Chemistry Module 1 The Chemical Earth

1. The living and nonliving components of Earth contain mixtures

construct word and balanced equations of chemical reactions

as they are encountered

General Reactions

a) Single displacement reaction:

EG: Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

b) Double displacement reaction:

EG: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

c) Combination reaction:
EG: 2Mg(s) + 02 (g) 2Mg0(s)

d) Decomposition reaction:
Heating
Visible light or UV
Electrolysis

Common Reactions

a) Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen gas

b) Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + water

c) Metal + Salt New Salt + Metal

d) Acid + Base Salt + Water

e) Acid + Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + water

f) Salt + salt New salts

g) Metal Oxide + water Acid

h) Combustion
i. Element + Oxygen Element Oxide

ii. Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water

i) Heat + Carbonate Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

Identify the difference between elements, compounds and

mixtures in terms of the particle theory

All matter is made of continuously moving particles.

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An element is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom. It cannot be
broken down into smaller substances using ordinary physical and chemical
means. All elements are homogeneous (means they have uniform composition
throughout). Some elements include aluminium, copper, gold etc.

A compound contains two or more different elements chemically combined in a

fixed ratio by mass. The compounds properties are different from those of the
elements that make it up A compound is a pure substance which can be
decomposed into simpler substances, for example into elements. Compounds are
homogeneous and also have definite melting and boiling points. Some common
compounds include water, NaCl, sugar etc.

A mixture contains two or more types of particles in any proportion. They can be
physically separated. The components of a mixture keep their own properties. A
mixture contains 2 or more substances physically combined together in any given
ratio.

Mixture Pure Substance

Can be separated into two or more pure Cannot be separated into two or more
substances by physical or mechanical substances by physical or mechanical
means such as filtering, boiling or using means.
a magnet.

May be homogenous or heterogenous Only homogenous

Displays properties of the pure Has properties such as appearance,

substances that make it up. Different colour, density, m.p. and b.p. which are
parts of a mixture may show different constant.
properties

Has properties that change as the ratio Properties never change, no matter
of substances is changed how it is prepared/ purified

Variable composition Fixed composition

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 Matter

Homogeneous Can be separated into Heterogenous

Pure Substances Can be separated Mixtures

physically into

Elements Compounds

identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and

atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and
compounds

Rank Biosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Living Matter

1 Oxygen Nitrogen Oxygen Oxygen Oxygen
2 Silicon Oxygen Hydrogen Silicon Carbon
3 Aluminium Argon Chlorine Aluminium Hydrogen
4 Iron Hydrogen Sodium Iron Nitrogen
5 Calcium Carbon Magnesium Calcium Calcium

Table containing the most abundant elements in each sphere in decreasing order.

Most abundant non-metal: Oxygen

Most abundant metal: Aluminum

Most abundant semi-metal: Silicon

Atmosphere: It is a layer of gas about 200-300 km thick which surrounds the

Earth. 75% of the mass of the atmosphere is in the lowest 15km. Various
elements exist in the atmosphere including: Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium,
argon. Compounds include Methane, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen dioxide, Water and
Carbon monoxide. Mixtures include Pollen, dust, air, soot/ash etc.

Biosphere: The biosphere is a region of the Earths surface which is composed of

all interacting ecosystems where organisms interact with the atmosphere,
lithosphere, and hydrosphere resulting in a flow of energy and matter. Elements
Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen. Compounds Water, Carbon dioxide, Sodium Chloride,
Proteins, Carbohydrates, Aluminosilicates, carbon compounds, silicon dioxide etc.
Mixtures include blood, soft drinks etc.

Hydrosphere: Layer that is discontinuous on Earth and consists of all of the

Earths water. Elements are Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Compounds are all

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soluble substances including water, NaCl, Carbon dioxide, Phosphate etc. Mixtures
include freshwater, salt water.

Lithosphere: Crust and the top part of the mantle. Elements include gold, silver,
silicon. Compounds include all metal oxides, Aluminosilicates, hydrocarbons.
Mixtures include rocks, soil, humus, various silicates etc.

Identify and describe procedures that can be used to spate

naturally occurring mixtures of: Solids of different sizes, Solids and
Liquids, Dissolved solids in liquids, Liquids, Gases.

Separation of solids of different sizes: In order sperate solids of different sized the
most appropriate method is known as sieving. Sieving involves passing the
mixture through a sieve which contains tiny holes that allow only substances of a
particular size to pass through. Thus sieving relies on size. The smaller substance
will pass through the sieve while the larger one will be trapped. Thus the mixture
is separated.

Separating solids and liquids: There are two methods:

1) Filtration. The solution is passed through a funnel which is lined with filter
paper. The liquid is able to pass through but the solid is caught in the filter.
2) Sedimentation and decantation. The solids are allowed to settle to the
bottom of the container. Then the liquid is carefully poured off, leaving the
solid at the bottom of the container.

Separating dissolved solids in liquids: There are two methods:

1) Evaporating to dryness. This is done when the liquid is of no use and can
be disposed of. The solution is heated until all the liquid has evaporated
leaving the solid behind.
2) Distillation. This is done when the liquid is desirable. The solution is placed
in the apparatus and heated. The liquid evaporates and moves through
tubing to another container. On the way the tube is cooled so that the gas
is condensed causing it to change back to liquid state before ending up in
a secondary container. The solid is left at the bottom of the first beaker.
The liquid collected is called the distillate.

Separating Liquids: Again there are two methods:

1) Fractional Distillation. The apparatus is slightly different to that of
distillation but the process is the same. The apparatus contains a
fractionating column which consists of hundreds of glass beads. This
arrangement allows for repeated condensations and evaporations, thus the
solution is distilled 10-100 times. Liquid with the lowest b.p comes off first
2) Separating Funnel. Use if the liquids are immiscible (i.e. dont dissolve in
each other). The liquids are layered. One is allowed through the funnel and
just before it finishes the valve is closed. Thus separating the liquids.

Two solids based on solubility: If one substance in a particular mixture is soluble

in a certain substance while the other isnt they can be separated. The solution is
added, which dissolves one of the substances, and then one filtration is used to
remove the insoluble substance, the remaining filtrate is dried to retrieve the
other solid.

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 Separating Gases: Again two methods:
1) Fractional Distillation. Gases are condensed to liquid state then distil
2) Differences in solubility. Gases are run through a series of u shaped
tubes each containing a substance that will dissolve a particular gas, thus
leaving only the desired gas(es) at the end.

assess separation techniques for their suitability in

separating examples of earth materials, identifying the differences
in properties which enable these separations

Separation Method Property used in the separation

Sieving Particle size
Vaporization (Evap. To dryness) Liquid has lower m.p. than solid
Distillation Big difference in b.p.
Frac. Distillation Small but significant difference in m.p.
Filtration One solid, one liquid/solution
Using a separating funnel Two immiscible liquids
Adding a solvent then filtration One substance is soluble in the chosen
solvent, while the others arent.

describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data

for chemists and other scientists

A gravimetric analysis is a technique employed to find the percentage proposition

of a substance in a sample.

There are numerous situations where a gravimetric analysis may be used:

o Used to decide whether a mineral deposit contains a high enough
percentage of a particular substance to be economically viable.
o Also, to determine the composition of soil, for its suitable use in
crops and agriculture.
o Also, to determine the percentage of substances in the air, soil or
water. This may be for pollution control/standards.
o Furthermore, to ensure quality control of manufacture products
including things like insecticides
o Analysis of molten mixtures of metals to ensure that the alloys
formed are of a desired composition
o Lastly, to analyse alcohol content in drinks and also for the analysis
of blood to check for alcohol BAC

apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are

introduced in the laboratory

Binary ionic compounds the metal is named first, then the non-metal. The last

few letters of the non-metal are replaced with the suffix -ide, e.g. oxygen
oxide. Example AgCl = Silver Chloride

Ionic compounds with a polyatomic ion The metal is named first, then the
radical. The radical is treated as a single ion. NaNO3 = Sodium Nitrate

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Covalent molecular substances The element higher up in the periodic table is
named first. Prefixes (mono, di, tri, tetra etc) are used to indicate the number of
atoms of each element. Eg Cl2O7 = Dichlorine heptoxide, NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide
(there is no need to write mononitrogen dioxide)

identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered

Series Name Ending General Formula Bonding in C Series

Alkane -ane CnH2n+2 Single (C-C)
Alkene -ene CnH2n Double (C=C)
Alkyne -yne CnH2n-2 Triple (CC)

In order to name a hydrocarbon, five steps must be followed:

1. Look for the longest carbon chain. (Note chain may be bent or circular)
2. Identify whether it is an alkane, alkene or alkyne and also name the bond
number. E.g. 2-heptyne etc. If there is more than one double or triple
bond a appropriate prefix is attached to the name. Eg: 1,2-dioctene. This
shows us that there is a double bond at both the 1st and 2nd carbon atoms.

3. Look for any alkyl groups Eg methyl, ethyl, etc. Then name these
according to the bond number and also the number of alkyl groups. For
example: 5,6,7-trimethyl 2-octene. The 5,6,7 show which number of
carbon atom the methyl is attached to. The tri indicates there are three
methyls in total and the 6 indicates that the double bond is located on the
6th carbon atom. Another example: 7 ethyl 4,5 methyl octane (Always
name in alphabetical order, while ignoring the numbers). This shows us
that at the 4th and 5th carbon atoms there is the methyl alkyl group while
at the 7th carbon atom there is an ethyl

4. Look for any other elements present (called halogens) in the chain. Eg:
chlorine or bromine etc. These are also named to the number of carbon
atom that they are attached to. For example: 3-chloro pentane means that
at the 3rd carbon atom there is an atom of chlorine. There are orders of
preferences if two or more of all the previous things are present. Always
name the substances in each group alphabetically.

1) The double triple bonds (look at the smallest number and

use this as a guideline for everything else)
2) Halogens in alphabetical order
3) Alkyl groups also in alphabetical order

NOTE: If the carbon chain is circular. It is known as a cyclic hydrocarbon. For

example if pentane was drawn as a circular chain it would be known as
cyclopentane. All of the other rules apply as per normal.

NOTE: An isomer is a substance that has the same molecular formula to that of
another substance. It however has a different structural formula, different
physical properties and slightly different chemical properties.

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2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some
elements are found uncombined

explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and

the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element

The reactivity of a element will emphasise the likelihood of it existing as an

uncombined element. The more reactive the element the less likely it is to occur
uncombined. The opposite is true for unreactive elements which are more likely to
occur uncombined in nature. Most elements are unstable and therefore are
reactive.

For example: the most reactive metal Francium and the most reactive non-
metal Fluorine are the least likely of all the elements to exist solely on their
own. On the other hand the least reactive elements the noble gases occur in
nature uncombined. For example helium and argon exist uncombined in the
atmosphere. All elements react to try to achieve noble gas configuration which
is a state of no reactivity. All the reactions occur because the elements want to
become as stable as the noble gases.

Metals Semi-Metals Non-metals

Shiny + Solid (room temp) Low sheen Dull

Highly malleable and ductile Moderately malleable and ductile Brittle and inelastic

Conducts electricity Semi-conductor Electrical insulator

Conducts heat Conducts heat Heat insulator

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Low electronegativity Variable electronegativity High electronegativity

Higher boiling point Variable boiling points Low boiling point

classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals

according to their physical properties

Note: of the naturally occurring elements, at room temperature:

- two are liquids: mercury (metal) and bromine (non-metal)

- eleven are gases: oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, hydrogen, helium,
argon, xenon, krypton, neon, radon (all non-metals)
- the rest are solids

account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their

physical properties

The physical properties most commonly involved are the melting point, density,
electrical conductivity, hardness and tensile strength.

Some examples of where metals are used because of their physical properties:
- Aluminium is used for making aircrafts primarily because of
its low density (combined with adequate mechanical strength)
- Iron is used to make motor cars and trains because it has high tensile
strength.
- Copper is used for electrical wiring in houses and other buildings because of
its high electrical conductivity. However, for high voltage transmission lines
aluminium is preferred because it has a lower density and the mass of
cables is important in this scenario
- Tungsten is used for filaments in electrical light bulbs because of its
extremely high melting point.
- Aluminium is also used to make cans and aluminium foil for wrapping food.
This is because it is a durable metal, very malleable, can be rolled into thin
sheets and is insoluble in water.
- Gold is used in jewelry and computer parts because of its good electrical
conductivity, its malleability, it is ductile, lustrous and attractive
- Silver is also used in jewelry but is also used in electronics because it a
superconductor of electricity, malleable and ductile.

Some examples where non-metals are used based on their physical properties:
- Carbon as graphite is used as electrodes in common dry cells because of its
significant electrical conductivity and as a dry lubricant because of its
slippery nature
- Carbon also in the form of diamond is used for jewelry because of its
supreme hardness, resistance to scratching and also because it has a high
light refractive index.
- Nitrogen in liquid state is used as a cooling agent because of the suitability
of its melting and freezing points.

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 - Helium is used for filling balloons because its an inert gas and has a very low
density which makes the balloons float in the air.
- Neon is used in light sensitive switches because it is an unreactive gas which
emits red light when electricity is passed through it.
- Diamond (a form of carbon) is used in cutting tools as it has a strong
covalent network, making it one of the hardest substances on Earth.

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds

because of interactions at the atomic level

identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving

and interacting

According to the particle theory, all matter is made up of small particles that are
continuously moving. In solids the particles vibrate. In liquids there is
translational and vibrational motion. In gases there is rapid translational motion
of particles. In solids the particles are arranged in a very orderly manner. In a
liquid there is less orderly arrangement of particles. In a gas, however, the
particles are well separated by space.

describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

Electrons have a -1 charge. They are written e-. There are the same number of
electrons as there are protons in an atom. This is in order to balance the charge
of an atom. Electrons rotate around the nucleus of an atom in what is known as
an electron cloud. There are a number of subshells in which the electrons rotate.
The order of these subshells is known as SPDFGH. Electrons in atoms have
discrete energy levels which are called 1st, 2nd, 3rd level and so on. Electrons in
each level have a distinct and constant amount of energy. Energy levels increase
as the amount of electrons and shells increase. I.e. electrons in higher levels will
have more energy than that of lower levels. The maximum number of electrons
orbiting in the nth shell is 2n2.

describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number

Mass Number = Number of protons + number of neutrons

Atomic Number = Number of protons = Number of electrons

Eg: Calcium Na

Mass number = 40

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Atomic number = 20

Therefore number of protons = 20, neutrons = 20, electrons = 20.

Note: The mass number can also be known as the sum of the mass of the
protons, neutrons and electrons, under the assumption that neutrons and protons
weigh 1 unit each, and that electrons are significantly lighter (therefore they are
not included in the calculations above. Electrons are 1/2000 of a proton in mass.

describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing

electrons

Electrons in the outermost shell are in the valence shell and thus are known as
valence electrons. Whether an atom loses or gains electrons depends on the
amount of valence electrons. Except for hydrogen and helium, if an atom has 1,2
or 3 electrons in its valence shell it will lose those electrons to form an cation
(positively charged ion). If the atom has 5,6 or 7 valence it will gain electrons in
order to become an anion (negatively charged electron). If the atom has 4
electrons it can either gain or lose those electrons. Hydrogen can gain or lose one
electron to hydrogen ion. Thus the valence electrons determine whether atoms
gain/lose electrons (i.e. whether they become anions or cations)
Note: Between a metal and a non-metal, electrons are transferred, forming ions
on both sides. Because of this sudden gain/loss in electrons, the ions are
negatively and positively charged, respectively, and therefore bond through
electrostatic attraction, in a process called ionic bonding. In semi-metals and non-
metals, the sharing of electrons will yield a stable electron configuration, in a
process called covalent bonding.

apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of

metals and non-metals

Group I (alkali metals) generally tend to lose one electron, forming a positively
charged ion of +1 charge.

Group II (alkali-earth metals) generally tend to lose two electrons, forming a

positively charged ion of +2 charge.

Group IV (halogens) generally tend to gain 1 atom and form a negatively charged
ion of -1 charge.

Metals generally form positive ions while non-metals form negative ions.

describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the

attraction of ions of opposite charge

Ionic compounds consist of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively

charged ions (anions) held together by electrostatic attraction. These two ions
may bond infinitely, so it is much more practical to represent these in their
empirical formulae.

Positive and negative ions attract one another very strongly and so ionic
compounds consist of interlocking lattices or arrays of positive and negative ions.

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The strong attractive forces that hold these ions together in a crystal lattice are
called ionic bonding.

describe molecules as particles which can move independently of

each other

Molecules are particles that may move independently of each other. The forces
that hold the molecules together are known as intermolecular forces. If these
forces are weak the molecules may move independently of each other. However if
these forces are extremely strong the molecules maybe tightly bound and their
movement maybe restricted to just vibrations.

Molecules are made up of several atoms joined together, although some single
atoms (noble gases) may exist as mono-atomic molecules.

Atoms that share electrons (non-metals) obtain a stable electron configuration

and can therefore exist as diatomic molecules. Eg O2 ,H2

distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble

gases) and molecules with more than one atom

Molecules containing one atom are called monatomic molecules (one atom in the
molecule). Only the noble gases are able to achieve this molecular structure due
to the fact that they are extremely stable and dont react.

Other elements on the other hand cannot be in a monatomic molecular structure.

They will be at least in diatomic structure. For example O2 ,H2. These diatomic
molecules are able to exist by themselves in nature. Only non-metals are able to
be seen in this diatomic state in nature. This is because metals will usually form
oxides or will be in a large metallic or lattical structure which consists of millions
of atoms infinitely bonded.

Other elements may form compounds which contain two or more different
elements in each compound. For example H2O. In this case the molecule contains
2 hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom.

describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of

electrons

When atoms share electron pairs the type of bonding formed is known as a
covalent bond. Covalent bonds occur when a non-metal, combines with another
non-metal. The intramolecular forces in a covalent molecule are extremely strong

There are three types of covalent bonds:

Single Each atom shares one pair of electrons.

Double Each atom shares two pairs of electrons.
Triple Each atom shares three pairs of electrons.

Covalent bonds can be polar (atoms sharing electrons are different. Eg. HCl) or
can be non-polar (atoms sharing electrons are the same Eg. O2). The atom that
attracts the electrons more strongly is said to be more electronegative

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Molecules can be polar or non-polar depending on whether their bonds are polar
or non-polar and also on their shape. A molecule can have polar bonds and yet be
non-polar if the bonds cancel out so that there is no net dipole (charge)

Intermolecular forces determine the physical properties of covalent molecular

substances. There are three main types of intermolecular forces: dispersion
forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonds.

Dispersion forces: - these are very weak, induced, temporary forces of

attraction, which exist between all molecules due to constantly moving electron
clouds.

Dipole-Dipole forces: - are permanent electrostatic attractions between the

positive and negative ends of polar molecules caused by uneven distribution of
electrons within the molecule

Hydrogen bonds: - are strong attractive forces between a hydrogen atom and
an atom of fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen in a nearby molecule.

Covalent bonds can give rise to two types of structures:

1) Covalent Molecular
2) Covalent Network

Covalently bonded substances DO NOT conduct electricity (except graphite) in

the solid or liquid states, because they are unchanged and also because there are
no mobile electrons present.

All bonding electrons are tightly locked in covalent bonds.

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4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring
sources

identify the differences between physical and chemical change in

terms of rearrangement of particles

In a physical change the intermolecular bonds (which are fairly weak) are
broken. In a physical change no new substances are formed, rather the substance
changes its state. For example water boiling.

In this example there are no new substances formed and thus there is no
rearrangement of particles within molecules. Rather energy is provided to the
molecules via the heat which causes them to have enough energy to separate
themselves from one another (i.e. the intermolecular bonds are broken). The
result is that some water particles leave the surface of the liquid (can be seen
when the water evaporates).

In a physical change the energy change is relatively small. Also a physical change
is easy to reverse (condensation of water). In a physical change there are mass
changes. (I.e. the mass of the substance will change after a physical change).

In a chemical change however the intramolecular bonds (which are relatively

strong) are broken. In a chemical change, new substances are formed. An
example of this can be seen during the electrolysis of water.

In this example, two new substances, O2 and H2 are formed. Thus there is a clear
rearrangement of particles. In electrolysis, there is a lot more energy provided to
the water molecules, enough energy is provided to break the intramolecular
bonds between the hydrogen and the oxygen.

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In the apparatus the negative oxygen ions are attracted to the positively charged
cathode where as the positive hydrogen ions are attracted to the negatively
charged cathode. Thus electrolysis proved enough energy to split intramolecular
bonds, causing the re-arrangement of particles to form two new substances.

A chemical change is difficult to reverse, has high energy changes and the overall
mass of the substance is conserved.

Boiling Electrolysis
Physical Change Chemical change
Breaks intermolecular forces Breaks intramolecular forces
Changes physical state (liquid to gas) Relatively large amount of energy
Relatively low amount of energy needed
needed New substances formed (H2 and O2)
No new substances formed
Summarise the difference between the boiling and electrolysis of
water as an example of the difference between physical and
chemical changes

identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy

that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition or
synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes
occurring in everyday life

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 Decomposition is the breaking down of compounds into simpler substances.

Heat, light and electricity are common forms of energy released or absorbed
during various synthesis and decomposition reactions.

Heat may be absorbed or released in endothermic and exothermic reactions,

respectively.

Example Method used Energy absorbed or released

Production of metals from their
ores. Eg. Copper from copper
carbonate
Production of aluminium from
aluminium oxide (in bauxite)
Development of film
The combustion of magnesium
( )
Heat in furnace
Pass electricity through molten
aluminium oxide
Action of sunlight on silver
bromide (film)
Burn magnesium in air
Heat energy is absorbed by the
copper carbonate, resulting in
decomposition
Electrical energy is absorbed
Solar energy (light) is used to
decompose silver bromide.
Results in a brilliant light and
considerable amounts of heat
being released.

Synthesis is the joining of simpler substances to form more complex substances

through chemical reactions.

Example Method used Energy absorbed or released

The rusting of iron
Photosynthesis
Formation of nitrogen oxides in
the atmosphere
Burning of coal or coke to
produce electricity or to make
steel
Iron reacts with oxygen in the
air, in the presence of water to
form iron (III) oxide
Carbon dioxide and water
combine to form glucose and
oxygen
Lighting causes atmospheric
nitrogen to combine with oxygen
to form nitrogen monoxide
Coal is heated in furnaces
Energy released in the form of
heat
Light energy is absorbed and
heat energy is released
Electrical energy is absorbed
Heat energy is absorbed to the
start the reaction. Heat energy is
also produced.

explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a

compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or
bond, between them.

The amount of energy needed to decompose chemical compounds and mixtures is

indicative of the strength of the bonds. Stronger bonds require more energy to
break them, a prominent example being the difference between boiling water and
electrolysis. Another example is that mercury oxide can be easily decomposed by
heating whereas potassium oxide cannot. This indicates that the potassium is
more reactive than the mercury so it forms a stronger intramolecular attraction.
Therefore more energy is required to overcome the strong attraction between
atoms.

Intramolecular bonds are very strong and therefore require more energy to break
than intermolecular bonds. This can be seen in example of the boiling/electrolysis
of water. Heat energy is enough to break the intermolecular bonds to cause the

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 change of state, but electrical energy is needed to break the intramolecular bonds
to create two new substances.

5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their

bonding and structure

identify differences between physical and chemical properties of

elements, compounds and mixtures

Mixture Compound Element

Can be separated into two or
more pure substances by
physical or mechanical means
such as filtering, boiling or
using a magnet.
Cannot be separated into two or Cannot be decomposed through
more substances by physical or any means
mechanical means. But can be
decomposed through chemical
means.

May be homogenous or Only homogenous Only homogenous

heterogenous

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Displays properties of the
pure substances that make it
up. Different parts of a
mixture may show different
properties
Has properties such as Has properties such as
appearance, colour, density, m.p. appearance, colour, density,
and b.p. which are constant. m.p. and b.p. which are
constant.

Has properties that change as Properties never change, no Properties never change, no
the ratio of substances is matter how it is prepared/ matter how it is prepared/
changed purified purified

Variable composition Fixed composition --------------------------------

Indefinite melting and boiling Definite melting and boiling Definite melting and boiling
points points points

describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as

ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network

Properties of ionic substances

solids at room temperature

high melting and high boiling points due to strong intramolecular bonds,
through electrostatic attractions. Also because there is strong ionic
bonding extending throughout the lattice
hard because the ions are strongly bound in the lattice
brittle because distortion causes repulsion between ions of like charges
as solids they do not conduct electricity because the ions are firmly bound
in the lattice, meaning no free ions to carry the charge.
when molten or when in aqueous state they are able to conduct electricity
because there are free-moving ions able to carry an electrical charge.

Properties of covalent molecular substances

at room temperature they are generally liquids or gases (few are solids),
low melting/boiling points due to the fact they have very weak
intermolecular bonds
when sold they are soft because of the weak forces between molecules
dont conduct electricity in either solid or liquid/aqueous state as there are
no charge carriers. Also because the molecules are uncharged and
electrons are localized in covalent bonds or on the atoms)
in solutions they do not conduct electricity unless they actually react with
water to form ions

Properties of covalent network substances

non conductors when solid or molten since no free/moving electrons

very high melting / boiling points because they are bonded in three
dimensions and strong covalent bonds extend throughout the lattice.
hard because atoms are tightly bound in a lattice

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 brittle because distortion breaks covalent bonds

distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Metallic bonding In metallic bonding there is a lattice of positive ions

surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons.

Metals have some electrons that are very mobile and relatively free to move.
Under the influence of a voltage they migrate towards the positive terminal.
Therefore all metals are electrical conductors in the solid state.

The delocalised electrons are also responsible for the transmission of heat energy
in metals

The delocalised electrons do not belong to any particular atom so the bonding is
said to be non-directional. Therefore if sufficient force is applied to the metal, one
layer of atoms can slide over another without disrupting the metallic bonding.
Thus justifying the known property of metals being malleable.

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As a result of their malleability metals can be hammered into sheets or drawn into
wires (ductile). The high melting and boiling points of most metals is due to the
strong electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile
electrons.

Note: Group 2 metals release two electron per atoms to form STRONGER
METALLIC bonds than group 1 metals and therefore have higher melting and
boiling points.

Properties of metallic substances

Good conductors of heat and electricity because of the delocalised electron
transfer charge and thermal energy.
High melting and boiling points because of the strong metallic bonding
extending throughout the lattice
Dense because the ions are packed tightly in the lattice
Malleable and ductile since distortion does not disrupt the metallic bonding
Lustrous because the delocalised electrons cause the reflection of light

Ionic bonds are a result of two oppositely charged ions being bonded due to
electrostatic attraction. Ionic bonds may conduct electricity in an aqueous state
as there are free-moving ions able to carry an electrical charge.

A covalent bond joins two non-metals through the sharing of electrons. Because
this bond is an intermolecular one, it is very weak and makes for a lower boiling
and melting point.

describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of

electrons

In metallic bonding there is a

lattice of positive ions
surrounded by a sea of
delocalised electrons.

Metals have some electrons

that are very mobile and
relatively free to move.

For more clarification look at

the previous dot point on
metallic bonding.

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 describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional
lattices of ions

Ionic bonds are a result of two

oppositely charged ions being
bonded due to electrostatic
attraction. Ionic bonds may
conduct electricity in an aqueous
state as there are free-moving ions
able to carry an electrical charge.

NaCl

Ionic compounds consist of

positively charged ions (cations)
and negatively charged ions
(anions) held together by
electrostatic attraction. These two
ions may bond infinitely, so it is
much more practical to represent
these in their empirical formulae.

Positive and negative ions attract one another very strongly and so ionic
compounds consist of interlocking lattices or arrays of positive and negative ions.
The strong attractive forces that hold these ions together in a crystal lattice are
called ionic bonding.

explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical

formula

An empirical formula is a simplified ratio of elements in a compound. Eg NaCl

which tells us that for every sodium atom there is one chlorine atom. Ionic
compounds may infinitely bond, and because ionic compounds do not change
properties, it is much more practical to represent them as an empirical formula.
The empirical formula of an ionic compound indicates the kinds of atoms that are
present in the compound as well as the relative number (ratio) of each kind of
atom. An empirical formula is used since there are no discrete molecules in the
lattice of an ionic substance, so only an empirical formula can be used to express
its composition.

identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent

lattices

Covalent Molecular
- All the diatomic gases such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine
and nitrogen.

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 - Bromine as a diatomic liquid and iodine as a diatomic solid.
- Phosphorus and sulfur exist as covalent P4 and S8 covalent
molecules respectively

Covalent Lattices
- Carbon exists as diamond which is a three-dimensional lattice and as
graphite which is a two-dimensional lattice
- The semi-metals B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, and Te closely approximate to
covalent lattices though their bonding electrons are not as firmly
localized as in diamond.

explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and

hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and
covalent network structures.

This has already been covered in previous dot points on pages 12, 16-18. Below
is a summary:

Property Metallic Crystal Ionic Crystal Covalent Covalent

Network molecular
Crystal crystal
Chemical Bonding Metallic Ionic Covalent Covalent

Melting Point High High Very high Low

Electrical Solid: high Solid: nil - -
Conductivity Liquid: high Liquid: high

Other Properties Malleable Hard Very Hard Soft, brittle

Ductile Brittle Brittle
Lustrous

Examples Copper Sodium Chloride Silicon dioxide Ice

Aluminium Zinc Oxide Silicon carbide Sucrose

identify data sources, gather,

process and analyse information from secondary sources to identify
the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from
the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and use the
evidence available to:
- identify the properties of the mixture used in its separation
- identify the products of separation and their uses
- discuss issues associated with wastes from the processes used

Fractional distillation is used to separate the components of crude oil. Crude oil is
separated into refinery gas, petrol, naphtha, kerosene, diesel, oils and bitumen.
The main property used to separate these components is their boiling points.

Modern separation involves piping crude oil through hot furnaces. It is hot at the
bottom and cool at the top. The crude oil separates into fractions according to
weight and boiling point. The lightest fractions which include petrol and LPG,
vaporize and rise to the top. Heavier liquids (with higher boiling points) separate
lower down.

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Products retrieved after the separation include:

- Refinery gas: Bottled gas, fuels

- Petrol: Fuel for cars
- Naphtha: Raw materials for chemicals and products (eg. Plastic)
- Diesel: Fuel for cars
- Kerosene: Fuel for aeroplanes
- Bitumen: Road surfacing
- Oils: Lubricants/grease, also fuel for power stations

Issues associated with wastes include:

- Produced waters, drilling muds and drilling cuttings, as well as discharges of

storage displacement are the source of regular and long term impacts of the
industry on the marine environment and also in local swamps and land based
environments.

- Air and Water pollution. Many oil refineries produce wastes that if released into
the air or water can be detrimental to local ecosystems. Refineries must store
these wastes onsite, treat them and dispose of them appropriately. However, on
the rare occasion, these wastes leak into the environment causing widespread
disaster.

analyse information by constructing or using models showing the

structure of metals, ionic compounds and covalent compounds

Covalent Network Strong Lattice structure. This

indicates that there is strong intermolecular bonds,
giving very high melting and boiling points as well
as making the substance hard and brittle (since
distortion will break bonds and cause repulsion).
There are also strong intramolecular bonds
(covalent). They are also non-conductors in any
state as there are no free moving electrons,
everything is tightly bound in the lattice. They are
also insoluble in water.

Covalent Molecular Separate Molecular

structure, all electrons are localized to

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individual molecules and are not free, therefore not electrical or heat conductivity
in any state (unless the substance reacts in water to produce ions). They have
strong intramolecular bonds but weak intermolecular bonds which indicate low
melting and boiling points and also make them soft solids, liquids or gases.

Ionic Ions are tightly bound in lattice, therefore non-

conductor in solid state. However in molten state the
ions are able to move which allows for electrical/heat
conductivity. They have a strong lattical structure which
indicates strong intermolecular bonds which means
high melting and boiling points. This also indicates that
the substances are hard. The lattice structure also
shows that the substance is brittle because distortion
will cause repulsion in like charges causing it to break.

Metallic Electrical conductors in both solid and liquid

form as there are free moving de-localized electrons. This
also shows that the substance is malleable and ductile
because distortion will cause layers of ions to fall over
one another but as the electrons are delocalised they will
keep the ions together (there will be no repulsion in like
charges). High melting and boiling points due to the
lattice structure (strong intermolecular bonds). Also
lustrous because the de-localized electrons result in the
reflection of light. Finally, the substance is dense due the
ions tightly packed together in the lattice.
choose resources and process
information from secondary sources to
construct and discuss the limitations of models of ionic lattices,
covalent molecules and covalent and metallic lattices

This model is of a metallic substance

Advantages shows lattice structure which indicates to us that it must

be hard as well as have high mp, bp. Strong electrostatic attraction
shows us that it will be able to change shape (malleable + ductile).

Limitations Doesnt show sea of delocalised electrons which doesnt

tell us that it is a good heat and electrical conductor. Also since it
doesnt show us those electrons, we cannot tell that it is lustrous.

Na+Cl- This is a model of an ionic substance

Advantages Shows us the simplest ration of the elements, which

indicates to us that there is one sodium atom per one chlorine. Also shows us the
respective charges of each of the ions in the substance, this indicates to us that it
is an ionic bond due to the electrostatic bonding.

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 Limitations Doesnt show us the actual lattice structure of the substance,
rather shows it as an individual molecule, which it is not. Also doesnt show
electrical conductivity in molten state.

This is also a model of an ionic substance.

Advantages Shows us the lattice structure of an ionic

substance. Shows us the charges of each ion, shows us
the electrostatic bonding, shows us the ratio of ions
present in the substance, shows us that it will not
conduct electricity in solid state as all the ions are tightly
packed in the lattice. Also since lattice (high mp, bp)

Limitations Doesnt show us that it will conduct

electricity in molten state (when the ions are free to
move).

NOTE: In order to answer any question that tells you to identify the
advantages/ disadvantages/ limitations etc of a model:

First identify what type of substance it is (eg ionic, covalent molecular

etc.).

Then recall the properties of those substances and see if the model
shows those properties. If it does it is an advantage, if it doesnt it is a
limitation.

List of Polyatomic ions (Radicals)

+1 -1 -2 -3
NH4+ ammonium OH- hydroxide SiO32- silicate PO43- phosphate

Hydronium H3O+ NO3- nitrate C22- carbide PO33- phosphite

ClO3- chlorate O22- peroxide

MnO4-
S22- disulfide
permanganate
Carbonate CO32-
Cyanide CN-
Chromate CrO42-
Bicarbonate HCO3-
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Sulfate
Phosphate HPO42
HSO4-
Sulfate SO42-

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 Hydroxide OH-
Sulfite SO32-
Nitrate NO3-

Nitrite NO2-
HCO3- hydrogen
carbonate

HSO3- hydrogen
sulfite

CH3COOH- acetate

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