Life cycle of a Livermort (Machantia polymorpha)

1. Their sexual reproduction involves production of archegonia and antheridia on the haploid
gametaphyte. These gametangia are borne on stalked structures called archegoniophores, which bear
archegonia and antheridiophores, which bear antheridia. Splashing raindrops transport sperm cells to
the archegonia, where fertilisation takes place.
2. The resulting zygote develops into a multicellular embryo within the archegonium that becomes a
mature sporophyte.
3. The sporophyte is attached to the gametophyte.
4. Sporogenous cells (spore mother cell) in the capsule of the sporophyte undergo meiosis, producing
haploid spores.
5. Each spore potentially to develop into a green gametophyte.
Life cycle of fern (Polystichum acrostichoides)

1. The fern sporophyte consists of a horizontal underground stem (Rhizome), that bear leaves (fronds)
and true roots. Spores formation usually occurs in certain areas on the fronds, which develop
sporangia. When the sporangia in clusters, called “sori”.
2. Within sporangia, sporogenous cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. The sporangia burst
open and discharge spores that may germinate and grow by mitosis into gametophytes.
3. The mature fern gametophyte is a tiny, green, often heart-shaped structure (Prothallus) that grows flat
against the ground.
4. The prothallus usually produces both archegonia and antheridia on its underside.
5. Each archegonium contains a single egg, whereas numerous sperm cells are produced in each
antheridium. Ferns use water as a transport medium, the flagellate sperm cells swim, usually from a
nearby prothallus.
6. After one of the sperm cell fertilizes the egg, a diploid zygote grows by mitosis into multicellular
embryo. At this stage, the sporophyte embryo is attached to and dependent on the gametophyte. But
as the embryo matures, the prothallus withers and dies, and the sporophyte becomes free living.
Life cycle of pine (Pinus contorta)

1. A pine tree is a mature sporophyte. Pine is heterosporous and therefore produces microspores and
megaspores in separate cones.
2. Each male cone consists of sporophyll, leaflike scales that bear sporangia on the underside. At the base
of each sporophyll are 2 microsporangia, which contains microsporocytes (microspore mother cell).
3. Each microsporocyte undergoes to form 4 haploid microspores. Microspores then develop into
extremely reduced male gametophytes (pollen grains).
4. Male cone shed pollen grains in great numbers, and wind currents carry some to the immature female
cone.
5. Each cone scale of the female cone bears two ovules, or megasporangia on its upper surface. Within
each megasporangium, meiosis of a megasporocyte or megaspore mother cell produces 4 haploid
megaspores. One of these divides mitotically, developing into the female gametophyte, which
produces an egg within each of several archegonia. The other three megaspores are nonfunctional and
soon degenerate.
6. Male cones shed pollen grains in great numbers, and wind currents carry some to the immature
female cones.
7. One of these sperm cells fuses with the egg, in the process of fertilisation, to form zygote, which
subsequently grows into a young pine embryo in the seed.
8. The developing embryo will eventually form seed and later sporophyte.