Australian Aboriginal people and analysing information
Resource CD, which are secondary sources. investigating animals in extremes-polar from secondary
Additional sources may be accessed, and desert environments sources

Temperature changes and responses in plants


identify some responses of plants to temperature change
1.9
Changes in temperature in the natural it is for animals. Plants respond to
environment of plants affect both changes in light, water availability
their functioning and their growth. and temperature, all of which are
(Growth and temperature change is linked, since heat is often associated
dealt with on the Student Resource with light (for example, the radiant
CD.) Maintenance of a relatively energy of sunlight) and hot areas are
stable internal environment is just as often dry, compromising evaporative
important for plant metabolism as coolinga plant needs to strike a fine

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

balance between the risks of excess temporary, but, if not, permanent


water loss during cooling versus heat wilting followed by death will
build-up during water conservation. occur. Many exotic plants that are
Low availability of water may also be introduced into Australia do not
associated with very cold temperatures, have adaptations that are favourable
since frozen water (ice and snow) is for the dry climate and so they wilt
not available for use by plants. In this in hot temperatures. Examples are
chapter, we deal with responses of hydrangeas, peace lilies and roses
plants to temperature change, and in (see Fig. 1.20).
Chapter 3 we deal with adaptations of Leaf orientation: to overcome
plants to assist in water conservation, the problems of overheating and
but these are closely linked. excessive water loss, some plants,
for example eucalypts, are able
Plant responses to high to change the orientation of their
temperatures leaves so that they hang vertically
Temperatures above 40C may cause downwards in hot weather. This
damage to proteins and those above reduces the surface area that is
75C to chlorophyll pigment within the exposed to the sun during the heat
plant. Since plants cannot move into of the noonday sun. The flat part of
the shade the way animals can, plant the leaf blade, with its large surface
responses to excessive temperature are area, is exposed to the less intense
mostly structural and physiological: rays of the early morning and late
Evaporative cooling (transpiration): afternoon sun, but in the middle
exposure to heat (and light) of the day when the sun is at its
causes the stomata in plants to hottest, the suns rays strike the
open, leading to a loss of water by thin edge near the leaf stalk of the
transpiration (evaporation of water vertical leaves.
from the stomata of leaves). The In addition, eucalypts regulate
advantage of this water loss is that the times of stomata opening and
it decreases the internal temperature closing: during the cooler early
in plants by evaporative cooling. morning and late afternoon, stomata
However, the plants run the risk of are open for photosynthesis and
dehydration due to water loss and transpiration can also occur to keep
so excessive heat in plants will cause the internal temperature down, but
stomata to close. This poses the when the temperatures increase to a
threat of overheating. Plants have level that causes water stress to the
developed adaptations to cope with plant, the stomata will close.
this (see Chapter 3). Leaf fall: many trees lose their leaves
Turgor responsewilting: some during the cold winter months, but
plants respond with changes in eucalypts are evergreen trees that
turgor pressure, which allows drop some of their leaves during
them to reduce the exposure of the dry season in hot climates to
their surface area to the sun and reduce the surface area exposed to
its associated heat and light, for absorb heat. This also reduces the
example a wilting response. In risk of losing too much water by
extreme heat, plants transpire and transpiration.
lose turgor in the palisade cells of Reseeding and resprouting
leaves; as a result the leaves wilt, in response to extreme high
reducing the surface area that is temperaturesfire: in Australia,
exposed to the sun. If water is one of the extreme temperature
available to the plant, this wilting is changes plants have to respond to

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

small surface area of Figure 1.20


leaves exposed to suns Orientation of the
rays in heat of midday leaves of a eucalypt
to the rays of the
sun over a period of
sun 12 hours
12 noon

sun sun
6 am 6 pm

large surface area of large surface area of


leaves exposed to suns leaves exposed to suns
rays in cool morning rays in cool late afternoon

6 am 12 noon 6 pm

is caused by bushfires. Plants have (found in Asia and Australia), which


two general responses that ensure maintains a steady temperature of
their survival after the firethey 32C (see the Student Resource CD).
may resprout or release seeds.
Resprouters, such as the bottle Plant responses to cold
brush, tea trees and eucalypts, have temperatures
epicormic buds underneath the bark
Plants have several responses to cold
that are protected from damage by
temperatures:
a fire and then resprout; or they
Organic anti-freeze: it is often the
may have lignotubers, which are
water between cells that freezes
underground and sprout new growth
first, posing the greatest risk of
after the fire.
damage to plants. Plants that inhabit
Seeders release seeds into
the environment after the plant is environments where the ambient
exposed to extreme heat. Some temperature is extremely cold,
plants (for example, banksias) have for example in alpine areas, have
seed pods that need to be exposed strategies to reduce the risk of ice
to fire to release their seeds), forming within the cells. Some
whereas other plants (for example, produce organic compounds that
eucalypts) release their seeds from act as an anti-freeze substance,
the top of the canopy in response to reducing the temperature at which
the intense heat. the cytoplasm or cell sap in the
Thermogenic plants: biologists have vacuole freezes. (Biologists are
been surprised to discover that there currently researching a gene in the
are some flowers that are able to Antarctic hairgrass plant, which has
heat up by altering their metabolic the ability to inhibit the growth of
rates when the ambient temperature ice crystals, preventing the plant
drops. An example is the bud of from freezing and dying, with a view
the sacred lotus, Nelumbo nucifera to genetically engineering other

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MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Figure 1.21 (a) The (a) (b)


sacred lotus flower,
Nelumbo nucifera;
(b) fire resistant woody
fruits

plants to increase their tolerance to fall) and undergo a period of


coldsee the Student Resource CD.) dormancy, which allows them to
Dormancy: in response to cold survive not only the extremely low
Figure 1.22 temperatures, deciduous trees temperatures, but also the water
Deciduous trees lose lose their leaves in winter (leaf shortages and lower availability of
their leaves in winter
sunlight. For example, the deciduous
beech (Nothofagus gunnii), found
in Tasmania, is the only indigenous
Australian deciduous tree. It loses
its leaves in late April and May after
they turn into a range of autumn
colours. The abscission (falling off)
of leaves occurs in response to the
shortening of days in autumn. The
decreased period of daylight leads
to a waterproof layer forming at the
base of each leaf. Without water,
photosynthesis cannot occur and
the pigment anthocyanin becomes
visible as chlorophyll declines,
giving the leaves their spectacular
colourings.
To survive long periods of very
low temperatures, some plants may
produce seeds or spores, or the
plant parts above the ground may
die off, while the parts beneath
the ground remain dormant, ready

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TEMPERATURE REGULATION

to grow again when the warmer winter and storing them in the SR
weather returns. refrigerator, before replanting them
The alpine ash uses seed in spring, to ensure that they flower.
dormancy to allow it to withstand Many responses of plants to
colder temperatures at higher temperature change (such as leaf
Additionall iinformation
f ti
altitudes than other species. fall and flowering) are the result of
on plant responses to
Vernalisation: some plants flower temperature and/or light changing temperature changes
in response to low temperatures; the concentration of chemical growth
for example, tulip bulbs must be regulators in plants. Responding to
exposed to between 6 weeks and temperature change and the regulation
3 months of intense cold before they of internal temperatures is important
will flower. Australian gardeners not only for the individual plant,
often mimic this effect by removing but also for the continuation of the
tulip bulbs from the ground in species.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Describe the importance of homeostasis in living organisms.


2. Describe the role of receptors in homeostasis.
3. Explain,
Explain using an example, what is meant by a negative feedback mechanism and its importance
in living systems.
4. Explain the relationship between metabolic rate and temperature regulation in birds and mammals. SR TR
5. Describe the advantage to ectotherms of allowing their body temperature to uctuate with the
ambient temperature, especially at low temperatures.
6. Draw a graph to illustrate the differences in body temperatures recorded in an ectothermic reptile
and an endothermic mammal who are subjected to environmental temperatures that increase Answers to revision
steadily (in 10C increments) over a period of time from 10C to 40C. What is the optimum questions
temperature range for an endotherm?
7. Identify whether each of the following is a structural, behavioural or physiological response or
adaptation to assist in heat gain or heat loss and explain how it assists temperature regulation in
living organisms. Give an example of an animal that exhibits each. (Answer in the form of a table.)

Type of response or Example of animal in


adaptation which it occurs Explanation

(a) Animal curls in a ball,


limbs drawn in

(b) Large, thin ears

(c) Burrowing

(d) Basking in the sun

(e) Shivering

(f) Panting

(g) Red face

(h) Lips and nose appear blue

(i) Thick fur

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