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KINESIOLOGY
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
Foundations for Physical Rehabilitation
Donald A. Neumann, PT, PhD
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A n A ffilia te of E lse v ie r
www.elsevierhealth.com
R e c o m m e n d e d S h e lv in g C la s s ific a tio n
P h ysical Therapy
O ccu p a tio n a l Therapy 9 780815 163497
P h ysical R eh ab ilita tio n
C e te .V e
M 4 -1 2 K
KINESIOLOGY
of th
MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYSTEM
Foundations fo r Physical Rehabili
Artwork by
E l is a b e t h E. Ro w a n , BSc , BMC
M Mosby
A fi Affiliate of Elsevier
A B O U T T H E A U T H O R
Donald A. Neumann
Donald Neumann began his career in 1972 as a licensed, physical therapy assistant in
Miami, Florida. In 1976, he received a Bachelor of Science degree in physical iherapy
from th University of Florida. By 1986, he received both Master of Science and PhD
degrees from th University of Iowa. His areas of graduate study included Science
education, exercise Science, and kinesiology. While a graduate student at th University
ot Iowa, Donald received th Mary' McMillan Scholarship Award from th American
Physical Therapy Association (APTA).
Donald accepted his tirsi job as a staff physical therapist in 1976, at Woodrow
Wilson Rehabilitation Center in Virginia, vvhere he specialized in th treatment of
persons with spinai cord injuries. Because of his interest in teaching, he became th
Coordinator of Clinical Education within th Physical Therapy Department at this
facility. To this day, Dr. Neumann remains involved in th rehabilitation of persons
with spinai cord injuries. In 2002, he produced a series of educational videos funded
by th Paralyzed Veterans Association. The videos describe many of th kinesiologic
principles used to enhance th movement potential in persons with quadriplegia.
Since finishing graduate school in 1986, Donald has been on faculty at th Depart
ment of Physical Therapy at Marquette University in Milwaukee. His primary areas of
teaching are kinesiology, anatomy, and spinai cord injury rehabilitation. In 1994, Dr.
Neumann received Marquette Universitys Teacher of th Year Award. In 1997, th
APTA awarded Dr. Neumann th Dorothy E. Baethke Eleanor J. Carlin Award for
Excellence in Academic Teaching. He has also presented numerous seminars on th
clinical relevance of kinesiology to a wide range of health care professionals. In 2002,
Dr. Neumann was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship to teach Kinesiology in Lithuama
and Hungary.
Dr. Neumann has received funding by th National Arthritis Foundation to conduct
research that focused on th biomechanics of th hip joint. He studied methods of
protecting an unsiable or a painful hip from potentially large and damaging forces. In
1989, he was th frst recipient of th Steven J. Rose Endowment Award for Excellence
in Orthopedic Physical Therapy Research. In 1991, he received th Eugene Michels
New lnvestigator Award from th APTA. In 2000, Dr. Neumann received th APTAs
Jack Walker Award for th best article on clinical research published in Physical
Therapy in 1999. Dr. Neumann is currently an Associate Editor of th Journal o f
Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy.
About th Illustrations
Most of ihe more than 650 illustrations that appear within this volume are originai,
produced by th combined efforts of Donald Neumann and Elisabeth Rowan. The
illustrations were first conceptualized by Dr. Neumann and then rendered by Ms.
Rowan with meticulous attention to detatl. As a team, Don and Elisabeth met weekly
for 6V2 years to complete this project. Dr. Neumann States that The artwork really
drove th direction of much of my writing. I really needed to understand a particular
kinesiologic concept at its most essential level in order to effectively explain lo Elisa
beth what needed to be illustrated. In this way, th artwork kepi me honest; I wrote
only what 1 truly understood.
Neumann and Rowan produced two primary forms of artwork for this text (see th
following samples). Elisabeth depicted th anatomy of bones, joints, and muscles by
hand, creating very detailed pen-and-ink drawings (Fig. 1). These drawings starled
Fibrous
digitai
sheaths
Collateral ligaments
(cord and Palmar plates
accessory parts) digita!
Deep transverse sheath
metacarpal Flexor
digitorum
protundus
tendon
Flexor
digitorum
superficialis
tendon
FIGURE 1
Atout The Author IX
\vith a series of pendi sketches, often based on anatomie specimens dissected by Dr.
Neumann. The pen-and-ink medium was chosen to give th material an organic
dassic feeling.
The second form (big. 2) used a layering of artistic media, integrated with th use
ot computer software. Many of th pieces started with a digitai photograph trans-
formed into a simplified outline of a person performing a particular movement. images
of bones, joints, and muscles were then electronically embedded within th human
outline. Overlaying various biomechanical images further embelltshed th resultant
illustration. The final design displayed specific and often complex biomechanical con-
cepts in a relatively simple manner, while preserving human form and expression.
FIGURE 2
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
A. J o sep h T h r e lk e ld , PT, Ph D
Associate Professor, Chair, Department of Physical Therapy; Director, Biody
namics Laboratory, Department of Physical Therapy, Creighton University, Omaha,
Nebraska
A 1976 physical therapy graduate of th University of Kentucky, Lexington, Dr.
Threlkeld has been involved in th clinical management of musculoskeletal dysfunc-
tions, particularly arthritis and related disorders. In 1984, he completed his doctoral
work in anatomy with a focus on th remodeling of articular cartilage. Since then, he
has conducted research on th abnormal kinematics associated with musculoskeletal
and neuromuscular impairments as well as th neuromusculoskeletal responses to
therapeutic intervention. His teaching areas have been kinesiology, anatomy, and his-
tology.
Basic Structure and Function o f th Joints (Chapter 2)
D a v id A. B r o w n , PT, P h D
Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences
and Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University
Medicai School, Chicago, Illinois
Dr. David Brown is th son of a physical therapist (Elliott). David graduated with a
masters degree in physical therapy from Duke University, Durham, in 1983 and then
received a PhD in exercise Science from th University of Iowa, Iowa City, in 1989.
His primar)'' area of clinical expertise is neurorehabilitation with a special emphasis on
locomotor impairment follownng stroke. He has published research in journals such as
Journal o f Neurophysiology, Brain, Stroke, and Physical Therapy. Dr. Browm has presented
his research at both national and intemational conferences. His highest ambition is to
contribute to th discovery of innovative intervention strategies for th amelioration of
neuromuscular impairments and for th restoration of locomotor function.
Muscle: The Ultimate Force Generator in th Body (Chapter 3)
D eb o r a h A. N a w o c zen sk t , PT, P h D
Associate Professor, Department of Physical Therapy, Ithaca Colleges Rochester Cam
pus, Rochester, New York
Dr. Nawoczenski received both a Bachelor of Science degree in physical therapy and a
Master of Education degree from Tempie University, Philadelphia. She also received a
PhD in Exercise Science (Biomechanics) from th University of Iowa, low'a City. Dr.
Nawoczenski is co-director of th Movement Analysis Laboratory at Ithaca Colleges
Rochester Campus. She is engaged in research on th biomechanics of th foot and
ankle. Dr. Nawoczenski also holds a position as an Adjunct Assistant Professor of
Orthopaedics in th School of Medicine and Dentistry at th University of Rochester,
Rochester, New York. She has served as an Editorial Board Member for th Journal of
Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy and w?as co-editor of th two-part special issue
on th foot and ankle. Dr. Nawoczenski has co-authored and co-edited two textbooks:
Buchanan LE, Nawoczenski DA (eds): Spinai Cord Injury; Concepts and Management
Approaches, and Nawoczenski DA, Epler ME (eds): Ortholics in Functional Rehabilitation
o f th Lower Lim.
Biomechanical Prnciples (Chapter 4)
Xll Aboul th Contributo
G uy G. Sim o n ea u , PT, Ph D, A T C
Professor, Marquetie University, Depanmeni of Physical Therapy, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Dr. Simoneau received a Bachelor of Science in physiothrapie from ihe Universit de
Montreal, Canada, a Master of Science degree in sports medicine from th University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, and a PhD in exercise Science (locomolion
sludies) from The Pennsylvania State University, State College. He teaches orthopaedic
physical therapy and pursues research on gaii and th ergonomie design of computer
keyboards. Dr. Simoneau has been th recipient of several teaching and research
awards from th American Physical Therapy Association, including th 2000 Education
Award of th Orthopaedic Section, th 1998 Education Award of th Sports Section,
th 1997 Eugene Michels New Investigator Award, and th 1996 Margaret L. Moore
New Academic Faculty Award. He has been funded by th National Institutes of
Health and th Foundation t'or Physical Therapy, among others, to study walker-
assisted ambulation and by th National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) and th Arthritis Foundation to study th design of computer keyboards. Dr.
Simoneau is currently Editor-in-Chief of th Journal o f Orthopaedic & Sports Physical
Therapy.
Kinesiology o f Walking (Chapter 15)
R e v i e w e r s
Paul Andrew, PT, PhD Gary Chleboun, PT, PhD Jerem y Karman, PT
Depariment of Physical Therapy School of Physical Therapy Physical Therapy Department
Ibaraki Prefeciural University of Health Ohio University Sports Medicine Institute
Sciences Athens, OH Aurora Sinai Medicai Center
Ibaraki-ken, Japan Milwaukee, WI
Mary A. Cimrmancic, DDS
Susana Arciga, PT Marquette University School of Michelle Lanouette, PT, MS
St. Marys Hospital Dentistry
Physical Therapy Department
Outpatient Orthopedic and Sports Milwaukee, WI Zablocki VA Medicai Center
Medicine Center
Milwaukee, WI
Milwaukee, W1 Adam M. Davis, PT
Quad Med, LLC
Cindi Auth, PT Sussex, WI Paula M. Ludewig, PT, PhD
Physical Therapy Department Program in Physical Therapy
Zablocki VA Medicai Center Brian L. Davis, PhD University of Minnesota
Milwaukee, W1 Department of Biomedicai Engineering Minneapolis, MN
The Lerner Research Institute
Marilyn Beck, RDH, MEd The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Jo n D. Marion, OTR, CHT
Department of Dentai Hygiene Cleveland, OH Marshfield Clinic
Marquette University Marshfield, WI
Milwaukee, WI Sara M. Dcprey, PT, MS
Department of Allied Health Brenda L. Neumann, OTR, BC1AC
Teri Bielefeld, PT, CHT Carroll College Clinic for Neurophysiologic Leaming
Physical Therapy Department Waukesha, WI Milwaukee, WI
Zablocki VA Medicai Center
Milwaukee, WI Sara Jean Donegan, DDS, MS
Jan et Palmatier, PT, MHS, CHT
Marquette University School of
Peter Blanpied. PT, PhD Work Injury Care Center
Dentistry
Physical Therapy Program Gtendale, WI
Milwaukee, WI
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, RI W illiam F. Dostal, PT, PhD Randolph E. Perkins, PhD
Department of Rehabilitation Therapies Physical Therapy and Celi and
Ann M. Brophy, PT University of Iowa Hospitals and Molecular Biology
NovaCare Outpatient Rehabilitation Clinics Northwestern University Medicai
Milwaukee, WI lowa City, IA School
Chicago, IL
Frank L. Buczek, Jr ., PhD Joan E. Edelstein, PT, MA
Motion Analysis Laboratory Physical Therapy Christopher M. Powers, PT, PhD
Shriners Hospital for Children Columbia University Department of Biokinesiology and
Erie, PA New York, NY Physical Therapy
University of Southern California
Daniel J . Capriani, PT, MEd Timothy Fagerson, PT, MS Los Angeles, CA
Department of Physical Therapy Orthopaedic Physical Therapy Services,
Medicai College of Ohio Ine.
Kathryn E. Roach, PT, PhD
Toledo, OH Wellesley Hills, MA
Division of Physical Therapy
Am a Carlisle, MPT Kevin P. Farrell, PT, OCS, PhD University of Miami School of
Physical Therapy Department Physical Therapy Medicine
Zablocki VA Medicai Center Saint Ambrose University Coral Gables, FL
Milwaukee, W1 Davenport, IA
M ichelle G. Schuh, PT, MS
Leah Cartwright, PT Esther Haskvitz, PT, PhD Department of Physical Therapy and
Physical Therapy Department Notre Dame College Program in Exercise Science
Zablocki VA Medicai Center Physical Therapy Program Marquette University
Milwaukee, WI Manchester, NH Milwaukee, WI
xiii
XIV Revicwers
Christopher J. Simenz, MS, CSCS Carolyn Wadsworth, PT, MS, OCS Chris L. Zimmermann, PT, PhD
Department of Physical Therapy and CHT Physical Therapy Program
Program in Exercise Science Department of Rehabilitation Therapies Concordia University, Wisconsin
Marquette University University of Iowa Hospitals and Mequon, WI
Milwaukee, WI Clinics
Iowa City, IA
Guy G. Simoneau, PT, PhD, ATC
Department of Physical Therapy David Williams, MPT, ATC, CSCS
Marquette University Physical Therapy Program
Milwaukee, WI Iowa City, IA
F o r e w o r d
To be ihe author of a text is a major undertaking and, Quiet in manner and complimentary by nature, he gives his
possibly, appreciated only by those who have completed energies to excellence in th projeets that he undertakes. All
such a venture. The author has a responsibility not only for his personal qualities would take too long to describe and
providing accurate information but also for delivering th would only embarrass this humble author. 1 have had th
material in a format conducive to comprehension. A signifi- distinct privilege of having him as a graduate student and
cant confounding factor is th perpetuai explosion of knowl- teaching assistant and as a critic of my work. Although
edge for which th author is responsible for inclusion in th unsuccessful in attempts to hire him, I recognize that others
work. have gained from his presence.
Perhaps in his earlier days, Don Neumann never antici- Don should be congratulated on th completion of Kinesi
pated th creation of this volume on th Kinesiology o f th ology o f th Musculoskeletal System: Foundations fo r Physical
Musculoskeletal System, but th work has been intrinsic to Rehabilitation. The osteology, arthrology, and neurology, and
him since his days as a physical therapy assistant in th early th muscle as a functional unit previde a meaningful
1970s. He received both th Outstanding Clinical Award and blend for a text on kinesiology, a Science fundamental to th
th Outstanding Academic Award as an undergraduate stu- student and practicing clinician. Of special merit are th
dent at th University of Florida under th tutelage of faculty illustrations, which uniquely convey a blending of kinesiol-
including Martha Wroe, Fred Rutan, and Claudette Finley. ogic and anatomie material. Kinesiology of th Musculoskeletal
He then pursued his masters and doctoral degrees. He has System is also invaluable for its inclusion of Special Focus
never strayed far from th clinic, however, where he stili issues and other features that provide clinical relevance to
treats patients with spinai cord injuries. th presentation.
Dr. Neumann excels as a trae teacher. In this capacity, he Don has been successful in developing a useful textbook
has demonstrated his love for teaching others and sharing his not only for physical therapists but also for many in other
excitement for th subject matter. Don has gone beyond disciplines. His work is comprehensive and readable and
teaching, however. He has also made a contribution as a contributes greatly to th pool of literature available to stu-
scholar by focusing his attention on th hip joint and th dents and professionals alike.
influence of th arthritic process. His efforts in this domain
have been recognized in terms of awards such as th Ameri Gara L. Soderberg, PT, PhD, FAPTA
can Physical Therapy Associations Eugene Michels New In- Professor and Director of Research
vestigator Award (1991) and th Jack Walker Award (2000), Department of Physical Therapy
which recognizes published clinical research in Physical Ther- Southwest Missouri State University
apy. Springfield, Missouri
All of these aspects reveal only part of th picture, how
ever, because you must know th man to appreciate him.
P R E F A C E
oui compromising th depth of th material. The textbook is instructive activity involves having students use a skeleton
accompanied by an Evolve website that features an electronic model and a piece of string to mimic a muscles line-of-
image coilection, which includes th majority of th figures force. Groups of students can discuss a muscles potential
in th book. The images, which can be be printed out or action by observing th line-of-force of th string relative
transformed into PowerPoint slides, are available as a teach- to an imaginary axis of rotation through a particular joint.
ing tool for instructors who adopt th book for use in their This exercise helps students to understand th three-dimen-
classes. (Instructors should check with their sales representa- sional nature of muscle actions and how th actions and
tive for further information.) Special Focus features are used strength of a muscle can change with different positions of a
to highlight areas of special interest. Topics in a Special limb. Multiple tables and summary boxes are provided to help
Focus include notable clinical corollaries, distinctive struc- organize th material to facilitate learning.
tural and functional relationships, and reach-out concepts My originai intention in writing this text was to present
designed to stimulate further interest or provide additional kinesiology in a comprehensive, relevant, logicai, and clear
background. Appendices at th end of each of th four sec- manner. This textbook will hopefully inspire others to fur
tions provide useful reference materials. Appendices 11 ther pursue a fascinating and important subject matter. 1
through IV, for example, provide a readily accessible refer intend this first edition to be th beginning of a lifelong
ence to th detailed bony attachments of muscles. This infor endeavor.
mation is useful in laboratory exercises designed to study a
muscles action based on its specific attachments. One very DAN
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s
1 welcome this opportunity to acknowledge a great number activities, including proofreading, verifying references or con-
of people who have provided me with kind and thoughtful cepts, posing for or supplying photographs, taking x-rays,
assistance throughout this long project. I am sure that 1 have and providing elencai assistance. 1 am grateful to Santana
inadvertently overlooked some people and, for that, I apolo Deacon, Monica Diamond, Gregg Fuhrman, Barbara Haines,
g ie . Douglas Heckenkamp, Lisa Hribar, Erika Jacobson, Davin
The best place to start with my offering of thanks is with Kimura, Stephanie Lamon, John Levene, Lorna Loughran,
my immediate family, especially my wife Brenda who, in her Christopher Melkovitz, Melissa Merriman, Alexander Ng, Mi
charming and unselfish style, paved th way for th comple- chael OBrien, Ellen Perkins, Gregory Rajala, Elizabeth Shan-
tion of this project. I thank my son, Donnie, and stepdaugh- ahan, Pamela Swiderski, Donald Taylor, Michelle Tremi,
ter, Megann, for their patience and understanding. I also Stacy Weineke, Sidney White, and David Williams.
thank my caring parents, Betty and Charlie Neumann, for 1 am very fortunate to have this forum to acknowledge
th many opportunities that they have provided me through- those who have made a sigmficant, positive impact on my
out my life. professional life. In a sense, th spirit of these persons is
Four persons signiftcantly influenced th realization of interwoven within this text. I acknowledge Shep Barish for
Kinesiology o f th Musculoskeletal System: Foundations fo r Physi- first inspiring me to teach kinesiology; Martha Wroe for
cal Rehahilitation. Foremost, I wish to thank Elisabeth E. serving as an enduring role model for my praedee of physi
Rowan, th primary medicai illustrator of th text, for her cal therapy; Claudette Finley for providing me with a rich
years of dedication and her uncompromisingly high standard foundation in human anatomy; Patty Altland for emphasizing
of excellence. 1 also extend my gratitude to Drs. Lawrence to Darrell Bennett and myself th importance of noi limiting
Pan and Richard Jensen, present and past directors, respec- th functional potential of our patients; Gary Soderberg for
tively, of th Department of Physical Therapy at Marquette his overall mentorship and finn dedication to principle;
University. These gentlemen unselfishly provided me with Thomas Cook for showing me that all this can be fun; and
th opportunity to fulfill a dream. And, finally, 1 wish to Mary Pat Murray for setting such high standards for kinesiol
thank Scott Weaver, Managing Editor at Harcourt Health ogy education at Marquette University.
Sciences, for his patience and guidance through th final, I wish to acknowledge several special people who have
and most challenging, phases of th project. influenced this project in ways that are difficult to describe.
1 am also indebted to th following persons who contrib- These people include family, old and new friends, profes
uted special chapters to this textbook: David A. Brown, Deb sional colleagues, and, in many cases, a combination thereof.
orah A. Nawoczenski, Guy G. Simoneau, and A. Joseph I thank th following people for their sense of humor or
Threlkeld. 1 am also grateful to th many persons who re- adventure, their loyalty, and their intense dedication to their
viewed chapters, most of whom did so without financial own goals and beliefs, and for their tolerance and under
remuneration. These reviewers are all listed elsewhere in standing of mine. For this 1 thank my four siblings, Chip,
previous sections. Suzan, Nancy, and Barbara; Brenda Neumann, Tad Hardee,
Several people at Marquette University provided me with David Eastwold, Darrell Bennett, Tony Homung, Joseph Ber-
tnvaluable technical and research assistance. I thank Dan man, Robert Morecraft, Bob Myers, Debbie Neumann, Guy
Johnson for much of th digitai photography contained Simoneau, and th Mehlos family, especially Harvey, for al
within this book. 1 appreciate Nick Schroeder, graphic artist, ways asking Hows th book coming?
for always fitting me into his busy schedule. I also wish to Finally, 1 want to thank all of my students, both past and
thank Ljudmila (Milly) Mursec and Rebecca Eagleeye for present, for making my job so rewarding.
their important help with library research.
Many persons affiliated directly or indirectly with Mar
quette University provided assistance with a wide range of DAN
CO N T E N T S
S E C T 1O N I
C i i a p t f. r 4 Biomechanical Principles 56
D e b o r a h A. N a w o c z e n s k i , PT, P h D
D o n a l d A. N e u m a n n , P T , P h D
Ap p e n d ix 1 86
S E C T 1O N 11
Upper Extremity 89
C hapter 3 Shoulder Complex 91
D o n a l d A. N e u m a n n , PT, P h D
S EC T IO N III
A P P L NDI X 1 I 1 381
XXI
XXI1 Conienti
S f. c t i o n IV
c ha pt i r 13 Knee 434
D o n a l d A. N e u m a n n , PT, Ph D
A P P E ND I X I V 5 7 0
Index 577
S E C T I O N I
Essential Topics of
ll:sJ Kinesiology
1 / \ /
:/
I
MF
Axis of
rotatimi O
S E C T 1 O N I
Essential Topics of
Kinesiology
C h a p t e r 4 Biomechanical Principles
Section I is divided into four chapters, each describing a different topic related to
kinesiology. This section provides th background for th more spedire kinesiologic
discussions of th various regions of th body (Sections 11 to IV). Chapter 1 provides
introductory terminology and biomechanical concepts related to kinesiology. Chapter 2
presents th basic anatomie and functional aspeets of joints th pivot points for
movement of th body. Chapter 3 reviews th basic anatomie and functional aspeets of
skeletal muscle th source that produces active movement and stabilization of th
joints. More detailed discussion and quantitative analysis of many of th biomechanical
principles introduced in Chapter 1 are provided in Chapter 4.
2
C h a p t e r 1
Getting Started
Donald A. Neum an n , PT, Ph D
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
FIGURE 1 -1 . An illustration from th anatomy text Tabulae Sceleti et Musculorum Corpons Humani (1747) by
Bernhard Siegfried Albinus.
Translation Compared with Rotation a straight line (rectilinear) or a curved line (curvilinear). While
walking, for example, a point on th head moves in a gen
Translation describes a linear motion in which all parts of a erai curvilinear manner (Fig. 1 - 2 ) .
rigid body move parallel to and in th same direction as Rotation, in contrast, describes a motion in which an as-
every other pari of th body. Translation can occur in either sumed rigid body moves in a circular path aboul some pivot
Chapter 1 Getting Started 5
AXIS OF ROTATION
Bones rotate about a joint in a piane that is perpendicular to
an axis of rotation. The axis is typically located through th
convex member of th joint. The shoulder, for example,
allows movement in all three planes and, therefore, has three
FIGURE 1-3. Using a stroboscopie flash, a camera is able to eapture
axes of rotation (Fig. 1 - 5 ) . Although th three orthogonal
th rotation of th forcami. If not for th anatomie constraints of axes are depicted as stationary, in reality, as in all joints,
th elbow, th forearm could, in theory, rotate 360 degrees about each axis shifts throughout th range of motion. The axis of
an axis of rotation located at th elbow (red circle). rotation remains stationary only if th convex member of a
Many of th terms are specific to a particular region of th body. The thumb, for example, uses differem terminology.
Chapter 1 Gelting Started 7
ie shoulder has three degrees of angular freedom, one l'or toward or away from th body. The proximal segment of a
cM:h piane. The wrist allows two degrees of freedom, and joint in th upper extremity is usually stabilized by muscles
th elbow only one. or gravity, whereas th distai, relatively unconstrained, seg
Unless specified differently throughout this text, th term ment rotates.
zegrees of freedom indicates th number of permitted planes Feeding oneself or throwing a ball are two common ex-
: f angular motion at a joint. From a strict engineering per amples of distal-on-proximal segment kinematics employed
spective, however, degrees of freedom applies to angular as by th upper extremities. The upper extremities are certainly
'>11 as translational movements. All synovial joints in th capable of performing proximal-on-distal segment kinemai-
-ody possess at least some translation, driven actively by ics, such as flexing and extending th elbows while perform-
riuscle, or passively owing to th naturai laxity within th tng a pull-up.
sructure of th joint. The slight passive translations that The lower extremities routinely perform both distal-on-
rceur in most joints are referred to as accessory motions and proximal and proximal-on-distal segment kinematics. These
ire defined in three linear directions. From th anatomie kinematics reflect, in part, th two primary phases of walk-
rosition, th directions correspond to those of th three axes ing: th slance phase, when th limb is planted on th
:: rotation. In th relaxed glenohumeral joint, for example, ground under th load of body weight, and th swing phase,
th humerus can be passively translated anterior-posteriorly, when th limb is advancing forward. Many other activities,
nedial-laterally, and superior-inferiorly (see Fig. 1 - 5 ) . At in addition to walking, use both kinematic strategies. Bend-
nany joints, especially th knee and ankle, th amount of ing th knee in preparation to kick a ball, for example, is a
-anslation is used clinically to test th integrity of ligaments. type of distal-on-proximal segment kinematics (Fig. 1 -6 A ).
Descending into a squat position, in contrast, is an example
of proximal-on-distal segment kinematics (Fig. 1 -6 B ). In
OSTEOKINEMATICS: A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE
this last example, a relatively large demand is placed on th
in generai, th articulations of two body segments constitute quadriceps muscle of th knee to control th graduai descent
i joint. Movement at a joint can therefore be considered of th body.
from two perspectives. (1) th proximal segment can rotate The terms open and closed kinematic chain are frequenti)'
igainst th relatively ftxed distai segment, and (2) th distai used in th physical rehabilitation literature and clinics to
segment can rotate against th relatively fixed proximal seg describe th concep of relative segment kinematics.4-10 A
ment. These two perspectives are shown for knee flexion in kinematic chain refers to a series of articulated segmented
Figure 1 - 6 . A term such as knee flexion, for example, de links, such as th connected pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot of
scribes only th relative motion between th thigh and leg. It th lower extremity. The terms open and closed are typi-
does not describe which of th two segments is actually cally used to indicate whether th distai end of an extremity
rotating. Often, to be clear, it is necessary to state th bone is fixed to th earth or some other immovable object. An
that is considered th primary rotating segment. As in Figure open kinematic chain describes a situation in which th distai
i - 6 , for example, th terms tibial-on-femoral movement or segment of a kinematic chain, such as th foot in th lower
:emoral-on-tibial movement adequately describe th osteokin- limb, is not fixed to th earth or other immovable object. The
ematics. distai segment, therefore, is free to move (see Fig. 1 -6 A ). A
Most routine movements performed by th upper extrem- closed kinematic chain describes a situation in which th distai
:des involve distal-on-proximal segment kinematics. This re- segment of th kinematic chain is fixed to th earth or
Qects th need to bring objects held by th hand either another immovable object. In this case, th proximal seg-
Knee flexion
F1GURE 1-6. Sagittal piane os- Proximal segment fixed Distai segment free
teokinematics at th knee show
an example of (A) distal-on-
proximal segment kinematics
and (B) proximal-on-distal seg
ment kinematics. The axis of
rotation is shown as a circle at
th knee.
A Tibial-on-femoral perspective
8 S ection J Essential Topics o f Kinesiolog)>
Arthrokinematics
1 - 8 ) . Although other terms are used, these are useful for
TVPICAL JOINT M0RPH0L0GY visualizing th relative movements that occur within a joint.
The terms are formally defined in Table 1 - 3 .
Arthrokinematics describes th motion that occurs between th
articular surfaces of joints. As described further in Chapter 2, Roll-and-Slide Movements
th shapes of th articular surfaces of joints range from fiat One primary way that a bone rotates through space is by a
io curved. Most joint surfaces, however, are curved, with rolling of its articular surface against another bones articular
one surface being relatively convex and one relatively con
sui face. The motion is shown for a convex-on-concave sur
cave (Fig. 1 - 7 ) . The convex-concave relationship of most face movement at th glenohumeral joint in Figure 1 -9A .
articulations improves their congruency, inereases th surface The contracting supraspinatus muscle rolls th convex hu-
area for dissipating contact forces, and helps guide th mo meral head against th slight concavity of th glenoid fossa.
tion between th bones.
Iti essence, th roll directs th osteokinematic path of th
abducting shaft of humerus.
FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENTS BETWEEN JOINT A rolling convex surface typically involves a concurrent,
SURFACES oppositely directed slide. As shown in Figure 1 -9A , th
inferior-directed slide of th humeral head offsets most of th
Fhree lundamental movements exist between joint surfaces:
potential superior migration of th rolling humeral head. The
roti, slide, and, spiti." These movements occur as a convex
offsetting roll-and-slide kinematics is analogous to a tire on a
surface moves on a concave surface, and vice versa (Fig.
car that is spinning on a sheet of ice. The potential for th
Movement Defnition
Analogy
Roll*
Multiple points along one rotating articular surface contact multiple
A tire rotating across a stretch of pavemenl.
points on another articular surface.
Slidet
A single poim on one articular surface contacts multiple points on
A stationary tire skiddmg across a stretch of icy
another articular surface.
Spin pavement.
A single pomi on one articular surface rotates on a single point on
A rotating toy top on one spot on th floor.
another articular surface.
Convex-on-concave arthrokinematics
Concave-on-convex arthrokinematics
FIGURE 1 -8 . Three fundamental movements between joint surfaces: roll, slide, and spin. A, Convex-on-concave
arthrokinematics; B, concave-on-convex arthrokinematics.
tire to rotate forward on th icy pavement is offset by a changing th leverage of th muscles that cross th glenohu-
continuous sliding of th lire in th opposite direction to th meral joint. As shown in Figure 1 -9 A , th concurrent roll
intended rotation. A classic pathologic example of a convex and slide maximizes th angular displacement of th abduct-
surface rolling without an off-setting slide is shown in Figure ing humerus, and minimizes th net translation between
1 -9 B . The humeral head translates upward and impinges joint surfaces. This mechanism is particularly important in
th delicate tissues in th subacromial space. The migration joints in which th articular surface area on th convex
alters th relative location of th axis of rotation, thereby member exceeds that of th concave member.
10 Seniori l Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
FIGURE 1-9. Arthrokinematics ai ihe glenohumeral joint during abduction. The glenoid fossa is concave, and ihe humeral head is
convex. A, Roll-and-slide anhrokinematics lypical of a convex articular surface moving on a relatively siationary concave articular
surface. B, Consequences of a roll occurring without a sufficieni off-setting slide.
Spin
axis of th long bone intersects th surface of its articular
Another primary way that a bone rotates is by a spinning of mate at right angles.
its articular surface against th articular surface of another
bone. This occurs as th radius of th forearm spins against Motions That Combine Roll-and-Slide and Spin
th capitulum of th humerus during pronation of th fore Arthrokinematics
arm (Fig. 1 - 1 0 ). Other examples include internai and exter- Severa! joints throughout th body combine roll-and-slide
nal rotation of th 90-degree abducted glenohumeral joint with spin arthrokinematics. A classic example of this combi-
and llexion and extension of th hip. Spinning is th pri nation occurs during flexion and extension of th knee. As
mary mechanism for joint rotation when th longitudinal shown during femoral-on-tibial knee extension (Fig. 1 -1 1 A ),
th femur spins internally slightly, as th femoral condyle
rolls and slides relative to th fixed tibia. These arthrokine
matics are also shown as th tibia extends relative to th
fixed lemur in Figure 1 116. In th knee, th spinning
motion that occurs with flexion and extension occurs auto-
matically and is mechanically linked to th primary motion
of extension. As described in Chapter 13, th obligatory
spinning rotation is based on th shape of th articular
surfaces at th knee. The conjunct rotation helps to securely
lock th knee joint when fully extended.
Mediai
epicondyle PREDICTING AN ARTHROKINEMATIC PATTERN
BASED ON JOINT M0RPH0L0GY
As previously stated, most articular surfaces of bones are
either convex or concave. Depending on which bone is mov-
ing, a convex surface may rotate on a concave surface or
vice versa (compare Fig. 1 - 1 1 A with l - l 16). Each scenario
presents a different roll-and-slide arthrokinematic pattern. As
depicted in Figure 1 - 11A and 1 -9 A for th shoulder, dur
ing a convex-on-concave movement, th convex surface rolls
and slides in apposite directions. As previously described, th
contradirectional slide offsets th translation tendency inher-
ent to th rolling convex surface. During a concave-on-convex
movement, as depicted in Figure 1 - 1 1 6 , th concave surface
FIGURE 1-10. Pronation of th forearm shows an example of a rolls and slides in similar directions. These two principles are
spinning motion between th head of th radius and th capitulum very useful for visualizing th arthrokinematics during a
of th humerus.
movement. In addition, th principles serve as a basis for
Chapter 1 Getting Storteci 11
FIGURE 1-11. Extension of th knee demonstrates a combinaiion of roll-and-slide with spin arthrokinematics. The
femoral condyle is convex, and th tibial plateau is slightly concave. A, Femoral-on-tibial (knee) extension. B, Tibial-on-
femoral (knee) extension.
some marmai therapy techniques. External forces may be combined effect of th maximum joint congruity and
applied by th clinician ihat assist or guide th naturai ar stretched ligaments helps to provide transarticular stability to
throkinematics at th joint. For example, in certain circum- th knee.
stances, glenohumeral abduction can be facilitateci by apply- All positions other than a join ts close-packed position are
mg an inferior-directed force at th proximal humerus, referred io as th joints loose-packed positions. In these posi
stmultaneously with an active-abduction effort. The arthro- tions, th ligaments and capsule are relatively slackened,
kinematic principles do, however, require a knowledge ol allowing an increase in accessory movements. The joint is
me joint surface morphology. generally least congruent near its mid range. In th lower
extremity, th loose-packed positions of th major joints are
biased toward flexion. These positions are generally not used
Arthrokincmatic Principles of Movemenl during standing, bui frequently are preferred by th patient
1. For a convex-on-concave surface movement, th convex during long periods of immobilization, such as extended bed
member rolls and slides in apposite directons. rest.
2. For a concave-on-convex surface movement, th concave
member rolls and slides in smular directons.
KINETICS
m
S P E C I A L F O C U S
U N LO AD ED T E N S IO N
Body Weight Compared with Body Mass
FIGURE 1-13. The stress-strain curve of an excised ligament is shown that has been stretched io a
poini of mechanical failure (disruption). The ligament is considered an elastic tissue. Zone A shows
th nonlinear region. Zone B (elastic zone) shows th linear relationship between stress and strain,
demonstrating th stiffness of th tissue. Zone C indicates th mechanical property of plasticity.
Zones D and E demonstrate th points of progressive mechanical failure of th tissue. (Modifted
with permission from Neumann DA: Arthrokinesiologic considerations for th aged aduli. In
Guccione AA (ed): Geriatrie Physical Therapy, 2nd ed. Chicago, Mosby-Year Book, 2000.)
and abnormally large stretch, th tissue generates only mar lage in th knee, for example, becomes stiffer as th rate of
ginai increases in tension as it continues to elongate. At this compression increases,7 such as during running. The in-
point, th ligament is experiencing microscopie failure and creased stiffness affords greater protecton to th underlying
remains permanently deformed. The area under th curve bone at a time when joint forces are greatest.
(gray) represents plastic deformation energy. Unlike th elastic
deformation energy (region B), th plastic energy is not re-
INTERNAI. AND EXTERNAL FORCES
coverable in its entirety when th deforming force is re-
leased. As elongation continues, th ligament reaches its ini- The principal forces acting to move and stabilize th muscu
tial point of failure in zone D and complete failure in zone E. loskeletal System can be conveniently divided into two sets:
The graph in Figure 1 - 1 3 does not indicate th variable internai and external. Internai forces are produced from
of time. Tissues in which th stress-strain curve changes as a structures located within th body. These forces may be ac-
function of time are considered viscoelastic. Most tissues tive or passive. Active forces are generated by stimulated
within th musculoskeletal System demonstrate at least some muscle, generally under volitional control. Passive forces, in
degree of viscoelasticity (Fig. 1 - 1 5 ) . One phenomenon of a contrast, are typically generated by tension in stretched peri-
viscoelastic material is creep. As demonstrated by th tree articular connective tissues, including th intramuscular con
branch in Figure 1 - 1 5 , creep describes a progressive strain nective tissues, ligaments, and joint capsules. Active forces
of a material when exposed to a Constant load over time. produced by muscles are typically th largest of all internai
The phenomenon of creep explains why a person is taller in forces.
th moming than at night. The Constant compression caused External forces are typically produced by forces acting
by body weight on th spine throughout th day literally from outside th body. These forces usually originate from
squeezes fluid out of th intervertebral discs. The fluid is either gravity pulling on th mass of a body segment or an
reabsorbed at night while th sleeping person is in a non- external load, such as that of luggage or free weights, or
weight-bearing position. physical contact, such as that applied by a therapist against
The stress-strain curve of a viscoelastic material is also th limb of a patient. Figure 1 -1 6 A shows an opposing pair
sensitive to th rate of loading of th tissue. In generai, th of internai and external forces: an internai force (muscle),
slope of a stress-strain relationship when placed under ten pulling th forearm, and an external (graviiaiional) force,
sion or compression increases throughout its elastic range as pulling on th center of mass of th forearm. Each force is
th rate of th loading increases.8 The rate-sensitivity nature depicted by an arrow that represents a vector. By definition,
of viscoelastic connective tissues may protect surrounding a vector is a quantity that is completely specified by its
structures within th musculoskeletal System. Articular carti- magnitude and its direction. (Quantities such as mass or
14 Sechoti I Essential Topici o j Kinesiology
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 - 2
Productive Antagonismi The Body's Ability to Convert duced by muscle B is used to stretch muscle A, and th
Passive Tension into Useful Work cycle is repeated.
As previously described, connective tissue produces ten This transfer and Storage of energy between opposing
sion when stretched. Since tension is a force, it has th muscles is useful in terms of overall metabolic efficiency.
ability to do work. Several examples are presented This phenomenon is often expressed in different ways by
throughout this text in which th tension produced by multiarticular muscles (i.e., muscles that cross several
stretched connective tissues performs useful functions. joints). Consider th rectus femoris, a muscle that flexes
This phenomenon is called productive antagonism and is th hip and extends th knee. During th upward phase of
demonstrated for a pair of muscles in th simplified model jumping, for example, th rectus femoris contracts to ex-
in Figure 1-14. As shown in th middle, part of th en- tend th knee. At th same time, th extending hip
ergy produced by active contraction of muscle A is trans- stretches th active rectus femoris across th front of th
ferred and stored as an elastic energy in th stretched hip. As a consequence, th overall shortening of th rec
connective tissues within muscle B. The elastic energy is tus femoris is minimized, thereby maintaining a low level
released as muscle B actively contracts to drive th nail of useful passive tension within th muscle.
into th board (lower). Part of th contractile energy pro
'r
Externalforce External force
16 Section / Essential Topics of Kinesiology
greater detail in Chapter 3 and briefly summarized subse- A MUSCLES ACTION AT A JOINT
Titly.
A muscles action at a joint is defined as its potential to cause
Isometrc activation occurs when a muscle is producing a
a torque in a particular rotation direction and piane. The
e while maintaining a Constant length. This type of acti
actual naming of a muscles action is based on an established
on is apparent by th origin of th word isometric (from
nomenclature, such as flexion or extension in th sagittal
Greek isos, equal; and metron, measure or length). Dur-
piane, abduction or adduction in th frontal piane, and so
an isometric activation, th internai torque produced at a
forth. The terms muscle action and joint action are used
t is equal to th external torque; hence, there is no
interchangeably throughout this text, depending on th con-
nuscle shortening or rotaiing at th joint (Fig. 1-1 8 A ).
text of th discussion. If th action is associated with a
Concentric activation occurs as a muscle produces a force
nonisometric muscle activation, th resulting osteokinematics
rs it contracts (shortens) (Fig. 1 -1 8 B ). Literally, concentric
may involve distal-on-proximal segment kinematics, or vice
means coming to th center. During a concentric activa-
versa, depending on th relative stability of th two segments
on, th internai torque at th joint exceeds th opposing
that comprise th joint.
lemal torque. This is reflected by th faci that th muscle
Kinesiology allows one to determine th action of a mus
- ontracted and accelerated a rotation of th joint in th
cle, without relying purely on memory. Suppose th student
direction of th activated muscle.
desires to determine th action of th posterior deltoid at th
Eccentric activation, in contrast, occurs as a muscle pro-
glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. In this particular analysis,
-uces an active force while being elongated. The word ec- two assumptions are made. First, it is assumed that th
centric literally means away from th center. During an humerus is th freest segment of th joint, and that th
eccentric activation, th external torque about th joint ex scapula is ftxed, although th reverse assumption could have
ceeds th internai torque. In this case, th joint rotates in been made. Second, il is assumed that th body is in th
die direction dictated by th relatively larger external torque, anatomie position at th time of th muscle activation.
such as that produced by th cable in Figure 1 -1 8 C . Many The first step in th analysis is to determine th planes of
common activities employ eccentric activations of muscle. rotary motion (degrees of freedom) allowed at th joint. In
Slowly lowering a cup of water to a table, for example, is this case, th glenohumeral joint allows rotation in all three
caused by th pul of gravity on th forearm and water. The planes (see Fig. 1 - 5 ) . Figure 1 -1 9 A shows th potential for
activated biceps slowly elongates in order to control their th posterior deltoid to rotate th humerus in th frontal
descent. The triceps muscle, although considered as an el- piane. The axis of rotation at th joint passes in an anterior-
bow extensor, is most likely inactive during this particular posterior direction through th humeral head. In th ana
process. tomie position, th line-of-force of th posterior deltoid
The term contraction is often used synonymously with passes inferior to th axis of rotation. By assuming that th
activation, regardless of whether th muscle is actually scapula is stable, th posterior deltoid would rotate th hu
shortening, lengthening, or remaining at a Constant length. merus toward adduction, with a strength equal to th prod
The term contract literally means to be drawn together and, uci of th muscle force multiplied by its internai moment
therefore, its use can be confusing when describing either an arm. This same logie is next applied to determine th mus
isometric or eccentric activation. Technically, a contracting cles action in th horizontal and sagittal planes. As depicted
muscle occurs during a concentric activation only. in Figure 1 - 1 9B and C, it is apparent that th muscle is also
Frontal Piane
Horizontal Piane Sagittal Piane
B
Posterior view Superior view Lateral view
FIGURE 1-19. The multiple actions of th posterior deltoid are shown at th glenohumeral joint. A, Adduction in th
frontal piane. B, External rotation in th horizontal piane. C, Extension in th sagittal piane. The internai moment arm
is shown extending from th axis of rotation (small cirele through humeral head) io a perpendicular intersection with
th muscles hne-of-force.
an external (lateral) rotator and an extensor of th glenohu Actually, most meaningful movements of th body involve
meral joint. multiple muscles acting as synergists. Consider, for example,
The logie so presented can be used to determine th th flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis muscles
action of any muscle in th body, at any joint. If available, an during flexion of th wrist. The muscles act synergistically
articulated skeleton model and a piece of string that mimics because they cooperate to flex th wrist. Each muscle, how
th line-of-force of a muscle is helpful in applying thts logie. ever, must neutralize th others tendency to move th wrist
This exercise is particularly helpful when analyzing a muscle in a side-to-side (radiai and ulnar deviation) fashion. Paraly-
whose action switches, depending on th position of th sis of one of th muscles signifcanily affeets th overall
joint. One such muscle is th posterior deltoid. From th action of th other.
anatomie position, th posterior deltoid is an adductor of th
glenohumeral joint. If th arm is lifted (abducted) fully over-
head, however, th line-of-force of th muscle shifts just to
th superior side of th axis of rotation. As a consequence,
th posterior deltoid actively abduets th shoulder. This shift
can be visualized with th aid of Figure 1-19A . The exam-
ple shows how one muscle can have opposite actions, de
pending on th position of th joint at th Lime of muscle
activation. lt is importane therefore, to establish a reference
position for th joint when analyzing th actions of a mus
cle. One common reference position is th anatomie position
(see Fig. 1 - 4 ) . Unless otherwise specified, th actions of
muscles described throughout Sections II to IV are based on
th assumption that th joint is in th anatomie position.
b ib l io t e c a
CASA DE ESTUDIOS
PROVIDENCIA
Chapter I Getting Started 19
Another example of muscle synergy is described as a half his w'eight, who is sitting twice th distance from th
uscular force-couple. A muscular force-couple is formed pivot point. In Figure 1 - 2 1 , th opposing torques are equal:
hen two or more muscles simultaneously produce forces in
cifferent linear directions, although die torques act in th BWm X D = BWb X D,.
siine rotary direction. A familiar analogy of a force couple
occurs between th two hands while tuming a steering As indicated, th boy has th greatest leverage (D,). Leverage
-heel of a car. Rotating th steering w'heet to th right, for describes th relative moment arm length possessed by a
-ixample, occurs by th action of th right hand pulling particular force.
down and th left hand pulling up on th wheel. Although Internai and extemal forces produce torques throughout
th hands are producing forces in different linear directions, th body through a System of bony levers. The most impor-
they cause a torque on th steering wheel in a common tant forces involved with musculoskeletal levers are those
mtary direction. The hip flexor and low back extensor mus- produced by muscle, gravity, and physical contacts within
des, for example, form a force-couple to rotate th pelvis in th environment. Levers are classified as either first, second,
me sagittal piane about both hip joints (Fig. 1 - 2 0 ). or third class.
First-Class Lever. As depicted in Figure 1 - 2 1 , th first-
Musculoskeletal Levers class lever has its axis of rotation positioned between th
THREE CLASSES OF LEVERS opposing forces. An example of a frst-class lever in th body
is th head-and-neck extensor muscles that control th pos
A lever is a simple machine consisting of a rod suspended ture of th head in sagittal piane (Fig. 1 -2 2 A ). As in th
across a pivot point. The seesaw is a classic example of a seesaw' example, th head is held in equilibrium when th
iever. One function of a lever is to convert a force into a product of th muscle force (MF) multiplied by th internai
torque. As shown in th seesaw' in Figure 1 - 2 1 , a 672-N moment arm (IMA) equals th product of head weight (F1W)
(about 150-lb) man sitting 0.91 m (about 3 fi) from th multiplied by its extemal moment arm (EMA). In first-class
pivot point produces a torque that balances a boy weighing levers, th internai and extemal forces typically act in similar
FIGURE 1-21. A seesaw is shown as a typical first-class lever. The body weight of th man (BWm) is 672 N (about 150 lb). He is
sitting .91 m (about 3 ft) from th pivot point (D). The body weight of th boy (BWb) is only .336 N (about 75 lb). He is sitting
1.82 m (about 6 ft) from th pivot point (D,). The seesaw is balanced since th clockwise torque produced by th man is equal
in magnitude to th counterclockwise torque produced by th boy: 672 N X .91 m = 336 N X 1.82 m.
First-class Iever
MF x IMA = HW x EMA
MF = HW x EMA
IMA
MF = 46.7 N x 3.2 cm
4.0 cm
MF = 37.4 N (8.4 Ibs)
Sccond-class Iever
M F x IMA = BW x EMA
MF = BW x EMA
IMA
MF = 667 N x 3.0 cm
12.0 cm
MF = 166.8 N (37.5 Ibs)
Third-class Iever
Data for third-class Iever:
Muscle force (MF) = unknown
External weight (EW) = 66.7 N (15 Ibs)
Internai moment arm (IMA) = 5.0 cm
External moment arm (EMA) = 35.0 cm
Mechanical advantage - .143
MF x IMA = EW x EMA
MF = EW x EMA
IMA
MF = 66.7 N x 35.0 cm
5.0 cm
MF = 467.0 N (105.0 Ibs)
FIGURE 1-22. Anatomie examples are shown of frst- (A), second- (B), and third- (C) class levers. (The
vectors are not drawn to scale.) The data contained in th boxes to th right show how io calcitiate th
muscle force required lo maintain static rotary equilibrium. Note ihai th mechanical advantage is
indicated in each box. The muscle activation is isometric in each case, with no movement occurring at
th joint.
20
Chapter 1 Cetting Storteci 21
ar directions, although they produce torques in opposing holding an extemal weight of 3 5 .6N (8 lb) in th hand. For
ry directions. th sake of this example, assume that th muscles have an
internai moment arm of 2.5 cm (about 1 in) and that th
Second-Class Lever. A second-class lever has two
center of mass of th extemal weight has an extemal mo
.nique features. First, its axis of rotation is located at one
ment arm of 50 cm (about 20 in). (For simplicity, th
id of a bone. Second, th muscle, or internai force, pos-
weight of th limb is ignored.) The 1/20 MA requires that
iisses greater leverage than th extemal force. As illustrateci
th muscle would have to produce 711.7N (160 lb) of force,
Figure 1 - 2 2 6 , a calf muscle group uses a second-class
or twenty times th weight of th extemal load! As a generai
:ver to produce th torque needed to stand on tiptoes. The
principle, skeletal muscles produce forces several times
i-xis of rotation for this action is through th metatarsopha-
larger than th extemal loads that oppose them. Depending
mgeal joints. The internai moment arm used by calf mus-
on th shape of th muscle and configuration of th joint, a
es greatly exceeds th extemal moment arm used by body
certain percentage of th muscle force produces large com-
eight. Second-class levers are rare in th musculoskeletal
pression or shear forces at th joint surfaces. Periarticular
system.
tissues, such as articular cartilage, fat pads, and bursa, must
Third-Class Lever. As in th second-class lever, th partially absorb or dissipate these large myogenic (muscular-
-fard-class lever has its axis of rotation located at one end of produced) forces. In th absence of such protection, joints
a bone. The elbow flexor muscles use a third-class lever to may partially degenerate and become painful and chroncally
"roduce th flexion torque required to support a barbell inflamed. This presentation is th hallmark of severe osteoar-
rig. 1 -2 2 C ). Unlike th second-class lever, th extemal thritis.
weight supported by a third-class lever always has greater
Dictating th "Trade-off" between Force and Distance
iverage than th muscle force. The third-class lever is th
most common lever used by th musculoskeletal System. As previously described, most muscles are obligated to pro
duce a force much greater than th resistance applied by th
extemal load. At first thought, this design may appear
VIECHANICAL ADVANTAGE flawed. The design is absolutely necessary, however, when
th large distances and velocities experienced by th more
The mechanical advantage (MA) of a musculoskeletal lever is
distai points of th extremities are considered.
iefined as th ratio of th internai moment arm to th
Work is th product of force times distance (see Chapter
extemal moment arm. Depending on th location of th axis
4). In addition to converting a force to a torque, a musculo-
3i rotation, th first-class lever can have an MA equal to, less
skeletal lever converts th work of a contracting muscle to
than, or greater than one. Second-class levers always have an
th work of a rotating bone. The mechanical advantage of a
MA greater than one. As depicted in th boxes associated
musculoskeletal lever dictates how th work is converted
with Figure 1 -2 2 A and B, lever systems with an MA greater
through either a relatively large force exerted over a short
than one are able to balance th torque equilibrium equation
distance or a small force exerted over a large distance. Con
by an internai (muscle) force that is less than th extemal
sider th small mechanical advantage of 1/20 described ear-
force. Third-class levers always have an MA less than one.
lier for th supraspinatus and deltoid muscles. This mechani
As depicted in Figure 1 -2 2 C , in order to balance th torque
cal advantage implies that th muscle must produce a force
equilibrium equation, th muscle must produce a force
20 times greater than th weight of th extemal load. What
much greater than th opposing extemal force.
must also be considered, however, is that th muscles need
to contract only 5% (1/20) th distance that th center of
mass of th load would be raised by th abduction action. A
Mechanical Advantage (MA) is equal to th Internai very short contraction distance of th muscles produces a
Moment Arin/External Moment Arm very large angular displacement of th arm.
Although all points throughout th abducting arm share
First-class levers may have an MA less than 1, equal to 1, th same angular displacement and velocity, th more distai
or more than 1.
points on th arm move at an even greater linear displace
Second-class levers always have an MA more than 1.
ment and velocity. The ability of a short contraction range to
Third-class levers always have an MA less than 1.
generate large velocities of th limb may have an important
physiologic advantage for th muscle. As explained in Chap
ter 3, a muscle produces its maximal force within only a
The majority of muscles throughout th musculoskeletal relatively narrow range of its overall length.
System function with a mechanical advantage of much less In summary, most muscle and joint systems in th body
than one, and, actually, it may be more appropriate to cali function with a mechanical advantage of less than one. The
this a mechanical disadvantage! Consider, for example, th muscles and underlying joints must, therefore, pay th
biceps at th elbow, th quadriceps at th knee, and th price by generating and dispersing relative large forces, re-
supraspinatus and deltoid at th shoulder. Each of these spectively, even for seemingly low-load activities. Obtaining
muscles attaches to bone relatively dose to th join ts axis of a high linear velocity of th distai end of th extremities is a
rotation. The extemal forces that oppose th action of th necessity for generating large contact forces against th envi-
muscles typically exert their influence considerably distally to ronment. These high forces can be used to rapidly accelerate
th joint, such as ai th hand or th foot. Consider th force objects held in th hand, such as a tennis racket, or to
demands placed on th supraspinatus and deltoid muscles accelerate th limbs purely as an expression of art and ath-
to maintain th shoulder abducted to 90 degrees while leticism, such as dance.
22 Section 1 Essential Topics o j Kinesiology
M S P E C I A L F O C U S
pressioni application of one or more forces that press Line-of-force: direction of a muscles force.
n object or objects together. Compression tends to Line-of-gravity: direction of th gravitational pul on a
morten and widen a material. body.
ttcentric activation: activated muscle that shortens as it Load: generai term that describes th application of a force
produces a force. to a body.
:ep: a progressive strain of a material when exposed to a Longitudinal axis: axis that extends within and parallel to a
Constant load over lime, long bone or body segment.
i- grees of freedom: number of independent movements Loose-packed positions: positions of most joints of th
\ allowed at a joint. A joint can have up to three degrees of body where th articular surfaces are least congment, and
| translation and three degrees of rotation. th ligaments are slackened.
Desplacement: change in th linear or angular position of an Mass: quantity of matter in an object.
f object. Mechanical advantage: ratio of th internai moment arm to
- stal-on-proximal segment kinematics: type of movement th extemal moment arm.
in which th distai segment of a joint rotates relative to a
Muscle action: potential of a muscle to produce an internai
fixed proximal segment falso called an open kinematic
torque within a particular piane of motion and rotar)'
' chain).
direction falso called joint action when referring specifi
Enstraction: movement of two objects away from one an-
cali)' to a muscles potential to rotate a joint). Terms that
other.
describe a muscle action are flexion, extension, pronation,
Eicentric activation: activated muscle that is elongating as it
supination, and so forth.
produces a force.
Elasticity: property of a material demonstrated by its ability Osteokinematics: motion of bones relative to th three Car
to return to its originai length after th removai of a dinal, or principal, planes.
deforming force. Passive force: push or pul generated by sources other than
Esternai force: push or pul produced by sources located stimulated muscle, such as tension in stretched periarticu-
outside th body. These typically include gravity and lar connettive tissues, physical contact, and so forth.
physical contact applied against th body. Passive movement: motion produced by a source other
Esternai moment arm: distance between th axis of ro than activated muscle.
tation and th perpendicular intersection with an extemal Plasticity: property of a material demonstrated by remaining
force. permanently defotmed after th removai of a force.
Extemal torque: product of an extemal force and its exter- Pressure: force divided by a surface area falso called stress).
nal moment arm falso called extemal moment). Produttive antagonismi phenomenon in which relatively
Force: a push or a pul that produces, arrests, or modifies a low-level tension within stretched connettive tissues per-
motion. forms a useful function.
Force-couple: interaction of two or more muscles acting in Proximal-on-distal segment kinematics: type of movement
different linear directions, bui producing a torque in th in which th proximal segment of a joint rotates relative
same rotary direction. to a fixed distai segment falso referred to as a closed
Force of gravity: potential acceleration of a body to th kinematic chain).
center of th earth due to gravity. Rolli multiple points along one rotating articular surface
Friction: resistance to movement between two contacting contact multiple points on another articular surface. (Also
surfaces. called rock.)
Internai force: push or pul produced by a strutture located Rotation: angular motion in which a rigid body moves in a
within th body. Most often internai force refers to that circular path about a pivot point or an axis of rotation.
produced by an attive muscle.
Scalar: quantity, such as speed and temperature, that is
Internai moment arm: distance between th axis of rotation
completely specified by its magnitude and has no direc
and th perpendicular intersection with a muscle (inter
tion.
nai) force.
Segment: any pari of a body or limb.
Internai torque: product of an internai force and its internai
Shear: forces on a material that act in opposite but parallel
moment arm.
directions (like th action of a pair of scissors).
Isometric activation: activated muscle that maintains a Con
stant length as it produces a force. Shock absorption: ability to dissipate forces.
Joint reaction force: push or pul produced by one joint Slide: single point on one articular surface contacts multiple
surface against another. points on another articular surface. (Also called glide.)
Kinematics: branch of mechanics that describes th motion Spini single point on one articular surface rotates on a single
of a body, without regard to th forces or torques that point on another articular surface flike a toy top).
may produce th motion. Static linear equilibrium: state of a body at rest in which
Kinematic chain: series of articulated segmented links, such th sum of all forces is equal to zero.
as th connected pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot of th lower Static rotary equilibrium: state of a body at rest in which
extremity. th sum of all torques is equal to zero.
Kinetics: branch of mechanics that describes th effect of Stiffness: ratio of stress (force) to strain (elongation) within
forces on th body. an elastic material.
Leverage: relative moment arm length possessed by a partic- Strain: ratio of a tissues deformed length to its originai
ular force. length.
24 Section 1 Essentia Topics o f Kinesiology
Stress: force generateci as a tissue resists deformation, di- of kinesiology are provided. Chapters 2 to 4 give additional
vided by its cross-sectional area falso called pressure). background on th essentia topics of kinesiology. This
Synergists: two muscles that cooperate to execute a particu- material then sets th foundation for th more anatomic-
lar movement. based chapters, starting with th shoulder complex in Chap-
Tensioni application of one or more forces that pulls apart ter 5.
or separates a material. (Also called a distraction force.)
Used to denote th internai stress within a tissue as it
resists being stretched. REFERENCES
Torque: a force multiplied by its moment arm; tends io 1 Brand PW: Clinica! Biomechanics of thc Hand. Si Louis, CV Mosby
rotate a body or segment about an axis of rotation. 1985
Torsioni application of a force that twists a material about 2. Bynum EB, Barrack RL, Alexander AH: Open versus closed chain kt-
its longitudinal axis. netic exercises after anierior cruciale iigament reconstruction. Am J
Sports Med 23:401-406, 1995.
Translation: linear motion in which all parts of a rigid body
3. Fitzgerald GK: Open versus closed kineiic chan exercises: Afler anteiior
move parallel to and in th same direction as every other cruciale ligament reconstructive surgery Phys Ther 77:1747-1754
point in th body. 1997.
Vector: quantity, such as velocity or force, that is completely 4. Gowitzke BA, Milner M: Scienufic Bases of Human Movement, 3rd ed.
specified by its magnitude and direction. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1988.
5. Hardee EB 111: Personal commumcation. Afton, VA, 2002.
Velocity: change in position of a body over rime, expressed 6. Neumann DA: Arthrokinesiologic considerations for th aged adult. In
in linear (m/s) and angular (degrees/s) terms. Gucaone AA: Geriatrie Physical Therapy, 2nd ed. Chicago, Mosby-Year
Viscoelasticity: property of a material expressed by a chang- Book, 2000
ing stress-strain relationship over time. 7. Nordin M, Frankel VH: Basic Biomechanics of th Musculoskeletai Sys
tem, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1989.
Weight: gravitational force acting on a mass.
8. Panjabi MM, Whtte AA: Biomechanics in th Musculoskeletai System
New York, Churchill Livingstone, 2001.
9. Rodgers MM, Cavanagh PR: Glossary of biomechanical terms, concepts,
SUMMARY and units. Phys Ther 64:1886-1902, 1984.
10. Steindler A: Kinesiology' of th Human Body: Under Normal and Patho-
logtcal Conditions. Springfield, Charles C Thomas, 1955.
Many of th basic biomechanical principles and essentia 11. Williams PL, Bannister LH, Berry M, et al: Gray's Anatomy, 38th ed.
terms and concepts used to communicate th subject matter New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995.
C h a p t e r 2
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF AXIS OF ROTATION, 31 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue, 32
JOINTS, 25 Articular Cartilage, 34
BI0L0GIC MATERIALS THAT FORM
Classification Based on Anatomie Fibrocartiiage, 35
CONNECTIVE TISSUES WITHIN
Structure and Movement Potential, 25 JOINTS, 31 Bone, 36
Synarthrosis, 25 Fibers, 31 EFFECTS OF AGING, 37
Amphiarthrosis, 25
Ground Substance, 32 EFFECTS OF IMMOBILIZATION ON THE
Diarthrosis: The Synovial Joint, 26 Cells, 32
Classification of Synovial Joints Based on STRENGTH OF THE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Mechanical Analogy, 27 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES THAT OF A JOINT, 37
Simplifying th Classification of Synovial FORM THE STRUCTURE OF JOINTS, 32 JOINT PATHOLOGY, 38
Joints: Ovoid and Saddle Joints, 30
Synarthrosis Dense, irregular connective Negligible Binds bones within a Sutures of th skull
tissue functional unit; dis Teeth embedded in sockets of
perses forces across th th maxillae and mandible
joined bones Interosseous membrane of th
forearm and leg
Distai tibiofibular joint
Amphiarthrosis Hyaline cartilage or fibro- Minimal to moderate Provides a combination of Intervertebral disc (within th
cartilage relatively restrained interbody joints of th
movement and shock spine)
absorption Xiphistemal joint
Pubic symphysis
Manubriosternal joint
Diarthrosis Trae joint space filled Extensive Provides th primary Glenohumeral joint
(synovial joint) with synovial fluid and pivot points for move Tibiofemoral (knee) joint
surrounded by a cap ment of th musculo- Interphalangeal joint
sule skeletal System Apophyseal (facet) joint of th
spine
and embedded nucleus pulposus to provide a rugged, resil- articular capsule. The articular capsule is composed of two
ient cushion that absorbs and disperses forces between adja- histologically distinct layers. The internai layer consists of a
cent vertebrae. Other examples of amphiarthrodial joints are thin (4) synovial membrane, which averages three to ten celi
th pubic symphysis and th manubriosternal joint. These layers thick. The membrane acts as a barrier to adjacent
joints allow relatively restrained movements. They also trans- capillaries, permitting only th fluid and solutes of blood
mit and disperse forces between bones. plasma into th synovial fluid of a normal joint. Blood cells
and large proteins, such as antibodies, are normally excluded
from th synovial space. The cells of th synovial membrane
DiARTHROSIS: THE SVNOVIAL JOINT
also manufacture and add hyaluronate and lubricating glyco-
A diarthrosis is an articulation that contains a fluid-filled proteins (i.e., lubricin) to th joint fluid.26
joint cavity between bony partners. Because of th presence The external, or fibrous, layer of th articular capsule of
of a synovial membrane, diarthrodial joints are more fre- th synovial joint is composed of dense irregular connective
quently referred to as synovial joints. Synovial joints are th tissue. The articular capsule provides support between th
majority of th joints of th upper and lower extremities. bones and containment of th joint contents. Certain regions
Diarthrodial, or synovial, joints are specialized for move of th fibrous capsule are thicker in order to resist or control
ment and always exhibit seven elements (Fig. 2 - 1 ) . The specific motions. The thickened regions of connective tissue
joint cavity is filled with (1) synovial fluid. This provides represent (5) capsular ligaments. Examples of prominent cap-
nutrition and lubrication for th (2) articular cartilage that sular ligaments are th anterior glenohumeral ligaments and
covers th ends of th bones. The joint is enclosed by a th mediai collateral ligament of th knee. The joint capsule
peripheral curtain of connective tissue that forms th (3) is supplied with small (6) blood vessels with capillary beds
Tendon
Chapter 2 Basic Structure and Function o j th Joints 27
that penetrate as far as th junction of th fbrous capsule size and positioned within th substance of th joint capsule,
and synovial membrane. The (7) sensory nerves also supply interposed between th fbrous capsule and th synovial
th fbrous capsule with appropriate receptors for pain and membrane. Fat pads are most prominent in th elbow and
proprioception. th knee joints. They thicken th joint capsule, causing th
To accommodate th wide spectrum of joint shapes and inner surface of th capsule to fili nonarticulating synovial
iunctional demands, other elements may sometimes appear spaces (i.e., recesses) formed by incongruent bony contours.
in synovial joints (see Fig. 2 - 1 ) . Inttaarticular discs, or In this sense, fat pads reduce th volume of synovial fluid
nenisci, are pads of fibrocartilage imposed between th artic- necessary for proper joint function. If these pads become
ular surfaces of synovial joints. These structures increase enlarged or inflamed, they may alter th mechanics of th
articular congruency and improve force dispersion. Intraar- joint.
ucular discs and menisci are found in several joints of th Synovial plicae (i.e., synovial folds, synovial redundancies,
:ody (see Box). Menisci are occasionally found in th or synovial fringes) are slack, overlapped pleats of tissue
apophyseal joints of th spine, but their function, constancy, composed of th innermost layers of th joint capsule. They
and frequency remain controversial.1-8-29-30 occur normally in joints with large capsular surface areas
such as th knee and elbow. Plicae increase synovial surface
area and allow full joint motion without undue tension on
Intraarticular Discs (Menisci) Are Found in Several th synovial lining. If these folds are too extensive or be
Synovial Joints of th Body come thickened or adherent due to inflammation, they can
Tibiofemoral (knee) produce pain and altered joint mechanics.3-415
Distai radioulnar
Stemoclavicular
Acromioclavicular Classification of Synovial Joints Based on
Temporomandibular
Mechanical Analogy
Thus far, joints have been classified into three broad catego-
Two large synovial joints of th body possess a peripheral ries according to th anatomie structure and subsequent
labrum of fibrocartilage. The labrum extends from th bony movement potential: synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, and diar-
nms of both th glenoid cavity of th shoulder and th throsis. Because an in-depth understanding of synovial joints
acetabulum of th hip. These specialized structures deepen is so cruciai to an understanding of th mechanics of move
th concave member of these joints and supporr and thicken ment, they are here further classified using an analogy to
th attachment of th joint capsule. Fat pads are variable in familiar mechanical objects or shapes (Table 2 - 2 ) .
Hinge joint Flexion and extension only Door hinge Humeroulnar joint
Interphalangeal joint
Pivot joint Spinning of one member around a sin Door knob Proximal radioulnar joint
gle axis of rotation Atlantoaxial joint
Ellipsoid joint Biplanar motion (flexion-and-extension Flattened convex ellipsoid Radiocarpal joint
and abduction-and-adduction) paired with a concave
trough.
Ball-and-socket joint Triplanar motion (flexion-and-extension, Spherical convex surface paired Glenohumeral joint
abduction-and-adduction, and inter- with a concave cup. Coxofemoral (hip) joint
nal-and-external rotation)
Piane joint Typical motions include a slide (transla- Relatively fiat surfaces apposing Intercarpal joints
tion) or a combined slide and rota one another, like a book on Iniertarsal joints
tion. a table.
Saddle joint Biplanar motion; a spin between th Each member has a reciprocaily Carpometacarpal joint of th thumb
bones is possible bui may be limited curved concave and convex Stemoclavicular joint
by th interlocking nature of th surface oriented at right an-
joint. gles to one another, like a
borse rider and a saddle.
Condyloid joint Biplanar motion; either flexion-and- Mosily spherical convex surface Metacarpophalangeal joint
extension and abduction-and- that is enlarged in one di- Tibiofemoral (knee) joint
adduction, or flexion-and-extension mension like a knuckle;
and axial rotation (intemal- paired with a shallow con
and-extemal rotation) cave cup.
28 Section I Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
A hinge joint is analogous to th hinge of a door, formed radiocarpal joint is an example of an ellipsoid joint (Fig.
by a centrai pin surrounded by a larger hollow cylinder (Fig. 2 -4 B ). The flattened ball of th convex member of th
2 -2 A ). Angular motion at hinge joints occurs primarily in a joint (i.e., carpai bones) cannot spin within th elongated
piane located at right angles to th hinge, or axis of rotation. trough (i.e., distai radius) withoul dislocating.
The humeroulnar joint is a clear example of a hinge joint A ball-and-socket joint has a spherical convex surface that
(Fig. 2 - 2 B). As in all synovial joints, slight translation (i.e., is paired with a cuplike socket (Fig. 2 -5 A ). This joint pro-
sliding) is allowed in addition to th rotation. Although th vides motion in three planes. Unlike th ellipsoid joint, th
mechanical similarity is less complete, th interphalangeal symmetry of th curves of th two mating surfaces of th
joints of th digits are also classified as hinge joints. ball-and-socket joint allows spin without dislocation. Ball-
A pivot joint is formed by a centrai pin surrounded by a and-socket joints within th body include th glenohumeral
larger cylinder. Unlike a hinge, th mobile member of a joint and th hip joint.
pivot joint is oriented parallel to th axis of rotation. This A piane joint is th pairing of two fiat or relatively fiat
mechanical orientation produces th primary angular motion surfaces. Movements combine sliding and some rotation of
of spin, similar to a doorknobs spin around a centrai axis one partner with respect to th other much like a book
(Fig. 2 -3 A ). Two excellent examples of pivot joints are th can be slid over a tabletop (Fig. 2 -6 A ). As depicted in
proximal radioulnar joint, shown in Figure 2 - 3 B, and th Figure 2 - 6 B, most of th intercarpal joints are considered to
atlantoaxial joint between th dens of th second cervical be piane joints. The internai forces that cause or restrict
vertebra and th anterior arch of th first cervical vertebra. movement between carpai bones are supplied by tension in
An ellipsoid joint has one partner with a convex elongated muscles or ligaments.
surface in one dimension that is mated with a similarly Each partner of a saddle joint has two surfaces: one sur
elongated concave surface on th second partner (Fig. face is concave, and th other is convex. These surfaces are
2 -4 A ). The elliptic mating surfaces severely restrict th spin oriented at approximate right angles to one another and are
between th two surfaces but allow biplanar motions, usually reciprocali)' curved. The shape of a saddle joint is best visu-
deftned as flexion-extension and abduciion-adduction. The alized using th analogy of a horses saddle and rider (Fig.
2 -7 A ). From front to back, th saddle presents a concave
surface reaching from th saddle horn to th back of th
saddle. From side to side, th saddle is convex stretching
from one stirrup across th back of th horse to th other
stirrup. The rider is also doubly curved, presenting convex
and concave curves to complement th shape of th saddle.
The carpometacarpal joint of th thumb is th clearest exam
ple of a saddle joint (Fig. 2 - 7 B). The reciprocai, interlocking
nature of this joint allows ampie biplanar motion, but lim-
ited spin between th trapezium and th first metacarpal.
A condyloid joint is much like a ball-and-socket joint ex-
cept that th concave member of th joint is very shallow
(Fig. 2 -8 A ). Condyloid joints usually allow 2 degrees of
freedom. Ligaments or bony incongruity restrains th third
degree. Condyloid joints often occur in pairs, such as th
knee (Fig. 2 - 8 B ) , th temporomandibular joints, and th
atlantooccipital joints (i.e., occipital condyles with th first
FIGURE 2-3. A pivot joint (A) is shown as analogous to th proxi cervical vertebra). The metacarpophalangeal joint of th fin
mal radioulnar joint (B). The axis of rotation is represented by th ger is also an example of a condyloid joint. The root word
pin. of th term condyle actually means knuckle.
Chapter 2 Basic Stmcture and Function o f th Joints 29
Ulna
Radius
FIGURE 2-4. An ellipsoid joint (A) is shown as analo Lunate
gous to th radiocarpal joint (wrist) (B). The two axes
of rotation are shown by th interseeting ptns.
Scaphoid
Ground Substance
Anatomie (GAGs + Water + Mechanieal Clinical
Location Fibers Solutes) Cells Specialization Correlate
Dense irregular Composes th ex- High type 1 colla- Low ground substance Sparsely located cells Ligament: Binds Rupture of th tar
connective tis temal fibrous gen fiber con- coment tightly packed be- bones together erai collateral
sue layer of th Lem tween fibers and restrains un- ligament com-
joint capsule Most tissues have wanted move- plex of th an-
Forms ligaments. low elastin fi ment at th kle can lead to
fascia, and ber coment joints; resists ten- medial-lateral
tendons Parallel fibers are sion in several di- instability of
arranged in rections th talocrural
bundles ori- Tendon: attaches joint.
enled in sev muscle to bone
eral directions
Articular cartilage Covers th ends High type il col- High ground sub Moderate number of Resists and distrib- During early stage
of articulating lagen fiber stance coment cells; flattened utes compressive of osteoarthri-
bones in syno- coment; fibers near th articular forces (joint load- tis, GAGs are
vial joints help anchor surface and ing) and shear released from
cartilage to rounded in forces (surface deep in th
subchondral deeper layers of sliding); very low tissue, reducing
bone and re- th cartilage coefficient of fric- th force distri-
strain th tion bulion capabil-
ground sub ity; adjacent
stance. bone thickens
to absorb th
increased force,
often causing
th formation
of osteophytes
(bone spurs).
Fibrocartilage Composes th in- Multidirectional Moderate ground sub Moderate number of Provides some sup- Tearing of th in-
tervertebral bundles of stance coment cells that are pon and stabil- tervertebral
discs and th type 1 collagen rounded and zation lo joints; disc can allow
disc within th dwell in cellular primary function th centrai nu-
pubic symphy- lacunae is to provide cleus pulposus
sis shock absorp- to escape (her-
Forms th intra- tion by resisting niate) and press
articular discs and distributmg on a spinai
(menisci) of compressive and nerve or nerve
th tibiofemo- shear forces root.
ral, stemocla-
vicular, acro-
mioclavicular,
and distai ra-
dioulnar joints
Forms th la
brum of th
glenoid fossa
and th ace-
tabulum
Bone Forms th inter Specialized ar Low GAG coment Moderate number of Resists deformation; Osteoporosis of
nai levers of rangement of flattened cells em- strongest resis th spine pro-
th musculo- type 1 collagen bedded between t a l e is applied duces a loss of
skeletal System to form lamel- th layers of col againsl compres bony Lrabeculae
lae and os- lagen; many pro- sive forces due to and minerai
teons and lo genitor cells body weight and coment in th
provide a found on th fi muscle force. vertebral body
framework for brous exiemal Provides a rigid of th spine;
hard minerai (periosteal) and lever to trattsmit may result in
salts (e.g., cal- internai (endos- muscle force lo fractures of th
cium crystals) teal) layers. move and stabi- vertebral body
lize th body during walking
or even cough-
ing.
34 Section i Essential Topici o j Kinesiology
slack is pulled tight, th ligaments and joint capsule provide repair underlying tissue. This is an advantage not available
immediate tension that restrains undesirable motion between to articular cartilage.
bony partners. Chondrocytes of various shapes are located within th
The ftbrous joint capsule and ligaments resist forces from ground substance of different layers or zones of articular
severa! directions. To accomplish this, th fiber bundles cartilage (Fig. 2 -1 3 A ). These cells are bathed and nourished
within th connective tissues are arranged in several domi- by nutrients within th synovial fluid. Nourishment is facili-
nant directions, unlike th parallel alignment of collagen tated by th "milking action of articular surface deformation
bundles found in a tendon (Fig. 2 12).6 20 The GAGs and during intermittent joint loading. The chondrocytes are sur-
elastin fiber content are usually low in dense irregular con rounded by predominantly type II collagen fibers. As de-
nective tissue. picted in Figure 2 - 1 3 B , th fibers are arranged to form a
When trauma or disease produces laxity in th ligament restraining network or scaffolding that adds structural sta-
or capsules, muscles take on a more dominant role in re- bility to th tissue. The deepest fibers in th calcified zone
straining joint movement. Even if muscles surrounding a are firmly anchored to th subchondral bone. These fibers
ligamentously lax joint are strong, there is loss of joint sta- are linked to th vertically oriented fibers in th adjacent
bility. Compared with ligaments, muscles are slower to deep zone which, in tum, are linked to th obliquely ori
supply force due to th electromechanical delay neces- ented fibers of th middle zone, and finally to th trans-
sary to build active force. Muscle forces often have a less versely oriented fibers of th superficial tangential zone. The
than ideal alignment for restraining undesirable joint move- series of chemically interlinked fibers form a netlike fibrous
ments, and they often cannot provide th most optimal de- structure that entraps th large GAG molecules beneath th
terrent force. articular surface. The GAGs in tum attract water that pro-
vides a unique element of rigidity to articular cartilage. The
rigidity increases th ability of cartilage to adequately with-
Articular Cartilage stand loads.
Articular cartilage distributes and disperses compressive
Articular cartilage is a specialized type of hyaline carti torces to th subchondral bone. It also reduces friction be
lage that forms th load-bearing surface of joints. Artic tween joint surfaces. The coefficient of friction between two
ular cartilage covering th ends of th articulating bones surfaces covered by articular cartilage and wet with synovial
has a thickness that ranges from 1 to 4 mm in th areas of fluid is extremely low, ranging from 0.005 to 0.02 in th
low compression force and 5 to 7 mm in areas of high human knee for example. This is 5 to 20 times lower and
compression.16'25 The tissue is avascular and aneural. Un more slippery than ice on ice, which has a coefficient of 0 .1 .17
like regular hyaline cartilage, articular cartilage lacks a The impaci of normal weight-bearing activities, therefore, is
perichondrium. This allows th opposing surfaces of th reduced to a stress that typically can be absorbed without
cartilage to form ideal load-bearing surfaces. Similar to damaging th skeletal System.
periosteum on bone, perichondrium is a layer of connective The absence of a perichondrium on articular cartilage has
tissue that covers most cartilage. lt contains blood vessels th negative consequence of eliminating a ready source of
and a ready supply of primitive cells that maintain and primitive perichondrial fibroblastic cells used for repair. Even
Articular surface
STZ
10 20
( % %)
Middle zone
(40%
60%)
Subchondral bone
FIGURE 2-13. Two schematic diagrams of hyaline articular cartilage. A, The organization of th cells (chondrocytes) is
shown located through th ground substance of th articular cartilage. The flattened chondrocytes near th articular
surface are within th superficial tangential zone (STZ) and are oriented parallel to th joint surface. The STZ comprises
about 10% to 20% of th articular cartilage thickness. The cells in th middle zone are more rounded and become
increasingly arranged in columns in th deep zone. A region of calcified cartilage (calcified zone) joins th deep zone with
th underlying subchondral bone. The edge of th calcified zone that abuts th deep zone is known as th tidemark and
forms a diffusion barrier between th articular cartilage and th underlying bone. Nutrients and gasses must pass from
th synovial fluid through all th layers of articular cartilage to nourish th chondrocytes including th cells at th base
of th deep zone. The diffusion process is assisted by intermittent compression (milking action) of th articular
cartilage. B, The organization of th collagen fibers in articular cartilage is shown in this diagram. In th superficial
tangential zone, th collagen is oriented parallel to th articular surface, forming a fibrous grain that helps resisi
abrasion of th joint surface. The fibers become less tangential and more obliquely oriented in th middle zone, finally
becoming almost perpendicular to th articular surface in th deep zone. The deepest fibers are anchored into th
calcified zone to help lie th cartilage to th underlying subchondral bone.
though articular cartilage is capable of normal mainte- organized and contains small blood vessels located only near
:ance and replenishment of its matrix, significant damage io th peripheral rim of th tissue. Fibrocartilage is largely
idult articular cartilage is often repaired very poorly or noi aneural and thus does noi produce pain or participate in
ai all. proprioception, although a few neural receptors may be
found at th periphery where fibrocartilage abuts a ligament
or joint capsule.
Fibrocartilage
The nourishmenl of adult fibrocartilage is largely depen-
As its name implies, fibrocartilage has a much higher fiber dent on diffusion of nutrients through th synovial fluid in
coment than other types of cartilage. The tissue functionally synovial joints. In amphiarthrodial joints, such as th adult
shares properties of both dense irregular connective tissue intervertebral disc, nutrients are diffused across th fluid
and articular cartilage. Dense bundles of type I collagen contained in th adjacent trabecular bone. The diffusion of
travel in many directions with a moderate number of GAGs. nutrients and removai of metabolic wastes in th fibrocarti
As depicted in Figure 2 - 1 4 , round chondrocytes reside lage of amphiarthrodial joints is assisted by th milking"
within lacunae that are embedded within a dense collagen action of intermittent weight hearing.13 This principle is
network. readily apparent in adult intervertebral discs that are insuffi
Fibrocartilage forms much of th substance of th inter cienti)' nourished when th spine is held in fixed postures
vertebral discs, th labrum, and th discs located within th for extended periods. Without proper nutrition, th discs
pubic symphysis and other joints of th extremities (for may partially degenerate and lose part of their protective
example, th menisci of th knee). These structures help function.
support and stabilize th joints, as well as dissipate compres A direct blood supply penetrates th outer rim of fibro-
sion forces. As depicted in Figure 2 -1 4 A , th menisci of th cartilaginous structures where they attach to ligaments (e.g.,
- nee dissipate compression forces by spreading out radially. th spine) or to joint capsules (e.g., th knee). In adult
The dense interwoven collagen fibers also allow th tissue to joints, some repair of damaged fibrocartilage can occur near
resist tensile and shearing forces in multiple planes. Fibro th vascularized periphery', such as th outer one third of
cartilage is therefore an ideal shock absorber in regions of menisci of th knee and th outermost lamellae of interverte
th body that are subject to high multidirectional forces. bral discs. The innermost regions of fibrocartilage structures,
This function is best realized in th menisci of th knee and much like articular cartilage, demonstrate poor or negligible
th intervertebral discs of th spinai column. healing owing to th lack of a ready source of undifferen-
The perichondrium surrounding fibrocartilage is poorly tiated fibroblastic cells.13-2123
36 Section 1 Essentia Topics o j Kinesiology
of fibrocartilage
FIGURE 2-14. Hstologic organization of fibrocartilage. A, This is a
cut section of a compresseti, wedge-shaped piece of fibrocartilage
(i.e., meniscus) taken from th knee. The meniscus partially dissi-
pates th compression force by spreading out in a radiai direction
indicated by arrows. B, Schematic illustration of a microscopie sec
tion from th middle of th sample of fibrocartilagmous meniscus.
Bone
Bone provides rigid support to th body and equips th
muscles of th body with a System of levers. The outer
cortex of th long bones of th adult skeleton has a shaft
composed of thick, compact cortical bone (Fig. 2 - 1 5 ) . The
ends of long bones, however, are lined with a thin layer of
compact bone that covers an interconnecting network of
cancellous bone. Bones of th adult axial skeleton, such as
th vertebral body, possess an outer shell of cortical bone
that is filled with a supporting core of cancellous bone.
The structural subunit of cortical bone is th osteon or
Haversian System, which organizes th collagen fibers, pre-
dominantly type I, into a unique series of concentric spirals
that form lamellae (Fig. 2 - 1 6 ) . The matrix of bone contains FIGURE 215. A cross-section showing th internai architecture of
calcium phosphate crystals, which allow bone to accept tre- th proximal femur. Note th thicker areas of compaci bone around
mendous compressive loads. The cells of bone are confined th shaft and th lattice-like cancellous bone occupying most of th
medullary region. (From Neumann DA: An Arthritis Home Study
within narrow lacunae (i.e., spaces) positioned between th
Course: The Synovial Joint: Anatomy, Function, and Dysfunction.
lamellae of th osteon. Because bone deforms very little,
The Orthopedic Section of th American Physical Therapy Associa-
blood vessels can pass into its substance from th outer tion. La Crosse, WI, 1998.)
Chapter 2 Basic Structure and Function o f th )oints 37
Outer circumferentiol
lamellae
Interstitiol
lomellae^,
Inner
circumferentiol Haversian systems
lamelloe--------- (osteons)
Periosteum
Trobeculoe
FIGURE 2-16. Histologic organization of cortical bone. of cancellous Blood vessels
(From Fawcett DW: A Textbook of Flistology, 12th ed. bone
New York, Chapman & Hall. Redrawn after Benninghoff
A: Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen. Berlin, Urban
and Schwarzenberg, 1994.) Sharpey's
fibers
Endosteum
Hoversion
canals
Volkmanns
canols
network of cancellous bone, which in tum acts as a series of lower compressive strength. The dryer connective tissues do
struts to redirect th forces into th long axis of th cortical not slide across one another as easily. As a result, th bun-
bone of th shaft. This structural arrangement redirects dles of fibers in ligaments do not align themselves with th
forces for absorption and transmission by taking advantage imposed forces as readily, hampering th ability of th tissue
of bones unique architectural design. to maximally resist a rapidly applied force. The likelihood of
adhesions forming between previously mobile tissue planes is
increased; thus, aging joints may lose range of motion more
EFFECTS OF AGING quickly than younger joints. Aged articular cartilage contains
less water and is less able to attenuate and distribute im
Aging is associated with histologic changes in connective posed forces to th adjacent bone.
tissue that, in tum, may produce mechanical changes in The age-related alteration of connective tissue metabolism
joint function. The rate and process by which tissue ages is in bone contributes to th slower healing of fractures. The
highly individuai and can be modified, positively or nega- altered metabolism also contributes io osteoporosis, particu-
tively, by th types and frequency of activities and by a larly type II or senile osteoporosis a type that thins both
host of medicai and nutritional factors.2 In th broadest trabecular and cortical bone in both genders.9
sense, aging is accompanied by a slowing of th rate of fiber
and GAG replacement and repair.2-11 The effects of micro-
trauma can accumulate over time to produce subclinical EFFECTS OF IMMOBILIZATION ON THE
damage that may progress to a structural failure or a mea- STRENGTH OF THE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
surable change in mechanical properties. A clinical example OF A JOINT
of this phenomenon is th age-related deterioration of th
ligaments and capsule associated with th glenohumeral The amount and arrangement of fibers and GAGs in connec
joint. Reduced structural support provided by these tissues tive tissues are influenced by physical activity. At a normal
may eventually culminate in tendonitis or tears in th rotator level of physical activity, th connective tissues are able to
cuff muscles.22 adequately resist th naturai range of forces imposed on th
Aging also influences th mechanical resilience of GAGs musculoskeletal System. A joint immobilized for an extended
within connective tissue. The GAG molecules produced by period demonstrates marked changes in th structure and
aging cells are fewer in number and smaller in size than function of its associated connective tissues. The mechanical
those produced by young cells.2'11 This change in th GAGs strength o f th tissue is reduced in accord with th de
results in decreased water-binding capacity that reduces th creased forces of th immobilized condition. This is a nor
hydration of connective tissues. The less hydrated tissue has mal response to an abnormal condition. Placing a body part
38 Secion I Essential Topics o j Kinesiology
in a cast and confining a person to a bed are examples in depends on th proximity and adequacy of a blood supply.
which immobilization dramatically reduces th level of force A tear of th outermost region of th meniscus of th knee
imposed on th musculoskeletal System. Although for differ- adjacent to blood vessels embedded with th capsule may
ent reasons, muscular paralysis or weakness also reduces th compleiely heal.21-23 In contrast, tears of th innermost cir-
force on th musculoskeletal System. cumference of a meniscus do not typically heal completely.
The rate of decline in th strength of connective tissue is This is also th case in th inner lamellae of th adult
somewhat dependent on th normal metabolic activity of intervertebral disc that does not have th capacity to heal
th specifc tissue. Immobilization produces a marked de- following significant damage.13
crease in tensile strength of th ligamenis of th knee, for Chronic trauma is often classified as a type of overuse
example, in a period of weeks.19-28 The earliest biochem- syndrome and reflects an accumulation of unrepaired, rela-
ical markers of this remodeling can be detected within days tively minor damage. Chronically damaged joint capsules
after immobilization.12-18 Even after th cessation of th im and ligaments gradually lose their restraining functions, al
mobilization and after th completion of an extended post- though th instability of th joint may be masked by a
immobilization exercise program, th ligaments continue to
muscular restraint substitute. In this case, joint forces may
have lower tensile strength than ligaments that were never
be increased owing io an exaggerated muscular guarding of
subjected to immobilization.12-28 Other tissues such as
th joint. Only when th joint is challenged suddenly or
bone and cartilage also show a loss of mass, volume, and
forced by an extreme movement does th instability become
strength following immobilization.14-24 The results from ex- readily apparent.
perimental studies imply that tissues rapidly lose strength in
Recurring instability may cause abnormal loading condi-
response to reduced loading. Full recovery of strength fol
tions on th joint tissues, which can lead to their mechanical
lowing restoration of loading is much slower and often in
complete. failure. The surfaces of articular cartilage and fibrocartilage
may become fragmented with a concurrent loss of GAGs and
Immobilizing a joint for an extended period is often nec-
subsequent lowered resistance to compressive and shear
essary to promote healing following an injury such as a
forces. Early stages of degeneration often demonstrate a
fractured bone. Clinical judgment is required to balance th
roughened or fibrillated surface of th articular cartilage
potential negative effects of th immobilization with th need
to promote healing. The maintenance of maximal tissue (Fig. 2 - 1 7 ) . A fibrillated region of articular cartilage may
strength around joints requires judicious use of immobiliza later develop cracks, or clefts, that extend from th surface
tion, a quick return to loading, and early rehabilitative inter- into th middle or deepest layers of th tissue. These
vention. changes may reduce th shock absorption quality of th
tissue.
Two disease States that commonly cause joint dysfunction
JOINT PATHOLOGY are osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Osteo
arthritis is characterized by a graduai erosion of articular
Trauma to connective tissues of a joint can occur from a cartilage with a low inflammatory component.7 Some refer to
single overwhelming event (acute trauma), or in response lo OA as "osteoarthrosis to emphasize th lack of a distinctive
an accumulation of lesser injuries over an extended period inflammatory component. As erosion of articular cartilage
(chronic trauma). Acute trauma often produces detectable progresses, th underlying subchondral bone becomes more
pathology. A torn or severely stretched ligament or joint mineralized and, in severe cases, becomes th weight-bearing
capsule causes an acute inflammatory reaction. The joint surface when th articular cartilage pad is completely wom.
may also become structurally unstable when damaged con The fibrous joint capsule and synovium become distended
nective tissues are noi able to restrain th naturai extremes and thickened. The severely involved joint may be com
of motion. pletely unstable and dislocate or may fuse allowing no mo
Joints frequently affected by acute traumatic instability are tion.
typically associated with th longest lever arms of th skele The frequency of OA increases with age and has several
ton and. therefore, are exposed to high external torques. For manilestations. Idiopathic OA occurs in th absence of a spe-
this reason, th tibiofemoral, talocrural, and glenohumeral cific cause; it affects only one or a few joints, particularly
joints are frequently subjected to acute ligament damage those that are subjected to th highest weight-bearing loads:
with resultant instability. hip, knee, and lumbar spine. Familial OA or generalized OA
Acute trauma can also result in intraarticular fractures affects joints of th hand and is more frequent in women.
involving articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Careful Post-traumatic OA may affect any synovial joint that has been
reduction or realignment of th fractured fragments helps to exposed to a trauma of sufficient severity.
restore th smooth, low-friction sliding functions of articular Rheumatoid arthritis differs markedly from OA, as it is a
surfaces. This is criticai to maximal recovery of function. systemic, autoimmune connective tissue disorder with a
Although th bone adjacent to a joint has excellent ability to strong inflammatory component.10 The destruction of multi
repair, th repair of fractured articular cartilage is often in ple joints is a prominent manifestation of RA. The joint
complete and produces mechanically inferior areas of th dysfunction is manifested by significant inflammation of th
joint surface that are prone to degeneration. Focal increases capsule, synovium, and synovial fluid. The articular cartilage
in stress due to poor surface alignment in conjunction with is exposed io an enzymatic process that can rapidly erode
impaired articular cartilage strength can lead to post-trau- th articular surface. The joint capsule is distended by th
matic osteoarthritis. recurrent swelling and inflammation, often causing marked
The repair of damaged fibrocartilaginous joint structures joint instability and pain.
Chapter 2 Basic Strutture and Function o j th Joints 39
REFERENCES
1. Bogduk N, Engel R: The menisci of th lumbar zygapophyseal joints. A
review of their anatomy and clinical significance. Spine 9:454-460,
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2 Buckwalter JA, Woo SL, Goldberg VM, et al: Sofl-tissue aging and
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3 Clarke RP: Symptomatic, lateral synovial frrnge (plica) of th elbow
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4. Dandy DJ: Anatomy of th mediai suprapatellar plica and mediai syno
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6. Fawcelt DW: Conneciive lissue. In Bloom W, Fawcett DW (eds): A
Textbook of Histology, 12th ed. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1994.
7. Fife RS, Hochberg MC: Osteoarthritis. In Khppel JH (ed): Primer on th
Rheumatic Diseases, llth ed. Atlanta, Arthritis Foundation, 1997.
8. Giles LG: Human lumbar zygapophyseal joint mferior recess synovial
folds: A light microscope examination. Anat Ree 220:117124, 1988.
9. Glaser DL, Kaplan FS: Osteoporosis. Definition and clinical presenta-
tion. Spine 22 (SuppI): 12S16S, 1997.
10. Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM, Anderson RJ: Rheumatoid arthritis. In Klippel
JH (ed): Primer on th Rheumatic Diseases, llth ed. Atlanta, Arthritis
Foundation, 1997.
11. Hamerman D: Aging and th musculoskeletal System. Ann Rheum Dis
56:578-585, 1997.
12. Hayashi K: Biomechanical studies of th. remodeling of knee joint ten-
dons and ligaments. J Biomech 29:707-716, 1996.
13. Humzah MD, Soames RW: Human intervertebral disc: Structure and
function. Anat Ree 220:337-356, 1988.
14 Jortikka MO, Inkinen RI, Tammi MI, et al: Immobihsation causes long-
lasting matrix changes both in th immobilised and contralateral joint
cartilage. Ann Rheum Dis 56:255-261, 1997.
15. Kim SJ, Choe WS: Arthroscopic findings of th synovial plicae of th
FIGURE 2-17. A scanning electron micrograph of th articular sur-
knee. Arthroscopy 13:33-41, 1997.
face of a femoral condyle of a knee in a 71-year-old embalmed 16. Kurrat HJ, Oberlander W: The thickness of th cartilage in th hip
male cadaver, contrasting levels of degeneration. A, Articular carti- joint. J Anat 126:145-155, 1978
lage from an apparently normal-looking region of th lateral fem 17. Mow VC, Flatow EL, Foster RJ, et al: Biomechanics. In Simon SR (ed).
oral condyle. The wavy but smooth surface texture represents th Orthopaedic Basic Science. Rosemont, IL, American Academy of Ortho-
normal aging process in hyaline cartilage (200X). B. Fibrillateci paedic Surgeons, 1994.
articular cartilage from a region of th mediai femoral condyle from 18. Muller FJ, Setton LA, Manicourt DH, et al: Centrifugai and biochemical
th same knee as A (225 X). C, Higher magnifcation of B (600 X) comparison of proteoglycan aggregates from articular cartilage in experi-
shows th roughened or frayed region of th cartilage (arrowheads). mental joint disuse and joint instability. J Orthop Res 12:498-508,
1994.
The lower case c" indicates an exposed chondrocyte, which is
19 Noyes FR: Functtonal properties of knee ligaments and alterations in-
usually concealed within th matrix. (Micrographs courtesy of Dr.
duced by immobilization. Clin Orthop Rei Res 123:210-242, 1977.
Robert Morecraft, University of South Dakota School of Medicine, 20. OBrien SJ, Neves MC, Amoczky SP, et al: The anatomy and histology
Sioux Falls, South Dakota.) of th infertor glenohumera! ligament complex of th shoulder. Am J
Sports Med 18:449-456, 1990.
21. O'Meara PM: The basic Science of m en iscu s rep air. Orthop Rev 22:
681-686, 1993.
22. Panni AS, Milano G, Lucania L, et al: Histological analysis of th
SUMMARY coracoacromial arch: Correlation belween age-related changes and rota-
tor cuff tears. Arthroscopy 12:531-540, 1996.
23. Rubman MH, Noyes FR, Barber-Westin SD: Arthroscopic repair of me-
Joints provide th foundation of musculoskeletal rnotion and niscal tears that exlend mio th avascular zone. A review of 198 single
permit th stablity and dispersion of internai and external and complex tears. Am J Sports Med 26:87-95, 1998.
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bone mass and bone metabolism in hemiplegic elderly patients with a
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owing to their asymmetrical shapes and incongruent sur- ness in mammalian articular cartilage. J Anat 109:411-421, 1971.
40 Section l Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
26. Swann DA, Silver FH, Slayter HS, et al: The molecular structure and immobilization and remobilization. J Bone Joint Surg 69A: 1200-1211
lubricating activity of lubricin isolated from bovine and human synovial 1987.
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27. Williams PL, Bannister LH, Berry MM, et al (eds): The skeletal System. ance at MR imaging and CT. Radiology 177:415-420, 1990.
In Grays Anatomy, 38th ed. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995. 30. Yu SW, Sether L, Haughton VM: Facet joint menisci of th cervical
28. Woo SL-Y, Gomez MA, Sites TJ, et al: The biomechanical and morpho- spine: Correlative MR imaging and cryomicrotomy study. Radiology
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C h a p t e r 3
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
.'USCLE AS A SKELETAL STABILIZER: Summation of Active Force and Passive Activating Muscle via th Nervous System,
LENERATING AN APPROPRIATE AMOUNT Tension: Total Length-Tension Curve, 51
OF FORCE AT A GIVEN LENGTH, 41 47 Recruitment, 51
Muscle Morphology: Shape and Structure, Isometric Force: Development of th Rate Coding, 52
41 Internai Torque-Joint Angle Curve, 47 Muscle Fatigue, 52
Muscle Architecture, 42 MUSCLE AS A SKELETAL MOVER: FORCE ELECTROMYOGRAPHY: WINDOW TO THE
Muscle and Tendon: Generation of Force, MODULATION, 50 NEURAL DRIVE OF MUSCLE. 54
44 Modulating Force Through Concentric or
Passive Length-Tension Curve, 44 Eccentric Activation: Force-Velocity
Active Length-Tension Curve, 45 Relationship, 50
T A B LE 3 - 1. Major Concepts: Muscle as a Skeletal mysium, is tough and thick and resistive to stretch. The
Stabilizer endomysium surrounds individuai muscle fbers. It is com-
posed of a relatively dense meshwork of collagen ftbrils that
1. Muscle morphoiogy are partly connected to th perimysium. Through lateral
2. Strutturai organization of skeletal muscle connections to th muscle fber, th endomysium conveys
3. Connettive tissues vvithin muscle part of th contrattile force to th tendon.
4. Physiologic cross-sectional area Although th three types of connettive tissues are de-
5. Pennation angle scribed as separate entities, they are interwoven in such a
6. Passive length-tension curve way that they may be considered as a continuous sheet of
7. Parallel and series elastic components of muscle and ten- connettive tissue. All connettive tissue that encases a mus
don cle, directly or indirectly, contributes to th tendons of th
8. Elastic and viscous properties of muscle muscle.
9. Attive length-tension curve
10. Histology of th muscle fber
11. Total length-tension curve Muscle Architecture
12. Isometric force and internai torque-joint angle curve devel-
opment Each muscle and its tendons have different architecture and,
13. Mechanical and physiologic properties affecting internai as a consequence, are able to generate different ranges of
torque-joint angle curve force. Understanding muscle architecture allows th predic-
tion of th functional role of a given muscle. Physiologic
cross-sectional area and pennation angle are major determi-
nants of th range and th force produced by th muscle.
muscle is stimulated by th nervous System. The relationship The physiologic cross-sectional area of a muscle reflects th
between muscle force and length and how it influences th amount of contrattile protein available to generate force.
isometric torque generated about a joint are then examined. Generally speaking, th cross-sectional area (cm2) of a fusi
Table 3 - 1 is a summary of th major concepts addressed in form muscle is determined by dividing th muscles volume
this section. (cm 1) by its length (cm). A fusiform muscle with many thick
fbers has a greater cross-sectional area than a muscle of
Muscle Morphoiogy: Shape and Structure similar length and morphoiogy with fewer thinner fbers.
Maximal force potential o f a muscle is, therefore, proportional to
Muscle morphoiogy describes th basic shape of a vvhole th sum o f th cross-sectional area o f all th fbers. Under
muscle. Muscles have many shapes, reflecting their ultimale normal conditions, th thicker th muscle, th greater th
function. Figure 3 - 1 shows two common shapes of muscle: force potential. Measuring th cross-sectional area of a fusi
fusiform and pennate (from th Latin penna, meaning form muscle is relatively simple because all fbers run paral-
feather). Fusiform muscles, such as th biceps bracini, have
fbers running parallel to each other and to th centrai ten-
don. In pennate muscles, th fbers approach th centrai ten-
don obliquely. Pennate muscles may be further classified as
unipennate, bipennate, or multipennate, depending on th
Pennate Fusiform
number of similarly angled sets of fbers that attach into th
centrai tendon.
The muscle fib er is th structural unii of muscle, ranging
in thickness from about 10 to 100 micrometers, and length
from about 1 to 50 cm .17 Each muscle fber is actually an
individuai celi with multiple nuclei. The connettive tissue
that surrounds and supports muscle serves many roles. Simi-
lar to connettive tissue throughout other bodily structures,
th connettive tissue within muscle consists of fbers embed-
ded in an amorphous ground substance. Most fbers are
collagen, and th remaining fbers are elastin. The combina-
tion of these two proteins provides strength, structural sup-
port, and elasticity io muscle.
Three different, although structurally related, sets of con
nettive tissue occur in muscle: epimysium, perimysium, and
endomysium (Fig. 3 - 2 ) . The epimysium is a tough strutture
that surrounds th entire surface of th muscle belly and
separates it from other muscles. In essence, th epimysium
gives form to th muscle belly. The epimysium contains
FIGURE 3 -1 . Two common shapes of muscle, fusiform and pen
tightly woven bundles of collagen fbers that are highly resis
nate, are shown. Different shapes are formed by different fiber
tive io stretch. The perimysium lies beneath th epimysium, orientation relative to th connecting tendon. (Modifed from Wil
and divides muscle into fascicles that provide a conduit for liams PL: Grays Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Medicine and
blood vessels and nerves. This connettive tissue, like epi Surgery, 38th ed. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995.)
Chapter 3 Muscle: The Ultimate Force Generator in th Body 43
A M uscle Belly
Epim ysium
Fasciculus
B M uscle Fiber
Sarcolem m a /
/
/
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Endom ysium
FIGURE 3-2. Three seis of connective tissue are identified in muscle. A, The muscle belly is enclosed within th
epimysium and then further subdivided into individuai fasciculi by th perimysium. B, Each muscle fiber contains
myofibrils that are enclosed within th endomysium. (Modified from Williams PL: Grays Anatomy: The Anatomical
Basis of Medicine and Surgery, 38th ed. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995.)
lei. Caution needs to be used, however, when measunng th 86% of its force to th tendon. (The cosine of 30 degrees is
cross-section of pennate muscles, because fibers run at dif- 0.86.)
ferent angles to each other. In generai, pennate muscles produce greater maximal
Pennation angle refers to th angle of orientation between force than fusiform muscles of similar size. By orienting
th muscle fibers and tendon (Fig. 3 - 3 ) . If muscle fibers fibers obliquely to th centrai tendon, a pennate muscle can
attach parallel to th tendon, th pennation angle is defined fit more fibers into a given length of muscle. This space-
as 0 degrees. In this case, essentially all of th force gener- saving strategy provides pennate muscles with a relatively
ated by muscle fibers is transmitted to th tendon and across large physiologic cross-sectional area and, hence, a relatively
a joint. If, however, th pennation angle is greater than 0 large capability for generating high force. Consider th mul-
degrees (i.e., oblique to th tendon), then less of th force tipennate gastrocnemius muscle that must generate very
produced by th muscle fiber is transmitted to th tendon. large forces during jumping, for example. Interestingly, th
Theoretically, a muscle with a pennation angle dose to 0 reduced transfer of force from th pennate fiber to th ten
degrees transmits full force to th tendon, whereas th same don, due io th greater pennation angle, is small com-
muscle with a pennation angle dose to 30 degrees transmits pared with th large force potential furnished by th gain in
44 Section I Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
Bone Paralel E C
FIGURE 3-4. Contractile components
and elastic components (EC) that
generate force in muscle tissue are
shown. The contractile component
represents th actin and myosin
crossbridge structures. The paralel
elastic component (paralel to th
contractile component) represents
muscle connective tissue. The series
elastic component (in series with th
whole muscle) represents th connec
tive tissues within th tendon. The
paralel and series connective tissues
act in a manner similar to a spring.
Chapter 3 Muscle: The Ultimate Force Generator in th Body 45
FIGURE 3-6. Electron micrograph of muscle myofibrils demonstrates th regularly banded organization of
myofilaments actin and myosin. (From Fawcett DW: The Celi. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, 1981.)
eie. Each individuai banding unit is called a sarcomere, ex- th sarcomere, it is possible to understand th mechanics of
tending from one Z disc to th next. The sarcomere is muscle contraction since this process is repeated from one
considered th active force generator of th muscle ftber. By sarcomere to th next.
understanding th active contractile events that take place in The currently accepted model for describing active force
generation is called th sliding filament hypothesis and was
developed independently by Hugh Huxley8 and Andrew
H Z A l Huxley (no relation).9 In this model, active force is generated
band disc band band
as actin filaments slide past myosin filaments, causing ap-
proximation of th Z discs and narrowing of th H band.
This action results in progressive overlap of actin and myo
sin filaments so that sarcomere length is effectively shortened
even though th filaments themselves do not shorten (Fig.
3 - 9 ) . Each cross-bridge attaches to its adjacent actin fila-
ment so that th force generated depends on th number of
simultaneous cross-bridge/actin attachments. The greater th
number of cross-bridge attachments, th greater th amount
of active force generated within th sarcomere.
As a consequence of th arrangement between th actin
and myosin within a sarcomere, th amount of active force
depends, in part, on th instantaneous length of th muscle
fiber. A change in fiber length either by active contraction
or by passive elongation alters th amount of overlap be
FIGURE 3-7. Detail of th regular, banded organization of th my-
tween cross-bridges and actin filaments. The active length-
ofibril showing th position of th A band, 1 band, H band, and Z
disc. The expanded view of a single sarcomere demonstrates how tension curve for a sarcomere is presented in Figure 3 - 1 0 .
th actin and myosin filaments contribute to th banded organiza The ideal resting length of a muscle fiber or sarcomere is th
tion. (Modified from Guyton AC, Hall JE: Textbook of Medicai length that allows th greatest number of cross-bridge at
Physiology, lOth ed. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, 2000. Modified tachments and, therefore, th greatest potential active force.
in Guyton from Fawcett DW: Bloom and Fawcett: A Textbook of As th sarcomere is lengthened or shortened from its resting
Histology. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, 1986. Originai art by Sylvia length, th number of potential cross-bridge attachments de-
Colarci Keene. Reproduced by permission of Edward Arnold Lim creases so that lesser amounts of active force are generated,
ited.)
even under conditions of full activation. The resulting active
Chapter 3 Muscle: The Ultimate Force Generator in th Body 47
length-tension curve is described by an inverted U-shape levels of force even as th muscle is stretched to a point
with its peak at th ideal resting length. where active force generation is compromised. As th muscle
The term length-force relationship is more appropriate for fiber is further stretched (c), passive tension dominates th
considering th terminology establshed in this text (see def- curve so that connective tissues are under near maximal
nition of force and tension in Chapter 1). The phrase length- stress. High levels of passive tension are most apparent in
tension is, however, used because of its wide acceptance in two-joint muscles placed in overelongated positions. For ex-
th physiology literature. ample, as th wrist is extended, typically th fingers pas-
sively flex slightly owing to th stretch placed on th finger
flexor muscles as they cross th front of th wrist. The
SUMMATION OF ACTIVE FORCE AND PASSIVE
TENSION: THE TOTAL LENGTH-TENSION CURVE amount of passive tension depends in part on th naturai
stiffness of th muscle.
The active length-tension curve, when combined with th
passive length-tension curve, yields th total length-tension
curve of muscle. The combination of active force and passive
Isometric Force: Development of th Internai
tension allows for a large range of muscle force over a wide Torque-Joint Angle Curve
range of muscle length. Consider th total length-tension As defned in Chapter 1, isometric activation of muscle is a
curve for th muscle shown in Figure 3 - 1 1 . At shortened process by which th muscle produces force without a signif-
lengths (a), below active resting length, and below th length
that generates passive tension,' active force dominates th
force generating capability of th muscle. Thus, force rises
rapidly as th muscle is lengthened (stretched) toward its
resting length. As th muscle fiber is stretched beyond its
resting length (b), passive tension begins to contribute so
that th decrement in active force is offset by increased
passive tension, effectively flattening this pari of th total
length-tension curve. This characteristic portion of th pas
sive length-tension curve allows muscle to maintain high
Actin filament
A Elbow Flexors
A B
TABLE 3 - 4 . Clinical Examples and Consequences of Changes in Mechanical or Physiologic Variables that
Influence th Production of Internai Torque
Changed Variable Clinical Example Effect of Internai Torque Possible Clinical Consequence
Mechanical: Increased internai Surgical displacement of Decrease in th amount of muscle Decreased hip abductor force can
moment arm greater trochanter to in- force required to produce a reduce th force generated
crease th internai mo given level of hip abduction across an unstable or a painful
ment arm of hip abduc torque hip joint; considered a means
tor muscles of protecting a joint from
damaging forces
Mechanical: Decreased inter Patellectomy following se Increase in th amount of knee increased force needed to extend
nai moment arm vere fracture of th pa extensor muscle force required th knee may increase th
tella to produce a given level of wear on tire articular surfaces
knee extension torque of th knee joint
Physiological: Decreased mus Damage to th deep portion Decreased strength in th dorsi- Reduced ability to walk safely
cle activation of th peroneal nerve flexor muscles
Physiological: Significantly de Damage to th radiai nerve Decreased strength in wrist exten Ineffective grasp due to overcon-
creased muscle length at with paralvsis of wrist sor muscles causes th finger tracted (shortened) finger
th lime of neural activa extensor muscles flexor muscles to flex th wrist flexor muscles
tion while making a grasp
50 Section I Essential Topcs o j Kinesiology
angular velocity relationship. This type of data can be de- A muscle undergoing a concentric contraction against a
nved through isokinetic dynamometry (see Chapter 4). load is doing positive work on th load. In contrast, a muscle
The inverse relationship between a muscles maximal undergoing eccentric activation against an overbearing load
force potential and its shortening velocity is related to th is doing negative work. In th latter case, th muscle is
concept of power. Power, or th rate of work, can be ex- storing energy that is supplied by th load. A muscle, there
pressed as a product of force times contraction velocity, (i.e., fore, can act as either an active accelerator of movement
th area under th curve on th righi hand side of Figure 3 - against a load while contracting (i.e., through concentric
15). A Constant power output of a muscle can be sustained activation), or it can act as a brake or decelerator when a
by increasing th load (resistance) while proportionately de- load is applied and th activated muscle is lengthening (i.e.,
creasing th contraction velocity, or vice versa. This is very through eccentric activation).
similar in concept to switching gears while riding a bicycle.
Activating Muscle via th Nervous System
Several important mechanical mechanisms underlying muscle
force generation have been examined. Of utmost importance,
however, is th fact that muscle is excited by impulses that
are generated within th nervous System, specifically by al
Combinine] th Length-Tension and Force-Velocity pha motoneurons that are located in th ventral hom of th
Relationships spinai cord. Each alpha motoneuron has an axon that ex-
tends out of th spinai cord and connects with multiple
Although a muscle's length-tension and force-velocity
muscle fibers located throughout a whole muscle. The alpha
relationships are described separately, in reality both
motoneuron and all muscle fibers that are innervated by it
are in effect simultaneously. At any given tinte, an ac-
are called a motor unit. Because of this arrangement, th
tive muscle is functioning at a specific length and at a
nervous System can produce a muscle force from small con-
specific contraction velocity, including isometric. It is
useful, therefore, to generate a surface plot that repre- tractions involving only a few muscle fibers, and large con-
tractions that involve rnost of th fibers. Excitation of alpha
sents th three-dimensional relationship between mus
motoneurons may come from many sources, for example,
cle force, length, and contraction velocity (Fig. 3-16).
afferents, spinai interneurons, and cortical descending neu-
The plot does not, however, include th passive length-
rons. Each source can adivate an alpha motoneuron by first
tension component of muscle. The plot shows, for ex-
recruiting th motoneuron and then by driving it to higher
ample, a muscle contracting at a high velocity over th
rates of sequential activation. The sequence of driving moto
shortened range of its overall length producing rela-
neurons to higher rates, known as rate coding, allows re-
tively low levels of force, even with maximal effort. In
cruited muscle to generate greater amounts of force. Both of
contrast, a muscle contracting at a low, near isometric,
these issues of driving motoneurons are discussed further.
velocity within th middle range of its overall length
(i.e., near its optimal muscle length) produces a sub-
stantially greater active force. RECRUITMENT
Recruitment refers to th initial activation of a specific set of
motoneurons resulting in th generation of action potentials
that excite target muscle fibers. The nervous System recruits
a motor unit by altering th voltage potential across th
alpha motoneuron membrane surface. The facilitation pro-
cess is th summation of competing inhibitory and facilita-
tory input that ultimately results in a threshold action poten
tial that drives th motoneuron to propagate excitation to
th muscle fibers. Once th muscle fiber is activated, a
muscle twitch occurs and a small amount of force is gener
ated. Table 3 - 5 lists th major sequence of events underly
ing muscle fiber activation. By recruiting more motoneurons,
more muscle fibers are activated, and, therefore, more force
is generated within th whole muscle.
Motoneurons come in different sizes and are connected
with muscle fibers of different contractile characteristics (Fig.
3 - 1 7 ) . The size of th motoneuron influences th order
FIGURE 3-16. Surface plot represents th three-dimensional re
lationship among muscle force, length, and contraction velocity with which it is recruited by th nervous System (i.e.,
during maximal effort. Positive work indicates concentric mus smalier motoneurons will be recruited before larger moto
cle activation, and negative work indicates eccentric muscle neurons). This principle is called th Henneman Size Princi-
activation. (From Winter DA: Biomechanics and Motor Control ple. It was first experimentally demonstrated and developed
of Human Movement, 2nd ed. New York, John Wiley & Sons, by Elwood Henneman in th late 1950s.7 The principle ac-
Ine., 1990.) This material is used by permission of John Wiley counts for th orderly recruitment of motor units, specified
& Sons, Ine. by size, which allows for smooth and controlled force devel-
opment.
52 Section l Essential Topici o f Kinesiology
Time
The EMG signal requires processing to be useful for kine- contraction and stretch and their structural interpretation. Nature 173:
973-976, 1954.
siologic interpretation. Raw or raw-filtered signals refer to
9. Huxley A, Nedergerke R: Structural changes in muscle dunng contrac
th originai biphasic waveform that is picked up by th tion. Interference microscopy of living muscle fibres. Nature 173:971
electrode. Often, th raw signal is smoothed and/or inte- 973, 1954.
grated. Smoothing refers to th flattening of th peaks and 10. Jaramillo J, Worrell TW, Ingersoll CD: Hip isometric strength following
valleys that occurs in a biphasic electrical signal. Smoothing knee surgery. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 20:160-165, 1994.
11 Kmjevic K, Miledi R: Failure of neuromuscular propogation in rats. J
is performed to allow moment-to-moment quantifcation of Physiol 140, 1958.
th signal because it eliminates th transient changes in peak 12 Loeb G, Prati C, Chanaud C, Richmond F: Distribution and innervation
values of th signal. Integration is a mathematica! lerm that of short, tnterdigitated muscle fibers in parallel-fibered muscles of th
refers to measuring th area under th curve. This process cat htndlimb. J Morph 191:1-15, 1987.
13. McKenzie DK, Biglandritchie B, Gorman RB, Gandevia SC: Central and
allows for cumulative EMG quantifcation or averaging EMG
peripheral fatigue of human diaphragm and limb muscles assessed by
over a fxed period of time. Signals that are smoothed and/or twitch interpolation. J Physiol 454:643-656, 1992.
integrated can be used in biofeedback devices, such as visual 14. Merletti R, Knaflitz M, Deluca CJ: Electrically evoked myoelectric sig
meters or audio signals, and to drive other devices, such as nals. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 19:293-340, 1992.
electrical stimulators, to assist in muscle activation at a pre 15. Sandroni P, Walker C, Starr A: Fatigue in patients with multiple sclero-
sis motor pathway conduction and event-related potentials. Arch Neu
set threshold of voluntary activation. rol 49:517-524, 1992.
When comparing th intensity of a processed EMG signal 16 Wessel J, Kaup C, Fan J, et al: Isometric strength measurements in
between different muscles, it is often necessary that th sig children with arthrins: Reliability and relation to function. Arthr Care
nal be normalized to some common reference signal. This is Res 12:238-246, 1999
17. Yamaguchi G, Sawa A. Moran D, et al: A survey of human muscuioten-
especially necessary when th magnitude of th EMG is
don actuator parameters. In Winters J, Woo S-Y (eds): Multiple Muscle
being compared between persons or between sessions, re- Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York,
quiring that th electrodes be reapplied. One common Springer-Verlag, 1990, pp 717-773.
method of normalization involves referencing th raw EMG 18. Zhou S, Lawson DL, Morrison WE, Fairweather I: Electromechanical
signal from a muscle to th signal produced as a person delay in isometric muscle contractions evoked by voluntary, reflex and
electrical stimulation. Eur J Appi Physiol 70:138-145, 1995.
performs a maximal voluntary isometric contraction. Meaning-
ful comparisons can then be made on th relative intensity,
expressed as a percent, of th muscles neural drive during
some activity. ADDITIONAL READINGS
The collection of EMG signals during movement, when Biewener A, Roberts T: Muscle and tendon contributions to force, work,
supplemented by kinematic and kinetic measures, can pro and elastic energy savnngs: A comparative perspective. Exerc Sport Sci
vide a comprehensive method for analyzing how muscles Rev 28:99-107, 2000.
Brown DA, Kautz SA: Increased workload enhances force output during
contribute to a movement. EMG can also provide insight pedaling exercise in persons with poststroke hemiplegia. Stroke 29:598-
mto th neural control of purposeful movements. A clinician 606, 1998.
can use EMG to aid in th understanding of physical impair- Brown DA, Kautz SA: Speed-dependent reductions of force output in people
ments underlying dysfunctional movement. This understand with poststroke hemiparesis. Phys Ther 79:919-930, 1999.
Enoka R, Fuglevand A: Motor unit physiology: Some unresolved issues.
ing can then lead to identification of diagnoses associated
Muscle Nerve 24:4-17, 2001.
with movement dysfunction and to appropriate intervention Gordon A, Homsher E, Regnter M: Regulation of muscle contraction in
strategies. striated muscle. Physiol Rev 80:853-924, 2000.
Herzog W: Muscle properties and coordination during voluntaiy movement.
J Sports Sci 18:141-152, 2000.
Hill A: The heat of shortening and th dynamic constanls of muscle. Proc R
REFERENCES
Soc Lond (Biol) 126:136-195, 1938.
1. Andrews BJ: Reducing FES muscle [angue. In Pedotti A, Ferrarin M Hof A, Van den BergJ: EMG to force processing 1: An electrical analogue of
(eds): Restoratton of Walking for Paraplegics. Amsterdam, los Press, th Hill muscle model. J Biomech 14:747-758, 1981.
1992, pp 197-202. Hof AL, Pronk CNA, Best JA: Comparison between EMG to force processing
2. Asmussen E. Muscle fatigue. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:412-420, 1993 and kinetic analysis for th calf muscle moment in walking and step-
3. Brouwer B, Wheeldon RK, Stradiotto-Parker N, Alluni J: Reflex excit- ping.J Biomech 20:167-178, 1987.
ability and isometric force production in cerebral palsy; The effect of Huijing PA: Muscle, th motor of movement: Properties in function, experi-
serial casting. Dev Med Child Neurol 40:168-175, 1998. ment and modelling. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 8:61-77. 1998.
4. Burke R, Levine D, Tsairis P, Zajac F: Physiological types and histo- Kautz S, Brown D: Relationships between timing of muscle excitation and
chemical proflles in motor units of th cat gastrocnemius J Physiol impaired motor performance during cyclical lower extremity movement
234:723-748, 1973. in post-stroke hemiplegia. Brain 121:515-526, 1998.
5. Fitts RH, Metzger JM: Mechanisms of muscular fatigue. In PoortmansJR Komi PV: Stretch-shortening cycle: A powerful model to study normal and
(ed): Principles of Exercise Biochemtslry, 2nd revised ed. 1993, pp fatigued muscle. J Biomech 33:11971206, 2000.
248-268. Lieber R, Friden J: Clinical significance of skeletal muscle architetture Clin
6. Fregly B, Zajac F: A state-space analysis of mechanical energy genera Orthop 383:140-151, 2001
tion, absorption, and transfer dunng pedaling. J Biomech 29:81-90, Lippold O: The relationship between integrated action potentials in a hu
1996. man muscle and its isometric tension. J Physiol 117:492-499, 1952
7. Henneman E, Mendell LM: Functional organization of motoneuron pool Siegler S, Hillslrom HJ, Freedman W, Moskowitz G: Effect of myoelectric
and its tnputs. In Brookhart, JM, Mountcastle, VB, Brooks, VB (eds): signal processing on th relationship between muscle force and pro
Handbook of Physiology, voi. 2. Bethesda, American Physiological Soci cessed EMG. Am J Phys Med 64:130-149, 1985.
ety, 1981, pp 423-507' Woods JJ, Bigland-Riichie B: Linear and nonlinear surface EMG/force rela
8. Huxley H, Hanson J: Changes in th cross-striations of muscle during tionships in human muscles. Am J Phys Med 62:287-299, 1983.
C h a p t e r 4
Biomechanical Principles
D eborah A. Na w o c z en sk i , PT, Ph D
Donald A. Neum ann , PT, P h D
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
NEWTON'S LAWS: APPLICATION TO Graphic Methods of Force Analysis, 67 Problem 1, 77
MOVEMENT ANALYSIS. 56 Composition of Forces, 67 Solving for Internai Torque and Muscle
Newton's Laws of Motion, 57 Resolution of Forces, 69 Force, 77
Newtons First Law: Law of Inertia, 57 Contrasting Internai versus External Solving for Joint Force, 78
Newton's Second Law: Law of Forces and Torques, 69 Problem 2, 79
Acceleration, 58 Influence of Changing th Angle of th Solving for Internai Torque and Muscle
Force (Torque)-Acceleration Joint, 69 Force, 80
Relationship, 58 Analytic Methods of Force Analysis, 70 Solving for Joint Force, 80
Impulse-Momentum Relationship, 60 Comparing Two Methods for Dynamic Analysis, 81
Work-Energy Relationship, 60 Determining Torque About a Joint, Kinematic and Kinetic Measurement
Newton's Third Law: Law of Action- 72 Systems, 81
Reaction, 62 Clinica! Issues Related to Joint Force Kinematic Measurement Systems:
INTRODUCTION TO MOVEMENT and Torque, 74 Electrogoniometer, Accelerometer,
ANALYSIS: SETTING THE BACKGROUND, Joint "Protection," 74 Imaging Techniques, and
63 Manually Applying External Torques Electromagnetic Tracking Devices,
Anthropometry, 63 During Exercise, 75 81
Free Body Diagram, 63 INTRODUCTION TO MOVEMENT Kinetic Measurement Systems:
Initial Steps for Setting Up th Free ANALYSIS: QUANTITATIVE METHODS OF Mechanical Devices, Transducers,
Body Diagram, 64 ANALYSIS, 76 and Electromechanical Devices, 83
Reference Frames, 65 Static Analysis, 77
Representing Forces, 67 Guidelines for Problem Solving, 77
INTRODUCTION
treatment approaches. Technologic advances continue to en-
hance th ability to understand and influence human per
It can be overwhelming to consider all th factors that may formance.
have an impact on human movement. And, many treatment
approaches used in physical rehabilitation depnd on an
accurate description of movement and a reliable assessment
of a persons response to intervention. The justification for NEWTON'S LAWS: APPLICATION TO
and th successful outcome of surgical and nonsurgical inter- MOVEMENT ANALYSIS
ventions are also frequently measured by changes in th
quality and quantity of movement. In response to these The outcome of all movement analysis is ultimately deter-
factors, a variety of analysis techniques may be utilized to mined by th forces applied to th body being moved. In
assess movement, rangitig from visual observation to th 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton observed that forces were
sophisticated motion analyses and imaging techniques. related to mass and motion in a predictable fashion. His
Most often, th complexity of movement analysis is simpli- Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) provided
fied by starting with a basic evaluation of th forces on a th basic laws and principles of mechanics that form th
single rigid body segment. Newtons laws of motion help to comerstone of human movement analysis. These laws, re-
explain th relationship between forces and their impact on ferred io as th law of inertia, th law of acceleration, and
individuai joints, as well as on total body motion. Even at th law of action and reaction, are collectively known as th
th basic level of analysis, this informatimi can be used to laws o f motion and form th framework from which advanced
understand mechanisms of injury, as well as to guide motion analysis techniques are derived.
56
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Principles 57
Newton's Laws of Motion velocity of a body. The inertia within a body is directly
proportional to its mass (i.e., th amount of matter constitut-
This chapter uses Newtons laws of motion to introduce ing th body). For example, if two bodies have different
techniques of analysis for describing th relationship between masses but are moving at similar linear velocities, a greater
th forces applied to th body and th consequences of force is required to alter th motion of th more massive
those forces on human motion. (Throughout th chapter, th body.
term body is used when elaborating on th concepts re- Each body has a point about which its mass is evenly
lated to th laws of motion and th methods of quantitative distributed. The point, called th center o f mass, can be
analysis. The reader should be aware that this term could considered where th acceleration of gravity acts on th
also be used interchangeably with th entire human body; a body. When subjected to gravity, th center of mass of a
segment or part of th body, such as th forearm segment; body is often described as its center o f gravity. For th entire
an object, such as a weight that is being lifted; or th System upright human body, th center of mass lies just anterior to
under consideration, such as th foot-floor interface. In most th second sacrai vertebra (Fig. 4 - 1 A). The center of mass
cases, th simpler term, body, is used when describing th for an individuali thigh and leg segments is shown in Figure
main concepts.) Newtons laws are described for both linear 4 - 1 B and C, respectively. During movement, th center of
and rotational (angular) motion (Table 4 - 1 ) . mass is continually changing its location being a function
of th location and size of th individuai body segments.
NEWTON'S FIRST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA Additional information regarding th center of mass of body
segments is discussed later in this chapter under th topic of
Newtons first law States that a body remains at rest or in Anthropometry.
Constant linear velocity except when compelled by an exter- The mass moment o f inertia of a body is a quantity that
nal force to change its state. A force is required to start, indicates its resistance to a change in angular velocity. Unlike
stop, or alter linear motion. The application of Newtons first mass, its linear counterpart, th mass moment of inertia
law to rotational motion States that a body remains at rest or depends not only on th mass of th body, bui also on th
in Constant angular velocity about an axis of rotation unless distribution of its mass with respect to an axis of rotation.6
compelled by an external torque to change its state. Whether Because most human motion is angular, rather than linear, it
th motion be linear or rotational, Newtons first law de- is important to understand th concept of mass moment of
scribes th case in which a body is in equilibrium. A body is inertia. The mass moment of inertia (i) is defined in th box,
in static equilibrium when its velocity is zero, or in dynamic where n indicates th number of particles in a body, m,
equilibrium when its velocity is not zero, but Constant. In indicates th mass of each particle in th body, and r, is th
either case, th acceleration of th body is zero. distribution or distance of each particle from th axis of
rotation.
First: Law of Inertia A body remains at rest or in Constant linear A body remains at rest or in Constant angular
velocity except when compelled by an external velocity about an axis of rotation unless when
force to change its state. compelled by an external torque to change its
state.
Second: Law of Acceleration The linear acceleration of a body is directly pro The angular acceleration of a body is directly pro
portional to th force causing it, takes place in portional to th torque causing it, takes place in
th same direction in which th force acts, and th same rotary direction in which th torque
is inversely proportional to th mass of th acts, and is inversely proportional to th mass
body. moment of inertia of th body.
Third: Law of Action-Reaction For every force there is an equal and opposite For every torque there is an equal and opposite
directed force. directed torque.
58 Section I Essential Topici o j Kinesiology
The fact that p is squared in Equation 4.2 has imporiant 1 Newton (N) = 1 kgm/s2
biomechanical implications. Consider, for example, that dur-
ing th swing phase of walking th entire lower limb short-
ens owing to th combined movements of hip and knee The angular counterpart to Newtons second law States that
flexion and ankle dorsiflexion. A functionally shortened limb a torque (T) produces an angular acceleration (a ) of th body
reduces th average distance of th mass particles within th that is proportional to, and in th rotary direction of th
limb relative to th hip joints medial-lateral axis of rotation. torque, and is inversely proportional to th mass moment of
The reduced mass moment of inertia reduces th force re- inertia of th body (I) (see Equation 4.4 in th box). (This
quired by th hip flexor muscles to accelerate th limb chapter uses th terni torque. The reader should be aware
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Principles 59
A Closer Look at Mass Moment of Inedia determined using Equation 4.1 and substituting known val-
ues (see th box). Next, consider Y2 as th axis of rota
Figure 4 -2 illustrates th concept of mass moment of
tion. The mass particles are distributed differenti if each
inertia. A rectangular object is considered to consist of
axis is considered separately. As seen in th calculations,
five point masses (M, M 5), each with a mass of 0.5 kg.
th mass moment of inertia, if considering Y2 as th axis,
The object is free to rotate in th horizontal piane. In this
is 5.5 times less than that if considering Y, as th axis.
example, th rectangular object is able to rotate sepa-
One reason for th reduced moment of inertia is that th
rately about two vertical axes of rotation (Y, and Y2).
M3 mass particle, which is coincident with th axis Y2,
Distances (r, r5) are each 0.1 m long, representing th
offers zero resistance to th rotation of th rectangular
distance between each mass particle (M ,-M 5) and be-
object. As a generai principle, therefore, th mass mo
tween th indicated mass particles and th two axes of
ment of inertia about an axis of rotation that passes
rotation. The axis of rotation Y2 runs through th center of
through th center of mass of a body is always smaller
mass of th entire object (M3). The following calculations
than th moment of inertia about any parallel axis.
demonstrate how th distribution of th mass particles,
relative to a given axis of rotation, dramatically affects th
mass moment of inertia of th rotating object. Consider Y,
as th axis of rotation. The mass moment of inertia is
Yi axis Y2 axis
C if b C n^ J
that this terni is interchartgeable with moment and moment proportional to th mass moment of inertia of th rotating
of force.) In this equation, 2 T designates th sum of or "net forearm and hand segments.
torques acting to rotate a body. Conceptually, Equation 4.4
defines a torque-angular acceleration relationship. Within th
musculoskeletal System, th primary torque producer is mus
cle. The contracting biceps muscle, for example, produces a Newton's Second Law of Rotary Motion Quantifying a
net flexion torque at th elbow as th hand is accelerated to Torque
th mouth. The flexion torque is directly proportional to th ST = 1 X a (Equation 4.4)
angular acceleration of th rotating elbow, as well as directly
60 Section / Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
FIGURE 4-4. Graphic representation of th areas under a force-time curve showing th (A) posterior-directed
and (B) anterior-directed impulses of th horizontal component of th ground reaction force while running.
M S P E C I A L F O C U S
Performance
T h e c o n c e p t o f a n g u l a r p o w e r is o f t e n u s e d a s a c l i n i -
ca l m e a su re of m u s c le p e rfo rm a n ce . The m e c h a n ic a l
p o w e r p r o d u c e d b y t h q u a d r i c e p s , f o r e x a m p l e , is
e q u a l to th n e t in te rn a i t o r q u e p r o d u c e d b y th m u s c le
tim e s th a v e r a g e a n g u la r v e lo c it y of k n e e e x te n s io n .
T h e p o w e r is o f t e n u s e d t o d e s i g n a t e t h n e t t r a n s f e r o f
e n e r g y b e t w e e n a c t iv e m u s c l e s a n d e x t e r n a l lo a d s .
Positive power r e f l e c t s t h r a t e o f w o r k d o n e b y con- Table 4 - 2 summarizes th definitions and units needed
centrically active muscles a g a i n s t a n e x t e r n a l l o a d . to describe many of th physical measurements related to
Newton's second law.
Negative power, in c o n t r a s t , r e f l e c t s t h r a t e o f w o r k
d o n e b y t h e x t e r n a l l o a d a g a i n s t eccentrically active
muscles. T h i s I n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e u t i l i z e d a s r e s e a r c h NEWTON'S THIRD LAW: LAW OF ACTION-REACTION
an d d ia g n o s tic to o ls fo r c o m p a r is o n s of n o rm a l an d
p a th o lo g ic fu n c tio n . Newton s third law of motion States that for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. This law implies that
every effect one body exerts on another is counteracted by
an effect that th second body exerts on th first. The two
Anthropometry
Anthropometry is derived from th Greek root anthropos
(man) and metron (measure). In th context of human move
ment analysis, anthropometry may be broadly defned as th
measurement of certain physical design features of th hu
man body, such as length, mass, volume, density, center of
mass, radius of gyration, and mass moment of inerlia. These
body segment parameters are essential lo conduction of kin
ematic and kinetic analyses for boih normal and pathologic
iGURE 4-5. The forces between th ground and foot are depicted motion. Analysis of movement frequently requires informa-
-tsring th early part of th walking cycle. The ground reaction
tion regarding th mass of individuai segments or th distri-
:>rces (red arrows) act superiorly and posteriorly, whereas th foot
bution of mass within a given segment. These factors deter
nrces (black arrows) act inferiori}' and anteriorly.
mine th inertial properties that muscles must overcome to
generate movement. Anthropometric information is also
valuabte in th design of th work environment, furniture,
odies interact simultaneously, and th consequence is speci- tools, and sports equipment.
:sd by th law of acceleration: XF = ma. That is, each body Much of th information regarding th body segments
-xperiences a different effect and that effect depends on its center of mass and mass moment of inerba has been derived
mass. For example, a person who falls off th roof of a from cadaver studies.4 Refer to Table l in Appendix 1A for
second-story building exerts a force on th ground, and th anthropometric data on weights of different body segments
ground exerts an equal and opposi te force on th person. and locations of th centers of mass. Other methods for
Aecause of th discrepancies in mass between th ground deriving this information have included mathematical model-
and th person, th effect, or acceleration experienced by th ing and imaging techniques, such as computed tomography
rerson, is much greater than th effect experienced by th and magnetic resonance imaging.
ground. As a result, th person may sustain signifcant in-
y- Free Body Diagram
Perhaps th most direct application of Newtons law of
iClion-reaction is th reaction force provided by th surface The analysis of movement requires that all forces that act on
.pon which one is walking. The foot produces a force th body be taken into account. Prior to any analysis, a free
against th ground owing to th accelerations of all superin- body diagram is constructed to facilitate th process of solv-
umbent body segments. In accord with Newtons third law, ing biomechanical problems. The free body diagram is a
ne ground generates a ground reaction force in th opposite snapshot or simplifed sketch that represents th interac
arection but of equal magnitude (Fig. 4 - 5 ) . The ground tion between a System and its environment. The System
reaction force changes in magnitude, direction, and point of under consideration may be a single rigid segment, such as
-oplication on th foot/shoe throughout th period of gait. th foot, or il may be several segments, such as th head,
Ground reaction forces can be measured via force platforms arms, and trunk. These can be regarded together as a single
see section on Kinematic and Kinetic Measurement Systems rigid System.
ater in this chapter), and th forces are commonly used as A free body diagram requires that all relevant forces act-
nput data for th quantitative analysis of human motion. ing upon th System are carefully drawn. These forces may
be produced by muscle; gravity, as reflected in th weight of
th segment; fluid; air resistance; friction; and ground reac
NTRODUCTION TO MOVEMENT ANALYSIS: tion forces. Arrows are used to indicate force vectors.
SETTING THE BACKGROUND How a free body diagram is defned depends on th
intended purpose of th analysis. Consider th example pre-
~; previous section describes th nature of th cause and sented in Figure 4 - 6 . In this example, th free body dia
et relationship between force and motion as outlined by gram represents th extem al forces acting on th body of an
'nvtons laws. Although it may be relatively simple to con individuai during th push off, or th propulsive, phase of
64 Section I Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
FIGURE 4 8. Free body diagram isolating th System as a right arm and weight combmation: resultant
shoulder abductor muscle force (MF); glenohumeral joint reaction force (JRF); arm weight (AW); and load
weight (LW). The axis of rotation is shown as an open red circle at th glenohumeral joint. (Modified from
LeVeau BF: Williams & Lissner's Biomechanics of Human Motion, 3rd ed. Philadelphia WB Saunders
1992.)
location in space. To analyze tnotion with respect io th horizontal (X) and th other vertical (Y), although they may
ground, direction of gravity, or another type of externally be oriented in any manner that facilitates quantitative Solu
defned reference frame in space, a global or laboratory refer- tions. A 2D System is frequently utilized when th motion
ence frain e must be defned. The position of th trunk with being described is predominantly planar (i.e., in one piane),
respect io a horizontal reference is an example of a measure- such as knee flexion and extension during gait.
ment made with respect io a global reference frame (Fig. In most cases, human motion occurs in more than one
4 -9 B ). piane. Even th knee, whose motion is considered to occur
Use of one type of reference frame over another may predominantly in th sagittal piane while walking, also un-
result in different outcome measures. Figure 4 - 9 illustrates dergoes small rotations in both horizontal and frontal planes.
how a relative and global reference frame can be used to In order to adequately describe th motions that occur in
describe th position of th trunk during th sit-to-stand more than one piane, a 3D reference System is necessary. A
activity, but th outcome measures are different. The use of 3D System has three axes, each perpendicular or orthogonal
two distinct reference frames for describing th same snap- to each other. In contrast to th planar description of th 2D
shot of an activity, bui having different results, emphasizes System, th coordinates in a 3D System can designate any
th importance of identifying th reference frame when de point or vector in space relative to th X, Y, and Z axes.
scribing human movement. A coordinate System needs to indicate direction of motion
Whether motion is measured via a relative or global refer as well as position in both a linear and a rotational sense.
ence frame, th location of a point or segment in space can By convention, most coordinate Systems are constructed
be specified using a coordinale System. In human movement such that linear movements to th righi, up, and forward are
analysis, th Cartesian coordinate System is most frequently defned as positive, whereas movements to th left, down,
employed. The Cartesian System utilizes coordinates for lo- and backward are negative. The direction of a force produc-
cating a point on a piane by identifying th distance of th ing a motion can be defned by th direction that th object
point from each of two intersecting lines or, in space, by th is being accelerated. Rotary or angular movements are de
distance from each of three planes intersecting at a point. scribed in th piane (sagittal, frontal, horizontal) that a seg-
This System, therefore, is either two-dimensional (2D) or ment is moving, which is perpendicular to th axis of rota-
three-dimensional (3D). A 2D System is defned by two tion. A segments rotation direction may be described as
imaginary axes arranged perpendicular to each other. The clockwise or counterclockwise or as flexion or extension (see
two axes (X, Y) are usually positioned such that one is Chapter 1), depending on th situation. In this text, th
Chapter 4 Biomedumical Principles 67
FIGURE 4-10. Vector composition of parallel, coplanar forces. A, Two force vectors are acting on th knee: th segment (leg) weight
(SW) and th load weight (LW) applied at th ankle. These forces are added to determine th resultant force (RF). The negative sign
mdcates a downward pul. B, The weight of th head (HW) and traction force (TF) act along th same line but in opposite directions.
The resultant force (RF) is th algebraic sum of these vectors.
^epresenting Forces
rorce vectors can be represented in different manners, de-
rending on th context of th analysis. Several vectors can
re combined to represent a single vector. This method of
jresentation is called vector composition. Alternatively, a
gle vector may be resolved or decomposed into several
mponents. This technique is termed vector resolution.
The representation of vectors using composition and reso-
-ttton provides th means of understanding how forces ro
tte or translate body segments and subsequently cause rota-
on, compression, shear, or distraction at th joint surfaces.
Composition and resolution of forces can be accom-
rlished using graphic methods of analysis or right-angle trig-
.nometry. These techniques are needed to represent and
- absequently calculate muscle and joint forces. FIGURE 4-11. A, Three forces are shown acting on a pelvis that is
involved in single-limb standing over a right prosthetic hip joint.
! RAPHIC METHODS OF FORCE ANALYSIS The forces are hip abductor force (HAF), body weight (BW), and
prosthetic hip reaction force (PHRF). B, The polygon (or tip-to-
omposition of Forces tail) method is used to determine th magnitude and direction of
th PHRF, based on th magnitude and direction of FfAF and BW.
ector composition allows several parallel, coplanar forces to (From Neumann DA: Hip abductor muscle activity in persons who
- simply combined graphically as a single resultant force walk with a hip prosthesis while using a cane and carrying a load.
g. 4 - 1 0 ) . In Figure 4 -1 0 A , th weight of th leg segment Phys Ther 79:1163-1176, 1999, with permission of th Physical
''VI and th weight of th load (LW) are added graphically Therapy Association.)
68 Seclion I Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
by means of a ruler and a scale factor determined for th ous example, th resultant vector can be found by drawing
vectors. In this example, th resultant force (RF) acts down- parallelogram based on th magnitude and direction of th
ward and has th tendency to distract (pul apart) th knee two component force vectors. Figure 4 -1 2 A provides ar.
joint, if unopposed by other forces. Figure 4 - 1 0 B illustrates illustration of th parallelogram method to combine severa]
a cervical traction device that employs a weighted pulley component vectors into one resultant vector. The component
System, acting in th direction opposite to th force createci force vectors, Fj and F2 (black solid arrows), are generated
by th weight of th head. Simple addition yields th value by th pul of th flexor digitorum superficialis and profun-
of th resultant force. The positive sign of RF indicates a dus, as they pass palmar (anterior) to th metacarpophalan-
slight net upward distraction force on th head and neck. geal joint. The diagonal, originating at th intersection of F
Force vectors acting on a body may be coplanar, but they and F2, represents th resultant force (RF) (see Fig. 4 -1 2 A ,
may not always act parallel. In this case, th individuai thick red arrow). Because of th angle between F, and F2.
vectors may be composed using th polygon method. Figure th resultant force tends to raise th tendons away from th
4 - 1 1 illustrates how th polygon method can be applted to joint. Clinically, this phenomenon is described as a bow-
a frontal piane model to estimate th reaction force on a stringing force due to th tendons resemblance to a pulled
prosthetic hip while standing on one limb. With th arrows cord connected to th two ends of a bow. In rheumatoid
drawn in proportion to their magnitude and in th correct arthritis, th bowstringing force may rupture th ligaments
orientation, th vectors of body weight (BW) and hip abduc- and dislocate th metacarpophalangeal joints (Fig. 4 12B).
tor force (HAF) are added in a tip-to-tail fashion (Fig. 4 In many cases, especially when analyzing muscle forces.
11B). The combined effect of th BW and HAF vectors is th parallelogram method can be described as a reclangle,
determined by placing th tail of th HAF vector to th tip such that th components of th resultant force are oriented
of th BW vector. Completing th polygon yields th result at right angles to each other. As shown in Figure 4 - 1 3 , th
ant prosthetic hip reaction force (PHRF), showtng its magni two right-angle forces are referred to as normaI and tangential
tude and direction (see Fig. 4 - 1 1 B , dotted line). In this components (MFN and MFT). The hypotenuse of th right
case, th resultant vector represents a reaction force and, triangle is th resultant muscle force (MF).
therefore, is directed in a sense that opposes th sum of th In summary, when two or more forces applied to a seg-
other two vectors. ment are combined into a single resultant force, th magni
A parallelogram can also be constructed to determine th tude of th resultant force is considered equal to th sum of
resultant of two coplanar but nonparallel forces. Instead of th component vectors. The resultant force can be deter
placing th force vectors tip-to-tail, as discussed in th previ - mined graphically as summarized in th box.
Metacarpophalangeal
joint
Stretched collateral
ligaments
Proximal
joint
Distai
FIGURE 4-12. A, Parallelogram
interphalangeal
method is used to illustrate th
joint
effect of two force vectors (F,
and F2) produced by contrac-
tion of th flexor digitorum
superficialis and profundus
muscles across th metacarpo
Ruptured
phalangeal (MCP) joint. The re
Palmar dislocation of th
metacarpophalangeal collateral
sultant force (RF) vector creates
joint ligaments a bowstringing force on th
connective lissues at th MCP
joint. B, In a digit with rheuma
toid arthritis, th resultant force
can, over time, rupture liga
ments and cause palmar disloca
tion of th metacarpophalangeal
joint.
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Principles 69
MF
force to compress th joint surfaces of th elbow. Becaust.
th angle-of-insertion is less than 45 degrees, th tangentu
force exceeds th normal force. At an angle-of-insertion o
45 degrees, th tangential and normal forces are equal, with
each about 71% of th resultant. When th angle-of-inser
tion of th muscle reaches 90 degrees (Fig. 4 - 1 5 B ) , 100%
of th total force is available to rotate th joint and produce
a torque.
As shown in Figure 4 - 1 5 C , th magnitude of th force
components continues to change as elbow flexion continues
The 135-degree angle-of-insertion produces equal tangentia
and normal force components, each about 71% of th result
ant. Because th tangential force is now directed away from
th joint, it produces a distracting or separating force on th
joint. As th angle-of-insertion exceeds 135 degrees (Fig
4 -1 5 D ), th tangential force component exceeds th norma
force component.
In Figure 4 -1 5 A through D, th internai torque is th
product of MFN and th internai moment arm (IMA). Be
cause MF n changes with angle-of-insertion, th magnitude or
an internai torque naturally changes throughout th range ot
motion. This concept helps explain why people have greater
strength at certain locations throughout th joints range ol
motion. The torque-generating capabilities of th muscle de-
pend not only on th angle-of-insertion, and subsequeni
magnitude of MFN, but also on other physiologic factors. '
discussed in Chapter 3. These include muscle length, activa-
tion type (i.e., isometric, concentric, or eccentric), and speed
of muscle activation.
Changes in joint angle also affect th external or resis-
tance end of th musculoskeletal System. Retuming to th
example of th isometric knee extension exercise, Figure
4 - 1 6 shows how a change in knee joint angle affects th
normal component of th external forces. The external I
Free body diagram torque experienced by th exercising person is equal to th
product of th external moment arm (EMA) and th normal I
FIGURE 4-14. Resoluiion of internai forces (red) and external forces component of th external forces (LWN or SW N). In Figure
(black) for an individuai performing an isometric knee extension 4 -1 6 A , no external torque exists in th sagittal piane be
exercise. A, The following resultant force vectors are depicted: mus-
cause th SW and LW force vectors pass through th axis of
cle force (MF) of th knee extensors; leg segment weight (SW); and
rotation and, therefore, have no moment arm. Figure 4 -1 6 B
load weight (LW) applied ai th ankle. B, A free body diagram
shows th resultant vectors resolved into their rectangular compo- through C shows how a greater external torque is placed
nents: normal component of th muscle force (MFN); tangential against th individuai with th knee fully extended com-
component of th muscle force (MFT); norma! component of th pared with th knee flexed 45 degrees. Although th exter
segment weight (SWN); tangential component of th segment weight nal forces, SW and LW, are th same in all three cases, th I
(SWT); normal component of th load weight (LWN); and tangential external torque is greatest when th knee is in full extension
component of th load weight (LWT). In both A and B, th open As a generai principle, th external torque applied against a
red circles mark th medial-lateral axis of rotation at th knee. Note joint is greatest when th resultant external force vector I
that th XY reference frame is rotated so that tangential forces are intersects th bone or body segment at a right angle.
oriented in th X direction and normal forces are oriented in th Y
direction. (Vectors are not drawn to scale.)
ANALYTIC METHODS OF FORCE ANALYSIS
Thus far, th composition and resolution of forces are pri-
marily described using a graphic method to determine th
insertion results in a different combination of tangential magnitude of forces. A drawback to this method is that it I
(MFt ) and normal (MFN) force components. The tangential requires a high degree of precision to accurately represent I
forces create compression or distraction forces at th elbow. th forces analyzed. In th solution of problems involving
By acting with an internai moment arm (IMA), th normal rectangular components, right-angle trigonometry provides
forces also generate an internai torque (i.e., potential rota a more accurate method of force analysis. The trigonometrie I
tion) at a joint. As shown in Figure 4 -1 5 A , a relatively functions are based on th relationship that exists between I
small angle-of-insertion favors a relatively larger tangential th angles and sides of a right triangle. Refer to Appendix IC
force, which directs a larger percentage of th total muscle for a review of this material.
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Prndples 71
FIGURE 4-16. A change in knee joint angle affeets th magnitude of th normal component of th extemal forces generated by th leg
segment weight (SW) and load weight (LW) applied at th ankle. The normal components of LW and SW are indicated as LWNand
SWN, respectively. Different extemal torques are experienced at different knee angles. The largest extemal torques are generated when
th knee is in full extension (C), since SWK and LWN are largest and equal io th full magnitude of SW and LW, respectively. No
external torques are produced when th knee is flexed 90 degrees (A), since SWN and LWN are zero. (EMA, is equal to th extemal
moment arm for SWN; EMA2 is equal to th external moment arm for LWN.)
72 Section I Essential Topics o f Kinesiobgy
0 S P E C I A L F O C U S 4 - 5
u S P E C I A L F O C U S 4 - 6
Clinica! Issues Related to Joint Force and Torque from large and potentially damaging forces. This result can
Joint Protection" be achieved by reducing th rate of movement (power),
Some treatments in rehabilitation medicine are directed providing shock absorption (e.g., cushioned footwear), or
toward reducing th magnitude of force on joint surfaces limiting th mechanical force demands on th muscle.
during th performance of a physical activity. The purpose Minimizing large muscular-based joint forces may be im-
of such treatment is to protect a weakened or painful joint portant for persons with prostheses or artifcial joint replace-
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Principles 75
menis. A person with a hip replacemeni, for example, is sider th case of severe hip osteoarthritis that results in
often advised on ways to minimize unnecessarily large forces destruction of th femoral head and an associated decrease
produced by th hip abductor muscles.9'10J 2 Figure 4 - 2 2 in th size of th femoral neck and head (Fig. 4 -2 3 A ). The
depicts a simple schematic representation of th pelvis and bony loss shortens th internai moment arm length (D)
femur while standing on a tight lower limb that has a pros- available to th hip abductor muscles; thus, greater muscle
thetic hip. The snapshot during th single-limb support and joint forces are produced to maintain frontal piane equi-
phase of gait assumes a condition of static equilibrium (i.e., librium. A surgical procedure that is an attempi to reduce
no acceleration is experienced by th pelvis relative to th joint forces on th hip entails th relocation of th greater
femur). In order for equilibrium io be maintained within th trochanter to a more lateral position (Fig. 4 - 2 3 B ). This
frontal piane, th internai (counterclockwise) and external procedure increases th length of th internai moment arm
(clockwise) torques about th stance hip must be balanced: of th hip abductor muscles. An increase in th internai
th produci of hip abductor force (HAF) times its moment moment arm reduces th force required by th abductor
arm D must equal body weight (BW) times its moment arm muscles to generate a given torque during single-limb sup
D,, or HAF X D = BW X D,. The external moment arm port of gait.
about th hip is almost twice th length of th internai
moment arm. The disparity in moment arm lengths requires Manually Applying External Torques During Exercise
that th muscle force be almost twice th force of body External or resistance torques are often applied manually
weight in order to maintain equilibrium. In theory, reducing during an exercise program. For example, if a patient is
excessive body weight, carrying lighter loads, or carrying beginning a knee rehabilitation program to strengthen th
loads in certain fashions can decrease th external moment quadriceps muscle, th clinician may initially apply manual
arm and external torque about th hip.9 Reduction of unnec resistance to th knee extensors at th midtibial region. As
essarily large external torques can decrease unnecessarily th patients knee strength increases, th clinician can exert a
large force demands on hip abductors and on underlying greater force at th midtibial region or th same force near
prosthetic hip joints. th ankle.
Certain orthopedic procedures illustrate how concepts of Because external torque is th product of a force (resis
joint protection are utilized in rehabilitation practice. Con- tance) and an associated external moment arm, an equivalent
A B
FIGURE 4-22. A, Hip abductor force (HAF) from th right hip abductor muscles produces a torque necessary for th frontal piane
stability of th pelvis during th right single-limb support phase of walking. Rotary stability is established, assuming static
equilibrium, when th counterclockwise torque equals th clockwise torque. The counterclockwise torque equals HAF times its
moment arm (D), and th clockwise torque equals body weight (BW) times its moment arm (D[). B, This first-class lever seesaw
model simplifes th model shown in A. The joint reaction force (JRF), assuming that all force vectors act vertically, is shown as an
upward directed force at a magnitude equal to th sum of th hip abductor force and body weight. (Reprinted and modifed with
permission from Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Ine., from Neumann DA. Biomechanical analysis of selected principles of hip joint
protection. Arthr Care Res 2:146-155, 1989. Copyright 1989 by ihe Arthritis Health Professions Association.)
76 Sedioli I Essential Topics o f Kinesiology
external torque can be applied by a relatively short extemal INTRODUCTION TO MOVEMENT ANALYSIS:
moment arm and a large external force or a long extemal
moment arm and a smaller extemal force. As depicted in
QUANTITATIVE METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Figure 4 - 2 4 , th same extemal torque (15 Nm) applied
against th quadriceps muscle can be generated by two dif- In th previous section, concepts are introduced that provtde
ferent combinations of extemal forces and moment arms. th tramework for performance of quantitative methods of
Note that th resistance force applied io th leg is greater in analysis. Many approaches are applied when solving prob-
Figure 4 -2 4 A than in Figure 4 -2 4 B . The higher contact lems in biomechanics. These approaches can be employed to
force may be uncomfortable for th patient and needs to be assess (1) th effect of a force at an instant in time (force-
considered during th application of resistance. A larger ex acceleratici! relationship)', (2) th effect of a force applied over
ternal moment arm, shown in Figure 4 - 2 4 B , may be neces- an in tern i of time (impulse-momentum relationship); and (3)
sary if th clinictan chooses to manually challenge a muscle th application of a force that causes an object to move
group as potentially forceful as th quadriceps. through some distance (work-energy relationship). The partic-
Static Analysis: Forces and Torques are Balanced Solving for Internai Torque and Muscle Force
The external torques originating from th weight of th fore-
Force Equilibrium Equations arm-hand segment (SW) and th weight of th load (LW)
2F X = 0 (Equation 4.14 A) generate a clockwise (extension) torque about th elbow. In
2F y = 0 (Equation 4.14 B) order for th System to remain in equilibrium, th elbow
Torque Equilibrium Equation flexor muscle has to generate an opposing internai (flexion)
M
(Equation 4.15)
II
o
Axis of
rotation
The resultant muscle (internai) torque is th net sum of disparity in moment arm length is not unique to th elbow
all th muscles that llex th elbow. This type of analysis flexion model, bui it is ubiquitous throughout th muscular-
does not, however, provide information about how th joint systems in th body. For this reason, most muscles of
torque is distributed among th various elbow fexor mus th body routinely generate a force many times greater than
cles. This requires more sophisticated procedures, such as th weight of th external load. This principle requires that
muscle modeling and optimization techniques, which are th bone and articular cartilage absorb large joint forces that
beyond th scope of this text. result from seemingly nonstressful activities.
The muscle force required to maintain th forearm in a
static position at a given instant in time is calculated by Solving for Joint Force
dividing th external torque by th internai moment arm: Because th joint reaction force (JF ) is th only remaining
unknown variable depicted in Figure 4 - 2 5 B , this variable is
determined by Equation 4.14 B, where downward forces are
MF X IMA = (SW X EMA,) + (LW X EMA,)
negative.
The positive value of th joint reaction force verifies th through th axis of rotation and, therefore, has a zero mo
assumption that th joint force acted downward. Because ment arm.
muscle force is usually th largest force acting about a joint,
th direction of th net joint force must oppose th pul of Problem 2
th muscle. Without such a force, for example, th muscle In Problem 1, th forearm is held horizontally, thereby ori-
mdicated in Figure 4 - 2 5 would accelerate th forearm up- enting th internai and extemal forces perpendicular to th
ward, resulting in a unstable joint. In short, th joint force forearm. Although this presentation greatly simplifies th cal-
supplied by th humerus against th forearm in this case culations, it does not represent a very typical biomechanical
provides th missing force needed to maintain linear static situation. Problem 2 shows a more common situation in
equilibrium at th elbow. As stated earlier, th joint force which th forearm is held at a position other than th
does not produce a torque because it is assumed to act horizontal (Fig. 4 -2 6 A ). As a result of th change in fore-
\)
rotation SWy = (cos 8) X SW
'X Load Weight (LW) = 60N
1 LWX = (sin 8) x LW
LWy = (cos 8) x LW
w
i
Joint Force (JF) at th elbow = unknown
Angle of approach of JF to X axis (py) = unknown
JFy and JFX = unknown
Internai Moment Arm (IMA) to MFy= ,05m
External Moment Arm to SWy = (EMA,) = .15m
Extemal Moment Arm to LWy= (EMA2) = ,35m
FIGURE 4 - 2 6 . P ro b le m 2. A, An isometric el
bow flexion exercise is performed against an
identical load weight as that depicted in Figure
4 - 2 5 . The forearm is held 3 0 degrees below
th horizontal position. B, A free body dia-
gram is shown including a box with th ab-
breviations and data required to solve th
problem. C, The joint reaction force (JF ) vec-
tors are shown in response to th biomechan-
ics depicted in B. (A modified from LeVeau
BF: Williams & Lissners Biomechanics of Hu
man Motion, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saun-
ders, 1992.)
80 Secticm I Essendal Topici of Kinesiology
interest is th direction of th JF with respect to th axis (X) Kinematic Measurement Systems: Electrogoniometer,
of th forearm. This is calculated using th relationship: Accelerometer, Imaging Techniques, and
Electromagnetic Tracking Devices
tan /a = JF y/JFx Detailed analysis of movement requires a careful and objec-
tive evaluation of th motion of th joints and body as a
l i = tan-' (341.3 N/197.1 N) whole. The analysis most frequently includes an assessment
of position, displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Analysis
H = 60 may be used to indirectly measure forces produced by th
body or to assess th quality and quantity of motion without
The resultant joint reaction force has a magnitude of regard to forces and torques. Kinematic analysis is performed
394.1 N and is directed toward th elbow at an angle of 60 in a variety of environments, including sport, ergonomics,
degrees to th forearm segment (i.e., th X axis). The angle and rehabilitation.
is th same as th angle-of-insertion of th muscle, a re-
minder of th dominant role of muscle in determining both Electrogoniometer
th magnitude and direction o f th joint reaction force. An electrogoniometer measures joint angular displacement
during movement. The device typically consists of an electri-
cal potentiometer built into th pivot point (hinge) of two
Dynamic Analysis rigid arms. Rotation of a calibrated potentiometer measures
Static analysis is th most basic approach to kinetic analysis th angular position of th joint. The output can be sent to
a chart recorder or oscilloscope, or more frequently it is
of human movement. This form of analysis is used to evalu-
used as input to a computer program. The arms of th
ate forces on a human when there are little or no significant
electrogoniometer are strapped to th body segments, such
linear or angular accelerations. In contrast, when linear or
that th axis of rotation of th goniometer (potentiometer) is
angular accelerations occur owing to unbalanced forces, a
approximately aligned with th joints axis of rotation (Fig.
dynamic analysis must be undertaken. Walking is an exam-
4 - 2 7 ) . The position data obtained from th electrogoniome-
ple of movement due to unbalanced forces, as th body is in
a continuai state of losing and regaining balance with each
step. Thus, dynamic analysis of gait is a frequently con-
ducted analysis of movement Science.
Dynamic forces that act against th body can be measured
directly by various instruments, such as a force transducer.
Dynamic forces generated from within th body, however,
are usually measured indirectly based on Newtons laws of
motion. (See Special Focus 4 - 7 for one such method.) Solv-
ng for forces and torques under dynamic conditions re-
quires knowledge of mass or mass moment of inertia and
linear or angular acceleration (see Equations 4.1 6 and 4.17
in th box). Anthropometric data provide th inertial charac-
teristics of body segments (mass, mass moment of inertia), as
well as th lengths of body segments and locations of joint
centers. Kinematic data, such as displacement, velocity, and
accelerations of segments, can be measured through labora-
tory techniques.
Force Equations
SF X = max (Equation 4.16 A)
(Equation 4.17)
II
P
ter combined with th time data can be mathematically con- processor or an interface that digitizes th analog signal, a
verted to angular velocity and acceleration. Although th calibration device, and a computer. The procedures involved
electrogoniometer provides a fairly inexpensive and direct in video-based systems typically require markers to be at
means of capturing joint angular displacement, it encumbers tached to a subject at selected anatomie landmarks. Markers
th subject and is difficult to fit and secure over fatty and are considered passive if they are not connected to another
muscle tissues. A triaxial electrogoniometer measures joint electronic device or power source. Passive markers serve as a
rotation in three planes; however, this System tends to con- light source by refiecting th light back to th camera (Fig.
strain naturai movement. 4 - 2 8 ) . Two- and three-dimensional coordinates of markers
Accelerometer are identified in space by a computer and are then used to
An accelerometer is a device that measures acceleration of reconstruct th image (or stick figure) for subsequent kine
th segment to which it is attached. Accelerometers are force matic analysis.
transducers consisting of a strain gauge or piezoresistive Cir Video-based systems are quite versatile and are used to
cuit that measures th reaction forces associated with a given analyze activities from swimming io typing. Some systems
acceleration. Based on Newtons second law, acceleration is allow movement to be captured outdoors and processed at a
determined as th ratio of th measured force divided by a later time. Another desirable feature of th System is that th
known mass. subject is not encumbered by wires or other electronic de-
vices.
Imaging Techniques
Optoelectronics is another popular type of kinematic acqui-
Imagng techniques are th most widely used methods for sition System that uses active markers that are pulsed se-
collecting motion data. Many different types of imaging Sys quentially. The light is detected by special cameras that fo
tems are available. This discussion is limited to th Systems cus it on a semiconductor diode surface. The System enables
listed in th box. collection of data at high sampling rates and" can acquire
real-time 3D data. The System is limited in its ability to
acquire data outside a controlled environment. Subjects may
Imaging Techniques
feel hampered by th wires that are connected to th active
Photography markers. Telemetry systems enable data to be gathered with-
Cinematography out th subjects being tethered to a power source, but they
Videography
are vulnerable to ambient electrical interference.
Optoelectronics
Electromagnetic Tracking Devices
Electromagnetic tracking devices measure six degrees-of-free-
Unlike th electrogoniometer and accelerometer that mea- dom (three rotational and three translational), providing po-
sure movement directly from a body, imaging methods typi- sition and orientation data during both static and dynamic
cally require additional signal conditioning, processing, and activities. Small receivers are secured to th skin overlying
interpreting prior to obtaining meaningful output.
Photography is one of th oldest techniques for measuring
kinematic data. With th camera shutter held open, light
from a flashing strabe can be used to track th location of
reflective markers wom on th skin of a moving subject (see
Chapter 15 and Fig. 1 5 - 3 ) . By knowing th frequency of
th strabe light, angular displacement data can be converted
lo angular velocity and angular acceleration data. In addition
to using a strabe as an interrupted light source, a 35-mm
camera can use a Constant light source and take multiple
film exposures of a moving event.
Cinematography, th art of movie photography, was once
th most popular method of recording motion. High-speed
cinematography, using 16-mm film, allowed for th meas-
urement of fast movements. By knowing th shutter speed, a
labor-intensive, frame-by-frame digitai analysis on th move
ment in question was performed. Digital analysis was per-
formed on movement of anatomie landmarks or of markers
wom by subjects. Two-dimensional movement analysis was
performed with th aid of one camera; three-dimensional
analysis, however, required two or more cameras.
For th most part, stili photography and cinematography
analysis are rarely used for th study of human motion. The
methods are not practical due to th time required for devel-
oping th film and manually analyzing th data. Videography
has replaced these Systems and is one of th most popular FIGURE 4-28. Reflective markers are used to indicate anatomie lo-
cations for determination of joint angular displacement of a walking
methods for collecting kinematic information in both clinical
individuai. Marker location is acquired using a video-based camera
and laboratory setungs. The System typically consists of one that can operate at variable sampling rates. (Courtesy of Peak Per
or more video cameras, a recorder, a monitor, an image formance Technologies, Ine., Englewood, Colorado.)
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Prnciples 83
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (seconds)
84 Section I Essentia Topics o f Kinesiology
Transducers
Vartous types of transducers have been developed and
widely used to measure force. Among these are strain gauges
and piezoelectric, piezoresistive, and capacitance transducers
Essentially, these transducers operate on th principle that
an applied force deforms th transducer, resulting in a
change in voltage in a known manner. Output from th
transducer is converted to meaningful measures through a
calibration process.
One of th most common transducers for collecting ki-
netic data while a subject is walking, stepping, or running is
th force piate. Force plates utilize piezoelectric quartz or
strain gauge transducers that are sensitive to load in three
orthogonal directions. The force piate measures th ground
reaction forces in vertical, medial-lateral, and anterior-poste-
rior components (Fig. 4 - 3 0 ) . Each component has a charac-
teristic shape and magnitude. The ground reaction force data
can be used as input for subsequent dynamic analysis.
Electromechanical Devices
One of th most popular electromechanical devices for meas-
uring internai torque at a specific joint is th isokinetic dyna
mometer. The device measures th internai torque produced
while maintaining a Constant angular velocity of th joint.
The isokinetic System is adjusted to measure th torque
produced by most major muscle groups of th body. The
machine measures kinetic data produced by muscles during
all three types of activation: concentric, isometric, and eccen-
FIGURE 4-31. lsokinetic dynamometry. The subject generates maxi- tric. The angular velocity is determined by th user, varying
mal-effort knee flexion torque at a joint angular velocity of 60 between 0 degrees/sec (isometric) and up to 500 degrees/sec
degrees/sec. The machine is functioning in its concentric mode, for nonisometric activation. Figure 4 - 3 1 shows a person
providing resistance against th contracttng muscles. Note that th who is exerting maximal effort, knee flexion torque through
medial-lateral axis of rotation of th tight knee is approximately
a concentric contraction of th right knee flexor muscola
aligned with th axis of rotation of th dynamometer. (Courtesy of
ture. Isokinetic dynamometry provides an objective record of
Biodex Medicai Systems, Ine., Shirley, New York.)
muscular kinetic data, produced during different types of
muscle activation at multiple test velocities. The System also
provides immediate feedback of kinetic data, which may
serve as a source of biofeedback during training or rehabili-
tation.
introduction to th "Inverse Dynamic Approach" for In th inverse dynamics approach, th System under
Solving for Internai Forces and Torques consideration is often defined as a series of links. Figure
4-32A illustrates th relationship between th anatomie
Measuring joint reaction forces and muscle-produced net link segment models of th lower limb. In Figure 4-326,
torques during dynamic conditions is often performed indi- th segments are disarticulated and th individuai forces
rectly utilizing a technique called th inverse dynamic and torques are identified at each segment end point. The
approach.'6 This approach uses data on anthropometry, center of mass is located for each segment. The analysis
kinematics, and external forces, such as gravity and con on th series of links usually begins with th analysis of
tact forces. Accelerations are determined employing th th most distai segment, in this case th foot. Information
first and second derivatives of position-time data to yield gathered through motion analysis techniques, typically
velocity-time and acceleration-time data, respectively. The camera-based, serves as input data for th dynamic equa-
importance of acquiring accurate position data is a pre tions of motion. This information includes th position and
requisite to th soundness of this approach, because er- orientation of th segment in space, th acceleration of
rors in measuring position data magnify errors in velocity th segment and segment center of mass, and th reac
and acceleration.
tion force acting on th distai end of th segment. From
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Principles 85
JFX
Cf
and JF y, joint forces in th horizontal (X) vertical (Y) directions; Leg (L)
GRFX and GRFY, ground reaction forces in th horizontal (X) and
vertical directions (Y).) JFy \
Foot(F) JFX
(
-A GRF
JF,
u n r x
t
Foot W GRFy
B
REFERENCES Guccione AA (ed): Geriatrie Physical Therapy, 2nd ed. St, Louis,
Mosby, 2000.
1. Allard P, Stokes 1AF, Bianchi JP: Three-Dimensional Analysis of Human 13. Ozkaya N, Nordin M: Fundamentals of Biomechanics: Equilibrium, Mo-
Movement. Champaign, Human Kinetics, 1995 tion and Deformation. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1999.
2 Clauser CE, McConville JT, Young JW: Weight, volume, and center of 14. Soderberg GL: Kinesiology: Application io Pathological Motion, 2nd ed.
mass segments of th human body. AMRL-TR-69-70, Wright Patterson Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1997.
Air Force Base, 1969. 15. Whiting WC, Zemicke RF: Biomechanics of Musculoskeletal Injury.
3. Craik RL, Oatis CA: Gait Analysis: Theory and Application. St. Louis, Champaign, Human Kinetics, 1998.
Mosby-Year Book, 1995. 16. Winter DA: Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement,
4. Dempster WT: Space requirements for th seated operator. WADC-TR- 2nd ed. New York, John Wiley &r Sons, 1990
55-159, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, 1955. 17. Zatsiorsky VM: Kinematics of Human Motion. Champaign, Human Ki
5. Enoka RM: Neuromechanical Basis of Kinesiology, 2nd ed. Champaign, netics, 1998.
Human Kinetics, 1994. 18. Zatsiorsky VM, Seluyanov V: Esumation of th mass and inertia charac-
6. Hamill J, Knutzen KM: Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement. Balti teristics of th human body by means of ihe best predictive regression
more, Williams & Wilkins, 1995. equations. In DA Winter, RW Norman, RP Wells, et al (eds): Biome
7. Hatze H: A mathematical model for th computational determination of chanics. Champaign, Human Kinetics, 1985.
parameter values of anthropometric segments. J Biomech 13:833-843,
1980.
8. Hindrichs R: Regression equations to predici segmentai moments of A D 0ITI0N A L READINGS
inertia from anthropometric measurements. J Biomech 18:621-624, Hall SJ: Basic Biomechanics. St. Louis, Mosby, 1998.
1985. Hay JG: The Biomechanics of Sports Techniques. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice
9. Neumann DA: Biomechanical analysis of selected principles of hip joint Hall, 1993.
protection. Arthritis Care Res 2:146-155, 1989. LeVeau BF: Williams & Lissners Biomechanics of Human Motion. Philadel-
10. Neumann DA: Hip abductor muscle activity in persons with a hip phia, WB Saunders, 1992.
prosthesis while walking and carrying loads in one hand. Phys Ther 76: Low J, Reed A: Basic Biomechanics Explained. Oxford, Butterworth-Heine-
1320-1330, 1996. mann, 1996.
11 Neumann DA: Hip abductor muscle activity in persons who walk with Mow VC, Hayes WC: Basic Orthopaedic Biomechanics. New York, Raven
a hip prosthesis with different methods of using a cane. Phys Ther 78: Press, 1991.
490-501, 1998. Nordin M, Frankel VH: Basic Biomechanics of th Musculoskeletal System.
12. Neumann DA: Arthrokinesiological considerations in th aged aduli. In Philadelphia, Lea and Febiger, 1989.
A p p e n d i x I
Appendix IA: Selected Anthropometric Data Figure IC1 illustrates th use of trigonometry io deter
Table 1A1 provides selected anthropometric data on a 670-N mine th force components of th posterior deltoid muscle
man. during active isometric activation. The angle-of-insertion (a
of th muscle with th bone is 45 degrees. Based on th
particular reference frame, th rectangular components of th
Appendix IB: The "Right-Hand" Rule muscle force (MF) are labeled MFY (tangential force) and
MFX (normal force). Given a Constant muscle force of 200
As stated in Chapter 1, a torque is detned as a force multi-
N, MFY and MFX can be determined as follows:
plied by its moment arm. Force is a vector quantity that
possesses both magnitude and direction. Moment arm
MFX = MF sin 45 = 200 N X 0 .707 = 141.4 N
length, however, can be treated as a vector or as a scalar
quantity. When considering a moment arm as a vector, MF y = MF cos 45 = 200 N X 0 .707 = 141.4 N
torque is calculated as th product of two vectors. Multiply-
ing two orthogonal vectors (force and its moment arm) Il MFx and MFY are known, MF (hypotenuse) can be deter
through cross-product multiplication yields a third vector mined using th Pythagorean theorem:
(torque) that is directed perpendicularly to th piane that
contains th other two vectors. Using this scheme, th elbow MF2 = MFX2 + MFy2
flexors in Figure 1 - 1 7 , for example, would produce an
internai torque vector that is directed either into th page or MF = V 1 4 1 .4 2 4- 141.42
out ol th page. The right-hand rule is a convention that
can be used to assign a direction to a vector product. The MF s 200 N
fingers of th righi hand are curled in th direction of th
rotating segment. The positive direction of th torque is
defined by th direction of th extended thumb. In Figure
1 - 1 7 , th direction of th internai torque is out of' th
page, or in a positive Z direction.
H ea d : 46.2 N (6.9%) H ea d : In spbenoid sinus, 4 mm beyond anterior inferior margin of sella. (On lateral
surface, over temporal fossa on or near nasion-inion line.)
H ea d a n d n ec k : 52.9 N (7.9%) H e a d a n d n ec k : On inferior surface of basioccipital bone or within bone 23 5 mm from
crest of dorsum sellae. (On lateral surface, 10 mm anterior to supratragal notch above
head of mandible.)
H ead, n eck , a n d tru n k: 395.3 N (59.0%) H ea d , n eck , a n d tru n k: Anterior io eleventh thoracic vertebra.
Upper Limb
U p p er lim b: Just above elbow joint.
A rm : 18.1 N (2.7%) Arm: In mediai head of triceps, adjacent to radiai groove; 5 mm proximal to distai end of
deltoid insertion.
Fo r e a r m : 10.7 N (1.6%) Forearm. 11 mm proximal to most distai pan of pronator teres insertion; 9 mm anterior to
interosseous membrane.
H an d : 4.0 N (0.6%) H a n d (in rest position): On axis of metacarpal III, usually 2 mm deep to volar skin surface;
U p p er lim b: 32.8 N (4.9%) 2 mm proximal to transverse palmar skin crease, in angle between proximal transverse
F o r e a r m a n d h a n d : 14.7 N (2.2%) and radiai longitudinal crease.
Lower Limb
C h a p t k r 5; Shoulder Complex
C h a r t e r 7 Wrist
C h a rter 8 Hand
90
C h a p t e r 5
Shoulder Complex
Donald A. Neum ann , PT, Ph D
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
K in e m a tic s , 101
Internai and External Rotation, 113 U p w a rd R o ta to rs a t th S c a p u lo th o ra c ic
Scapula
The triangular-shaped scapula has three angles: inferior, supe
rior, and lateral (Fig. 5 - 5 ) . Palpation of th inferior angle
provides a convenient method for following th movement
of th scapula during arm motion. The scapula also has three
borders. With th arm resting by th side, th mediai or
vertebral border runs almost parallel to th spinai column
The lateral or axillary border runs from th inferior angle to
th lateral angle of th scapula. The superior border extends
from th superior angle laterally toward th coracoid proc-
ess.
Anterior view
Sternocleidomastoid
Clavicle
When looking from above, th shaft of th clavicle is curved
with its anterior surface being generally convex medially and
concave laterally (Fig. 5 - 3 ) . With th arm in th anatomie
position, th long axis of th clavicle is oriented slightly
above th horizontal piane and about 20 degrees posterior to
th frontal piane (Fig. 5 - 4 ; angle A). The rounded and
prominent mediai or stemal end of th clavicle articulates
with th stemum (see Fig. 5 - 3 ) . The costai facet of th
clavicle (see Fig. 5 - 3 ; inferior surface) rests against th first
rib. Lateral and slightly posterior to th costai facet is th
distinct costai tuberosity, an attachment for th costoclavicular
ligament.
Superior surface
\ \ i ^ ^ K n t e r i o r detto#
Anterior
FIGURE 5 -3 . The superior and infe
rrar surfaces of th right clavicle.
The dashed line around th ends of
th clavicle show attachments of th
ioint capsule. Proximal attachment
of muscles are shown in red, distai
attachments in gray.
Posterior view
Anterior view
Upper trapezius Middle and anterior deltoid
Upper trapezius
Short head
biceps and
coracobrachialis
lSupraspinatusv
in Long head biceps
supraspinatous Lower on supraglenoid
j, ta s s a i1 and tubercle
Levator middle Sternum
Pectoralis
scapulae' ^ trapezius m in o r
f Infraspinatus
Rhomboid
w
( Subscapularis
___ minor infraspinatous fossa
') in
Subscapular fossa.
Long head triceps on
infraglenoid tubercle
Serratus anterior
Latissimus
^ an# dorsi
a t r a r h m fi (B)Lsurfaces of the rlght scapola. Proximal attachment of muscles are shown rn red distai
attachments m gray. The dashed lines show the capsular attachments around the glenohumeral joint.
Osteologie Features of the Scapula Socket of joint, + eidos; resembling) (Fig. 5 - 5 B). The
Angles: inferior, superior, and lateral
glenoid fossa is tilted upwardly about 5 degrees relative to
Mediai or vertebral border the scapulas mediai border (Fig. 5 - 6 ) . At resi, the scapula
Lateral or axillary border is normally positioned against the posterior-lateral surface of
Superior border the thorax vvith the glenoid fossa facing about 35 degrees
' Supraspinatous fossa
Infraspinatous fossa
Spine
Root of the spine
Acromion
Clavicular facet
Glenoid fossa
Supraglenoid and infraglenoid tubercles
Coracoid process
Subscapular fossa
Proximal-to-Mid Humerus
The head o f th humerus, nearly one half of a full sphere,
forms th convex component of th glenohumeral joint (Fig.
5 - 8 ) . The head faces medially and superiorly, forming an
approximate 135-degree angle of inclination with th long
axis of th humeral shaft (Fig. 5 -9 A ). Relative to a medial-
FIGURE 5-7. A close-up view of th righi coracoid process looking lateral axis through th elbow, th humeral head is rotated
from above. Proximal attachraents of muscle are in red, distai at- posteriori)' about 30 degrees within th horizontal piane
tachments in gray. Ligamentous attachment is indicated by light
(Fig. 5 -9 B ). This rotation, known as retroversion (from th
gray area outlined by dashed line.
Latin root retro; backward, + verto; to turn), orients th
humeral head in th scapular piane for articulation with th
glenoid fossa (Fig. 5 - 4 ; angle C).
anterior to th frontal piane (see Fig. 5 - 4 ; angle B). This The anatomie neck of th humerus separates th smooth
orientation of th scapula is called th scapular piane. The articular surface of th head from th proximal shaft (Fig.
scapula and humeras tend to follow this piane when th 5 -8 A ). The prominent lesser and greater tubercles surround
arm is raised over th head. th anterior and lateral circumference of th extreme proxi
Located at th superior and inferior rim of th glenoid mal end of th humerus (Fig. 5 -8 B ). The lesser tubercle
Superior view
Elevation and Depression Retraction and Protraction Downward and Upward Rotation
FIGURE 5-11. Motions of th right scapula against th posterior-lateral surface of th thorax. A, Elevation and depression. B, Retraction
and protraction. C, Downward and upward rotation.
98 Section II Upper Extremity
diameter. The clavicular facet on th stemum typically is th extremes of all elavicular motion, except for a downward
reciprocally shaped, with a slighdy concave longitudinal di movement of th clavicle (i.e., depressioni.
ameter and a slighdy convex transverse diameter. The articular disc at th SC joint separates th joint into
The large and exposed articular surface of th clavicle distinct mediai and lateral joint cavities (see Fig. 5 - 1 2 ) . The
rests against th smaller, sloped, articular surface of th ster- disc is a flattened piece of fbrocartilage that attaches inferi-
num. A prominent articular disc resides within th SC joint, orly near th lateral edge of th elavicular facet and superi-
which tends to increase th congruity of otherwise irregular- orly at th head of th clavicle and interclavicular ligament.
shaped joint surfaces. The remaining outer edge of th disc attaches to th internai
surface of th capsule. The disc functions as a shock ab-
sorber within th joint by increasing th surface area of joint
PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
contact. This absorption mechanism apparently works well
The SC joint is enclosed by a capsule reinforced by anteror since significant age-related degenerative arthritis is relatively
and posterior stemocavicular ligaments (Fig. 5 - 1 2 ) . The inner rare at this jo in t.16
surface of th capsule is lined with synovial membrane. In The tremendous stability at th SC joint is due to th
addition, th joint is stabilized anteriorly by th sternal head arrangement of th surrounding periarticular connective tis
of th stemocleidomastoid and posteriorly by th stemothy- sues.12 Large medially directed forces through th clavicle
roid and stemohyoid muscles. The interclavicular ligament often cause fracture of th bones shaft instead of a SC joint
spans th jugular notch, connecting th mediai end of th dislocation. Clavicular fractures are most common in males
right and left clavicles. under 30 years old. Most often these fractures are th result
of contact-sport or road-traffic accidents.51
FIGURE 5 - 1 7 . The righi acromioclavicular joint. A, An anterior view showing th sloping nature of ihe articulation. B,
A posterior view of th joint opened up from behind, showing th clavicular facet on th acromion and th disc.
corresponding acromial facet on th clavicle. An articular The coracoclavicular ligament provides additional stability
disc of varying form is present in most AC joints. to th AC joint (see Fig. 5 - 1 8 ) . This extensive ligament
The AC joint is most often described as a gliding or piane consists of th trapezoid and conoid ligaments. The irapezoid
joint, reflecting th predominantly fiat contour of th joint ligament extends in a superior-lateral direction from th su
surfaces. Joint surfaces vary, however, from fiat to slightly perior surface of th coracoid process to th trapezoid line
convex or concave (Fig. 5 - 1 7 B ). Because of th predomi on th clavicle. The conoid ligament extends almost vertically
nantly fiat joint surfaces, roll-and-slide arthrokinematics are from th proximal base of th coracoid process to th co
noi here described. noid tubercle on th clavicle.
The articular surfaces at th AC joint are lined with a
layer of fbrocartilage and often separated by a complete or
PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE incomplete articular disc. An extensive dissection of 223 sets
The AC joint is surrounded by a capsule that is reinforced of AC joints revealed complete discs in only about 10% of
by superior and inferior ligaments (Fig. 5 - 1 8 ) . The superior th joints.16 The majority of joints possessed incomplete
capsular ligament is remforced through attachments from th discs, which appeared fragmented and worn. According to
deltoid and trapezius. DePalma,16 th incomplete discs are not structural anomalies,
but rather indications of th degeneration that often affects
this joint.
Tissues that Stabilire th AC Joint
Superior and inferior AC joint capsular ligaments KINEMATICS
Deltoid and upper trapezius
Coracoclavicular ligament Distinct functional differences exist between th SC and AC
Articular disc joints. The SC joint permits relative extensive motion of th
clavicle, which guides th generai path of th scapula. The
Osteokincmatics at th AC Joint
Upward and downward rotation
Acromioclavicular Joint Dislocation Horizontal piane rotational adjustments
Sagitial piane rotational adjustments
The AC joint is inherently susceptible to dislocation due
to th sloped nature of th articulation and th high
probability of receiving large shearing forces. Consider Upward and Downward Rotation
a person fading and striking th tip of th shoulder
abruptly against th ground (Fig. 5-19). The resulting Upward rotation of th scapula at th AC joint occurs as th-.
medially directed ground force may dispiace th acro- scapula swings upwardly and outwardly" in relation to th;
mion medially and under th sloped articular facet of lateral edge of th clavicle (Fig. 5 -2 0 A ). Reports vary, but
th well-stabilized clavicle. The coracoclavicular liga- up to 30 degrees of upward rotation can occur as th arm t-
ments, particularly th trapezoid ligament, naturally re raised over th head.2638-63 The motion contributes an exten
sisi such an AC joint displacement.20 On occasion, th sive component of overall upward rotation at th scapulo-J
force applied to th scapula exceeds th tensile thoracic joint (Fig. 5 -1 1 C ). Downward rotation at th AC1
strength of th ligaments, resulting in their rupture and joint returns th scapula back to its anatomie position, ^
th complete dislocation of th AC joint. Extensive liter- motion mechanically associated with shoulder adduction o-
ature exists on th evaluation and treatment of th extension. Although Figure 5 -2 0 A depiets th upward and
injured AC joint, especially in athletes.32 downward rotation of th scapula as a pure frontal piane
motion, most naturai motions occur within th scapularl
piane.
Complete upward rotation of th scapula at th AC joint
is considered th close-packed position.68 This motion place;
significant stretch on th inferior AC joint capsule and thel
coracoclavicular ligament.
FIGURE 5-20. A, Posteror view showing th osteokinematics of th tight acromioclavicular joint. The
primari motions of upward and downward rotation are shown in red. Horizontal and sagittal piane
adjustments, considered as secondar) motions, are shown in gray and white, respectively. Note that each
piane of movement is color-coded with a corresponding axis of rotation. B and C show examples of th
horizontal piane adjustment made during scapulothoracic protraction (B) and sagittal piane adjustment
made during scapulothoracic elevation (C).
der located about 6 cm (2 Vi in) faterai to th spine. This ward rotation of th scapula at th AC joint allows th
resting posture of th scapula varies considerably from one scapula to remain nearly vertical throughout th elevation
person to another. (Fig. 5 -2 1 C ). Additional adjustments at th AC joint help to
Movements at th scapulothoracic joint are a very impor keep th scapula flush with th thorax. Depression of th
t a i element of shoulder kinesiology. The wide range of scapula at th scapulothoracic joint occurs as th reverse
motion available to th shoulder is due, in pari, to th large action described for elevation.
movement available to th scapulothoracic joint.
Protraction and Retraction
KINEMATICS Protraction of th scapula occurs through a summation of
horizontal piane rotations at both th SC and AC joints (Fig.
Movement of th Scapulothoracic Joint: A Composite of
5 - 2 2 A). The scapula follows th generai path of th pro-
th Sternoclavicular and Acromioclavicular Joint
tracting clavicle about th SC joint (Fig. 5 -2 2 B ). The AC
Movements
joint can amplify or adjust th total amount of scapulotho
The movements that occur between th scapula and th racic protraction by contributing varying amounts of adjust
thorax are a result of a cooperation between th SC and th ments within th horizontal piane (Fig. 5 -2 2 C ). Scapulotho
AC joints. racic protraction increases th extern of forward reach.
Elevation and Depresson Because scapulothoracic protraction occurs as a summa
Scapular elevation at th scapulothoracic joint occurs as a tion of both th SC and AC joint, a decrease in motion at
composite of SC and AC joint rotations (Fig. 5 -2 1 A ). For one joint can be at least partially compensated by an in-
th most part, th motion of shrugging th shoulders occurs crease at th other. Consider, for example, a case of severe
as a direct result of th scapulas following th path of th degenerative arthritis and decreased motion at th AC joint.
elevating clavicle about th SC joint (Fig. 5 -2 1 B ). Down The SC joint may compensate by contributing a greater de-
104 Section II Upper Extremity
Posterior view
gree of protraction, thereby limiting th extent of loss in th retumed to th side from a raised position. The motion is I
forward reach of th upper limb. described as similar to upward rotation, except that th I
Retraction of th scapula occurs in a similar but reverse clavicle depresses at th SC joint and th scapula down- I
fashion as protraction. Retraction of th scapula is often wardly rotates at th AC joint. The motion of downward I
performed in th context of pulling an object toward th rotation usually ends when th scapula has retumed to th
body, such as pulling on a wall pulley, climbing a rope, or anatomie position.
putting th arm in a coat sleeve.
Upward and Downward Rotation Glenohumeral Joint
Upward rotation of th scapulothoracic joint is an integrai
part of raising th arm over th head (Fig. 5 -2 3 A ). This
GENERAL FEATURES
motion places th glenoid fossa in a position to support and The glenohumeral (GH) joint is th articulation formed be-
stabilize th head of th abducted (i.e., raised) humerus. tween th large convex head of th humems and th shallow
Complete upward rotation of th scapula occurs as a sum- concavity of th glenoid fossa (Fig. 5 - 2 4 ) . This joint oper-
mation of clavicular elevation at th SC joint (Fig. 5 - 2 3 B) ates in conjunction with th moving scapula to produce an
and scapular upward rotation at th AC joint (Fig. 5 -2 3 C ). extensive range of motion of th shoulder. In th anatomie
These dual frontal piane rotattons occur about parallel SC position, th articular surface of th glenoid fossa is directed
and AC joint axes, allowing a total of 60 degrees of scapular anterior-laterally in th scapular piane. In most people, th 1
rotation. The scapula may rotate upwardly and strictly in th glenoid fossa is upwardly rotateci slightly. This position is
frontal piane as in true abduction, but it usually follows a dependent on th amount of fixed upward tilt to th fossa
path closer to its own piane. (see Fig. 5 - 6 ) and to th amount of upward rotation of th
Downward rotation of th scapula occurs as th arm is scapula in its resting posture.
FIGURE 5 - 2 2 . A Scapulothoracic protraction shown as a summation of B (protraction at th SC joint) and C (slisht horizontal piane
adjustments at th AC joint). r
Chapter 5 Shoulder Complex 105
FIGURE 5-23. A, Scapulothoracic upward rotation shown as a summation of B (elevation of th SC joint) and C (upward rotation at
th AC joint).
In th anatomie position, th articular surface of th hu- surround th biceps tendon as it exits th joint capsule and
meral head is directed medially and superiorly, as well as descends into th intertubercular (i.e., bicipitali groove.
posteriorly because of its naturai retroversion. This orienta- The potential volume of space within th GH joint cap
tion places th head of th humerus directly into th scapu- sule is about twice th size of th humeral head. In conjunc-
lar piane and therefore directly against th face of th don with a loose fitting and expandable capsule, th GH
glenoid fossa (see Fig. 5 - 4 B and 5 -4 C ). joint allows extensive mobility. This mobility is evident by
th amount of passive translation available at th GH joint.
The humeral head can be pulled away from th fossa a
PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
significant distance without causing pain or trauma to th
The GH joint is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, which joint. In th anatomie or adducted position, th inferior
isolates th internai joint cavity from most surrounding tis- portion of th capsule appears as a slackened recess called
sues (see Fig. 5 - 2 4 ) . The capsule attaches along th rim of th axillary pouch.
th glenoid fossa and extends to th anatomie neck of th The rotator cuff muscles (subscapularis, supraspinatus, in-
humerus. A synovial membrane lines th inner wall of th fraspinatus, and teres minor) and th capsular ligaments
joint capsule. An extension of this synovial membrane lines blend into th fibrous capsule, providing most of th stabil-
th intracapsular portion of th tendon of th long head of ity to this articulation. The long head of th biceps also
th biceps brachii. This synovial membrane continues to contributes stability to th join t.34
S P E C I A L F O C U S 5 - 2
Coracoid process
Tissues that Stabilize or Deepen th GH Joint The GH joints capsular ligaments consist of complex
bands of interlacing collagen fibers, divided into superior,
Rotator cuff muscles (subscapularis, supraspinatus, infra-
spinatus, and teres minor) middle, and inferior bands. The ligaments are best visualized
GH joint capsular ligaments from an internai view of th GH joint (Fig. 5 - 2 7 ) . The
Coracohumeral ligament superior glenohumeral ligament has its proximal attachment
Long head of th biceps near th supraglenoid tubercle, just anterior to th attach
Glenoid labrum ment of th long head of th biceps. The ligament, with
associated capsule, attaches distally near th anatomie neck
of th humerus above th lesser tubercle. The ligament be-
The extemal layers of th anterior and inferior walls of th comes particularly taut in full adduction or during inferior
joint capsule are thickened and strengthened by fibrous con and posterior translations of th humerus.5365
nective tissue known simply as th glenohumeral (capsular) liga The middle glenohumeral ligament has a wide proximal
ments (Fig. 5 - 2 6 ) . Passive tension in th capsular ligaments attachment to th superior and middle aspeets of th ante
limits th extremes of GH joint rotation and translation. rior rim of th glenoid fossa. The ligament blends with th
The following discussion provides th essential anatomy anterior capsule and tendon of th subscapularis muscle,
and function of th GH joint capsular ligaments. For more then attaches along th anterior aspect of th anatomie neck.
detail, refer to additional literature, such as Curi13 and Bigli- This ligament provides substantial anterior restraint to th
ani.5 Table 5 - 1 lists th distai attachments of th ligaments GH joint, resisting anterior translation of th humerus and
and th motions that render each capsular ligament taut. th extremes of extemal rotation.51
This information is useful for th understanding of th cause The extensive inferior glenohumeral ligament attaches proxi-
of th limitations in movement that may follow surgery re-
mally along th anterior-inferior rim of th glenoid fossa,
pair or injury to th capsule.
including th adjacent glenoid labrum. Distally th inferior
Chapter 5 Shoulder Complex 107
Acromioclavicular
ligament
Coracoacromial
ligament
Subacromial
space
glenohumeral ligament attaches as a broad sheet to th ante- The GH joint capsule receives additional reinforcement
rior-inferior and posterior-inferior margins of th anatomie from th coracohumeral ligament (see Figs. 5 - 2 6 and 5 - 2 7 ) .
neck. This ligament extends from th lateral border of th coracoid
This hammock-like inferior capsular ligament has three process to th anterior side of th greater tubercle of th
sparate components: an anterior band, a posterior band, and humerus. The coracohumeral ligament blends in with th
a sheet of tissue connecting these bands known as an axil- capsule and supraspinatus tendon, becoming taut at th ex
lary pouch (see Fig. 5 - 2 7 ) . 41 The axillary pouch and th tremes of external rotation, flexion, and extension. The liga
surrounding inferior capsular ligaments become particularly ment also resists inferior displacement (i.e., translation) of
uut at about 90 degrees of abduction, providtng an impor th humeral head.60
tuni element of anterior-posterior stability to th GH joint in The GH joint capsule receives significant structural rein
ras position.62-65 In th abducted position, th anterior and forcement through th attachments of th four rotator cujf
rosterior bands become taut at th extremes of external and muscles (see Fig. 5 - 2 7 ) . The subscapularis lies just anterior
nternal rotation, respectively. to th capsule, and th supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and
Superior glenohumeral ligament Anatomie neck, above th tesser tubercle Full adduction, and/or inferior and posterior
translation of th humerus
Middle glenohumeral ligament Along th anterior aspect of th anatomie Anterior translation of th humerus and/or
neck external rotation
Inferior glenohumeral ligament As a broad sheet to th anterior-inferior and All fibers: abduction
(three parts: anterior band, posterior-inferior margins of th anatomie Anterior band: abduction and external rotation
posterior band, and connect neck Posterior band: abduction and internai rotation
ing axillary pouch)
coracohumeral ligament Anterior side of th greater tubercle of th Extremes of external rotation, flexion, and ex
humerus tension; inferior displacement (translation)
of th humeral head
108 Section il Upper Extremity
Coracoacromial arch
teres minor lie superior and posterior to th capsule. These STATIC STABILITY AT THE GLENOHUMERAL JOINT
muscles previde th majority of th stability to th joint
during active motion. Normally, when standing at rest with arms at th side, th
head of th humerus remains stable against th glenoid
The head of th humerus and th glenoid fossa are both
fossa. This stability is referred to as stalle since it exists ai
lined with hyaline canilage. The rim of th glenoid fossa is
rest. One mechanism for controlling th static stability at th
encircled by a fibrocartilage ring, or lip, known as th
GH joint is based on th analogy of a ball compressed
glenoid labrum (see Fig. 5 - 2 7 ) . The long head of th biceps
against an inclined surface (Fig. 5 -2 8 A ).3 At rest, th supe
originates as a partial extension of th glenoid labrum. About
rior capsular structures, including th coracohumeral liga-
50% of th overall depth of th glenoid fossa is attributed to
ment, previde th primary stabilizing forces between th
th glenoid labrum.23 The labrum deepens th concavity of humeral head and th glenoid fossa. Combining this capsu
th fossa, providing additional stability to th joint. lar force vector with th force vector due to gravity yields a
B
Chapter 5 Shoulder Complex 109
compressive locking force, oriented at right angles to th mental release of th pressure within th GH joint capsule
surface of th glenoid fossa. The compressimi force pinches by piercing th capsule with a needle has been shown to
th humeral head firmly against th glenoid fossa, thereby cause inferior subluxation of th humeral head.31 The punc-
resisting any desceni of th humerus. The inclined piane of turing of th capsule equalizes th pressure on both sides,
th glenoid also acts as a partial shelf that supports part of removing th slight suction force between th head and th
th weight of th arm. fossa.
Electromyographic (EMG) data suggest that th supraspi-
natus, and to a tesser extern th posterior deltoid, provides a C0RAC0ACR0MIAL ARCH AND ASSOCIATED BURSA
secondary source of static stability by generating active forces
that are directed nearly parallel to th superior capsular force The coracoacromial arch is formed by th coracoacromial
vector. Interestingly, Basmajian and Bazant3 showed that ver- ligament and th acromion process of th scapula (see Figs.
tically running muscles, such as th biceps, triceps, and 5 - 2 5 and 5 - 2 7 ) . The coracoacromial ligament attaches be
middle deltoid, are generally not actively involved in provid- tween th anterior margin of th acromion and th lateral
tng static stability, even when signifcant downward traction border of th coracoid process.
is applied to th arm. The coracoacromial arch functions as th roof of th
An important component of th static locking mech- GH joint. In th healthy adult, only about 1 cm of dis-
anism is a scapulothoracic posture that maintains th gle tance exists between th undersurface of th arch and th
noid fossa slightly upwardly rotated. The passive tension humeral head.47 This important subacromial space con-
within th superior capsular structures is significanti)' re- tains th supraspinatus muscle and tendon, th subacromial
duced when th scapula loses this upward rotation position bursa, th long head of th biceps, and part of th superior
Fig. 5 - 2 8 B). A chronically, downwardly rotated posture capsule.
may be associated with poor posture or may be secondary Eight separate bursa sacs are located in th shoulder.68
to paralysis or weakness of certain muscles, such as th Some of th sacs are direct extensions of th synovial mem
upper trapezius. Regardless of cause, loss of th upwardly brane of th GH joint, such as th subscapular bursa,
rotated position increases th angle between th force vec- whereas others are considered separate structures. All are
tors created by th superior capsular structures and grav- situated in regions where signifcant frictional forces de-
ity. Vector addition of th forces produced by th su velop between tendons, capsule and bone, muscle and lig
perior capsular structures and gravity now yields a reduced ament, or two muscles. Two important bursa are located
compressive force. Gravity can pul th humerus down th superior to th humeral head (Fig. 5 - 2 9 ) . The subacromial
face of th glenoid fossa. The GH joint may eventually be- bursa lies within th subacromial space above th supra
:ome mechanically unstable and eventually subluxed com- spinatus muscle and below th acromion process. This
pletely. bursa protects th relatively soft and vulnerable supraspina-
The normally negative intra-articular pressure within th tus muscle and tendon from th rigid undersurface of th
GH joint offers a secondary source of static stability. Expert- acromion. The subdeltoid bursa is a lateral extension of th
internai and extema] rotation (gray). Note that each axis of rotation
s color-coded with its corresponding piane of movement: medial-
lateral axis in white, vertical or longitudinal axis in gray, and
anterior-posterior axis in red.
sion within th inferior capsule acts as a hammock or sling, head offsets most of th inherent superior translation ten-
which supports th head of th humerus.41 Excessive stiff- dency of th humeral head. In healthy persons, th offsetting
ness in th inferior capsule due lo adhesive capsulitis may mechanism provtdes suffcient space for th supraspinatus
limit th full extern of th abduction motion. tendon and th subacromial bursa.
Approximately 120 degrees of abduction are available at
Abduction in th Frontal Piane Versus th Scapular Piane
th healthy GH joint. A wide range of values, however, have
Shouder abduction in th frontal piane is often used as a
been reported.2'19-26-58 Full shouder abduction requires a si-
representative motion to evaluate overall shouder function.
multaneous 60 degrees of upward rotation of th scapula and
Despite its common usage, however, this motion is not ver)'
s discussed further in a subsequent section of this chapter.
naturai. Elevating th humerus in th scapular piane (about
Importance of Roll-and-Slide Arthrokinematics at th 35 degrees anterior to th frontal piane) is generally a more
Glenohumeral Joint functional and naturai movement.
The roll-and-slide arthrokinematics depicted in Figure 5 - 3 1 The functional differences between abduction in th fron-
are essential to th completion of full range abduction. Recali tal piane and abduction in th scapular piane can be illus-
that th longitudinal diameter of th articular surface of th trated by th following example. Attempt to maximally
humeral head is almost twice th size as th longitudinal abduct your shouder in th pure frontal piane while con-
diameter on th glenoid fossa. The arthrokinematics of ab- sciously avoiding any accompanying extemal rotation. The
duction demonstrate how a simultaneous roll and slide allow diffculty or inability lo complete th extremes of this motion
a larger convex surface to roll over a much smaller concave is due in part to th greater tubercle of th humerus com
surface without running out of articular surface. pressing th contents of th subacromial space against th
Without a suffcient inferior slide during abduction, th low point on th coracoacromial arch (Fig. 5 -3 4 A ). In order
superior roll of th humeral head ultimately leads to a jam to complete full frontal piane abduction, extemal rotation of
ming or impingement of th head against th coracoacromial th humerus must be combined with th abduction effort.
arch. An adult-sized humeral head that is rolling up a This ensures that th prominent greater tubercle clears th
glenoid fossa without a concurrent inferior slide would trans posterior edge of th undersurface of th acromion.
late through th 10-mm coracoacromial space after only 22 Next, fully abduct your arm in th scapular piane. This
degrees of abduction (Fig. 5 -3 2 A ). This situation causes an abduction movement can usually be performed without th
impingement of th head of th humerus against th supra- need to extemally rotate th shouder.52 Impingement is
spinatus muscle, its tendon, and th bursa against th rigid avoided since scapular piane abduction places th apex of
coracoacromial arch. This impingement is painful, blocking th greater tubercle under th relatively high point of th
further abduction (Fig. 5 32B). In vivo radiographic meas- coracoacromial arch (Fig. 5 -3 4 B ). Abduction in th scapular
urements in th healthy shouder show that during abduc piane also allows th naturally retroverted humeral head to
tion in th scapular piane, th humeral head remains essen- fit more directly into th glenoid fossa. The proximal and
tially stationary or may translate superiorly only a negligible distai attachments of th supraspinatus muscle are placed
distance.17'43-48 The concurrent inferior slide of th humeral along a straight line. These mechanical differences between
FIGURE 5-32. A, A model of th glenohumeral joint depicting a ball th size of a typical aduli humeral head
rolling across a flattened (glenoid) surface. Based on th assumption that th humeral head is a sphere with a
circumference of 16.3 cm, th head of th humerus would translate upward 1 cm following a superior roll
(abduction) of only 22 degrees. This magnitude of translation would cause th humeral head to impinge against
th coracoacromial arch. B, Anatomie representation of th model used in A. Note that abduction without a
concurrent inferior slide causes th humeral head to impinge against th arch and block further abduction.
112 Section II Upper Extremity
S P E C I A L F O C U S 5 - 3
U Chronic Impingement Syndrome at th Shoulder degeneration of th rotator cuff muscles, instability of th
Repeated compression of th humeral head and/or th GH joint, tightness or adhesions within th GH joint cap
greater tubercle against th contents of th subacromial sule, and reduced volume in th subacromial space.46 The
space often leads to "chronic impingement syndrome."27 last factor may result from th abnormal shape of th
The syndrome is characterized by th inability to abduct acromion, presence of osteophytes around th AC joint, or
th shoulder in a pain free or naturai manner. The condi- swelling of structures in and around th subacromial
tion typically occurs in athletes and laborers who repeat- space. Regardless of cause, each time an impingement
edly abduct their shoulders over 90 degrees, but also occurs, th delicate supraspinatus tendon and subacro
occurs in relatively sedentary persons. The impingement mial bursa become further traumatized. The long head of
of th head of th humerus against th coracoacromial th biceps and th superior capsule of th GH joint may
arch can be detected on standard x-ray examination (Fig. also be impinged and further traumatized. Therapeutic
5-33), as well as on magnetic resonance imaging.56 goals include decreasing inflammation within th subacro
Many factors predispose people to shoulder impinge mial space, conditioning th rotator cuff muscle, improving
ment syndrome. One factor is th inability of muscles kinesthetic awareness of th movement, and attempting to
such as th rotator cuff or serratus anterior to optimally restore th naturai shoulder arthrokinematics. Ergonomie
coordinate th GH joint arthrokinematics of abduction.9'7'33 education is also a factor in goal setting.
Additional factors include "slouched" thoracic posture,28
frontal piane and scapular piane abduction should be consid- Direct measurements have shown that flexion at th GH
ered while evaluating and treating patients with shoulder dys- joint is associated with a slight internai rotation of th hu
function, particularly if chronic impingement is suspected. merus.44 This subtle motion is difficult to appreciate through
casual observation. As th GH joint is flexed beyond 90
Flexion and Extension
degrees, tension in th stretched coracohumeral ligament may
Flexion and extension al th GH joint is defined as a rotation produce a small internai rotation torque on th humerus.
of th humerus in th sagittal piane about a medial-lateral At least 120 degrees of flexion are available to th GH
axis of rotation (see Fig. 5 - 3 0 ) . If th motion occurs strictly joint. The ability io flex th shoulder to nearly 180 degrees
in th sagittal piane, th arthrokinematics involve a spinning of tncludes th accompanying upward rotation of th scapulo-
th humeral head about a somewhat fxed point on th face thoracic joint.
of th glenoid. No roll or slide is necessary. As shown in Full extension of th shoulder occurs to a position of
Figure 5 - 3 5 , th spinning action of th humeral head draws about 45 to 55 degrees behind th frontal piane. The ex
most of th surrounding capsular structures taut. Tension tremes of this motion stretch th anterior capsular ligaments,
within th stretched posterior capsule may cause a slight ante causing a slight forward tilting of th scapula. This forward
rior translation of th humerus at th extremes of flexion.21 tilt may enhance th extern of a backward reach.
Chapter 5 Shoulder Complex 113
'nternal and External Rotation glenoid fossa. The physiologic importance of these anterior
From th anatomie position, internai and external rotation at and posterior slides is evident by retuming to th model of
th GH joint is defined as an axial rotation of th humerus th humeral head shown in Figure 5 - 3 2 A, but now envision
m th horizontal piane (see Fig. 5 - 3 0 ) . This rotation occurs th humeral head rolling over th glenoid fossas transverse
about a vertical or longitudinal axis that runs through th diameter. If, for example, 75 degrees of external rotation
shaft of th humerus. The arthrokinematics of external rota- occurs by a posterior roll without a concurrent anterior slide,
don take place over th transverse diameters of th humeral th head displaces posteriorly, roughly 38 mm (about IV2
head and th glenoid fossa (see Fig. 5 - 2 5 ) . The humeral in). This amount of translation completely disarticulates th
head simultaneously rolls posteriorly and slides anteriorly on joint because th entire transverse diameter of th glenoid
th glenoid fossa (Fig. 5 - 3 6 ) . The arthrokinematics for in fossa is only about 25 mm (1 in). Normally, however, full
ternai rotation are similar, except that th direction of th extemal rotation results in only 1 to 2 mm of posterior
roll and slide is reversed. translation of th humeral head,21 demonstrating that an
The simultaneous roll and slide of internai and external offsetting anterior slide accompanies th posterior roll.
rotation allows th much larger transverse diameter of th
humeral head to roll over a much smaller surface area of th
Superior view
Infraspinatus
FIGURE 5-39. Plot showing th relationship of posterior rotation of th clavicle at th stemoclavicular (SC)
joint to full shoulder abduction. (Redrawn from data from Inman VT, Saunders M, Abbott LC: Observations on
th function of th shoulder joint. J Bone Joint Surg 26A :l-32, 1944.)
Clavicular
posterior
FIGURE 5-40. The mechanics of posterior rotation of th right clavicle are shown. A, At rest in th anatomie position, th acromioclavic
ular (AC) and stemoclavicular (SC) joints are shown with th coracoclavicular ligament represented by a slackened rope. B, As th
serratus anterior muscle rotates th scapula upward, th coracoclavicular ligament is drawn taut. The tension created within th
stretched ligament rotates th crank-shaped clavicle in a posterior direction, allowing th AC joint io complete full upward rotation.
116
Chapier 5 Shoulder Complex 117
Early phase 25 degrees of elevation 5 degrees of upward rota .30 degrees of upward 60 degrees of abduction
0 to 90 degrees tion rotation
Late phase 5 degrees of elevation and 25 degrees of upward ro 30 degrees of upward 60 degrees of abduction
90 to 180 degrees 35 degrees of posterior tation rotation
rotation of th clavicle
Total 30 degrees of elevation 30 degrees of upward ro 60 degrees of upward 120 degrees of abduction
0 to 180 degrees and 35 degrees of poste tation rotation
rior rotation of th clavi
cle
* Data from tnman VT, Saunders M, Abbott LC: Observations on th functton of th shoulder jotnt. J Bone Joint Surg 26A :l-32, 1944. (Some values
bave been rounded slightly for simplicity but are stili dose lo th originai values.)
t Extemal rotation is required if abduction is performed in th fronlal piane.
plexus: (1) nerves ihai branch from th posterior cord, such SENSORY INNERVATION OF THE SHOULDER JOINTS
as th axillary, subscapular, and thoracodorsal nerves, and AND SURROUNDING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
(2) nerves that branch from more proximal segments of
The sternoclavicular joint receives sensory (afferent) innerva
th plexus, such as th dorsal scapular, long thoracic, pecto-
tion from th C3 and C4 nerve roots from th cervical
ral, and suprascapular nerves. An exception to this in-
plexus.68 Both th acromioclavicular and glenohumeral joints
nervation scheme is th trapezius muscle, which is inner-
receive sensory innervation via th C5 and C6 nerve roots via
vated primarily by cranial nerve XI, with lesser motor and
th suprascapular and axillary nerves.68
sensory innervation from th ventral roots of upper cervical
nerves.68
Action of th Shoulder Muscles
The primary motor nerve roots that supply th muscles of
th upper extremity are listed in Appendix HA. Appendix 11B Mosi of th muscles of th shoulder complex fall into one of
shows key muscles typically used io test th functional status two categories: proximal stabilizers or distai mobilizers. The
of th C5-T ventral nerve roots. proximal stabilizers consist of muscles that originate on th
DIVISIONS
Trunks
D o rsa l s ca p u la r
--- Cords
Posterior
M e d ia i
Lateral pectoral
M usculocutaneous
S u p ra s c a p u la r
T h o ra co d o rsa l M e d ia i
pectoral
M e d ia i cutaneous
nerve to arm
118 Section II Upper Extremity
leverage about th SC joint for th maintenance of this If th arm is physically blocked from being depressed,
posture. force from th depressor muscles can raise th thorax rela
tive to th fxed scapula and arm. This action can occur only
if th scapula is stabilized to a greater extent than th tho
3EPRESS0RS OF THE SCAPULOTHORACIC JOINT
rax. For example, Figure 5 - 4 4 shows a person sitting in a
3epression of th scapulothoracic joint is performed by th wheelchair using th scapulothoracic depressors to relieve
ower trapezius, latissimus dorsi, pectoralis minor, and th sub- th pressure in th tissues superficial to th ischial tuberosi-
Javius (Fig. 5 - 4 3 ) .29-50 The latissimus dorsi depresses th ties. With th arm firmly held against th armrest of th
shoulder girdle by pulling th humerus and scapula infen- wheelchair, contraction of th lower trapezius and latissimus
.uly. The force generated by th depressor muscles can be dorsi pulls th thorax and pelvis up toward th fxed scap
iirected through th scapula and upper extremity and ap- ula. This is a very useful movement especially for persons
plied against some object, such as th spring shown in with quadriplegia who lack sufficient triceps strength to lift
rigure 5 -43A . body weight through elbow extension.
FIGURE 5-44. The lower trapezius and latissimus dorsi are sho.
elevating th ischial tuberosities away from th seat of th whd
chair. The contraction of these muscles lifts th pelvic-and-tr
segment up toward th fixed scapula-and-arm segment.
PROTRACTORS OF THE SCAPULOTHORACIC JOINT tendency of th lower trapezius. A component of each musi
The serratus anterior muscle is th prime protractor at th cles overall line-of-force summate, however, producing pi
scapulothoracic joint (Fig. 5 45A). This extensive muscle retraction (see Fig. 5 - 4 6 ) .
has excellent leverage for protracuon, especially about th SC Complete paralysis of th trapezius, and to a lesser exte
join ts vertical axis of rotation (Fig. 5 -4 5 B ). The force of th rhomboids, signifcantly reduces th retraction potenti-
scapular protraction is usually transferred across th GH of th scapula. The scapula tends to drift slightly in l
joint and employed for forward pushing and reaching activi- protraction owing to th partially unopposed protraction a -
ties. Persotis with serratus anterior weakness have difficulty tion of th serratus anterior muscle.7
in performance of forward pushing motions. No other mus
cle can aclequately provide this protraction effect on th
scapula. UPWARD AND DOWNWARD R0TAT0RS OF THE
SCAPULOTHORACIC JOINT
Muscles that perform upward and downward rotation of
RETRACTORS OF THE SCAPULOTHORACIC JOINT
scapulothoracic joint are discussed next in context
The middle trapezius muscle has an optimal line-of-force to movement of th entire shoulder.
retract th scapula (Fig. 5 46). The rhomboids and th lower
trapezius muscles function as secondary retractors. All th
retractors are particularly active while using th arms for Muscles that Elevate th Arm
pulling activities, such as climbing and rowing. The muscles The term "elevation of th arm describes ihe active m o ti,
secure th scapula to th axial skeleton. ment of bringing th arm overhead without specifying tF
The secondary retractors show an excellent example of exact piane of th motion. Elevation of th arm is perforine-,
how muscles function as synergists sharing identical ac- by muscles that fall into three groups: (1) muscles th a l
tions. At th same lime, however, they function as direct elevate (i.e., abduct or flex) th humerus at th GH joint; ( 2 J
antagonists. During a vigorous retraction effort, th elevation scapular muscles that control th upward rotation and pr
tendency of th rhomboids is neutralized by th depression traction of th scapulothoracic joint; and (3) rotator cu
Chapter 5 Shoulder Complex 121
Superior view
5-erratus
interior
Sternoclavicular
joint
FIGURE 5-45. The righi serratus anterior muscle. A, This expansive muscle passes anterior io th scapula to attach along th entire
.ength of iis mediai border. The muscles line-of-force is shown protracting th scapula and arm in a forward pushing or reach-
tng motion. The lbere that attach near th inferior angle may assist with scapulothoracic depression. B, A superior view of th
right shoulder girdle showing th protraction torque produced by th serratus anterior, i.e., th product of th muscle force multi-
plied by th associated internai moment arm (IMA). The axis of rotation is shown as th red circle running through th sternoclavicu
lar joint.
Muscles Responsible for Elevation of th Arm Serratus Anterior and th "Push-up" Maneuver
1. GH joint muscles
Another important action of th serratus anterior is to
Deltoid
Supraspinatus
exaggerate th final phase of th standard prone
Coracobrachialis "push-up." The early phase of a push-up is performed
Biceps (long head) primarily by th triceps and pectoral musculature. After
2. Scapulothoracic joint muscles th elbows are completely extended, however, th
Serratus anterior chest can be raised farther from th floor by a deliber
Trapezius ate protraction of both scapulae. This final component
3. Rotator cuff muscles of th push-up is performed primarily by contraction of
th serratus anterior. Bilaterally, th muscles raise th
thorax toward th fixed stabilized scapulae. This action
MUSCLES THAT ELEVATE THE ARM AT THE of th serratus anterior may be visualized by rotating
GLENOHUMERAL JOINT Figure 5-45A 90 degrees clockwise and reversing th
The prime muscles that abduct th GH joint are th anterior direction of th arrow overlying th serratus anterior.
deltoid, th middle deltoid, and th supraspinatus muscles Exercises designed to strengthen th serratus anterior
(Fig. 5 - 4 7 ) . Elevation of th arm through flexion is per- incorporate this movement.14
formed primarily by th anterior deltoid, coracobrachialis,
122 Section II Upper Extremity
FIGURE 5-46. Posterior view of th middle trapezius, lower trape- The deltoid and th supraspinatus muscles contribute
zius, and rhomboids cooperating to retract th scapuothoracic about equal shares of th total abduction torque at th GH
joint. The dashed line-of-force of both th rhomboid and lower joint.22 With th deltoid paralyzed, th supraspinatus muscle
trapezius combines to yield a single retraction force shown by th
is generally capable of fully abducting th GH joint. The
straight arrow.
torque, however, is reduced. With th supraspinatus para
lyzed or ruptured, full abduction is often difficult or not
and long head of th biceps brachii (Fig. 5 - 4 8 ) . The maxi possible due to th altered arthrokinematics ai th GH joint.
mal isometric torque generated by th shoulder flexors and Full active abduction is not possible with a combined del
th abductors is shown for two joint positions in Table 5 - 4 . toid and supraspinatus paralysis.10
The line-of-force of th middle deltoid and th supraspina-
tus are similar during shoulder abduction. Both muscles are
UPWARD R0TAT0RS AT THE SCAPULOTHORACIC
activated at th onset of elevation, reaching a maximum level JOINT
near 90 degrees of abduction.30 Both muscles have a signifi-
cant internai moment arm that remains essentially Constant at Upward rotation of th scapula is an essential component of
about 25 mm (about 1 in) throughout most of abduction.64 elevation of th arm. To varying degrees, th serratus ante-
FIGURE 5-52. The pathomechanics of winging of th scapula A, Winging of th righi scapula due to marked weakness of th righi
serratus antenor. The winging is exaggerated when resistance is applied againsi a shoulder abduction effort. B, Kinesiologic analysis of
th winging scapula. Without an adequate upward rotation force from th serratus anterior (fading arrow), th scapula becomes
unstable and cannot resist th pul of th deltoid. Subsequently, th force of th deltoid (bidirectional arrow) causes th scapula to
downwardly rotaie and th glenohumerai joint io partially abduct.
Chapter 5 Shoulder Complex 125
Anterior view
126 Section 11 Upper Extremity
Ac ti ve Controllers of th Arthrokinematics at th
Glenohumeral Joint of th horizontally oriented supraspinatus produces a com-
pression force directly imo th glenoid fossa. The compres-
In th healthy shoulder, th rotator cuff Controls much of sion force stabilizes th humeral head frmly against th
th active arthrokinematics of th GH jo in t.55 Contraction fossa during its supenor roll (Fig. 5 - 5 5 ) . Compression
Deltoid
Supraspinatus
forces between th joint surfaces increase linearly from minor muscles can rotate th humerus extemally in order to
0 io 90 degrees of shoulder abduction, reaching a magnitude increase th clearance between th greater tubercle and th
of 90% of body weight.49 The surface area for dissipating acromion.
toint forces increases to a maximum between 60 degrees
and 120 degrees of shoulder elevation.57 This increase in
surface area helps to maintain pressure at tolerable physio- Muscles that Adduct and Extend th
logic levels. Shoulder
Pulling th arm against resistance offered by climbing a
rope or propelling through water requires a forceful con-
Functions of thc Rotator Cuff Muscles in th Active
traction from th shoulders powerful adductor and exten-
Control of th Arthrokinematics at th GH Joint
sor muscles. These muscles are capable of generating th
Supraspinatus: Compresses th humeral head directly into
largest isometric torque of any muscle group of th shoulder
th glenoid fossa.
Subscapuaris, infraspinatus, aid teres minor: Produces (Table 5 - 4 ) .
an inferior-directed iranslaiion force on th humerus The iatissimus dorsi shown in Figure 5 -4 3 A and th ster-
head. nocostal head o f th pectoralis major shown in Fig. 5 - 5 6 are
Infraspinatus and teres minor: Rotates th humeral head th largest of th adductor and extensor muscles of th
extemally. shoulder. With th humerus held stable, contraction of th
latissimus dorsi can raise th pelvis toward th upper body.
Persons with paraplegia often use this action during crutch-
Without adequate supraspinatus force, th near vertical and brace-assisted ambulation as a substitute for weakened
line-of-force of a contracting deltoid tends to jam or im- or paralyzed hip flexors.
pinge th humeral head superiorly against th coracoacro- The teres major, long head o f th triceps, posteror deltoid,
mial arch, thereby blocking complete abduction. This effect infraspinatus, and teres minor are also primary muscles for
is typically observed following a complete rupture of th shoulder adduction and extension. These muscles have their
supraspinatus tendon. In addition to th compression pro- proximal attachments on th inherently unstable scapula. It
duced by th supraspinatus, th remaining rotator cuff mus is th primary responsibility of th rhomboid muscles to
cles exert an inferior depression force on th humeral head stabilize th scapula during active adduction and extension
during abduction (see Fig. 5 - 5 5 ) . The inferiorly directed of th glenohumeral joint. This stabilization function is evi-
force counteracts much of th tendency for th deltoid mus dent by th dowmward rotation and retraction movements
cle to translate th humerus superiorly during abduction.43 that naturally occur with shoulder adduction. Figure 5 - 5 7
During frontal piane abduction, th infraspinatus and teres highlights th synergistic relationship between th rhomboids
128 Section li Upper Extremily
and th teres major during a strongly resisted adduction The entire rotator cuff group is active during shoulder
effort of th shoulder. The pectoralis minor (Fig. 5 -4 3 B ) adduction and exiension.0 Forces produced by these mus-
and th latissimus dorsi fibers that attach to th scapula cles assist with th action directly or stabilize th head of th
assist th rhomboids in downward rotation. humerus against th glenoid fossa.54
A Closer Look at th Posterior Deltoid Complete paralysis of th posterior deltoid can occur
owing to an overstretching of th axillary nerve. Persons
The posterior deltoid is a shoulder extensor and adductor.
with this paralysis frequently report difficulty in combining
In addition, this muscle is also th primary horizontal ex
full shoulder extension and horizontal extension, such as
tensor at th shoulder. Vigorous contraction of th poste
that required to place th arm in th sleeve of a coat.
rior deltoid during full horizontal extension requires that
th scapula is firmly stabilized by th lower trapezius (Fig.
5 -5 8 ).
FIGURE 5-58. The hypertrophied righi posterior deltoid of a Tirio Indian man engaged in bow fishing.
Note th strong synergistic action between th tight lower ttapezius (LT) and righi posterior deltoid (PD).
The lower trapezius must anchor th scapula to th spine and provide a fixed proximal attachment for th
strongly activated posterior deltoid. (Courtesy of Dr. Mark J. Plotkin: Tales of a Shamans Apprenlice. Viking-
Penguin, New York, 1993.)
Muscles that Internally and Externally Rotate dorsi, and teres major. Many of these internai rotators are
th Shoulder also powerful extensors and adductors, such as those needed
for swimming.
INTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES The total muscle mass of th shoulders internai rotators
The primary muscles that internally rotate th GH joint are is much greater than that of th external rotators. This factor
th subscapularis, anterior deltoid, pectoralis major, latissimus explains why th shoulder internai rotators produce about
130 Section II Upper Extremity
Superior view
FIGURE 5 60. Superior view of th right shoulder showtng actions of three internai rotators when th distai (humeral) segment is fixed
and th trunk is free to rotate. The line-of-force of th pectoralis major is shown with its internai moment arm originating about th
glenohumeral joint s vertical axis. Inset contains th roll-and-slide arthrokinematics during th concave-on-convex motion.
Chapter 5 Shoulder Complex 131
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132 Seciion II Upper Exiremity
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Johnson GR, Spaldtng D, Nowitzke A, et al: Modelltng th musclcs of th
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J Biomech 29:1039-1051, 1996.
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ADDITI0NAL REA0INGS Saha AK: Dynamtc stability of th glenohumeral joint. Acta Orthop Scand
42:491-505, 1971, H
Basmajian JV: Musdes Alive. Their Functions Reveatcd by Electromyography,
4th ed. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1978. Sanders TG, Morrison WB, Miller MD. Imaging techniques for th evalua-
tion of glenohumeral instability. AmJ Sports Med 28:414-434 2000
Bey MJ, Huston LJ, Blasier RB, et al: Ligamentous restraints to extemal
Wuelker N, Wolfgang P, Roetman B, et al: Function of th supraspinatus
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muscle. Acta Orthop Scand 65:442-446, 1994,
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joint with simulated active elevation. Clin Orthop 309:193-200, 1994
C h a p t e r 6
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
OSTEOLOGY, 133 J o in t S tru c tu re and P e ria rtic u la r Innervation of Muscles and Joints of th
Mid-to-Distal Humerus, 133 C o n n e c tiv e T issu e , 146 Elbow and Forearm, 152
Ulna, 135 Proximal Radioulnar Joint, 146 Function of th Elbow Muscles, 157
Radius, 136 Distai Radioulnar Joint, 146 E lb o w F le xors, 157
133
134 Seciion II Upper Extremitv
Anterior view
Ulna
The ulna has a very thick proximal end with distinct proc-
esses (Figs. 6 - 5 and 6 - 6 ) . The olecranon process forms th
large, blunt, proximal tip of th ulna, making up th point
of th elbow (Fig. 6 - 7 ) . The roughened posterior surface of
th olecranon process accepts th attachment of th triceps
brachii. The coronoid process projects sharply from th ante-
rior body of th proximal ulna.
Capitulum
Lateral
epicondyle Mediai
ment of th mediai collateral ligament of th elbow as well
epicondyle
as th forearm pronator and wrist flexor muscles.
The lateral epicondyle of th humerus, less prominent than
Sulcus for ulnar nerve
th mediai epicondyle, serves as th proximal attachment for
th lateral collateral ligament of th elbow as well as th Olecranon fossa
forearm supinator and wrist extensor muscles. Immediately
proximal to both epicondyles are th mediai and lateral su- Posterior
pracondylar rdges. FIGURE 6-4. The distai end of th righi humerus, inferior view.
136 Section 11 Upper Extremity
Flexor digitorum
superficialis
Brachialis on
Posterior view
tuberosity of
Qlecranon proc,
th ulna
Triceps
Biceps on
bicipital tuberosity Pronator teres
(Ulnar head) Anconeus
Flexor digitorum
superficialis
Supinator
Flexor digitorum
Supinator
superficialis Flexor digitorum (proximal
(on oblique line) profundus attachment on
Flexor digitorum supinator crest)
profundus
----------Biceps
Pronator teres
Aponeurosis for:
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor digitorum profundus
Flexor pollicis longus
Interosseous
Pronator
membrane
Extensor pollicis longus teres
Pronator quadratus
Interosseous membrane
Extensor
Ulnar notch
pollicis
Extensor indicis
Brachioradialis brevis
FIGURE 6-5. The anterior aspect of th right radius and ulna. The
muscles proximal aitachments are shown in red and distai attach-
ments in gray. The dashed lines show th eapsular aitachments
around th elbow and wrist and th proximal and distai radioulnar
joints. The radiai head is depicted from above to show th concav-
ity of th fovea.
%o\d
ProceSS Sfyltd
Process
The ulnar head is located at th distai end of th ulna
FIGURE 6-6. The posterior aspect of th right radius and ulna. The
(Fig. 6 - 8 ) . Most of th rounded ulnar head is lined with
muscles proximal attachments are shown in red and distai attach-
articular cartilage. The pointed styloid (from th Greek root
ments in gray. The dashed lines show th eapsular attachments
stylos; pillar, + eidos; resembling) process projects distally around th elbow and wrist and th proximal and distai radioulnar
from th posterior-medial region of th extreme distai ulna. joints.
Chapter 6 F.lbow and Forearm Complex 137
L ateral view The distai end of th radius articulates with carpai bones
to form th radiocarpal joint at th wrist (see Fig. 6 - 8 ) . The
ulnar notch of th distai radius accepts th ulnar head at th
distai radioulnar joint. The prominent styloid process projects
from th lateral surface of th distai radius.
ARTHROLOGY_______________________
Lateral Mediai
tZZRXSZSXSZ 30 c * - M - wiih
M ediai aspect
Mediai
collateral ligament
Lateral aspect
Annidar ligament
Ulna
Supinator crest
Chapter 6 Elbow and Forearm Complex 141
Elbow Flexion Contracture and Loss of Forward Reach a flexion contracture of less than 30 degrees. A flexion
contracture that exceeds 30 degrees, however, results in
One of th most disabling consequences of an elbow
a much greater loss of forward reach. As noted in th
flexion contracture is reduced reaching capacity. The loss graph, a flexion contracture of 90 degrees reduces total
of forward reach varies with th degree of elbow flexion
reach by almost 50%. Minimizing a flexion contracture to
contracture. As shown in Figure 6-14, a fully extendable less than 30 degrees is therefore an important functional
elbow (i.e., with a 0-degree contracture) demonstrates a goal for patients following elbow trauma, prolonged immo-
0-degree loss in area of forward reach. The area of for
bilization, or joint replacement.
ward reach diminishes only slightly (less than 6%) with
FIGURE 6-14. A graph showing ihe percent loss in area of forward reach of th arm from th shoulder to finger as a
function of th severity of an elbow flexion contracture in th horizonial axis. Note th sharp increase in th reduction in
reach as th flexion contracture exceeds 30 degrees. The figures across th bottoni of th graph depict th progressive
loss of reach indicateci by th increased semicircle area, as th flexion contracture becomes more severe.
Hyaline cartilage covers about 300 degrees of articular sur- outside, + topos; place) bone formation around th olecra
face on th trochlea compared with only 180 degrees on th non fossa can limit full passive extension.
trochlear notch. In order for th humeroulnar joint to he During flexion at th humeroulnar joint, th concave sur-
fully, passively extended, sufficient extensibility is required face of th trochlear notch rolls and slides on th convex
in th dermis, flexor muscles, anterior capsule, and anterior trochlea (see Fig. 6 17J3). Full passive elbow flexion re-
fibers of th mediai collateral ligament (Fig. 6 -1 7 A ). Once quires elongation of th posterior capsule, extensor muscles,
in full extension, th humeroulnar joint is stabilized by th ulnar nerve,44 and certain collateral ligaments, especially th
increased tension in most of th anterior fibers of th mediai posterior hbers of th mediai collateral ligament.
collateral ligament, anterior capsule, and flexor muscles, par-
ticularly th broad tendon of th brachialis. The prominent
Arthrokinematics at th Humeroradial Joint
tip of th olecranon process becomes wedged into th olec- The humeroradial joint is an articulation between th cup-
ranon fossa. Excessive ectopie (from th Greek root ceto; like fovea of th radiai head and th reciprocally shaped
142 Seclion II Upper Extremily
FIGURE 6 15. Range ol motion al th elbow. A, Typical healthy elbow showing ihe extern of range of motion from 5 degrees bevond
extension (hyperextenston) through 145 degrees of flexion. The 100-degree functional are" from 30 to 130 degrees of flexton in red
based on th htstogram. B The histogram shows th range of motion at th elbow typically needed to perform th following activities
ol daily hving: open.ng a oor, pouring from a pitcher, nsing from a chair, holding a newspaper, cutting with a knife, bringing a fork to
th rnouth, bnngmg a glass to th mouth, and holding a telephone. (Modifed with permission from Morrey BF, Askew LJ, An KN et al
A btomechanical study of normal functional elbow motion. J Bone Joint Surg 63A:872-876, 1981.)
rounded capitulum. At resi in full extension, little if any tissues at th proximal and distai radioulnar joints also
physical contact exists at th humeroradial jo in t.17 During transfer a portion of th compression force from th radius
attive flexion, however, muscle contraction pulls th radiai to th ulna.
fovea against th capitulum.30 The arthrokinematics of flex Most elbow flexors, and essentially all th major supinato: I
ion and extension consist of th fovea of th radius rolling and pronator muscles, have their distai attachments on th
and sliding across th convexity of th capitulum (Fig. radius. Contraction of these muscles, therefore, pulls th
radius proximally against th humeroradial joint.44 An addi-
Compared with th humeroulnar joint, th humeroradial tional function of th interosseous membrane, therefore, is to I
joint provides minimal structural stability to th elbow. The
humeroradial joint does, however, provide an important
bony resistance against a valgus force.31
Force Transmission Through th Interosseous Membrane
o f th Forearm
Most of th fibers ol th interosseous membrane of th fore
arm are directed away from th radius in an oblique mediai
and distai direction (Fig. 6 - 1 9 ) . A few separate sparse and
poorly deftned bands flow perpendicular to th membranes
matn ftber direction. One of these bands, th oblique cord,
runs from th lateral side of th tuberosity of th ulna to
just distai to th bicipital tuberosity. Another unnamed band
is located at th extreme distai end of th interosseous mem
brane.
The interosseous membrane has several functions related
to force transmission through th upper limb. As illustrated
in Figure 6 - 2 0 , about 80% of th compression force due to
hearing weight through th forearm crosses th wrist be-
tween th lateral side of th carpus and th radius. The
remaining 20% of th compression force passes across th
mediai side of th carpus and th ulna, at th ulnocarpal
space.37 Because of th fiber direction of th interosseous
membrane, pan of th proximal directed force through th
radius is transferred across th membrane to th ulna.39 This
mechanism allows a share of th compression force at th
FIGURE 6 - 1 6 . A sagittal seclion through th humeroulnar joint
wrist to cross th elbow via th humeroulnar joint, thereby
showing th well-ftting joint surfaces between th trochlear notch
reducing th amount of force thai must cross th limited and trochlea. The synovial membrane lining th internai side of th
surface area of th humeroradial joint.30 The periarticular capsule is shown in red.
Chapter 6 Elbow and Forearm Complex 143
Radiai notch
Radiai notch (on ulna) Olecranon process
(with cartilage) Olecranon
Fovea process
Annular ligament
Radiai
(with cartilage)-
collateral
ligament (cut) - -A rticu la r su dace on
trochlear notch
Annular ligament -
w U
w ;ju TO'v i Quadrate ligament (cut)
TO /
i 3 M / 3 i _C /
CD /
r f B
FIGURE 6-25. The tight proximal radioulnar joint as viewed from above. A, The radius is held against the radiai notch of the ulna
b> th annular ligament. B. The radius is removed, exposing the internai surface of the concave component of the proximal radio1
ulna, jomt. Note the cartilage hning the ennre fibro-osseous ring. The quadrate ligament is cut near its attachment to die neck oflhe
Chapter 6 Elbow and Forearm Complex 147
Dislocations of th Proximal Radioulnar Joint: The this "pulled-elbow" syndrome due to ligamentous laxity
"Pulled-Elbow" Syndrome and increased likelihood of others pulling on their arms
(Fig. 6-26). One of th best ways to prevent this disloca
A strenuous pul on th forearm through th hand can
tion is to explain to parents how a sharp pul on th
cause th radiai head to slip through th distai side of th
child's hand can cause such a dislocation.
annular ligament. Children are particularly susceptible to
Causes of "pulled" elbow
FIGURE 6-26. Three examples of causes of pulled elbow syndrome." (Redrawn wiih permission
from Leus RM: Dislocations of th childs elbow. In Morrey BF (ed): The Elbow and Its Disorders,
3rd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 2000. By permission of th Mayo Foundation for Medicai
Education and Research.)
KINEMATICS
Stabilizers of th Distai Radioulnar Joint
Ulnocarpal complex (triangolar fibrocartilage complex) Functional Considerations of Pronation and Supination
Joint capsule
Forearm supination occurs during many activities that in-
Pronator quadratus
Tendon of th extensor carpi ulnaris volve rotating th palmar surface of th hand toward th
Interosseous membrane face, such as feedtng, washing, and shaving. Forearm prona
tion, in contrast, is used to place th palmar surface of th
148 Section II Upper Extremily
anftenorrvew of lhf n8hl dislal radioulnarjoint. A, The ulnar head has been pulled away from che concaviiy formed
n t n f^ | mMSUrr frlhn artlCUf ^ SC and,lhe Ulnar notch of the radius- B The dlslal forearm has been tilted slightly io expose
an ndL Hi, r 1 u ^ and ]t\ c0ecl10 * e palmar capsular ligament of the disiai radioulnar joint. The
articular disc (also called th tnangular fbrocartilage), the capsular hgaments, and the ulnar collateral ligament are collectively referred
hv lnocarpal con,plex- See text for further descriptions. The scaphoid and lunate facets on the distai radius show impressici
made by these carpai bones at the radiocarpal joint of the wrist. 1
hand down on an object, such as grasping a coin or pushing nation and supination. On average, the forearm rotat
up from a chair.
through about 75 degrees of pronation and 85 degrees
The neutral or zero reference position of forearm rotation supination (Fig. 6 -2 8 A ). As shown in Figure 6 -2 8 B , severa!
is the thumb-up position, midway between complete pro- activities of daily living require only about 100 degrees ol
0 (Neutral)
80
D .
Pronation
60
40
20
<n
Neutral a> g
o 20
Q
Supination
40
60
80
B phone paper
Activities of daily living
FIGURE 6-28 Range of motion at the forearm complex. A, Typical healthy forearm showing range of motion- 0 to 85 degrees of
elbow 7 1 0 0 d t0 f degreeS,f Pnatlon/ h e 0-degree neutral position is shown with the fhumb point.ng straight up. As with th
elbow, a 100-degree functional are ex.sts (shown in red). This are ,s derived from the histogram in B. B Histogram showing th
amoum of forearm rotation usually required for healthy persons to perform the foilowing activities of daily living: bringing a glass to the
mouth, bringing a /orfe to the mouth, nsing from a chair, opening a door, pouring from a pitcher, cutting with a feni/e ^holding a
telephony and teading a newspaper. (Modified with permission from Morrey BF, Askew LJ, An KN, et al: A biomechanical study80f
normal functional elbow motion. J Bone Joint Surg 63A:872-876. 1981.)
Chapter 6 F.Ibow and Forearm Complex 149
Anterior
Lateral
FIGURE 6-29. Illustration on th left
shows th anterior aspect of a righi
forearm after completing full supina-
lion. During supination, th radius
and hand (shown in red) rotate
around th fixed humerus and ulna
(shown m gray). The inactive but
siretched pronator teres is also
shown. Viewed as though lookng
down at th right forearm, th two
insets depict th arthrokinematics at
th proximal and distai radioulnar
joints. The stretched (taut) structures
are shown as thin elongated arrows,
and slackened structures are shown Lateral
as wavy arrows. See text for further
details.
150 Section II Upper Extremity
Anterior
; stationary, or fixed, humerus and ulna (see Figs. 6 - 2 9 and spective, an understanding of th muscular mechanics of
6 -3 0 ). The rotation of th forearm occurs when th upper pronation and supination from both a non-weight-bearing
kmb is assumed to be in a non-weight-bearing posinoti. Prona- and weight-bearing perspective provides additional exercise
::on and supination are next described when th upper limb strategies for strengthening or stretching muscles of th fore
s assumed to be in a weight-bearing position. In this case, arm and shoulder.
th humerus and ulna rotate relative to a stationary, or fxed, The right side of Figure 6 - 3 2 B illustrates th arthrokine-
radius and hand. matics at th radioulnar joints during pronation while th
Consider a person hearing weight through an upper ex- radius and hand are stationary. At th proximal radioulnar
tremity with elbow and wrist extended (Fig. 6 -3 2 A ). The joint, th annular ligament and radiai notch of th ulna spin
oerson's righi glenohumeral joint is held partially internali)' around th fxed radiai head (see Fig. 6 - 3 2 B , top inset). At
rotated. The ulna and radius are positioned parallel in full th distai radioulnar joint, th head of th ulna rotates
supination. (The rod" placed through th epicondyles of th around th fxed ulnar notch of th radius (see Fig. 6 - 3 2 B,
humerus helps with th orientation of this position.) With bottom inset). Table 6 - 3 summarizes and compares th ac-
die radius and hand held firmly fxed with th ground, tive arthrokinematics at th radioulnar joints for both
pronation of th forearm occurs by an external rotation of th weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing conditions of th up
humerus and ulna (Fig. 6 -3 2 B ). Because of th tight struc- per limb.
tural fu of th humeroulnar joint, rotation of th humerus is
transferred, almost degree for degree, to th rotating ulna.
Return to th fully supinated position involves internai rota- MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
non of th humerus and ulna, relative to th fxed radius
and hand. Neuroanatomy OverView
Figure 6 - 3 2 B depicts an interesting muscle force-couple
Paths of th Musculocutaneous, Radiai, Median, and
used to pronate th forearm from th weight-bearing posi-
Ulnar Nerves Throughout th Elbow, Forearm, Wrist,
uon. The infraspinatus rotates th humerus relative to a and Hand
fixed scapula, while th pronator quadratus rotates th ulna
relative to a fxed radius. Both muscles, acting at either end The musculocutaneous, radiai, median, and ulnar nerves
of th upper extremity, produce forces that contribute to a previde motor and sensory innervation to th muscles and
pronation torque at th forearm. From a therapeutic per- connective tissues of th elbow, forearm, wrist, and hand.
Annular
ligament
Proximal Radioulnar
Joint from Above
Anterior
Distai Radioulnar
Joint from Above
A n te rio r Anterior
FIGURE 6 -3 2 . A, A person is shown supporting his upper body weight through his right forearm, which is in full supination (i.e., th
bones of th forearm are parallel). The radius is held fixed to th ground through th wrist; however, th humerus and ulna are free to
rotate. B, The humerus and ulna have rotated about 8 0 to 90 degrees externally from th initial position shown in A. This rotation
produces pronation at th forearm as th ulna rotates around th fixed radius. Note th activity depicted in th infraspinatus and
pronator quadratus muscles. The two insets each show a superior view of th arthrokinematics at th proximal and distai radioulnar
joints.
152 Seclion II Upper Extremity
TABLE 6 - 3 Arthrokinematics of Pronation and anterior interosseous nerve, innervates th deep muscles
Supination1 th forearm: th lateral half of th flexor digitorum profa
dus, th flexor pollicis longus, and th pronator quadrane.
Non-weight-bearing The main pari ol th median nerve continues distally :j
Weight-Bearing (Radius and Hand cross th wrist through th carpai tunnel, under th cover i
(Radius and Hand Fixed) Free to Rotate) th transverse carpai ligament. The nerve then innerva
several of th intnnsic muscles of th thumb and th late.,
Proximal Annular ligament and ra- Radiai head spins
Radioulnar fngers. The median nerve provides a source of sensory i-
diai notch of th ulna withm a ring
Joint spin around a fixed ra bers to th lateral palm, palmar surface of th thumb, 2
formed by th
diai head. lateral two and one-half fngers (Fig. 6 -3 3 C , see inset
annular ligament
and th radiai median nerve sensory distribution). This sensory supply
notch of th ulna. especially rich and concentrated about th distai ends of 1
index and middle fngers.
Distai Convex ulnar head rolls Concavity of th ul-
Radioulnar and slides in opposite The ulnar nerve, formed from nerve roots CR- T ',
nar notch of th
Joint direetions on th con radius rolls and formed by a direct branch of th mediai cord of th braci
cave ulnar notch of th slides in similar plexus (Fig. 6 - 3 3 D). After passing posteriorly to th mec
radius. direetions on th epicondyle, th ulnar nerve innervates th flexor carpi _
convex ulna naris and th mediai half of th flexor digitorum profundi3
head. The nerve then crosses th wrist external to th carpai tu o i
nel and supplies motor innervation to many of th intrins-I
muscles of th hand. The ulnar nerve supplies sensory strucJ
tures to th skin on th ulnar side of th hand, in c lu d irj
th mediai side of th ring fnger and entire little fnger. T h ij
The anatomie path of these nerves is described as a founda-
sensory supply is especially concentrated about th little f i - J
tion for this chapter and th following tvvo chapters on th ger and ulnar border of th hand.
wrist and th hand.
The musculocutaneous nerve, formed from th C5-7 nerve
roots, innervates th biceps brachii, coracobrachialis, and Innervation of Muscles and Joints of th
brachialis muscles (Fig. 6 -3 3 A ). As its name implies, th Elbow and Forearm
musculocutaneous nerve innervates muscle, then continues
distally as a sensory nerve to th sktn, supplying th lateral Knowledge of th innervation to th muscle, skin, and joina
forearm. is useful clinical information in th treatment of injury \
The radiai nerve, formed from C5T 1 nerve roots, is a th peripheral nerves or nerve roots. The informed tim-
direct continuation of th posterior cord of th brachial cian can anticipale th extent of th sensory and motcrl
plexus (Fig. 6 -3 3 B ). This large nerve courses within th involvement following an acute injury. Therapeutic aclivities, I
radiai groove of th humerus to innervate th triceps and th such as splinting, selective strengthening, range of motios
anconeus. The radiai nerve then emerges laterally at th exercise, and patient education, can be initiated almost in.- .
distai humerus to innervate muscles that attach on or near mediately following injury. This proactive approach miru-
th lateral epicondyle. Proximal to th elbow, th radiai mizes th potential for deformity and damage to insensitive
nerve innervates th brachioradialis, a small lateral pari of skin and joints, thereby limiting th amount of permaner:
th brachialis, and th extensor carpi radialis longus. Distai disability.
to th elbow, th radiai nerve consista of superhcial and
deep branches. The superficial branch is purely sensory, sup
IN N E R V A T IO N TO M U S C L E
plying th posterior-lateral aspeets of th extrme distai fore
arm and hand, especially concentrated at th dorsal web The elbow flexors have three different sources of peripheral
space of th thumb. The deep branch contains th remaining nerve supply: th musculocutaneous nerve to th biceps bre-
motor fibers of th radiai nerve. This motor branch supplies chii and brachialis, th radiai nerve to th brachioradiaiisl
th extensor carpi radialis brevis and th supmator muscle. and lateral part ol th brachialis, and th median nerve tol
After piercing through an intramuscular tunnel in th supi- th pronator teres, which is a secondary flexor. In contras!!
nator muscle, th final section of th radiai nerve courses th elbow extensors, th triceps brachii and anconeus, have J
toward th posterior side of th forearm. This terminal single source of nerve supply through th radiai nerve. In-J
branch, often referred to as th posterior interosseous nerve, jury to this nerve can result in complete paralysis of th I
supplies th extensor carpi ulnaris and several muscles of th elbow extensors. In centrasi three different nerves must b;
forearm, which function in extension of th digits. alfected lo paralyze all elbow flexors. Fortunately, redundan:
The median nerve, formed from C - T 1 nerve roots, innervation to th elbow flexor muscles helps preserve th I
courses toward th elbow to innervate most muscles attach- important hand-to-mouth function required for essential ac-
ing on or near th mediai epicondyle of th humerus. These tivities such as feeding.
muscles include th wrist flexors and forearm pronators Ihe muscles that pronate th forearm (pronator teres, pro
(pronaior teres, flexor carpi radialis, and palmaris longus), nator quadratus, and other secondary' muscles that originate
and th deeper flexor digitorum superficialis (Fig. 6 -3 3 C ). A
from th mediai epicondyle) are innervated through th me
deep branch of th median nerve, often referred to as th dian nerve. Supination o f th forean n is driven by th bicep-
Chapter 6 Elbow and Forearm Complcx 153
A MUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE ( C ^
Brachial Plexus
Lateral cord
Posterior cord
Mediai cord
Deltoid
Lateral brachial
cutaneous nerve
Musculocutaneous nerve
Sensory Distribution
B R A D I L N E R V E ( C ^ - I *) Brachial Plexus
Extensor indicis
FIGURE 6-33 Conti,med. B, The generai path of th tight radiai nerve is shown as il innervates most of th
extensors of th arm forearm, wnst, and digits. See text for more detail on th proxtmal-lo-distal order of
muscle innervai,on. Ihe sensory dtstribunon of th radiai nerve is shown with its area of concentrated supply
at th dorsal web space of th hand. 1 }
Illustration continued on opposite page
Chapter 6 Elbow and Forearm Compex 155
Area of concentrated
Brachial Plexus
Lateral cord
Mediai cord
Sensorv Distribution
Opponens pollicis
Lumbricals (lateral-half)
brachii via th musculocutaneous nerve and th supinator forearm. This table was derived from Appendix HA, which
muscle, plus other secondary muscles that arise front th lists th primary motor nerve roots for all th muscles of th
lateral epicondyle and dorsal forearm, via th radiai nerve. upper extremity. Appendix I1B shows key muscles typically
Table 6 - 4 summarizes th peripheral nerve and primary used io test th functional status of th C -T 1 ventral nerve
nerve root innervation io th muscles of th elbow and roots.
156 Section II U pper Extrem ity
D U L N A R N E R V E (C8-T')
Brachisi Plexus
Lateral cord
o Area of concentrateti supply
Mediai cord
Scnsory D istrihution
Median nerve
Ulnar nerve
Mediai epicondyle
O D o rs a l interassei (4)
See median nerve Palmar interassei (4)
n r iio c c O Lu m brica ls (medial-half)
TABLE 6 - 4 . Motor Innervation to th Muscles of elbow joint. For this reason, many of th wrist muscles have
th Elbow and Forearm a potential to flex or extend th elbow.3 This potential is
relatively minimal and is not discussed further. The anatomy
Muscle Innervation and nerve supply of th muscles of th elbow and forearm
can be found in Appendix IIC.
Elbow flexors
Brachialis Musculocutaneous nerve (C5-6)
Biceps brachii Musculocutaneous nerve (C5-6) ELBOW FLEXORS
Brachioradialis Radiai nerve (C5-6)
Pronator teres Median nerve (C6J) The biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis, and pronator
teres are primary elbow flexors. Each of these muscles pro-
Elbow extensors duces a force that passes anterior to th medial-lateral axis of
Triceps brachii Radiai nerve (C7-8)
rotation at th elbow. Structural and related biomechanical
Anconeus Radiai nerve (C7-8)
variables of these muscles are included in Table 6 - 5 .
Forearm supinators
Biceps brachii Musculocutaneous nerve (C56) Individuai Muscle Action of th Elbow Flexors
Supinator Radiai nerve (C6)
The biceps brachii attaches proximally on th scapula and
Forearm pronators distally on th bicipital tuberosity on th radius (Fig. 6 - 3 4 ) .
Pronator quadratus Median nerve (C8, Tl) Secondar)' distai attachments are made into th deep fascia
Pronator teres Median nerve (C67)
of th forearm through an aponeurotic sheet known as th
fibrous acertus.
The primary nerve root innervation of th muscles are in parenthescs.
The biceps produces its maximal electromyography
(EMG) levels when performing both flexion and supination
simultaneously,5 sudi as bringing a spoon to th mouth. The
biceps exhibits relatively low levels of EMG activity when
th median nerve.51 The distai radioulnar joint receives most flexion is performed with th forearm deliberately held in
of its sensory innervation from th C8 nerve root within th pronation. This lack of muscle activation can be verified by
alnar nerve.18 self-palpation.
The brachialis muscle lies deep to th biceps, originating
Function of th Elbow Muscles on th anterior humerus and attaching distally on th ex-
treme proximal ulna (Fig. 6 - 3 5 ) . According to Table 6 - 5 ,
Muscles that attach distally on th ulna flex or extend th th brachialis has an average physiologic cross-section of 7
elbow, with no ability to pronate or supinate th forearm. In cm! , th largest of any muscle Crossing th elbow. For com-
contrast, muscles that attach distally on th radius may, in parison, th long head of th biceps has a cross-sectional
theory, flex or extend th elbow, but also have a potential to area of only 2.5 cm2. Based on its large physiologic cross-
pronate or supinate th forearm. This basic concept serves as section, th brachialis is expected to generate th greatest
th underlying theme through much of th remainder of this force of any muscle Crossing th elbow.
chapter. The brachioradialis is th longest of all elbow muscles,
Muscles that act primarily on th wrist also cross th attaching proximally on th lateral supracondylar ridge
TABLE 6 - 5 . Structural and Related Biomechanical Variables o f th Primary Elbow Flexor Muscles*
Contraction
Work Capacity Excursion Peak Force Leverage
P h y sio lo g ic
C r o s s - s e c tio n a l In te r n a i M om en t
M u scle V o lu m e (cm 3) L e n g th (cm ) f A r e a (cm 2) A rm ( c m ) )
* Structural properties are indicateci by italics. The related biomechanical variables are indicated above in bold
t Muscle belly length measured at 70 degrees of flexion.
t Internai moment arm measured with elbow flexed to 100 degrees and forearm fully supinated.
(Data from An KN, Hui FC, Morrey BF, et al: Muscles across th elbow joint: A biomechanical analysis. j Biomech 14:659-669, 1981.)
158 Seclion II Upper Extremily
S P E C I A L F O C U S
Males Females
* These are reporied for ihe major movemenis of th elbow and fore-
arm. Standard deviauons are in parentheses. Data are from 104 healthy
subjects; X age male = 41 yrs, X age Iemale = 45.1 yrs. The elbow is
maintamed in 90 degrees of flexion with neuiral forearm rotation. Data are
shown for domnanl limb only.
The righi brachioradialis muscle is shown bow-
GURE 6 - 3 6 . Conversions: .098 N-m/kg-cm.
sringing over th elbow during a maximal effort isometric activa- (Data from Askew 1.J, An KN, Morrey BF, et al: Isometric elbow strength
non. in normal individuate. Clin Orthop 222:261-266, 1987.)
160 Secton II Upper Exiremity
6 - 3 8 A). The predicted maximal lorque for all muscles oc- 90 degrees (see Fig. 6 - 3 7 ) . This mechanical condition maxi-
curs at about 90 degrees of flexion, which agrees in generai mizes th internai moment arm of a muscle and thereby
with actual torque measurements made on healthy per- maximizes th conversion of a muscle force to a joint
sons.40-49 torque. li is interesting that th data presented in Figures 6 -
The two primary factors responsible for th overall shape 38B and C predict peak torques across generally similar joint
of th maximal torque-angle curve of th elbow flexors are angles.
(1) th muscles maximal flexion force potential and (2) th
internai moment arm length. The data plotted in Figure Polyarticular Biceps Brachii: A Physiologic Advantage of
6 - 3 8 B predict that th maximal force of all muscles oc- Combining Elbow Flexion with Shoulder Extension
curs at a muscle length that corresponds with about 80 The biceps is a polyarticular muscle that can produce forces
degrees of flexion. The data plotted in Figure 6 - 3 8 C predici across multiple joints. As subsequently described, combinine
that th average maximal internai moment arm of all mus active elbow flexion with shoulder extension is a naturai and
cles occurs at about 100 degrees of flexion. Ai this joint effective way for producing biceps-generated elbow flexe:
angle, insertion of th biceps tendon to th radius is about torque.
I k b Y k
\-
i i V
A Elbow Joint Angle (degrees) B Elbow Joint Angle (degrees)
For th sake of discussion, assume that at rest in th examples in which a one-joint muscle, such as th posterior
I anatomie position th biceps is about 30 cm long (Fig. deltoid, can enhance th force potential of another muscle.
I -39A ). The biceps shortens to about 23 cm after an active In th example, th posterior deltoid serves as a powerful
motion that combines 45 degrees of shoulder flexion and shoulder extensor for a vigorous pulling motion. In addition,
90 degrees of elbow flexion (Fig. 6 -3 9 B ). If th motion th posterior deltoid assists in controlling th optimal con
I took 1 second to perform, th muscle experiences an aver traction velocity and operational length of th biceps
l e contraction velocity of 7cm/sec. In contrast, consider a throughout th elbow flexion motion. The posterior deltoid,
more naturai but effective method of biceps activation that especially during high power activities, is a ver)' important
K S P E C I A L F O C U S 6 - 5
"Reverse Action" of th Elbow Flexor Muscles: A Clinical extremity muscles, but near normal strength of th shoul-
Example der, elbow flexor, and wrist extensor muscles. With th
Contraction of th elbow flexor muscles is typically per- distai aspect of th upper limb well fixed by action of th
formed to rotate th forearm to th arm. Contraction of wrist extensor muscles, th elbow flexor muscles can
th same muscles, however, can rotate th arm to th generate sufficient force to rotate th arm toward th
forearm, provided that th distai aspect of th upper ex forearm. This maneuver allows th elbow flexor muscles
tremity is well fixed. A clinical example of th usefulness to assist th person while moving up to a sitting position.
of such a "reverse contraction" of th elbow flexors is Interestingly, th arthrokinematics at th humeroulnar joint
shown for a person with C6 quadriplegia (Fig. 6-40). during this action involve a roll and slide in opposite
The person has complete paralysis of th trunk and lower directions.
The iong head functions as a reserve elbow extensor, isometric contraction or very low-velocity eccentric activa-
equipped with a large volume suited for tasks that require tion. In contrast, these same muscles are required to gen
high work performance. erate ver)' large and dynamic extensor torques through
high-velocity concentric or eccentric activations. Consider
Torque Demands on th Elbow Extensors
activities such as throwing a ball, pushing up frotn a low
The elbow extensor muscles provide static stability to th chair or rapidly pushing open a door. As with many ex-
elbow, similar to th way th quadriceps are often used to plosive pushing activities, elbow extension is typically com-
stabilize th knee. Consider th common posture of hear bined with some degree of shoulder Uexion (Fig. 6 - 4 3 ) . The
ing weight through th upper limb with elbows held par- shoulder flexion function of th anterior deltoid is an im-
tially flexed. The extensors stabilize th flexed elbow through portant synergistic component of th forward push. The an-
Chapter 6 Ebow and Forcam i Complex 163
FIGURE 6-4 2 . A posterior view shows ihe righi mediai head of ihe
GURE 6 -4 1 .A posterior view of th right triceps brachit and triceps brachii The long head and lateral head of th triceps are
fico neus muscles. The mediai head of th triceps is deep to th partially removed to expose th deeper mediai head,
mg and lateral heads and therefore not visible.
TABLE 6 - 7 . Strutturai and Related Biomechanical Variables of th Primary Elbow Extensor Muscles*
C ontraction
W ork Capacity E xcursion Peak Force Leverage
P h y sio lo g ic
C r o s s -s e c tio n a l In te rn a i M om en t
M uscle V o lu m e (cm J) L e n g th (cm ) t A r e a (c m 2) A rni (cm )!
* Structural properties are indicated by italics. The related biomechanical variables are indicated above in bold.
t Muscle belly length measured at 70 degrees of flexion.
$ Internai moment arm measured with elbow flexed to 100 degrees.
(Data from An KN, Hui FC, Morrey BF, et ai: Muscles across th elbow joint: A biomechanical analysis. J Biomechan 14:659-669, 1981.)
166 Section II Upper Extremity
Supinators Pronators mottons does th biceps show significant EMG activity (Fie
6 - 4 8 ) . Using th large polyarticular biceps to perform a
simple, low-power supination task is not an efficient moto*
response. Additional muscles, such as th triceps and poste
rior deltoid, are required to neutralize any undesired bicep-
action at th shoulder and elbow. A simple movement ther.
becomes increasingly more complicated and more energj
consuming than absolutely necessary.
The biceps brachii is a powerful supinator muscle of th
forearm. The biceps has about three times th physiologit
cross-section area as th supinator muscle.22 The dominan.
role of th biceps as a supinator can be verified by palpatine
th biceps during a series of rapid and forceful pronation-to- 1
supination motions, especially with th elbow flexed to 9C
degrees. As th forearm is pronated, th biceps tendon
wraps around th proximal radius. From a fully pronate:
position, active contraction of th biceps can spin th ra
dius sharply into supination.
The effectiveness of th biceps as a supinator is greates
when th elbow is flexed to about 90 degrees. Supination
FIGURE 6-46. The line-of-force of th supinators (A) and th pro torque perform ed with th elbow flexed to 90 degrees may
nators (B) of th forearm during an active motion. Note th degree
produce twice th torque than with th elbow held near fuD
to which all muscles intersect th forearms axis of rotation (shown
as dashed line). For clarily, not all th secondary supinators and extension. At a 90-degree elbow angle, th tendon of th
pronators are depicted. biceps approaches a 90-degree angle-of-insertion into th
radius (Fig. 6 - 4 9 , top). This biomechanical situation allow s
th entire magnitude of a maximal effort biceps force, show-
Supinator
Biceps
FIGURE 6-48. The EMG signal from four
Pronator Teres
muscles during three levels of active supi
nation. The minimal EMG activity shown
tor Quadratus
by th pronator muscles during high-
power supination may reflect low level ec-
centric activity from these muscles. (Modi-
Moderate-Power High-Power fied from Basmajian JV: Muscles Alive.
Their Functions Revealed by Electromyog-
Supinator raphy, 4th ed. Baltimore, Williams & Wil-
kins,' 1978.)
Biceps
Pronator Teres
Pronator Quadratus
Elbow Flexed 90
= ^ l___________
T30= By x IMA
T30 = (sine 30" x 500 N) x IMA
T30 = 250 N x 1 cm
T3o = 250 Ncm
FIGURE 6-49. The difference in th ability of th biceps to produce a supination torque is illustrated when th elbow is flexed 90
degrees, and th elbow is flexed 30 degrees. Top, lateral view shows th biceps attaching to th radius at a 90-degree angle. The muscle
(B) is contracting to supinate th forearm with a maximal effort force of 500 N. The calculations show that th maximum supination
torque at a 90-degree elbow angle (T90) is 500 Ncm (th product of th maximal force (B) times th 1-cm internai moment arm (IMA)).
Bottom, th angle of th insertion of th biceps to th radius is 30 degrees. The biceps force of 500 N (B) must be trigonometrically
resolved into that which supinates (By) and that whtch runs paraltel to th radius (Bx). The calculations show that th maximum supination
torque with th elbow flexed 30 degrees is reduced to 250 Ncm (sine 30 degrees = .5, and cosine 30 degrees = .86).
167
168 Section II Upper Exiremity
PRONATOR MUSCLES
a S P E C I A L F O C U S
FIGURE 6-52. A, Anierior view of th distai radioulnar joini shows th line-of-force of th pronator quadratus intersecting th
forcami s axis of rotation (white rod) at a tight angle. 6, The line-of-foree of th pronator quadratus, with its internai moment arm,
is shown with th wrist removed and forearm in full supination. The pronator quadratus produces a pronation torque, which is th
product of pronator muscle's force times th internai moment arm, and a compression force between th joint surfaces (opposing
arrows). C, This dual function of th pronator quadratus is shown as th muscle pronates th forearm to th midposition. The roll-
and-slide arthrokinematics are also mdicated
The pronator teres has two heads: humeral and ulnar. The genic (from th Greek root myo; muscle + genesis; generation
median nerve passes between these two heads. The pronator compressive forces can become detrimental to joint stabiliti I
teres functions as a primary forearm pronator, in addinoti to The same forces that help stabilize th joint in th healthvB
an elbow flexor. This pronator teres produces its greatest state may cause joint destruction in th diseased state.
EMG activity during higher power pronation actions,6 such
as attempting to unscrew an overtightened screw with th
REFERENCES
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9. Currier DP: Maximal isometric tension of th elbow extensors at vanrfH
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31. Morrey BF, Tanaka S, An KN: Valgus stability of th elbow. Clin
Orthop 265:187-195, 1991. Bade H, Koebke J, Schluter M: Morphology of th articular surfaces of th
32. Murray WM, Delp SL, Buchanan TS: Variation of muscle moment arms distai radio-ulnar joint. Anat Ree 246:410-414, 1996.
with elbow and forearm positions. J Biomech 28:513-525, 1995. Davidson PA, Pink M, Perry J, et al: Functional anatomy of th flexor
33. Nakamura T, Yabe Y, Horiuchi Y: Dynamic changes in th shape of th pronator muscle group in relation to th mediai collateral ligament of
triangular fibrocartilage during rotalion demonstrated with high resolu th elbow. Am J Sports Med 23:245250, 1995.
tion magnetic resonance imaging. J Hand Surg 24B:338-341, 1999. Eckstein F, Lohe F, Hillebrand S, et al: Morphomechanics of th humero-
34. Neumann DA: Use of th diaphragm to assist in rolling in th patient ulnar joint: 1. Joint space width and contact areas as a function of load
with quadriplegia. Phys Ther 59:39, 1979. and flexion angle. Anat Ree 243:318-326, 1995.
35. Neumann DA, Soderberg GL, Cook TM. Electromyographic analysis of Fleisig GS, Andrews JR, Dillman CJ, et al: Kinetics of baseball pitching with
hip abductor musculature in healthy right-handed persons. Phys Ther implications about injury mechanisms. Am ] Sports Med 23:233-239,
69:431-440, 1989 1995.
36. Olsen BS, Sojbjerg JO, Dalstra M, et al: Kinematics of th lateral liga- Kihara H, Short WH, Werner FW, et al: The stabilizing mechanism of th
mentous conslrainls of th elbow joint. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 5:333- distai radioulnar joint during pronation and supination. J Hand Surg
341, 1996. 20A:930-936, 1995.
37. Palmer AK, Werner FW: Biomechanics of th distai radioulnar joint. London JT: Kinematics of th elbow. J Bone Joint Surg 63A:529-535, 1981.
Clin Orthop 187:26-35, 1984. ODriscoll SW, Horii E, Morrey BF, et al: Anatomy of th ulnar part of th
38. Peirie S, Collins JG, Solomonow M, et al. Mechanoreceptors in th lateral collateral ligament of th elbow. Clin Anat 5:296-303, 1992.
human elbow ligaments. J Hand Surg 23A:512-518, 1998. Palmer AK, Werner FW: The triangular fibrocartilage complex of th wrist:
39. Pfaeffle HJ, Fischer KJ, Manson TT, et al: Role of th forearm interos- Anatomy and function. J Hand Surg 6:153-161, 1981.
seous ligament: Is it more than just longitudinal load transfer? J Hand Pauly JE, Rushing JL, Scheving LE: An electromyographic study of some
Surg 25A:683-688, 2000. muscles Crossing th elbow joint. Anat Ree 159:47-53, 1967.
40 Provins KA, Salters N: Maximum torque exerted about th elbow joint. Sojbjerg JO: The stiff elbow Acta Orthop Scand 67:626-631, 1996.
J Appi Phys 7:393-398, 1955 Totterman SMS, Miller RJ: Triangular fibrocartilage complex: Normal ap-
41. Regan WD, Korinek SL, Morrey BF, et al: Biomechanical study of pearance on coronai three-dimensional gradient-recalled-echo MR m-
ligaments around th elbow joint. Clin Orthop 271:170-179, 1991. ages. Radiology 195:521-527, 1995.
C h a p t e r 7
Wrist
Donald A. Neum ann , P hD, PT
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
OSTEOLOGY, 172 Kinematics of Wrist Motion, 179 F u n ctio n o f th W r is t E xte n so rs, 187
Distai Forearm, 172 O s te o k in e m a tic s , 179 Muscular Anatomy, 187
Carpai Bones, 173 A rth ro k in e m a tic s , 180 Wrist Extensor Activity While Making
Carpai Tunnel, 176 Wrist Extension and Flexion, 181 a Fist, 188
ARTHROLOGY, 176 Ulnar and Radiai Deviation of th F u n ctio n o f th W r is t F le xors, 189
Joint Structure and Ligaments of th Wrist, 182 Muscular Anatomy, 189
Wrist, 176 Carpai Instability, 184 Functional Considerations of th Wrist
J o in t S tru c tu re , 176 MUSCLE A N D J O IN T IN TER AC TIO N , 186 Flexors, 190
Radiocarpal Joint, 177 Innervation of th Wrist Muscles and F u n ctio n o f th R adiai and U ln a r
Midcarpal Joint, 177 Joints, 186 D e v ia to rs , 191
W r is t Lig a m e n ts, 177 Function of th Muscles at th Wrist, 186
INTRODUCTION OSTEOLOGY
The wrist contains eight small carpai bones, which as a group Distai Forearm
act as a flexible spacer between th forearm and hand (Fig.
7 - 1 ) . In addition to several small intercarpal joints, th wrist The dorsal surface of th distai radius has several grooves
or carpus functions as two major aniculations. The radiocarpal and raised areas that help guide many tendons of extrinsic
joint is located between th distai end of th radius and th muscles (Fig. 7 - 2 ) . For example, th palpable dorsal (or
proximal row of carpai bones. Just distai io this joint is th Lister's) tu barle separates th tendons of th extensor carpi
midcarpal joint, located between th proximal and distai row radialis brevis from th extensor pollicis longus.
of carpai bones. These two joints allow th wrist to flex and
extend and to move from side to side in a motion called
radiai and ulnar deviation. The distai radioulnar joint is con-
Osteologie Fcatures of th Distai Forearm
sidered part of th forearm complex, rather than th wrist,
Dorsal or Listers tubercle of th radius
due io its role in pronation and supination.
Styloid proeess of th radius
The position of th wrist significanti)' affects th function Styloid proeess of th ulna
of th hand. Many muscles that control th fngers originate Distai articular surface of th radius
extrinsic lo th hand, with their proximal attachments lo
cated in th forearm. The position of th wrist, therefore, is
criticai in setting th length-tension relationship of th ex
trinsic finger muscles. A fused, painful, or weak wrist often The palmar surface of th distai radius is th location of
assumes a posture that interferes with th optimal length of th proximal attachments of th wrist capsule and th thick
th extrinsic musculature. The kinesiology of th wrist is palmar radiocarpal ligaments (Fig. 7 - 3 ) . The styloid proeess
ver)' much linked to th kinesiology of th hand. oj th radius projeets distally from th lateral side of th
Several new terms are introduced here io describe th radius. The styloid proeess o f th ulna, much sharper than its
relative position, or topography, within th wrist and th radiai counterpart, extends distally from th posterior-medial
hand. Palmar and volar are synonymous with anteror; dorsal surface of th ulna.
is synonymous with posterior. These terms are used inter- The distai articular surface o f th radius is concave in both
changeably throughout this chapter and th next chapter on medial-lateral and anterior-posterior directions (see Fig.
th hand. 6 - 2 7 8 ) . Facets are formed in th articular cartilage from
172
Chapter 7 Wrist 173
Carpai Bones
From a radiai (lateral) to ulnar direction, th proximal row
of carpai bones includes th scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum,
and pisiform. The distai row includes th trapezium, trape-
zoid, capitate, and hamate (Figs. 7 - 2 , 7 - 3 , 7 - 5 , and 7 - 6 ) .
Dorsal view
Pai m ar view
Pisiform
Abductor pollicis longus
FIGURE 7-3. The palniar aspect of th bones of
Flexor carpi ulnaris Trapezium
th righi carpus. The muscles proximal attach-
Tubercles menis are shown in red and distai atiachments
Triquetrurrv Distai and in gray. The dashed lines show th proximal
proximal poles of scaphoid aitachment of th palmar capsule of th wrist.
Styloid process
Styloid process
Brachioradialis
Pronator quadratus
bones relattve position and shape is helpful in an under- tubercle can be palpated at th radiai side of th base of th
standing of th ligamentous anaiomy and wrist kinematics. palm.
The distal-medial surface is deeply concave to accept th
SCAPHOID lateral half of th prominent head of th capitate bone (see
Fig. 7 - 3 ) . A small facet on th mediai side contacts th
The scaphoid, or navicular, is named based on its vague lunate. The scaphoid and radius are located in th direct
resemblance to a boat (navicular: from th Latin navicularis; path ol most of th force transmission through th wrist.
pertaining to shipping). Mosi of th hull or bottom of th Injury from fading on an extended and radially deviated
boat rides on th radius; th cargo area of th boat is filled wrist often results in fracture to th scaphoid. Fracture of
with th head of th capitate (see Fig. 7 - 3 ) . The scaphoid
th scaphoid occurs more frequenti)' than any other fracture
contacts four carpai bones and th radius.
of th carpai bones. Healing is often hindered if th fracture
The scaphoid has two convex surfaces called poles. The is at th scaphoids proximal pole because blood supply is
proxima pale articulates with th scaphoid facet of th radius often absent or minimal in this region. Seventeen percent of
(see Fig. 6 - 2 7 ) . The distai pale of th scaphoid is a slightly all scaphoid fractures are associated with other injuries along
rounded surface, which articulates th trapezium and trape th weight-bearing path of th wrist and hand.39 Associated
zoid. The scaphoid has a rather large and blunt tubercle, injuries often involve fracture and/or dislocation of th lu
which projects palmarly from th distai pole. The scaphoid nate and lracture of th trapezium and distai radius.
Scaphoid tubercle
Triquetrum
Trapezoid
Capitate
Scaphoid
LUNATE TRIQUETRUM
The lunate (from th Latin luna, moon) bone is th centrai The triquetrum, or triangular bone, occupies th most ulnar
bone of th proximal row, wedged between th scaphoid position in th wrist, just mediai to th lunate. The lateral
and triquetrum. Like th scaphoid, th lunates proximal surface of th triquetrum is long and fiat for articulation
surface is convex to fu into th concave facet on th radius with a similarly shaped surface on th hamate.
Fig. 6 - 2 7 B ). The distai surface of th lunate is deeply
concave, giving th bone its crescent m oon-shaped appear-
PISIFORM
ance (see Fig. 7 - 3 ) . This articular surface accepts two con-
vexities: th mediai half of th head of th capitate and pari The pisiform, meaning shaped like a pea, articulates
of th apex of th hamate. loosely with th palmar surface of th triquetrum. The pisi-
Sacciform recess
(within distai radioulnar joint)
176 Secton II Upper Extremity
Dorsal view
Ulnar collateral
ligament (cut)
Scaphoid
Articular Radiai collateral ligament (cut)
Lunate (proximal pole)
Scapholunate ligament Scaphoid
Dorsal capsular ligament
Lunate
Scaphotrapezial ligament (cut)
Ulnar collateral
ligament (cut) Radiai collateral ligament (cut)
Triquetrum Trapezium
Scaphotrapezial
ligament (cut)
Head of capitate
Mediai compartment
M idcarpal jo in t |
3 Lateral compartment
FIGURE 7-7. A, Dissected right wnst showing a dorsal view of th radiocarpal and midcarpal joints. Refer to text for description of
ligaments and other soft tissues. 8, Red and gray highlight th lateral and mediai compartments of th midcarpal joint.
178 Section II Upper Extremity
TA B LE7 - 1. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Ligaments of palmar surface of several carpai bones. The palmar radiocar
th Wrist pal ligaments are much stronger and thicker than th dorsal
radiocarpal ligaments. Significant tension exists in these liga
E xtrinsic Ligaments ments even in th relaxed neutral wrist position.36 In gen
erai, th palmar radiocarpal ligaments become maximally
Dorsal radiocarpal ligament taut al full wrist extension.30
Radiai collateral ligament A complex set of connective tissues exists near th ulnar
border of th wrist known as th ulnocarjral complex. Thts
Palrnar radiocarpal ligam ents
group of connective tissue is often referred to as th triangu-
Radiocapitate
Radiolunate lar fbrocartilage complex (TFCC).20 The ulnocarpal complex
Radioscapholunate includes th articular disc, th ulnar collateral ligament, and
th palmar ulnocarpal ligament (see Fig. 7 - 9 ) . This complex
U lnocarpal com plex
set of tissues fills most of th ulnocarpal space between th
Articular disc
distai ulna and th carpai bones (Fig. 7 10). The ulnocarpal
Ulnar collateral ligament
Palmar ulnocarpal ligament space allows th carpai bones to pronate and supinate with
th radius, without interference from th distai end of th
Intrinsic Ligam ents ulna.
Short ligam ents of th distai row The articular disc, th main leature of th ulnocarpal com
plex, attaches from th ulnar notch of th radius to near th
Interm ediate ligam ents
styloid process of th ulna (see Fig. 6 - 2 7 ) . This disc is an
Lunotriquetral
Scapholunate important structural component of both th distai radioulnar
Scaphotrapezial joint and th radiocarpal joint. Figure 7 - 6 shows a frontal
piane cross-section through th ulnocarpal space, illustrating
Long ligaments
Palmar intercarpal a poorly defined meniscal extension of th articular disc.33
iMtera leg: fibers between th capitale and th scaphoid The meniscal extension of th disc is often called th ulno
Mediai leg: fibers between th capitate and th triquetrum carpal meniscal homologue, indicating its vestigial function
Dorsal intercarpal: fibers between th scaphoid and triquet of once connecting th carpus to th triquetrum. Between
rum th meniscal extension of th disc and th ulnar collateral
ligament is th small prestyloid recess, a space filled with
synovial fluid. This space often becomes distended and pain-
ful with rheumatoid arthritis. Tears in th articular disc may
Extrinsic Ligaments permit synovial fluid to spread from th radiocarpal joint to
th distai radioulnar joint.
A fibrous capsule surrounds th extemal surface of th wrist Ihe ulnar collateral ligament is a thickening of th ulnar
and th distai radioulnar joint. Dorsally, th capsule thickens side of th wrist capsule (Figs. 7 - 6 and 7 - 8 ) . The ligament
slightly io fonti ligamentous bands known as th dorsal originates from th styloid process of th ulna, crosses th
radiocarpal ligaments (Fig. 7 - 8 ) . The ligaments are thin and ulnocarpal space, and attaches distally to th ulnar side of
very difficult to distinguish from th capsule itself.
In generai, th dorsal radiocarpal ligaments travel distally
in an ulnarly direction, from th distai radius to th dorsal
surfaces of th scaphoid and th lunate. A larger discrete set Dorsal view
of fibers extends to th triquetrum. The dorsal radiocarpal
ligaments remforce th posterior side of th radiocarpal joint,
becoming taut in full flexion.30
The luterai part of th wrist capsule is strengthened by
fibers called th radiai collateral ligament. These fibers attach
proximally to th styloid process, and distally at th scaph
oid tubercle, trapezium, and adjacent transverse carpai liga
ment (see Figs. 7 - 6 and 7 - 8 ) . This ligament provides only
part ol th lateral stability to th wrist. A major portiott is
lumished by extrinsic muscles, such as th abductor pollicis
longus and th extensor pollicis brevis. The radiai collateral
ligament is more developed palmar-laterally than dorsal-lat-
erally. Ihese fibers, therefore, become maximally taut when
ulnar deviation of th wrist is combined with extension.
Deep and separate from th palmar capsule of th wrist
are several stout and extensive ligaments known collectively
as th palm ar radiocarpal ligaments. These include th radio-
capitate ligament, th radiolunate ligament, and, in a deepe r
piane, th radioscapholunate ligament (Fig. 7 - 9 ) . Each liga
ment arises from a roughened area on th distai radius,
travels distally in an ulnar direction, and attaches to th FIGURE 7-8. The dorsal ligaments of th righi wrist
Chapter 7 Wrist 179
Palmar view
th triquetrum and as far distai as th base of th fifth palmar, dorsal, or interosseous surfaces (Figs. 7 - 8 and
metacarpal. Full radiai deviation of th wrist elongates th 7 - 9 ) . The short ligaments firmly stabilize and unite th row
ulnar collateral ligament and surrounding capsule. The ex- of bones, permitting thern to function as a single mechanical
tensor carpi ulnaris assists th ulnar collateral ligament in unit. Three intermediate ligaments exist within th wrist. The
remforcing th ulnar margin of th wrist.1 lunotriquetral ligament is a ftbrous continuation of th palmar
The palmar ulnocarpal ligament is a thickened band of radiolunate ligament (see Fig. 7 - 9 ) . The scapholunate liga
contiective tissue that originates from th anterior margin of ment is a broad colleciion of fibers that links th scaphoid
th articular disc (see Fig. 7 - 9 ) . The ligament attaches dis with th lunate (see Fig. 1 - 1 A). Several scaphotrapezial liga
tali)' to th palmar surfaces of th lunate and, to a lesser ments reinforce th articulation between th scaphoid and
degree, th triquetrum.16 It becomes taut in full wrist exten- th trapezium (see Figs. 1 - 1 A and 7 - 8 ) .
sion and full ulnar deviation.36 Two relatively long ligaments are present. within th wrist.
The palm ar intercarpal ligament is firmly attached to th pal
Intrinsic Ligaments mar surface of th capitate bone (see Fig. 7 - 9 ) . The liga
The intrinsic ligaments of th wrist are classified as short, ment bifurcates proximally into two fber groups that form
intermediate, or long (see Table 7 - 1 ) . 33 Short ligaments an inverted V shape. The lateral leg of th inverted V is
within th wrist connect th bones of th distai row by their formed by fibers from th capitate to th scaphoid; th
mediai leg is formed by fibers between th capitate and
triquetrum. A thin ligament, th dorsal intercarpal ligament,
provides transverse stability io th wrist by binding th
scaphoid to th triquetrum (see Fig. 7 - 8 ) .
FIGURE 7-11. Osteokinematics of th wrist. A, Flexion and exiension. B, Ulnar and radiai deviation. Note thai flexion
exceeds extension and ulnar deviation exceeds radiai deviation.
Daterai view
_ i ______ i___
NEUTRAL
Carpometacarpal
joint
Midcarpal joint
FIGURE 7-14. A model of th centrai column of th righi wrist showing flexion and extension. The wrist in th
center is shown at resi, in a neutral position. The roll-and-slide arthrokinematics are shown in red for th
radiocarpal joint and in light gray for th midcarpal joint. Dtiring wrist extension Qeft), th dorsal radiocarpal
ligaments become slackened and th palmar radiocarpal ligaments taut The reverse arthrokinematics occur durine
wrist flexion (tight).
th kinematics of th scaphoid bone at th radiocarpal joint. slightly more complicated than those of flexion and exten
In brief, th arthrokinematics of th scaphoid on th radius sion.
are similar to those of th lunate during flexion and exten During ulnar deviation, th radiocarpal and midcarpal
sion, except for one feature. Based on th different size and joints contribute fatrly equally to overall wrist motion (Fig
curvature of th two bones, th scaphoid rolls on th radius 7 - 1 5 ) . At th radiocarpal joint shown in red in Figure
at a different speed than th lunate.26 This difference causes 7 - 1 5 , th scaphoid, lunate, and iriquetrum roll ulnarly and
a slight displacement between th scaphoid and lunate by slide a significant distance radially. The extent of this radiai
th end of full motion. Normally, in th healihy wrist, th slide is evident by noting th final position of th lunate
amount of displacement is minimized by th action of liga relative to th radius at full ulnar deviation.
ments, especially th scapholunate ligament (see Fig. 7 - 7 A). Ulnar deviation ai th midcarpal joint occurs primarih
Damage to this ligament can occur through traumatic from th capitate rolling ulnarly and sliding slightly radially.
scapholunate dislocation, chronic synovitis from rheumatoid Full range of ulnar deviation causes th triquetrum to con
arthritis, and even trom surgical removai of a ganglion cyst. tact th articular disc. Compression of th hamate against
A torn scapholunate ligament may predispose a person to th triquetrum pushes th proximal row of carpai bones
scapholunate joint instability, which interferes with th natu radially against th styloid process of th radius. This com
rai kinematics at th wrist 7 pression helps stabilize th wrist for activities that require
large gripping forces.
Ulnar and Radiai Deviation o f th Wrist Radiai deviation at th wrist occurs through similar ar
throkinematics as described for ulnar deviation (see Fig
Dynamic Interaction Between th Radiocarpal Joint and th
7 - 1 5 ) . The amount ol radiai deviation at th radiocarpal
Midcarpal Joint
joint is limited as th radiai side of th carpus impinges
Like flexion and extension, ulnar and radiai deviation oc against th styloid process of th radius. Most radiai devia
cur through synchronous convex-on-concave rotations at tion of th wrist, therefore, occurs at th midcarpal joint
both th radiocarpal joint and th midcarpal joint. The The hamate and triquetrum separate by th end of full radiai
arthrokinematics of ulnar and radiai deviation, however, are deviation.
Chapter 7 Wrisl 183
Palmar view
Carpometacarpal
Midcarpal
joint
Scaphoid
tuberete
Radiocarpal
Articolar joint
disc
FIGURE 7-15. X-rays and mechanical depiction of th arthrokinematics of ulnar and radiai deviation for th righi wrist. The roll-
and-slide arthrokinematics are shown in red for th radiocarpal joint and in light gray for th midcarpal joint. (Arthrokinematics
are based on observations made from cineradiography conducted at Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wl, in 1999.)
Tension in th "Doubl I/" System of Ligaments During ments. A doubl VSystem of ligaments illustrates one way in
Radiai and Ulnar Deviation which ligaments help control ulnar and radiai deviation (Fig.
The arthrokinematics of wrist motion are actively driven by 7 - 1 6 ) . 33 in th neutral position, th four ligaments of th
muscle, but controlled by th passive tension action of liga doubl V System appear as two inverted V s. The distai in-
S P E C I A L F O C U S
Additional Arthrokinematics Involving th Proximal Row relative to th radius. The scaphoid appears to "stand up"
of Carpai Bones or to lengthen, which projeets its tubercle distally. At full
radiai deviation, th scaphoid flexes beyond neutral about
Careful observation of ulnar and radiai deviation on cine
20 degrees, taking on a shortened stature with its tubercle
radiography or serial static x-rays reveals more compli-
having approached th radius. A functional shortening of
cated arthrokinematics than previously described. During
th scaphoid allows a few more degrees of radiai devia
motion, th proximal row of carpai bones "rock" slightly
tion before complete blockage against th styloid process
into flexion and extension and, to a much less extent,
of th radius. The exact mechanism responsible for th
"twist." The rocking motion is most noticeable in th
slight flexion and extension of th proximal carpai row
scaphoid and, to a lesser extent, th lunate. During radiai
during ulnar and radiai deviation is not fully understood,
deviation th proximal row flexes slightly; during ulnar
but many explanations have been offered.2637 Most likely,
deviation th proximal row extends slightly." Note that in
th mechanism is driven by forces generated by stretched
Figure 7-15, especially on x-ray, th change in position of
ligaments and compressions that occur between th mov-
th scaphoid tubercle between th extremes of ulnar and
ing carpai bones.
radiai deviation. At full ulnar deviation, th scaphoid is
rotated about 20 degrees into extension,
184 Section 11 Upper Extremity
Palmar v ie w
FIGURE 7 16 rhe tensing and slackening of th doubl V System ligaments of th wrist are illustrated. The collateral ligaments are
also shown. The bones have been blocked together for simplicity. Tarn lines represent ligaments under tncreased tension.
Carpai Instability
The pathomechanics of carpai instability occur in many
forms.32 Esseruially all types o f carpai instability lead to a
loss o f function due to a loss ol normal anatomie alignment.
The following examples describe two common types' of car FIGURE 7-17. A highly diagrammane depiction of a zig-zag col
lapse of th centrai column of th wrist following large compression
pai instability. force.
Chapter / Wm( 185
COMPRESSION FORCE
cross th wrist are due to muscle activation and contact with ulnar direction. Figure 7 - 2 0 shows that a wrist with an
th surrounding environment. In most healthy persons, th ulnar tilt of 25 degrees has an ulnar translation force of 42%
wrist remains perfectly stable throughout life. Collapse and of th total compression force that crosses th wrist. This
subsequent joint dislocation are prevented by resistance from translational force is naturali)' resisted by passive forces from
ligaments, tendons, and intercarpal articulations. various extrinsic ligaments, such as palmar radiocarpal liga
The lunate is th most frequently dislocated carpai bone.39 ment. A disease like rheumatoid arthritis signifkantly weak-
Because no muscles attach to th lunate, stability must be ens wrist ligaments. Over time, th carpus may migrate ul
provided by ligaments and contact with adjacent bones, narly. An excessive ulnar translocation can significanti)' alter
most notably th scaphoid (Fig. 7 -1 8 A ). The scaphoid func- th biomechanics of th entire wrist and hand.
ttons as a mechanical link between th lunate and th rigid,
distai row of carpai bones. The continuity of this link re-
quires that th scaphoid is well stabilized by intrinsic liga
ments. Consider, for example, a fall over an outstretched
hand with a resulting fracture of th scaphoid and tearing of
th scapholunate ligament (Fig. 7 1813). Disruption of th
mechanical link provided by th scaphoid often leads to
lunate dislocation. As shown in Figure 7 - 1 8 B , th lunate
most often dislocates so its distai articular surface faces dor-
sally. This condition is referred to clinically as dorsal interca-
lated segment instability (DISI) (Fig. 7 - 1 9 ) . Injury to other
ligaments, such as th lunotriquetral ligament, may cause a
lunate dissociation with its distai articular surfaces, facing
volarly (palmarly). This condition is referred to as volar (pal
mari intercalateli segment instability (VISI).31 Regardless of th
type of rotational collapse, th consequences can be painful
and disabling. Changes in th naturai arthrokinematics may
create regions of high stress, eventually leading to joint de-
struction and carpai morphology changes. A painful and
arthritic wrist may fail to provide a stable platform for th
hand. A collapsed wrist may shorten its length, thereby alter-
ing th length-tension relationship and moment arms of th
muscles that cross th wrist.34
Dinar Translocation of th Carpus. As pointed out
earlier, th distai end of th radius is angled from side io FIGURE 7-19. Lateral x-ray showmg th dislocation and subsequent
side so that its articular surface is sloped ulnarly aboul 25 rotational deformity of th lunate in th dorsal direction. Compare
degrees (see Fig. 7 -4 A ). Ulnar tilt of th radius creates a with Figure 7-18B. (Courtesy of Jon Marion, CHT, OTR, and
naturai tendency for th carpus to slide (translate) in an Thomas Hitchcock, MD. Marshfield Clinic, Marshfeld, Wl.)
186 Seaion II Upper Extremity
Palmar
FIGURE 7-21. A distai perspective
through th righi carpai tunnel similar
io that in Figure 7 -5 . The plot shows
th cross-sectional area and th internai
moment arm for most muscles that cross
th wrist at th level of th head of th
capitate. The area each muscle occupies
Radiai (Lateral)
on th grid is proportional to its cross-
section area and, therefore, is indicative
of relative maximal force production.
The wrists medial-lateral (ML) axis of
rotation (gray) and anterior-posterior
(AP) axis of rotation (red) intersect at
th capitate bone. Each muscles internai
moment arm for a particular action is
equal to th linear distance each muscle
lies from either axis. The length of each
internai moment arm (expressed in cm)
is indicateci by th major tic marks. As
sume that th wrist is held in a neutral
posiiion.
The tendons of th muscles that cross th dorsal and in making a fist. To demonstrate this, rapidly tighten and
dorsal-radial side of th wrist are secured in place across th release th fisi and note th strong synchronous activity from
wrist by th extensor retinaculum (Fig. 7 - 2 3 ) . The extensor th wrist extensors. The extrinsic finger flexor muscles.
retinaculum wraps around th styloid process of th ulna to namely th flexor digitorum profundus and flexor digitorum
attach palmarly to th llexor carpi ulnaris, pisiform, and superficialis, pass a signi ficant distance palmar to th wrists
pisometacarpal ligament. The retinaculum attaches to th medial-lateral axis of rotation (see Fig. 7 - 2 1 ) . Their contrac
styloid process of th radius and th radiai collateral liga tion as primary finger flexors generates a significant flexion
ment. Between th extensor retinaculum and th dorsal sur- torque at th wrist that must be counterbalanced by th
face of th wrist are six fibro-osseus tunnels that house th extensor muscles (Fig. 7 - 2 4 ) . As a strong grip is applied to
tendons along with their synovial sheaths. The extensor reti an object, th wrist extensors hold th wrist in about 35
naculum prevents th tendons from bowstringing up and degrees of extension and about 5 degrees of ulnar deviation.19
away from th radiocarpal joint during active extension. The This position optimizes th length-tension relationship of th
retinaculum and associated tendons also assist th dorsal extrinsic finger flexors, thereby facilitating maximal grip
capsular ligaments in stabilizing th dorsal side of th wrist. strength (Fig. 7 - 2 5 ) .
Wrist Extensor Activity While Making a Fist
The main function of th wrist extensors is to position and
stabilize th wrist for activities involving th fingers. Of par-
ticular importance is th role of th wrist extensor muscles
FIGURE 7-24. Muscle mechanies are shown that are involved with
th application of a strong grip. Contraction of th long finger
flexors flex th fingers but also cause a simultaneous wrist Jlexion
torque. Activation of th wrist extensors, such as th extensor carpi
radialis brevis, is necessary lo block th wrist flexion tendency
caused by activated finger flexors. In this manner, th wrist exten FIGURE 7-25. The compression forces produced by a maximal ef-
sors are able to maintain th optimal length of th finger flexors to fort grip are shown for different wrist positions. Maximal grip force
effectively flex th fingers. The internai moment arms for th exten occurs at about 30 degrees of extension. (Data are from three
sor carpi radialis brevis and finger flexors are shown in dark bold subjects. With permission from lnman VT, Ralston HJ, Todd F,
lines.
Human Walking. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1981.)
Chapter 1 Wrist 189
The most active wrist extensor muscle during light clo- transferred to provide wrist extension torque. Often, th pro-
sure of th fist is th extensor carpi radialis brevis. As grip nator teres muscle, innervated by th median nerve, is con-
force increases, th extensor carpi ulnaris, followed closely nected lo th tendon of th extensor carpi radialis brevis. Of
by th extensor carpi radialis longus, joins th activated th three primary wrist extensors, th extensor carpi radialis
extensor brevis.24 Activities that require repetitive forceful brevis is located most centrally at th wrist and has th
grasp, such as hammering or playing tennis, may overwork greatest moment arm for extension (see Fig. 7 - 2 1 ) .
th wrist extensors, especially th highly active extensor
carpi radialis brevis. A condition known as lateral epicondy-
litis, or tennis elbow, occurs from stress and resultant in-
W rist Flexor Muscles
flammation of th proximal attachment of th wrist exten
Primary
sors.4
Flexor carpi radialis
As evident in Figure 7 - 2 5 , grip strength is significanti)'
Flexor carpi ulnaris
reduced when th wrist is fully flexed. The decreased grip Palmaris longus
strength is caused by a combination of two factors. First,
Secondar y
and likely foremost, th finger flexors cannot generate ade
Flexor digitorum profundus
quate force because they are functioning at an extremely
Flexor digitonim superficialis
shortened (slackened) length on their length-tension curve. Flexor pollicis longus
Second, th overstretched finger extensors, particularly th
extensor digitorum communis, create a passive extensor
torque at th fingers, which further reduces effective grip
force. This combination of physiologic events explains why a FUNCTION OF THE WRIST FLEXORS
person with paralyzed wrist extensors has difficulty produc-
ing an effective grip even though th finger flexors remain Muscular Anatomy
fully innervated. Attempts at producing a maximal-effort grip The three primary wrist flexors are th flex or carpi radialis,
when th wrist extensore are paralyzed results in a posture th flex or carpi ulnaris, and, when present and fully fortned,
of finger flexion with wrist flexion (Fig. 7 - 2 6 A). Stabilizing th palmaris longus (Fig. 7 - 2 7 ) . The palmaris longus is miss-
th wrist in greater extension enables th finger flexor mus- ing in about 10% of people, however. When present, it is
cles to nearly triple their grip force (Fig. 7 -2 6 B ). Manually extremely variable and may have several small tendons. Ten-
or orthotically preventing th wrist from flexing maintains dons of these muscles are easily identified on th anterior
th extrinsic finger flexors at an elongated length more con- distai wrist, especially during strong isometric activation. The
ducive to th higher force production. palmar carpai ligament, not easily identified by palpation, is
Ordinarily, th person depicted in Figure 7 - 2 6 weare a located proximal to th transverse carpai ligament. This
splint that holds th wrist in 10 to 20 degrees of extension. structure, analogous to th extensor retinaculum, stabilizes
When th radiai nerve fails to re-innervate th wrist extensor th tendons of th wrist flexors and prevents excessive
muscles, a tendon from another muscle is often surgically bowstringing during flexion.
EPB\
FIGURE 7 -2 9 . The muscles that perform ra ApL \ ^ / |
diai deviation of th wrist are shown pre-
paring to strike a nal with a hammer. Im-
ages in th background are mirror reflec-
tions of objects tn th foreground. The axis
of rotation is through th capitate with th
internai moment arms shown for th exten
sor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) and th
flexor carpi radialis (FCR) only. The flexor
pollicis longus is noi shown. (ECRL and
B = extensor carpi radialis longus and -------- ^ l )r~
brevis; APL = abductor pollicis longus;
and EPE and B = extensor pollicis longus
and brevis.)
192 Seciion II Upper Extremily
to remain unopposed. The resulting flexed posture of th 15- MacConaill MA, Basmajian JV: Muscles and Movements: A Basis for
wrist is thereby not suitable for an effective grasp. Human Kinesiology. New York, Robert E. Krieger, 1977.
16 Mayfield JK, Johnson RP, Kilcoyne RF: The ligaments of th human
wrist and their functional significance. Anat Ree 186:417-428, 1976.
Ulnar Deviators of th Wrist 17. Neumann DA: Observations from cineradiography anaiysis. Marquette
University, Milwaukee, WI, 2000.
Extensor carpi ulnaris
18. Norkin CC, White DJ: Measurement of Joint Motion: A Guide to Goni-
Flexor carpi ulnaris ometry, 2nd ed. Phiadelphia, FA Davis, 1995.
19. ODriscoll SW, Horii E, Ness R, et al: The relationship between wrist
position, grasp size, and gnp strength. J Hand Surg 17A:169-177
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Chapter 7 Wrist 193
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ADDITIONAL READINGS
ographics 15:575-587, 1995.
Berger RA. The anatomy and th basic biomechanics of th wrist joint. J Wolfe SW', Crisco JJ, Katz LD A noninvasive method for studytng in vivo
Hand Surg 9:84-93, 1996. carpai kinemalics. J Hand Surg 22B:147-152, 1997
C h a p t e r 8
Hand
Donald A. Neumann , PT, P h D
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
TER M IN O LO G Y, 194 Fin gers, 207 E x trin s ic E xte n so rs o f th T h u m b , 221
OSTEOLOGY, 195 General Features and Ligaments, 207 Anatomie and Functional
Metacarpals, 195 Metacarpophalangeal Joint Considerations, 221
Phalanges, 196 Kinematics, 208 In trin s ic M u s c le s o f th H and, 224
Arches of th Hand, 196 T h um b , 211 Muscles of th Thenar Eminence, 224
ARTHROLOGY, 197
General Features and Ligaments, 211 Muscles of th Hypothenar Eminence,
Interphalangeal Joints, 211 225
Carpometacarpal Joints, 197
Fin gers, 211 Two Heads of th Adductor Pollicis
S e co n d th ro u g h Fifth C a rp o m e ta c a rp a l
General Features and Ligaments, 211 Muscle, 226
J o in ts , 198
Proximal Interphalangeal and Distai Lumbricals and Interossei Muscles,
General Features and Ligamentous
Support, 198 Interphalangeal Joint Kinematics, 226
212 Interaction of th Extrinsic and Intrinsic
Joint Structure and Kinematics, 198
Th um b , 213 Muscles of th Fingers, 230
Carpometacarpal Joint of th Thumb, 200
C apsu le and L ig a m e n ts o f th Th um b M USC LE A N D J O IN T IN TE R A C TIO N , 213 O pe ning th H and: F in g e r E xtensio n, 230
C a rp o m e ta c a rp a l J o in t, 202 Innervation of Muscles, Skin, and Joints of C losing th H and: F in g e r Fle xio n, 233
S a d d le J o in t S tru c tu re , 202 th Hand, 213 H A N D AS A N EFFECTOR ORGAN, 234
K in e m a tic s , 203 Muscular Function in th Hand, 214
J O IN T DEFORMITIES CAUSED BY
Abduction and Adduction at th E x trin s ic F le xors o f th D ig its, 214
R H EU M ATO ID AR TH R ITIS , 236
Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint, 203 Anatomy and Joint Action of th
Zig-Zag Deformity of th Thumb, 236
Flexion and Extension at th Thumb Extrinsic Flexors of th Digits, 214
Destruction of th Metacarpophalangeal
Carpometacarpal Joint, 204 E x trin s ic E x te n so rs o f th Fin gers, 219
Joints of th Finger, 236
Opposition of th Thumb Muscular Anatomy, 219
Zig-Zag Deformities of th Fingers, 238
Carpometacarpal Joint, 205 Action of th Extrinsic Finger
Metacarpophalangeal Joints, 207 Extensors, 220
0STE0L0GY
Metacarpals
The metacarpals, like th digits, are designated numerically
as one through five, beginning on th radiai daterai) side.
The morphology of each metacarpal is generally similar
(Figs. 8 - 4 and 8 - 5 ) . The firet (thumb) metacarpal is th
shortest and stoutest. Observe that th second metacarpal is
usuaily th longest, and th length of th remaining three
bones decreases from th radiai to ulnar (mediai) direction.
ARTHROLOGY
Carpals Carpometacarpal Metacarpophalangeal The terminology that describes th movement of th fngers
joint joint (with sesamoid
bone)
and thumb must be defned. The following descriptions as
sume that a particular movement starts from th anatomie
posilion, with th elbow extended, forearm fully supinated,
and wrist in a neutral position. Movement of th ftngers is
described in th standard fashion using th Cardinal planes
Distai of th body: jlexion and extension occur in th sagittal piane,
Distai digitai crease
and abduction and adduction occur in th frontal piane (Fig.
palmar
crease
Middle 8 - 1 0 A -D ) . The middle fnger is th reference digit for th
digitai crease naming of abduction and adduction. The side-to-side move
Proximal Proximal ment of th middle finger is called radiai and ulnar devia-
palmar digitai crease tion.
crease Because th entire thumb is rotated almost 90 degrees in
relation to th fngers, th terminology used to describe
Web space
Distai
thumb movement is different from that for th fngers. Flex-
wrist Thenar crease
ion is th movement of th palmar surface of th thumb in
crease th frontal piane across th palm. Extension returns th
thumb to its anatomie position. Abduction is th forward
Proximal
w rist
movement of th thumb away from th palm in a near
crease sagittal piane. Adduction returns th thumb to th piane of
th hand. Other terms frequently used to describe th move-
FIGURE 8-3. A palmar view of th basic anatomy of th hand. A, ments of th thumb include ulnar adduction for flexion,
Major bones and joinis. B, Extemal landmarks. radiai abduction for extension, and palmar abduction for
abduction.55 Opposition is a special term describing th
movement of th thumb across th palm, making direct
contact with th tip of any of th fingers. Reposition is a
th distai arch are mobile. To appreciate this mobility, imag- movement from full opposition back to th anatomie posi
ine transforming your completely fiat hand into a cup- tion.
shaped hand that surrounds a baseball. Transverse flexibility
within th hand occurs by action of th peripheral metacar-
pals (first, fourth, and ftfth) collapsing around th more Carpometacarpal Joints
stable centrai (second and third) metacarpals. The keystone O V ER V IEW
of th distai transverse arch is formed by th MCP joints of
these centrai metacarpals. The CMC joints of th hand form th articulation between
The longitudinal arch of th hand follows th generai th distai row of th carpai bones and th bases of th fve
shape of th second and third rays. The metacarpal or proxi metacarpal bones. The CMC joints are located at th very
mal end of this arch is firmly linked to th carpus by th proximal end of th hand.
carpometacarpal (CMC) joints. These rigid articulations pro Figure 8 - 1 1 shows a mechanical illustration of th rela
vide an important element of longitudinal stability to th tive mobility at th CMC joints. The joints of th second
hand. The phalangeal or distai end of th arch is very mo and third digits shown in gray are rigidly joined to th distai
bile. The mobility is exhibited by flexing and extending th carpus, forming a stable centrai pillar throughout th hand.
ftngers. The keystone of th longitudinal arch is provided by In contrast, th more peripheral CMC joints shown in red
th second and third MCP joints. Note that th MCP joints form mobile radiai and ulnar borders, which are capable of
serve as keystones to both th longitudinal and distai trans folding around th hands centrai pillar, thereby altering th
verse arches. shape of th palm. The contrast in mobility at these two sets
As depicted in Figure 8 - 9 , all three arches of th hand of joints accounts for th dynamics described earlier for th
are mechanically interlinked. Both transverse arches are distai transverse arch.
198 Section 11 Upper Exiremity
Distai phalanx
Flexor digitorum
Middle phalanx
profundus
Flexor digitorum
superficialis Proximal phalanx
Palmar interossei
Opponens pollicis
Adductor pollicis (Oblique head)
Dorsal view
Distai phalanx
Middle phalanx
Proximal phalanx
Dorsal interossei
Distai Middle
phalanx phalanx
Dorsal view
th base joint of th entire thumb. Baslar joint arthritis can ers at th CMC joint of th thumb.4,16,23,37,41 As a group.
be very incapacitaiing, often affecting women in th fifth to they resisi th tendency for th CMC joint io dislocate.
sixth decades of lite.41 When th ligaments are weakened by arthritis, th joint
often dislocates laterally relative to th trapezium.
CAPSULE AND LIGAMENTS OF THE THUMB
CARPOMETACARPAL JOINT SADDLE JOINT STRUCTURE
The capsule at th CMC joint of th thumb is naturally loose The CMC joint of th thumb is th classic saddle joint of th
to accommodate to a large range of motion. The capsule is, body (Fig. 8 - 1 7 ) . The characteristic feature of a saddle joint
however, thickened by ligaments and reinforced by active is that each articular surface is convex in one dimension and
muscular contraction. concave in th other.55,58 The longitudinal diameter of th artic-
Many names have been used to describe th ligaments at ular surface of th trapezium (see Fig. 8 - 1 7 ) is generali)-
th CMC joint of th thumb.416,42 This text incorporates th concave from a palmar-to-dorsal direction. This surface is
scheme of naming ligaments based on their attachments to analogous to th contour of th front-to-rear diameter of a
th trapezium, not to th thumb metacarpal (see Fig. 8 - 8 ) . horses saddle. The corresponding tramverse diameter on th
The terminology to describe th ligaments of th CMC joints articular surface of th trapezium is generally convex along a
is not well established and, therefore, may differ in other medial-to-lateral direction.30 The convexity of th transverse
sources. diameter is analogous to th side-to-side convex contour of a
The CMC joint of th thumb is surrounded by live liga horses saddle. The contour of th proximal articular surface
ments (Fig. 8 - 1 6 ) . 2 Table 8 - 1 summarizes th major at of th thumb metacarpal has th reciprocai shape of that
tachments of these ligaments and th motions that cause described for th trapezium (see Fig. 8 - 1 7 ) . The longitudinal
them to become taut. In generai, extension, abduction, and diameter along th articular surface of th metacarpal is con
opposition of th thumb elongate most of th ligaments. All vex from a palmar to dorsal direction. Its transverse diameter
five ligaments listed in Table 8 - 1 are important stabiliz- is concave from a mediai to lateral direction.
Natne Proxim al Attachm ent D istai Attachm ent M ost Taut Positions
Anterior oblique Palmar tubercle on trapezium Palmar base of thumb meta Abduction, extension, and opposition
carpal
Ulnar collateralt Transverse carpai ligament Palmar-ulnar base of thumb Abduction, extension, and opposition
metacarpal
First intermetacarpal Dorsal side of base of second Palmar-ulnar base of thumb Abduction and opposition
metacarpal metacarpal with ulnar col-
lateral
Posterior oblique Posterior surface of trapezium Palmar-ulnar base of thumb Abduction and opposition
metacarpal
Radiai collaterali Radiai surface of trapezium Dorsal surface of thumb meta All movements to varying degrees
carpal except extension
* Ligamem names are based on attachment lo trapezium surfaces noi ihe thumb metacarpal.
t Also called palmar oblique" ligament based on attachment to th metacarpal.
i Also called dorsal-radial" ligament.
Ckapter 8 Hand 203
Pai m ar view
KINEMATICS
The primary motions at th CMC joint occur in 2 degrees of
freedom. As depicted in Figure 8 - 1 8 , abduction and adduc-
tion occur generally in th sagittal piane, and flexion and
extension occur generally in th fromal piane. Being a saddle
joint, each of th two axes of rotation passes through a
different convex articular surface.23
Opposition and reposition of th thumb are mechanically
derived from th two primary planes of motion ai th CMC
joint. The kinematics of opposition and reposition are dis-
cussed following th description of th two primary motions.
FIGURE 8-15. Mobility of th ulnar (fourth and fifth) carpometacarpal joints of th left hand. A, Hand closed but relaxed. B, With a firrn
grip, th finger flexor muscles flex and rotate th ulnar metacarpals.
P a lm a r vicw between full extension and full flexion. This rotation is noi
considered a third degree of freedom because it cannot be
executed independently of th other motions.
In th anatomie position, th thumb metacarpal assumes
a position of nearly full extension. From this position, th
CMC joint can be extended only an additional 10 to 15
degrees.11 From full extension, th thumb metacarpal flexes
across th palm about 45 to 50 degrees.
The arthrokinematics of flexion and extension at th CMC
joint are based on th concave articular surface of th meta
carpal moving across th convex (transverse) diameter on th
trapezium (see Fig. 8 - 1 7 ) . During flexion, th concave sur
face of metacarpal rolls and slides in an ulnar (mediai) direc
tion (Fig. 8 -2 1 A ).23 A shallow groove in th transverse dt-
ameter of th trapezium helps guide th slight mediai
rotation of th metacarpal. Full flexion elongates tissues such
as th radiai collateral ligament.58
During extension of th CMC joint, th concave metacar
pal rolls and slides in a lateral (radiai) direction across th
FIGURE 8-19. Abduction of th carpometacarpal joint of th thumb. A, Maximum abduction of 45 degrees opens th web space of
th thumb. B, Moderate abduction for fine manipulation with th index finger.
transverse diameter of th joint (Fig. 8 - 2 1B). The groove on summary of th kinematics for flexion-extension and abduc-
th articular surface of th trapezium guides th metacarpal tion-adduction at th CMC joint of th thumb.
imo slight lateral rotation.11'30 Full extension requires elonga-
tion of th anterior oblique ligament. Table 8 - 2 shows a Opposition of th Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
For ease of discussion, Fig. 8 -2 2 A shows th full are of
opposition divided into two phases. In phase one, th thumb
metacarpal abduets. In phase two, th abducted metacarpal
flexes and medially rotates across th palm toward th little
finger. Figure 8 - 2 2 B shows th detail of th kinematics of
this complex movement. During abduction, th base of th
thumb metacarpal takes a path in a palmar direction across
th surface of th trapezium. During flexion-medial rotation,
th base of this metacarpal tums slightly medially, led by
th groove on th surface of th trapezium.58 Muscle force,
especially from th opponens pollicis, helps guide th meta
carpal to th extreme mediai side of th transverse articular
surface of th trapezium. The partially abducted CMC joint
increases th passive tension in certain connective tissues.
For example, increased tension in th stretched posterior
oblique ligament promotes th mediai rotation (spin) of th
metacarpal shaft.58
As evident by th change in orientation of th thumbnail,
full opposition incorporates at least 45 to 60 degrees of
mediai rotation of th thumb. The CMC joint of th thumb
cannot account for all of this rotation. Lesser amounts of
axial rotation, in th form of accessory motions, occur at th
MCP and IP joints of th thumb. The body of th trapezium
also medially rotates slightly against th scaphoid and th
trapezoid.40 Trapezial rotation, likely th result of passive
FIGURE 8-20. The arthrokinematics of abduction of th carpometa tension in taut ligaments, amplifies th final magnitude ot
carpal joint of th thumb. Full abduction stretches th anterior th metacarpal rotation. The little finger contributes to oppo
oblique ligament (AOL), th intermetacarpal ligament (1ML), and sition through a cupping motion at th fifth CMC joint. This
th adductor pollicis muscle. A muscle responsibie for th active motion allows th tip of th thumb to make firm contact
roll at th joint is th abductor pollicis longus. Note th analogy
with th tip of th little finger.
shown between th arthrokinematics of abduction and a cowboy
Full opposition is th close-packed position of th thumb
falling forward on th horses saddle: As th cowboy falls forward
(toward abduction), a point on his chest rolls anteriorly, but a CMC joint.55 In this position, th CMC joint is usually un
point on his rear end slides posteriorly. der active control of muscle. Many of th ligaments are
206 Section II Upper Extremity
N
G roove fo r f
fle x o r carpi (\ A
ra dialis )
D
9a
03
%'
Superior View of Trapezium: Path of Metacarpal Movement
\ \
Palmar
FIGURE 8-21. The anhrokinematics of flexion and extension ai th carpomeiacarpal joint of th thumb. A, Flexion is
associated with a slight mediai rotation, causing elongation in th radiai odiatemi ligament. The anterior oblique
ligament is slack. B, Extension is associated with slight lateral rotation, causing elongation of th anterior oblique
ligament. The approximate path of motion of th metacarpal on th trapezium is shown in th insert. Note th analogy
Show,, hccween th anhm kinem atics o f extension and a cow boy fading sidew ays on th horses saddle As th cowbov
faiis sideways (tovvard extension), points on his chesi and rear end boih roli and slide" in th same faterai direction.
TAB LE 8 - 2 Factors Associated with Kinematics of th Primary Motions of th CMC Joint of th Thumb*
Motion Osteokinematics Joint Geometry Arthrokinematics
Abduction and adduction Sagittal piane movement about a Convex (longitudinal diameter) of Abduction: palmar roll and dorsal
medial-lateral axis of rotation metacarpal moving on a con slide
through th metacarpal cave surface of th trapezium Adduction: dorsal roll and pal
mar slide
Flexion and extension Frontal piane movement about Concave (transverse) diameter of Flexion: mediai roll and slide
an anterior-posterior axis of th metacarpal moving on a Extension: lateral roll and slide
rotation through th trape convex surface of th trape
zium zium
* P P 0S1U0n and reposition are noi shown because they are dcnved from th two primary planes of motions (see texi for further explanation).
Chapter 8 Hand 207
Metacarpophalangeal Joints
FINGERS
General Features and Ligaments
The MCP joints of th fingers are relatively large, ovoid
articulations between th convex heads of th metacarpals
and th shallow concave proximal surfaces of th proximal
phalanges (Fig. 8 - 2 3 ) . Motion at th MCP joint occurs pre-
dominantly in two planes: flexion and extension in th sagit-
tal piane, and abduction and adduction in th frontal piane.
Mechanical stability at th MCP joint is criticai to th
overall biomechanics of th hand. As discussed earlier, th
MCP joints serve as keystones for support of th mobile
arches of th hand. In th healthy hand, stability at th MCP
joints is achieved by an elaborate set of interconnecting con-
nective tissues. Imbedded within th capsule of each MCP
joint is a pair of radiai and ulnar collateral ligam ents and
one palmar ligament or piate (Fig. 8 - 2 4 ) . Each collctterai
ligament has its proximal attachment on th posterior tuber-
cles of th metacarpal head. Crossing th MCP joint in an
oblique palmar direction, th ligament forms two distinct
parts. The cord pari of th ligament is thick and strong,
Distai
interphalangeal joint
Abduction
Proximal
interphalangeal joint
G roove fo r
fle x o r carpi
radialis
cu
aT Metacarpophalangeal
Q> joint
Superior View of Trapeziuin:
Path of M etacarpal Movement
Palmar
FIGURE 8 - 2 2 . The kinematcs of opposition of ihe carpomeiacarpal
joini of th thumb. A, Two phases of opposition are shown: (1)
abduction and (2) flexion with mediai rotation B, The detailed
kmematics of th two phases of opposition: th posterior oblique Carpometacarpal
ligament is shown taut; th opponens pollicis is shown contracting joint
(red).
FIGURE 8-24. A lateral view of th collateral ligaments and associ- Metacarpophalangeal Joint Kinematics
ated connective tissues of th metacarpophalangeal, proximal inter Osteokinematics
phalangeal, and distai interphalangeal joints of th fnger. In addition to th motions of flexion-and-extension and ab-
duction-and-adduction at th MCP joints, substantial acces
sory motions occur. On th relaxed and nearly extended
attaching distally to th palmar aspect of th proximal end MCP joint, it is possible to feel significant passive translation
of th phalanx. The accessory part consists of fanshaped in an anterior-to-posterior direction, side-to-side direction,
fibers, which attach distally along th edge of each palmar and distraction. Note also th passive axial rotaiion of th
piate. proximal phalanx against th metacarpal head. Although lim-
Located palmar to each MCP joint are ligamentous-like ited, these accessory motions at th MCP joint permit th
structures called palm ar (or volar) plales (see Fig. 8 - 2 4 ) . The fngers to better conform to th shapes of objects, thereby
term piate describes a composition of dense, thick discs of increasmg security and control of th grasp (Fig. 8 - 2 6 ) . The
fibrocartilage. The distai end of each piate attaches to th range of this passive axial rotation at th MCP joints is
base of each proximal phalanx. At this region, th plates are greatest at th ring and little ftngers, with average rotations
relatively thick and stiff. The thinner and more elastic proxi of about 30 to 40 degrees.29
Fibrous
digitai sheaths
Collateral ligaments
(cord and accessory parts)
Palmar plates
Flexor digitorum
profundus tendon
Flexor digitorum
superficialis tendon
FIGURE 8-25. A dorsal view of th
hand with emphasis on th periarticula:
connective tissues at th metacarpopha
langeal joints. Several metacarpal bones
have been removed to expose various
joint structures.
Chapter 8 Hand 209
FIGURE 8 - 2 8 .The arthrokinematics of active extension of th metacarpophalangeal joint. A, Active extension starting from a position of
70 degrees of (lexion. The extensor digitorum communis (EDC.) is shown contracting and then starting to drive th roll-and-slide
kinematics. The radiai eollateral Hgament is pulled taut in flexion. B, At 0 degrees of extension, th radiai collateral ligamem is relanvely
slack. C, Hyperextension further slackens th radiai collateral ligament but maximally stretches th palmar piate. Note that th axis of
rotation for this motion is in th medial-lateral direction, through th head of ihe metacarpal.
Dorsal view
stant throughout th range of motion. Perhaps th more grees. This motion is often employed to apply a force be-
concentric shape of th head of th phalanges prevents a tween th pad of th thumb and an object, such as pushing
farge change in length in these collateral ligaments. The a tack into a wall. The amount of passive hyperextension
-tose-packed position of th P1P and DIP joints is near full often increases throughout life owing to years of stretch
.xtension,55 most likely caused by th stretch placed on th placed on palmar structures, including th palmar piate.
palmar plates. During periods of immobilization of th hand,
th IP joints are often splinted in near or full extension (see
Fg- 8 - 3 1 ) . This position places a stretch on th palmar
MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION ___
plates, collateral ligaments, and extrinsic finger flexor mus-
des, reducing th likelihood of flexion contracture of these
Innervation of Muscles, Skin, and Joints of
joints.
th Hand
THUMB MUSCLE AND SKIN INNERVATION
The structure and function of th IP joint of th thumb is Innervation to th muscles and skin of th hand is illus-
similar to those of th IP joints of th fingere (see Fig. 8 - trated in Figure 6 - 3 3 . The radiai nerve innervates th extrin
53). Motion is limited primarily to 1 degree of freedom, sic extensor muscles of th digits. These muscles, located on
lowing active flexion to about 70 degrees. The IP joint can th dorsal aspect of th forearm, are th extensor digitorum
re passively hyperextended beyond neuiral to about 20 de- communis, extensor digiti minimi, extensor indicis, extensor
pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, and abductor pollicis
longus. The radiai nerve is responsible for th sensation on
th dorsal aspect of th wrist and hand, especially around
th dorsal region of th thenar web space.
The median nerve innervates most of th extrinsic flexors
of th digits. In th forearm, th median nerve innervates th
flexor digitorum superficialis. A branch of th median nerve
"Position of Function" of th Wrist and Hand (anterior interosseous nerve) then innervates th lateral half
Some medicai conditions, such as a severe "stroke" or of th flexor digitorum profundus, th flexor pollicis longus,
high-level quadriplegia, often result in a permanent de- and th pronator quadratus.
formity of th digits. The deformity is often inevitable, The median nerve enters th hand through th carpai
regardless of th quality or timing of th therapeutic tunnel, deep to th transverse carpai ligament. Once in th
intervention. Clinicians, therefore, often use spiints that hand, th median nerve innervates th muscles that form th
favor a position of th hand that maximally preserves its thenar eminence (flexor pollicis brevis, abductor pollicis
functional potential. This position, often called th posi brevis, and opponens pollicis) and th lateral two lumbricals.
tion of function is shown in Figure 8-35. The highlights The median nerve is responsible for th sensation on th
of this position are: wrist: 20 to 30 degrees of extension palmar-lateral aspect of th hand, including th tips and th
with slight ulnar deviation; fingers: 45 degrees of MCP palmar aspect of th lateral three and one-half digits.
joint flexion and 15 degrees of PIP and DIP joint flexion; The ulnar nerve innervates th mediai half of th flexor
and thumb: 45 degrees of abduction. This position of digitorum profundus. Distally, th ulnar nerve crosses th
function provides a slightly cupped hand, with a wrist in wrist superficial to th carpai tunnel. In th hand, th deep
position to maintain optimal length of th finger flexor motor branch of th ulnar nerve innervates th hypothenar
muscles. muscles (flexor digiti minimi, abductor digiti minimi, oppo
nens digiti minimi, and palmaris brevis) and th mediai two
lumbricals. The deep motor branch continues laterally, deep
in th hand, to innervate th palmar and dorsal interossei
muscles, and finally th adductor pollicis. The ulnar nerve is
responsible for th sensation on th ulnar border of th
hand, including most of th skin of th ulnar one and one-
half digits.
The motor nerve roots that supply all th muscles of th
upper extremity are listed in Appendix ILA. Appendix 1IB
shows key muscles typically used to test th functional status
of th C -T 1 ventral nerve roots.
Palmar v ie w
Pronator teres
(cut)
tensive proximal attachments from th mediai epicondyle cated in th deepest muscular piane of th forearm, deep to
th humerus and from th regions of th forearm. th flexor digitorum superficialis muscle (see Fig. 8 - 3 7 ) .
The muscle belly of th flexor digitorum superficialis is Once in th hand, each tendon passes through th split
xated in th anterior forearm, just deep to th three pri- tendon of th superficialis. Each profundus tendon then con-
~ ary wrist flexors and th pronator teres muscle (see Fig. tinues distally to attach to th palmar side of th base of th
- 3 6 ) . The four tendons cross th wrist and enter th pal- distai phalanx (see Fig. 8 - 3 8 , index finger). The profundus
r side of th hand. At th level of th proximal phalanx, is th sole flexor of th DIP joint, but like th superficialis
h tendon splits to allow passage of th tendon of th can assist in flexing every joint it crosses.
-exor digitorum profundus (Fig. 8 - 3 8 ) . The two split parts The flexor digitorum profundus to th index finger can
i each tendon partially reunite, cross th PIP joim , and be controlled relatively independently of th other profun
oach on th sides of th palmar aspect of th middle dus tendons. The remaining three tendons, however, are
halanx.48 interconnected through various muscular fasciculi, which
The primary action of th flexor digitorum superficialis is usually prohibit isolated DIP joint flexion of a single finger.
flex th PIP joints. This muscle, however, can flex all To appreciate this interconnection, grasp th middle finger
ints it crosses. In generai, with th exception of th little and maximally extend all of its joints. While holding this
ger, each tendon of th superficialis can be controlled position, attempt to actively flex only th DIP joint of th
latively independently of th other. This independence of ring finger. The inability or difficulty in performing this
ction is especially evident at th index finger. motion is due to th excessive elongation placed on th
The muscle belly of th Jlexor digitorum profundus is lo- entire muscle belly of th profundus by th extension of th
Palmar view
FIGURE 8-38. A palmar view illustrates several important structures of th hand Note th little finger showing th fibrous
digitai sheath and ulnar synovial sheath encasing th extrinsic flexor tendons. The ring finger has th digitai sheath removed,
thereby highlighting th digitai synovial sheath (red) and th annular (A, _5) and cruciate (C,_3) pulleys. The middle finger
shows th pulleys removed to expose th distai attachments of th flexor digitorum superficialis and profundus. The index
finger has a portion of flexor digitorum superficialis tendon removed, thereby exposing th deeper tendon of th flexor
digitorum profundus and attached lumbrical. The thumb highlights th oblique and annular pulleys along with th radiai
synovial sheath, surrounding th tendon of th flexor pollicis longus.
216 Section II Upper Extremity
Anatomica! Basis for "Carpai Tunnel Syndrome" characterized by pain and/or paresthesia over th sen-
sory distribution of th median nerve. With progression
All nine extrinsic flexor tendons of th digits travel with
of th syndrome, muscular weakness and atrophy may
th median nerve through th carpai tunnel (Fig. 8-39).
occur in th thenar eminence. Pressures within th car
The tendons are surrounded by two separate synovial
sheaths that reduce friction between th structures. An pai tunnel in persons with carpai tunnel syndrome in
ulnar synovial sheath surrounds th eight tendons of th crease significantly during many activities that involve
flexors digitorum superficialis and profundus, and a sep th hand.46 Pressures increase most significantly during
arate radiai synovial sheath surrounds th tendon of th th extremes of all wrist motions, including th action
of making a fist. Carpai tunnel syndrome may be associ
flexor pollicis longus. Hand activities that require pro-
ateti with prolonged use of a computer keyboard. Alter
longed and extreme wrist positions can irritate these
native design of th standard computer keyboard may
tendons. Because of th closed and relatively small
compartment of th carpai tunnel, swelling of th syno reduce th extremes of motions used during typing and
vial membranes may increase th pressure on th me thereby reduce th severity of this painful condition.35
dian nerve. Carpai tunnel syndrome may result, which is
FIGURE 8-39. A transverse view through th entrance of th carpai tunnel of th tight wrist. The ulnar synovial sheath
(red) surrounds th tendons of th flexors digitorum superficialis and profundus. The radiai synovial sheath surrounds
th tendon of th flexor pollicis longus.
middle finger. This maneuver is ofien used to inhibit pro palmar side of th base of th distai phalanx of th thumb.
fundus action, thereby isolating th P1P joint flexor action of The flexor pollicis longus is th sole flexor at th IP joint of
th superficialis. th thumb and exerts a fexion torque at th MCP and CMC
The flexor pollicis longus resides in th deepest muscular joints of th thumb and at th wrist joint.
piane of th forearm, just lateral to th profundus (see Fig. Distai to th carpai tunnel, th ulnar synovial sheath sur
8 - 3 7 ) . This muscle crosses th wrist to attach distally to th rounds th flexor digitorum superficialis and profundus ten-
Chapter 8 Hand 217
This sheath ends in th proximal paini, except for a reduces th friction between th flexor digitorum superfici-
continuation around th tendons of fifth digit (see Fig. alis and profundus tendons. A lacerated tendon within th
38) The radiai synovial sheath remains in contact with th digitai sheath may heal with adhesions lo th digitai sheaths
on of th flexor pollicis longus to its distai insertion on or adjacent tendons. Splinting and exercise are usually initi-
ihumb. ated after surgery to facilitate th free gliding of th tendons
The extrinsic flexor tendons of th digits are guided to within th sheath.
distai attachment in protective fibro-osseous tunnels
m as fibrous digitai sheaths (see Fig. 8 - 3 8 , fifth fnger), Anatomy and Function of th Flexor Pulleys
ths start proximally as a continuation of th thick apo- Figure 8 - 3 8 shows th flexor pulleys that are embedded
osis just under th skin of th paim. Throughout th within th fibrous digitai sheath. Five annular pulleys have
h of each digit, th sheaths are anchored to th pha- been described, designated as Al to A5.15 The major pulleys
s and th palmar plates (see Fig. 8 - 2 4 ) . Embedded (A2 and A4) attach to th shaft of th proximal and middle
in each digitai sheath are discrete bands of tissue called phalanges. The minor pulleys (A l, A3, and A5) attach di-
r pulleys (see Fig. 8 - 3 8 , A l - 5 , C I - 3 in ring finger), rectly to th palmar piate at each of th three joints within a
p to these pulleys is a digitai synovial sheath, surrounding finger. Three less distinct cruciate pulleys (C to C3) have
flexor tendons from th distai palmar crease to th D1P also been described. The cruciale pulleys are made of thin,
t. This sheath serves as a nutritional source for th en- flexible fibers that crisscross over th tendons at regions
d tendons. The synovial fluid secreted from th sheath where th digitai sheaths bend during flexion.
S P E C I A L F O C U S
Biomechanics of a Ruptured Flexor Pulley sume that with intact A2, A3, and A4 pulleys, th mo
As previously stated, a function of th flexor pulleys is ment arm of th flexor digitorum profundus tendon is
to maintain a near Constant moment arm length of th about .75 cm at th PIP joint (Fig. 8-40A). A muscle
flexor tendons. In a damaged or ruptured pulley, th contraction of 1.5 cm would theoretically produce about
force of th contracting muscle causes th tendon to 115 degrees of PIP joint flexion.7 A finger with ruptured
'pul away" from th joint's axis of rotation, a phenome- pulleys, as shown in Figure 8-406, may cause a two-
non called "bowstringing" of th tendon. Bowstringing fold increase in th moment arm of th flexor digitorum
of a tendon significantly increases th internai moment profundus across th PIP joint. Consequently, a muscle
arm of th tendon and, in turn, increases th mechani- contraction of 1.5 cm, in theory, produces only about 58
cal advantage of th muscle. As described in Chapter 1, degrees of joint rotation about half th motion pro
increasing a muscle's mechanical advantage has two duced with intact pulleys. Asssuming that th maximal
effects on joint mechanics: (1) amplification of th shortening range of th flexor digitorum profundus is
torque produced per level muscle force, and (2) reduc- about 2.0 cm,1 th finger with a ruptured pulley fails to
tion of th angular rotation of th joint per linear dis- flex fully, regardless of effort. This loss in contraction-
tance of muscle shortening. The negative clinical impli- to-rotation efficiency tends to be most profound in rup-
cations of a ruptured flexor pulley primarily involve th ture of th A4 pulley.45 A ruptured pulley often requires
second factor. To illustrate this effect on grasping, as surgical correction.
Intact pulleys
1.5 cm
Clinical Implications of Tenodesis in Persons with cup of water, th person allows gravity to flex th wrist.
Quadriplegia This, in turn, stretches th partially paralyzed extensor
digitorum communis (Fig. 8-43/4). In Figure 8-436, ac-
The naturai tenodesis action of th extrinsic digitai flex-
tive extension of th wrist stretches th paralyzed finger
ors has important clinical implications. One example in-
flexors, such as th flexor digitorum profundus, which
volves a person with C6 quadriplegia who has paralyzed
creates enough passive force in these muscles to grasp
finger flexors and extensors, but innervated wrist exten-
th cup. The amount of passive force in th finger
sors. Those with this level of spinai injury often employ
flexors is controlled by th degree of active wrist exten
a tenodesis action for many functions, such as holding
sion.
a cup of water. In order to open th hand to grasp a
Taut flexor
digitorum
profundus
FIGURE 8-43. A person with C6-level quadriplegia using tenodesis action to grasp a cup of water. A, To prepare for
grasp, th hand is opened by gravity flexing th wrist. The stretched (taut) extensor digitorum communis generates
passive force that partially extends th fingers. B, By actively extending th wrist by th innervated extensor carpi
radialis brevis (red), th stretched finger flexors such as th flexor digitorum profundus create a passive force to
assist with grasping th cup.
of full wrist flexion, th fingere most notably th index sor indicis has its proximal attachment on th dorsal region
are passively extended owing to a similar tenodesis action of th forearm. The extensor digitorum communis, in terms of
caused by th stretched extrinsic digitai extensors. Tenodesis cross-sectional area, is by far th predominant digitai exten
occurs to varying degrees in essentially all polyarticular mus sor. The name communis refers to th set of usually four
cles in th body. extensor tendons that supply th four fingere. In addition to
functioning as finger extensors, th extensor digitorum has
EXTRINSIC E X T E N S O R S OF T HE FINGERS an excellent moment arm as a wrist extensor (see Fig. 7 -
21 ) .
Muscular Anatomy The extensor digiti minimi is a small fusiform muscle often
The extrinsic extensors of th fingere are th extensor digito interconnected with th extensor digitorum. With th exten
rum communis, th extensor indicis, and th extensor digiti sor digitorum and extensor minimi removed, th deeper
minimi (see Fig. 7 - 2 2 ) . The extensor digitorum communis extensor indicis, and th extrinsic extensor muscles of th
and th extensor digiti minimi originate by a common ten- thumb become fully exposed (Fig. 8 - 4 4 ) . The extensor indi
don from th lateral epicondyle of th humerus. The exten cis muscle has only one tendon that serves th index finger.
220 Seciion 11 Upper Extremiiy
Terminal attachment of
Lateral bands extensor mechanism
Central band
Oblique tibers
Dorsal hood o f -
extensor mechanism Transverse fibers
First lumbrical
Insertion of
abductor pollicis brevis E xtensor digitorum com m unis
O pponens pollicis
FIGURE 8-47. A radiai (lateral) view of th muscles, tendons, and extensor mechanism of th right hand.
224 Section II Upper Extremity
INTRINSIC M U S C L E S OF THE H A N D
ments on th transverse carpai ligament, adjacent carpai
The hand contains 20 intrinsic muscles. Despite their rela- bones, and connective tissues. The short abductor and flexor
tively small size, these muscles are essential lo ihe fine con have similar distai attachmenis to th radiai side of th base
trol of th digits. Topographically, th intrinsic muscles are of th proximal phalanx. The abductor pollicis brevis at-
divided into four sets: taches to th radiai side of th extensor mechanism of th
thumb; th flexor pollicis brevis frequently attaches to a
1. Muscles of th Thenar Eminence sesamoid bone; and th opponens pollicis attaches distally to
Abductor pollicis brevis th radiai border of th thumb metacarpal.
Flexor pollicis brevis
Opponens pollicis Functional Considerations
A primary responsibility of th muscles of th thenar enu-
2. Muscles of th Hypothenar Eminence nence is to position th thumb in varying amounts of oppo-
Flexor digiti minimi sition, usually to facilitate grasping. As discussed earlier, op-
Abductor digiti minimi position combines elements of CMC joint abduction, flexion
Opponens digiti minimi and mediai rotation. Each muscle within th thenar emi
Palmaris brevis nence is a prime mover for at least one component of oppo-
3. Two Heads of th Adductor Pollicis sition and an assistant for several others (see Table 8 - 5 ) . 28
The action of each of th thenar muscles is based on their
4. Lumbricals and Interossei line-of-force relative to a particular axis of rotation (Fig. 8 -
Muscles of th Thenar Eminence 51). The abductor pollicis brevis and longus abduct th
metacarpal away from th piane of th palm. The flexor
Anatomie Considerations
pollicis brevis, and to a lesser extern th mediai fibers of th
The median nerve-innervated abductor pollicis brevis, jlexor abductor pollicis brevis, flex th thumb at both th MCP
pollicis brevis, and opponens pollicis make up th bulk of th and CMC joints. The opponens pollicis has a line-of-force to
thenar eminence (see Fig. 8 - 3 8 ) . The flexor pollicis brevis medially rotate th thumb toward th fingers. Because th
has two parts: a superficial head, which comprises most of opponens pollicis has its distai attachment on th metacar
th muscle, and a deep head, which comprises a small set of pal, its entire contractile force is dedicated to controlling th
poorly defined fibers, often desenbed as part of th oblique CMC joint.
fibers ol th adductor pollicis. 5:5 This chapter considers only
Injury to th m edian nerve can disable all com p on en ts o f
th superficial h ead w hen discussing th flexor pollicis
opposition. The thenar eminence becomes fiat owing to
brevis. Deep to th abdu ctor pollicis brevis is th opponens musc/e atrophy. The inability to oppose th thumb greatly
pollicis (Fig. 8 - 5 0 ) . All three muscles have proximal attach- reduces th grasping function of th entire hand. About 30%
Chapter 8 Hand 225
P alm ar view
A. S P E C I A L F O C U S
FIGURE 8 - 5 2 . The biplanar action of th adductor pollicis muscle is illustrated using a pair of scissors for llexion (A) and adduction (B)
at th carpometacarpal joint. In both A and B, th transverse head of th adductor pollicis produces a signilcant torque owing to its
long moment arm about an anterior-posterior axis (red, A) and medial-lateral axis (gray, B). The adductor pollicis is also a potent flexor
of th metacarpophalangeal joint.
All Tour lumbricals show marked anatomie variation in Muscle contraction produces extension ai both th P1P and
both size and attachments.55 From their tendinous proximal D1P joints and flexion at th MCP joints.2 This seemingly
attachments, th lumbricals course palmar to th deep inter- paradoxical action is possible because th lumbricals pass
metacarpal ligament, then pass around th radiai side of th palm ar io th MCP joints and dorsal to th PIP and DIP
MCP joints. Distally, th lumbricals blend with th oblique joints (Fig. 8 - 5 3 ) .
fibers of th dorsal hood (see Fig. 8 - 4 7 , first lumbrical). Of all th intrinsic muscles of th hand, th lumbricals
The distai attachment enables th lumbricals to exert a pul have th longest fiber length, but th smallest tension frac-
through th centrai and lateral bands of th extensor mecha- tion.g'25 This anatomie design suggests that these muscles are
nism. capable of generating only small amounts of force over a
The function of th lumbricals has been a topic of study relatively long distance.
for many years (see references 2, 10, 32, 34, 43, and 52). The interassei muscles are named according to their loca-
tion in th regions between th shafts of th metacarpal away from an imaginary reference line through th middle
bones (see Figs. 8 - 4 and 8 - 5 ) . 55 In generai, th interossei digit (see Fig. 8 - 5 4 ) . Abduction of th fifth MCP joint is
act at th MCP joints to spread th digits apart (abduction) performed by th abductor digiti minimi of th hypothenar
or bring them together (adductton). The anatomy and pre group.
cise action of each interosseus muscle is slightly differ- In addition to abducting and adducting th fingers, th
e n t 18.50,53
interossei and abductor digiti minimi provide an important
The four palm ar interossei are slender, single-headed mus- source of dynamic stability to th MCP joints. By vtsually
cles occupying th palmar region of th interosseous spaces.55 superimposing th two hands shown in Figure 8 - 5 4 , it is
The three palmar interossei to th fingers have their proxi- apparent that each MCP joint of th fingers receives a pair of
mal attachments on th palmar surfaces and sides of th abducting and adducting muscles. Each pair acts as a set of
second, fourth, and fifth metacarpals (see Fig. 8 - 5 0 ) . These dynamic collateral ligaments, providing strength to th MCP
muscles have their primary distai attachments into th joints and subsequently th arch System of th hand. Acting
oblique fibers of th dorsal hood. The palmar interossei in pairs, this intrinsic musculature also Controls th extern of
adduci th second, fourth, and fifth MCP joints toward th axial rotation permitted at th MCP joints.
midiine of th hand (Fig. 8 - 5 4 ) . The palmar interosseus To varying degrees, both palmar and dorsal interossei
muscle to th thumb occupies th first palmar interosseous have a line-of-force that passes palmar to th MCP joints.
space, having a primary distai attachment to th ulnar side The interossei, via their attachments into th extensor mech-
of th proximal phalanx of th thumb, and often into a anism, pass dorsal to th IP joints of th fingers (see Fig. 8 -
sesamoid bone at th MCP joint.55 This muscle flexes th 53). Like th lumbricals, therefore, contraction of th inter
MCP joint of th thumb, bringing th first metacarpal ossei causes flexion at th MCP joint and extension at th IP
toward th middle digit of th hand. joints. The interossei produce greater flexion torques at th
The four dorsal interossei fili th dorsal sides of th inter MCP joints than th lumbricals. Even though th lumbricals
osseous spaces (see Fig. 8 - 4 4 ) . In contrast to th palmar have th larger moment arm for this action, th 20-fold
interossei, th dorsal muscles have a bipennate shape. As a greater tension fraction of th interossei provides them with
generai rule, th dorsal interossei have distai attachments th overpowering flexion torque advantage (Table 8 - 6 ) . In
into th side of th base of th proximal phalanx and into contrast to th lumbricals, th interossei produce relativelv
th oblique fibers of th dorsal hood. The first dorsal inter larger forces, but over a shorter excursion.25 Table 8 - 7 sum-
osseus attaches mostly into bone. The dorsal interossei ab- marizes some of th differences and similarities between th
duct th MCP joints of th index, middle, and ring fingers lumbricals and interossei.
FIGURE 8 54 A palmar view o f th franta! piane action of th palmar interossei (PI, to PI4) and dorsal interossei (DI, to DI.,) at th
metacarpophalangea! joints of th hand. The abductor digiti minimi is shown abducting th little finger.
p
Muscular Bomechanics of a "Key Pinch" th "strongest" of all thumb movements,28 is driven pri-
marily by th adductor pollicis and flexor pollicis brevis.
Pinching an object between th thumb and th lateral
The internai moment arm used by th first dorsal inter
side of th index finger is an important function of th
osseus for abduction at th MCP joint of th index finger
hand. This action is often referred to as a key pinch.
is about 1 cm. The pinch force applied by th thumb
Several muscles interact to produce an effective key
against th MCP joint of th index finger acts with an
pinch, most notably th first dorsal interosseus and th
"external" moment arm of about 5 cm. This 5-fold differ-
adductor pollicis two ulnar nerve innervated muscles.
ence in leverage across th MCP joint requires that th
An especially large force is demanded from th first
first dorsal interosseus must produce a force 5 times th
dorsal interosseus muscle during th key pinch. This de-
pinching force applied by th thumb. Since many func-
mand can be appreciated by palpating its prominent belly
tional activities require a pinch force that exceeds 45 N
during th key pinch, about 2.5 cm proximal to th lateral
(10 Ib), th first dorsal interosseus must be able to
side of th MCP joint of th index finger. For an effective
produce an abduction force of 225 N (50 Ib)! Skeletal
pinch, th first dorsal interosseus muscle must provide a
muscle is capable of producing about 28 N/cm2 (40 Ib/
strong counteracting pinch force against th potent pinch
in2); therefore, an average first dorsal interosseus muscle,
force of th thumb (see PF, vs. PFT in Fig. 8-55). Flexion,
with a cross-section area of about 3.8 cm2, produces only
about 106 N (-24 Ib) of force.15 The additional stabilizing
force required to brace th index finger must be supplied
by other muscles, such as th second, and perhaps th
third, dorsal interosseus.
With an ulnar nerve lesion, th adductor pollicis mus
cle th primary pinching muscle of th thumb and all
interossei muscles are paralyzed. The strength of a key
pinch is significantly reduced following a nerve block to
th ulnar nerve. The region around th dorsal web space
becomes hollow owing to atrophy in th above muscles
(see Fig. 8-56). A person with an ulnar nerve lesion often
relies on th flexor pollicis longus (a median nerve-inner-
vated muscle) to partially compensate for th loss of
thumb pinch. This compensation is evident by th partially
flexed IP joint of th thumb known as th Froment's
sign. Pinch stili remains weak, however, because th dor
sal interossei are not able to stabilize against th flexion
force of th thumb.
TABLE 8 - 7 . Anatomical and Functional Comparison Between th Lumbricals and Interossei Muscles
Opening th hand
(FCR)
FIGURE 8-58. A lateral view of th intrinsic and extrinsic muscular interactions at one finger during th opening
of th hand. The dotted outlines depct starting positions. A, Early phase: The extensor digitorum communis is
shown extending primarily th metacarpophalangeal joint. B, Middle phase: The intrinsic muscles (lumbricals and
interossei) assist th extensor digitorum communis with extension of th proximal and distai interphalangeal
joints. The intrinsic muscles also produce a flexion torque at th metacarpophalangeal joint that prevents th
extensor digitorum communis from hyperextending th metacarpophalangeal joint. C, Late phase: Muscle activa-
tion continues through full finger extension. Note th activation in th flexor carpi radialis to slightly flex th
wrist. Observe th proximal migration of th dorsal hood between flexion and full extension. (The intensity of
th red indicates th relative intensity of th muscle activity.)
th MCP jo in t an action that may prematurely dissipate this cooperative relationship is apparent by observing a per-
most of its contractile force. Only with th MCP joint son with a lesion to th ulnar nerve (Fig. 8 -5 9 A ). Without
blocked from hyperextending can th extensor digitorum active resistance from either th lumbricals or interossei in
contribute an effettive IP joint extension force throughout th mediai two fingers, activation of th extensor digitorum
th bands of th extensor mechanism. communis causes th characteristic clawing of th fingere.
The extensor digitorum and th intrinsic muscles must The MCP joints hyperextend, and th IP joints remain par-
cooperate to perform complete finger extension. The oppos- tially flexed. This is often called th intrinsic-minus posture
tng actions of these muscles ai th MCP joint permit them to because of th lack of intrinsic-innervated muscle. (This pos
function synergistically at th IP joints. The importance of ture is functionally similar to th extrinsic-plus posture
232 Seclion U Upper Extremity
FIGURE 8-59. Attempts to extend [he fngere with an ulnar nerve lesion and a paralysis of th most intrinsic muscles of th fngere. A,
The mediai fngere show th claw position with metacarpophalangeal joints hyperextended and fngere partially flexed. Note th atrophy
in th hypothenar eminence and interosseous spaces. B, By manually holding th metacarpophalangeal joints into flexion, th extensor
digitorum communis, innervated by th radiai nerve, is able to fully extend th interphalangeal joints.
depicted earlier.) Without th MCP joint flexion torque nor- retinacular ligament (Fig. 8 - 6 0 , steps 1 - 3 ) . The passive
mally provided by th intrinsic muscles, th extensor digito force in th elongated oblique ligament is transferred distally,
rum communis is capable of only hyperextending th MCP helping to initiate extension at th DIP joint (Fig. 8 - 6 0 , step
joints. This posture increases th passive tension in th 4). The oblique retinacular ligament is sometimes called th
stretched flexor digitorum profundus, thereby further limit- link ligament, suggesting its probable role in synchronizing
ing full IP joint extension. As shown in Figure 8 - 5 9 6 , by extension at both joints.
manually providing a flexion torque across th MCP joint The oblique retinacular ligament may become tight owing
(i.e., a force normally fumished by th intrinsic muscles), to arthritis, trauma, or Dupuytrens contracture. Dupuytrens
contraction of th extensor digitorum communis fully ex- contracture is a condition of nodular proliferation in th
tends th IP joints. Blocking of th MCP joint from hyperex palmar fascia of th hand, causing a flexed posture of th
tending also slackens th profundus tendon, thereby mini- fingere, especially on th mediai side of th palm. Tightness
mizing passive resistance to IP joint extension. in this structure can cause flexion contracture at th PIP
joint. Attempts at passively extending a PIP joint with a tight
Function of Wrist Flexors during Finger Extension
oblique retinacular ligament are often associated with a pas
Activation of th wrist flexors normally accompanies fnger sive extension of th DIP joint.
extension. Although activity is depicted only in th flexor
carpi radialis in Figure 8 - 5 8 , other wrist flexors are also
active. The wrist flexors offset th potent extension potential
of th extensor digitorum at th wrist. The wrist actually
flexes slightly throughout full fnger extension, especially Active finger extension
when performed rapidly. (Compare Figure 8 - 5 8 A with Fig 4.
ure 8 -5 8 C .) Wrist flexion helps maintain optimal length of
th extensor digitorum during active finger extension.
iOSING THE HAND: FINGER FLEXION does not mean that th lumbrcals are incapable of produc-
ing use fui forces. Recali that th lumbrcals attach between
Ilosing th hand requires a coordinated flexion of th MCP,
th flexor profundus and th extensor mechanism. During
IP, and DIP joints of th fingers along with flexion and
active finger flexion, th lumbrcals are stretched in a proxi-
pposition of th thumb.
mal direction owing to th contracting flexor profundus and,
at th same time, stretched in a distai direction owing to th
Jtimary Muse le Action distai migration of th extensor mechanism (Fig. 8 - 6 1 B ,
The muscles needed to dose th hand depend in part on th bidirectional arrow in lumbrical). Between full fnger exten-
peciftc joints that need to be flexed and on th force re- sion and full active flexion, a lumbrical must stretch an
-uirements of th action. Flexing th fingers against a con- extraordinary distance.43 The stretch generates a passive flex
-iderable resistance (i.e., making a high-powered fist) re- ion torque at th MCP joint, which supplements th active
.uires activation from th flexor digitorum profundus, flexor flexion torque produced by th interassei and extrinsic mus-
digitorum superficialis, and interassei muscles (Fig. 8 -6 1 A ). culature.
~orces from th flexor digitorum profundus and superficialis Injury to th ulnar nerve can cause paralysis of most of
combine to flex all three joints of th fingers. The flexing th intrinsic muscles, resulting in a noticeably weakened
mger pulls th extensor mechanism distally by severa! milli- grasp. When making a fist, th sequencing of flexion across
meters. th joints is altered. Normally, at least in th radiai three
During hand closure against a considerable resistance, th fingers, th P1P and DIP joints flex first, followed closely in
merossei muscles exhibit a very high level of EMG activity.34 time by flexion at th MCP joints. With paralyzed intrinsic
The interassei can produce relatively large flexion torques at muscles, especially if overstretched by chronic hyperexten-
th MCP joint. The lumbrcals, in contrast to th interassei, sion of th MCP joints, th initiation of flexion at th MCP
show essentially no EMG activity during resisted or nonres- joints is delayed slightly. The resulting asynchronous flexion
tsted closing of th hand. The lack of activation, however, may interfere with th quality of th grasp.
Closing th hand
FIGURE 8-61. A side view of th intrinsic and extrinsic muscular interaction at one fnger during a high-powered
closing of th hand. The dotted outlines depict th starting positions. A, Early phase: The flexor digitorum profundus,
flexor digitorum superficialis, and interassei muscles actively flex th joints of th finger. The lumbrical is shown as
being inactive (white). B, Late phase: Muscle activation continues essentially unchanged through full flexion. The
lumbrical remains inactive, but is stretched across both ends. The extensor carpi radialis brevis is shown extending th
wrist slightly. The extensor digitorum communis helps decelerate flexion of th metacarpophalangeal joint. Note th
distai migration of th dorsal hood between th early and late phases of flexion. (The intensity of th red indicates th
relative intensity of th muscle activity.)
234 Section 11 Upper Extremity
In conirast to a high-powered fisi, a light, low-powered Perhaps th most varied function of th hand is its ability
fist produces EMG activiiy almost exclusively frorn th flexor to dynamically manipulate objects. The number of ways th
digitorum profundus. Because this muscle crosses all th digits are used to manipulate objects is essentially infinite. In
joints of th fingere, its activation alone is minimally ade a very generai sense, however, th hand manipulates objects
quate to lightly dose th fist. The flexor digitorum superfici- in two fundamentally different ways: digitai motions may be
alis functions more as a reserve muscle, becoming active repetitive and blunt, like typing or scratching; and, in con
during a high-powered fist, or when isolated PIP joint flex- tras!, digitai motions may be continuous and fluid, in which
ion is required. th rate and iniensity of motion are controlled, like writing
Extensor digitorum shows consistent EMG aciivity while or sewing. And, of course, many if not most types of
closing th hand.33 This activity refiecis th musdes role as digitai manipulation combine both of these elements of
an extension brake at th MCP joint. This important stabili- movement.
zation function allows th long finger fiexors to shift their Prehension describes th ability of th fingere and thumb
action distally to th PIP and DIP joints. Without coactiva- to grasp or to seize, often for holding, securing, and picking
tion of th extensor digitorum, th long finger fiexors ex- up objects. Over th years, several terms have evolved to
haust most of their flexion potential over th more proximal describe th many forms of prehension.31-39 Most forms of
MCP joints, reducing their potential for more refined actions prehension can be described as a grip (or grasp), in which
at th more distai joints. all digits are used, or as a pinch, in which primarily th
thumb and index finger are used. Each of these forms of
Function of Wrist Extensors During Finger Flexion prehension can be lurther classified based on th need for
Making a strong fisi requires strong synergistic activation power (loosely defined as high force without regard to th
from th wrist extensor muscles (see Fig. 8 - 6 1 , extensor exactness of th task) or precision (i.e., high level of exact-
carpi radialis brevis). Wrist extensor activity can be verified ness with low force). Basically, most types of prehension
by palpating th dorsum of th forearm while making a fist. activities fall into one of five types:
As explained in Chapter 7, th primary function of th wrist
extensors, including th extensor digitorum, is to neutralize 1. Power grip is used when stability and large forces are
th strong wrist flexion tendency of th activated extrinsic required from th hand, without th need lor precision. The
finger fiexors (see Fig. 7 - 2 4 ) . Wrist extension, while closing shape of th held objects tends to be spherical or cylindrical.
th hand, also helps to maintain an optimal length of th Using a hammer is a good example of a power grip (Fig. 8 -
extrinsic finger fiexors. (Compare Figure 8 -6 1 A with Figure 62A). This aciivity requires strong forces from th finger
8 - 6 1 B .) Il th wrist extensore are paralyzed, attempts at fiexors, especially from th fourth and fifth digits; mtrinsic
making a fist result in a posture of wrist flexion and finger muscles of th fingere, especially th interassei; and th
flexion. When combined with th increased passive tension thumb adductor and flexor musculature. Wrist extensors are
in th overstretched extensor digitorum, th overshortened, needed to stabilize th partially extended wrist.
activated finger fiexors cannot produce an effective grip (see 2. Precision grip is used when control and/or some deli
Fig. 7 - 2 6 ) . cate action is needed during prehension (Fig 8 - 6 2 B and C).
The thumb is usually held partially abducted, and th fingere
are partially flexed. Precision grip uses th thumb and one
HAND AS AN EFFECTOR ORGAN or more of th digits to imprave grip security or to adc j
variable amounts of force. The precision grip is modified t.
The hand functions as an effector organ of th upper ex fit objects of varied sizes by altering th contour of th disu
tremity for support, manipulation, and prehension. As a sup- transverse arch of th hand (Fig. 8 - 6 2 D to F).
porl, th hand acts in a nonspecific manner to brace or 3. Power (key) pinch is used when large forces are neeck-z
stabilize an object, often freeing th other hand for a more to stabilize an object between th thumb and th lat-:'z
specific task. The hand may also be used as a simple plat- border of th index finger (Fig. 8 -6 2 G ). The power pinch *
form to transfer or accept forces, such as when supporting an extremely useful form of prehension, combining th force
th head when tired or when assisting in standing from a of th adductor pollicis and firet dorsal interosseus with re
seated position. dexterity and sensory acuity of th thumb and index finse-
The biomechanics of th power key pinch are illustratec zi
Figure 8 - 5 5 .
4. Precision pinch is used to provide fine control to :r -
jects held between th thumb and index finger, without :h*
need for power. This type of pinch has many forms, such a
th tip-to-tip or pulp-to-pulp method of holding an o b j(4
(Fig. 8 - 6 2 H and I). Tip-to-tip pinch is used especially
tiny objects, w'hen skill and precision are required. Pulp-u
pulp pinch provides greater surface area for contaci
larger objects, thereby increasing prehensile security.
5. Hook grip is a form of prehension that does not o ]
volve th thumb. A hook grip is fonned by th partiair
flexed PIP and DIP joints of th fingere. This grip is .
used in a static nature for prolonged periods of time. s
as holding a luggage strap (Fig. 8 - 6 2 J). The force oi
Chapter 8 Hand 235
FIGURE 8-62. A healthy hand is shown performing common types of prehension functions. A, Power grip. B, Precision grip to hold an
egg. C, Precision grip to throw a baseball. D to F, Modifications of th precision grip by altenng th concavity of th distai transverse
arch. G, Power key pinch. H, Tip-to-lip prehension pinch. I, Pulp-to-pulp prehension pinch. J, Hook grip.
hook grip is usually produced by relatively low level activity driver. The manipulation or rotation of th screwdriver in
from th flexor digitorutn profundus. this case is performed by supination of th forearm complex.
As shown in Figure 8 - 6 3 B , a one-handed task of adjusting a
The categories of prehension now described do not in
wrench requires a power grip prehension of th mediai fn
clude all of th possible ways that th hand can be used as
an effector organ. These defnitions can, however, establish a gere and a manipulation of th index fnger and thumb. As a
common reference for clinical communication. To illustrate, final example, consider th holding of a pliers (Fig. 8 -6 3 C ).
consider th terminology to describe methods of using three The thumb and index finger are in a modified power (key)
common tools. As shown in Figure 8 63A, tightening a pinch; th one upper handle of th pliers is supportai by th
screw involves a precision pinch to hold th screw and a palm; and th other handle is manipulated by action of th
combinai power grip and power pinch to rotate th screw- finger flexors.
236 Section II Upper Extremity
FIGURE 8 63. Examples of th lerminology to describe th use of three common tools. A, Handling a screwdriver by a predsion pinci of
th tight hand and a combined power grip and power pinch of th left hand. B, A one-handed task of adjusting a wrench requires a power
grip by th mediai ftngers and a manipulation prehension of th index finger and thumb. C, Using pliers requires that th thumb and
index finger produce a power pinch. The upper handle of th pliers is supported by th palm and th lower handle is manipulaied by
action of th finger flexors.
JOINT DEFORMITIES CAUSED BY thumb metacarpal rigidly against th palm. In time, rheuma
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS toid disease may cause th muscles to become fibrotic and
permanently shortened, maintaining th deformity at th
One of th more destructive aspects of rheumatoid arthritis CMC joint. In efforts to extend th rigid thumb out of th
is chronic synovitis. Over time, synovitis tends to reduce th palm, a compensatory hyperextension deformity at th MCP
tensile strength of th periarticular connective tissues. With- joint often occurs. A weakened palmar piate offers little
out th normal restraint provided by these tissues, forces resistance to th forces produced by th extensor pollici?
from muscle contraction and th extemal environment can longus and brevis. Eventual bowstringing of these tendoni
destroy th mechanical integrity of a joint. The joint often across th MCP joint increases their leverage as extensor?
becomes malaligned, unstable, and frequently deformed per- thereby further contributing to th hyperextension deformile
manently. Knowledge of th pathomechanics of common The IP joint tends to remain flexed owing to th passive
hand deformities associated with rheumatoid arthritis is a tension in th stretched flexor pollicis longus.
prerequisite for effective treatment. Clinical management of a zig-zag deformity of th thumb
depends on th mechanics of th collapse and th severity of I
Zig-Zag Deformity of th Thumb th underlying disease. Splinting and/or surgery is often ir.-1
dicated to reestablish proper joint alignment, especially at
Advanced rheumatoid arthritis often results in a zig-zag de th CMC joint. Reconstruction of th CMC joint using th I
formity of th thumb. As defined in Chapter 7, zig-zag tendon of th flexor carpi radialis is often performed.12 Be-
deformity describes th collapse of multiple interconnected cause ol th chronic nature of rheumatoid arthritis and th
joints in altemating directions. A common example of this complexity of th CMC joint, artifcial joint replacement
deformity involves CMC joint flexion and adduction, MCP often unsuccessful.
joint hyperextension, and IP joint flexion (Fig. 8 - 6 4 ) . In
this example, th collapse of th thumb starts with instability
at th CMC jo in t.38 Ligaments that normally retnforce th
mediai side of th joint, such as th anterior oblique liga-
Destruction of th Metacarpophalangeal
ment and th ulnar collateral ligaments, weaken and/or rup- Joints of th Finger
ture owing to th disease prncess. Subsequem ly, th base o f
A dvanced rheu m atoid arthritis is often associated w ith defot-
th thumb metacarpal disiocates off th Iateral edge of th
mities at th MCP joint of th fingers. Two common defor
trapezium. Once this dislocation occurs, th adductor and mities are a palmar dislocation and an ulnar drift (Fig
short flexor muscles, which are often in spasm, hold th 8 -6 5 ).
Chapter 8 Hand 237
ULNAR DRIFT
Ulnar drift deformity at th MCP joint consists of an exces
sive ulnar deviation and ulnar translation or slide of th
proximal phalanx. This deformity is common in advanced
rheumatoid arthritis, often seen in conjunction with a palmar
dislocation of th MCP joint (see Fig. 8 - 6 5 ) .
In all hands healthy or otherwise several factors favor
ulnar drift of th fingers. These factors include th pul of
.Overstretched palmi
piate at th meta- j gravity, th asymmetrical structure of th MCP joint, and th
c a rp o p h a la 'ig e a pul of th extrinsic tendons as they pass th MCP
jo in r joints.22'4956 Possibly th most influential factor is th pres-
Extensor
pollcis ence of ulnar-directed forces produced by th thumb toward
longus th fingers. As depicted in Figure 8 - 6 7 A, th contact force
of th thumb causes th MCP joint of th index finger to be
pushed ulnarly. This position of th joint increases th de-
flection or bend of th extensor digitorum communis (EDC)
Ruptured
ligaments
Dislocated
carpometacarpal
joint
Metaearpophalangeal
Metaearpophalangeal
Stretched collateral joint
ligaments
Proximal
joint
Stable Arch
Distai
Collapsed Arch
FIGURE 8-66. Pathomechamcs of progressive palmar dislocation of th metaearpophalangeal joint of th finger. A The bend in th
tendons of th flexor digiiorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus across th metaearpophalangeal joint produces a
palmar-directed, bowstringing force against th palmar piate, associated pulley, and collateral ligaments. In th healthy hand th
passive tension in th stretched collateral ligaments adequately resists th palmar pul on th joint structures B In a finger with
rheumatoid arthritis, th bowstringing force can rupture th weakened collateral ligaments. As a result, th proximal phalanx may
eventually dislocate in a palmar direction, causing a loss in strutturai stability of th arch System of th hand.
tendon, as its crosses th MCP joint. Deflection causes a joints axis of rotation.37 Surgical realignment of th wrist
bowstringing force of th tendon in an ulnar direction. In may be indicated because a deformity at th wrist can alter
th healthy hand, th transverse ftbers of th dorsal hood th angle where th extrinsic tendons approach th MCP
keep th tendon centralized over th axis of rotation. joint.
In rheumatoid arthritis, a rupture of th transverse fibers
allows th tendon to slip toward th ulnar side of th join ts
axis of rotation (Fig. 8 - 6 7 6 ) . In this position, forces pro-
Zig-Zag Deformities of th Fingers
duced by th extensor digitorum have a moment arm that Two zig-zag pattems are often associated with advanced
can amplify th ulnar deviation posture. This situation initi- rheumatoid arthritis: swan-neck deformity and boutonniere
ates a self-perpetuating action of greater and greater ulnar deformity (see Fig. 8 - 6 5 ) . Chronic synovitis and subsequent
deviation. The greater th ulnar deviation, th greater th malalignment of th PIP joint are th primary causes of these
moment arm available to produce ulnar deviation torque. In deformities. Both deformities are often associated with ulnar
time, th weakened and overstretched radiai collateral liga- drift and palmar dislocation at th MCP joints.
ment may rupture, allowing th proximal phalanx to rotate
and slide ulnarly, leading to complete joint dislocation (Fig.
8 -6 7 C ). SWAN-NECK DEFORMITY
Treatment of ulnar drift is often aimed at reducing th Swan-neck deformity is characterized by hyperextension of th
m a g n im e le o f i h e u ln a r d e v ia tio n fo r c e s a t t h M C P jo in t.
PIP join t with flexion at th D IP joint (see Fig. 8 - 6 5 , mid
Splinting and patient education may help decelerate th de- dle finger). The position of th MCP joint is variable. The
forming cycle.44 One surgical correction involves transferring intrinsic muscles in th hand with rheumatoid arthritis often
th extensor digitorum tendon to th radiai side of th MCP become contracted and fibrotic. With diseased and weak-
Chapter 8 Hand 239
FIGURE 8-67. The stages of th development of ulnar drift al th metaearpophalangeal joint of th index finger. A, Ulnar
forces from th thumb produce a naturai bowstringing force on th deflected tendon of th extensor digitorum communis
(EDC). B, In rheumatoid arthritis, rupture of th transverse fibers of th dorsal hood allows th extensor tendon to act with
a moment arm that increases th ulnar deviation torque at th metaearpophalangeal joint. C, Over time, th radiai collateral
ligament (RCL) may rupture, resulting in th ulnar drift deformity.
Overactive
intrinsics
Taut flM o cdigitori
profundus
Overstretched
palmar piate
Slipped lateral band
Ruptured
centrai band
B. Boutonniere Deformity
FIGURE 8-68. Two common zig-zag deformities of th finger with severe rheumatoid arthriiis. The
middle finger shows th pathomechanics of th swan-neck deformity (A). The overactive intrinsic
muscles (red) have a chronic hyperextension effect at th proximal interphalangeal joint. Over urne,
th weakened palmar plates become overstretched, allowing th proximal interphalangeal joint lo
deform into severe hyperextension. In this position, th lateral bands produce a bowstring across th
proximal interphalangeal joint, thereby accentuating th hyperextension deformity. The distai inter
phalangeal joint remains partially flexed owing to th increased passive tension in th stretched
flexor digitorum profundus tendon.
The index finger depicts th pathomechanics of th boutonniere deformity (B). As a result of
rheumatoid arthritis, th centrai band ruptures and th lateral bands slip in a palmar direction to th
proximal interphalangeal joint; thus, th proximal interphalangeal joint loses its only means of
extension. Any tension in th lateral bands now produces Jlexion at th proximal interphalangeal
joint. The distai interphalangeal joint remains hyperextended owing to increased passive tension in
th taut lateral bands.
across th slipped lateral bands either from active or passive 5. Boatright JR, Kiebzak GM: The effeets of low medtan nerve block on
sources flex th P1P joint instead of th normal extension. thumb abduction strength. J Hand Surg 22A:849-852, 1997.
The DIP joint remains hyperextended owing to th increased 6. Bowers WH, Wolf JW, Nehil JL, et al. The proximal interphalangeal
joint volar piate. 1 An anatomical and biomechanical study J Hand
tension in th stretched lateral bands and th shortening of Surg 5:79-88, 1980.
th oblique retinacular ligaments. Early boutonniere defor 7. Brand PW: Clinical Biomechanics of th Hand. St Louis CV Mosbv
mity may be treated by splinting th P1P joint into exten 1985.
sion. Surgery may be required lo repair th centrai band 8. Brand PW, Cranor KC, Ellis JC: Tendons and pulleys ai th metacarpo
and/or realign th lateral bands dorsal to th P1P joint. In phalangeal joint of a finger. J Bone Joint Surg 57A: 779-784, 1975.
9. Brand PW, Beach RB, Thompson DE: Relative tension and poteniia!
cases of severe rheumatoid arthritis, surgery is not always excursion of muscles in th forearm and hand. J Hand Surg 6A 209-
beneficiai if connective tissues are excessively weak. 219, 1981.
10. Close JR, Kidd CC: The functions of th muscles of th thumb, th
index, and long fingers. J Bone Joint Surg 51A T601-1620, 1969.
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4. Bettinger PC, Linscheid RI., Berger RA: An anatomie study o( th stabi- 14 Dray GJ, Eaton RG Dislocations and ligament injuries in th digits. In
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Chapter 8 Hand 241
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17. El-Bacha A: The carpometacarpal joints (excluding th trapeziometacar joint of th thumb and its relationship to injury. J Hand Surg 17B:164-
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1981 48. Shrewsbury MM, Kuczynski K: Flexor digitorum superficialis tendon in
18. Hyler DI-, Markee JE: The anatomy and function of th intrinsic musco th fingers of th human hand. The Hand 6:121-133, 1974.
lature of th fingers. J Bonejoint Surg 36A :l-20, 1954. 49. Smith RJ, Kaplan EB: Rheumatoid deformities al th metacarpophalan
19. Flatt AE: The Care of th Rheumatoid Hand, 3rd ed Si Louis, CV geal joints of th fingers J Bone Joint Surg 49A:31-47, 1967
Mosby, 1974. 50. Stack HG: Muscle function in th fingers. J Bone Joint Surg 44B:899-
20 Gray DJ, Gardiner E: The innervation of th joints of th wnst and 902, 1962.
hand. Anat Ree 151:261-266, 1965. 51 Strong CL, Perry J: Function of th extensor pollicis longus and intrin
21 Hahn P, Krimmer H, Hradetzky A, et al: Quantitative analysis of th sic muscle of th thumb J Am Phys Ther 46:939-945, 1966,
linkage between th inlerphalangeal joints of th index fnger. J Hand 52. Thomas DH, Long C, landsmeer JMF: Biomechanical considerations of
Surg 20B:696-699, 1995. lumbricalis behavior in th human finger J Biomechanics 1:107-115,
22 Hakstian RW, Tubiana R: Ulnar devialion of th fingers: The role of 1968.
joint structure and funaioli. J Bone Joint Surg 49A:299-316, 1967. 53. Valentin P: The interossei and th lumbricals. In Tubinia R (ed): The
23. Imaeda T, Niebur G, Cooney VVP, et al: Kinematics of th norma! Hand, voi 1. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1981.
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24 lnman VT, Saunders JB: Referred pam from skeletal structures. J Nerv th abductor pollicis longus and th abductor pollicis brevis muscles:
Ment Dis 99:660-667, 1944. An EMC. analysis. J Anat 186:509-515, 1995.
25. Jacobson MD, Raab R, Fazcli BM, et al: Architectural design of th 55. Williams PI., Bannister LH, Berry M, et al: Grays Anatomy, 38th ed.
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26. Johanson ME, Skinner SR, Lamoreux LW. Phasic relationship of th 56. Wise KS: The anatomy of th metacarpophalangeal joints with observa-
intrinsic and extrinsic thumb musculature. Clin Orthop 322:120-130, tions of th etiology of ulnar drift J Bone Joint Surg 57B: 485-490,
1996. 1975.
27 Kapandji 1A: The Physiology of th Jomls, voi 1, 5th ed: Edinburgh, 57. Wrighl PE: Arthritic hand. In Crenshaw AH (ed): Campbellss Operative
Churchill Livingstone, 1982. Orthopaedics, voi 5, 8th ed. St Louis, Mosby Year Book, 1992.
28. Kaufman KR, An KN, Lttchy WJ, et al: In-vivo function of th thumb 58. Zancolli EA, Ziadenberg C, Zancolli E: Biomechanics of th trapezio
muscles. Clin Biomech 14:141-151, 1999. metacarpal joint. Clin Orthop 220:14-26, 1987.
29 Krishnan J, Chipchase L: Passive rotation of th metacarpophalangeal
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70 Kuczynski R7 Carpometacarpal joint of th human thumb. J Anat 118:
119-126, 1974 A D 0 IT I0N A L READING
31. Landsmeer JMF: Power grip and precision handling. Ann Rheum Dis
21:164-170, 1962 An KN, Chao EY, Conney WP, et al: Forces in th normal and abnormai
32. Leijnse JN: Why th lumbrical muscle should not be bigger a force hand. J Ortho Res 3 :2 0 2 -2 1 1, 1985.
model of th lumbrical in th unloaded human finger. J Biomechan 30: Buchholz B, Armstrong TJ, Goldstein SA: Anthropometric data for describ-
1107-1114, 1997. ing th kinematics of th human hand. Ergonomics 35:261-273, 1992.
33. Long C: Intrinstc-extrinsic muscle control of th fingers. J Bone Joint Conney WP, Chao EY: Biomechanical analysis of static forces in th thumb
Surg 50A :973-984, 1968. during hand function. J Bonejoint Surg 59A:2736, 1977.
34. Long C, Brown ME: Electromyographic kinesiology of th hand: Mus Estes JP, Bochenek C, Fasler P Osteoanhritis of th fingers J Hand Ther
cles moving th long finger. J Bonejoint Surg 46A: 1683-1706, 1964. 13:108-123, 2000
35. Marklin RW, Simoneau GG, Monroe JE: Wrist and forearm posture Forrest WJ, Basmajian JV: Function of human thenar and hypothenar mus
from typing on split and vertically inclined computer keyboards. Hu cles: An electromyographic study of twenty-five hands. J Bone Joint Surg
man Factors 41:559-569, 1999. 47A: 1585-1594,'1965.
36. Minami A, An KN, Cooney WP, et al: Ligamentous structures of th Imaeda T. An KN, Cooney WP, et al: Anatomy of th trapeziometacarpal
metacarpophalangeal joint: A quantitative anatomie study. J Orthop Res ligaments.J Hand Surg 18A:226-231, 1993.
1:361-368, 1984. Jarit P: Domtnanl-hand to nondominant-hand grip-strength ratios of college
37. Najima H, Oberlin C, Alnot JY, et al: Anatomical and biomechamcal baseball players. J Hand Ther 4:123-126, 1991.
sludies of th palhogenesis of trapeziometacarpal degenerative arthrilis. Johanson ME, Skinner SR, Lamoreux LW Phasic relationships of th intrin
J Hand Surg 22B: 183-188, 1997 sic and extrinsic thumb musculature. Clin Orthop 322:120-130, 1996
38 Nalebuff EA: Diagnosis, classification, and management of rheumatoid Landsmeer JMF The anatomy ol ihe dorsal aponeurosis of th human fnger
thumb deformtties. Bull Hosp Joint Dis 24:119-137, 1968 and its functional significante. Anat Ree 104:31-44, 1949.
39 Napier JR: The prehensile movements of th human hand J Bone Joint Long C, Conrad PW, Hall EW, et al: Intrinsic-extrinsie muscle control of
Surg 38B:902-913, 1956. th hand in power grip and precision handling. J Bone Joint Surg 52A:
40. Neumann DA: Observaltons from cineradiography analysis. Milwaukee, 853-867, 1970.
Wl, Marquelte University, 2000. Najima H. Oberlin C, Alnot JY, et al: Anatomical and biomechanical studies
41 Pagalidts T, Kuczynski K, lamb DW: Ligamentous stabilty of th base of ihe palhogenesis of trapeziometacarpal degenerative arthritis. J Hand
of th thumb. The Hand 1.3:29-35, 1981. Surg 22B :183-188, 1997.
42. Pieron AP: The first carpometacarpal joint In Tubinia R (ed): The Smith RJ Balano: and kineties of th fingers under normal and pathological
Hand, voi 1. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1981 conditions. Clin Orthop 104 92 -1 1 1 , 1974.
43. Ranney D, Wells R: Lumbrical muscle function as revealed by a new Smutz WP, Kongsayreepong A, Hughes RE, et al Mechamcal advaniage of
and physiological approach. Anat Ree 222:110-114, 1988. th thumb muscles J Biomechanics 31:565-570, 1998
44. Rennie HJ: Evaluation of th effectiveness of a metacarpophalangeal Spoor CW, Landsmeer JMF: Analysis of th zig-zag movemeni of th human
ulnar devialion orthosis. J Hand Ther 9.371-377, 1996. finger under influente of th extensor digitorum tendon and th deep
45 Rispler D, Greenwald D, Shumway S, et ai: Efficiency of th flexor flexor tendon ] Biomechanics 9:561566, 1976.
tendon pulley System in human cadaver hands. J Hand Surg 21A:444- Wehbe MA, Hunter JM: Flexor tendon gliding in th hand. Pari 1. In vivo
450, 1996. excursions. J Hand Surg 10A:570-579, 1985
A P P E N D I X II
Nerve Root
Muscle C1 a a C C5 c6 c7 c8 T1
Serratus anterior X X X X
Rhomboids, major and minor X X
Subclavius X X
Supraspinatus X X X
lnfraspinatus (x) X X
Subscapularis X X X
Latissimus dorsi X X X
Teres major X X X
Pectoralis major (clavicular) X X X
Pecioralis major (sternocosial) X X X X
Pectoralis minor (x) X X X
Teres minor X X
Delioid X X
Coracobrachialis X X
Biceps X X
Brachiale X X
Triceps X X X X
Anconeus
X X
Brachioradialis X X
Extensor carpi radialis longus X X X X
and brevis
Supinator X X (x)
Extensor digitorum X X X
Extensor digiti minimi
X X X
Extensor carpi ulnaris X X X
Abductor pollicis longus X X X
Extensor pollicis brevis X X X
Extensor pollicis longus X X X
Extensor indicis X X X
Pronator teres
X X
Flexor carpi radialis X X X
Palmaris longus
(x) X X X
Flexor digit, superficialis
X X X
Flexor digit, profundus 1
X X X
and II
242
A ppenda II 243
Nerve Root
Muscle C1 O a C4 C5 C6 c7 C* T1
Pronator quadratus X X X
Opponens pollicis X X X X
Palmar interossei X X
Dorsal interossei X X
Adductor pollicis X X
(x), minimal literature supporti X, moderate literature supporti X, strong literature support.
Modified from Rendali FP, McCreary AK, Provante PG: Muscles: Testing and Function, 4lh ed. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1993. Data based on a
compilation from severa! sources in th anatomie literature
Part B: Key Muscles for Testing th Function of Part C: Attachments and Innervations of th
Ventral Nerve Roots (C5-T1) Upper Extremity Muscles
The table shows th key muscles typically used to test SHOULDER COMPLEX MUSCULATURE
th function of individuai ventral nerve roots of th bra-
Coracobrachialis
chial plexus (C5- T ') in th clinic. Reduced strength in a Proximal attachment: apex of th coracoid process by a
key muscle may indicate an injury to th associated nerve common tendon with th short head of th biceps
root. Distai attachment: mediai aspect of middle shaft of th
humerus
Ventral Innervation: musculocutaneous nerve
Nerve
Key Muscles Roots Sample Test Movements Deltoid
Proximal attachments
Biceps brachii C5 Elbow flexion with forearm Anterior part: anterior surface of th lateral end of th
supinated clavicle
Middle deltoid C5 Shoulder abduction Middle part: superior surface of th lateral edge of th
Extensor carpi radialis c6 Wrist extension and radiai acromion
longus deviation Posterior part: posterior border of th spine of th
c7 Elbow extension scapula
Triceps brachii
Extensor digitorum C7 Finger extension (metacar- Distai attachment: deltoid tuberosity of th humerus
pophalangeal joint) Innervation: axillary nerve
Distai attachment: radiai surface of th shaft of th thumb Third: radiai side of th fourth metacarpal
metacarpal Fourth: radiai side of th fifth metacarpal
Inneiyation: median nerve Distai attachments
First: ulnar side of th proximal phalanx of th thumb,
Palmaris Brevis blending with th adductor pollicis; also attaches to
Proximal allachments: transverse carpai ligament and pal- th mediai sesamoid bone at th metacarpophalan-
mar fascia just distai and lateral to th pisiform bone geal joint
Distai attachment: skin on th ulnar border of th hand Second: ulnar side of th extensor mechanism of th
Innervation: ulnar nerve index finger via oblique fbers of dorsal hood
Third: radiai side of th extensor mechanism of th
Palmar Interossei ring finger via oblique fbers of dorsal hood
Proximal attachments Fourth: radiai side of th extensor mechanism of th
First: ulnar side of th thumb metacarpal little finger via oblique fbers of dorsal hood
Secondi ulnar side of th second metacarpal Innervation: ulnar nerve
S e c t i o n III
Axial Skeleton
S e c t i o n I I I
Axial Skeleton
250
C h a p t e r 9
Axial Skeleton:
Osteology and Arthrology
Donald A. Neum ann , PT, Ph D
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
OSTEOLOGY, 253 Interbody Joints, 273 S tru c tu ra l D e fo rm itie s o f th T h o ra c ic
Basic Components of th Axial Skeleton, Structural Considerations of th Lumbar S pine, 287
253 Intervertebral Oisc, 273 Excessive Kyphosis, 288
C ran ium , 253 Intervertebral Disc as a Hydrostatic Scoliosis, 290
Occipital and Temporal Bones, 253 Shock Absorber, 274 Lumbar Region, 292
V e rte b ra e : B u ild in g B lo c k s o f th S pine, R EGIONAL K IN E M A T IC S OF THE SPINE, F u n c tio n a l A n a to m y o f th A r tic u la r
253 276 S tru c tu re s W ith in th L u m b a r R egion
Ribs, 253 Craniocervical Region, 277 ( L I- S I) , 292
S te rn u m , 254 F u n c tio n a l A n a to m y o f th J o in ts W ith in K in e m a tic s a t th L u m b a r R egion, 294
V e rte b ra l C olum n, 256 th C ra n io c e rv ic a l R egion, 277 Sagittal Piane Kinematics, 294
Normal Curvatures Within th Atlanto-occipital Joints, 277 Horizontal Piane Kinematics: Axial
Vertebral Column, 256 Atlanto-axial Joint Complex, 278 Rotation, 303
Line-of-Gravity Passing through th Intracervical Apophyseal Joints IC2-7), Frontal Piane Kinematics: Lateral
Body, 257 279 Flexion, 303
L ig a m e n to u s S u p p o rt o f th V e rte b ra l S a g itta l P iane K in e m a tic s , 279 S U M M A R Y OF THE K IN E M A T IC S W IT H IN
C olum n, 258 Flexion and Extension, 279 THE VERTEBRAL C O LU M N , 303
Regional Osteologie Features, 262 Atlanto-occipital Joint, 281 SAC R OILIAC JO IN T S , 303
Cervical Region, 262 Atlanto-axial Joint Complex, 281 Anatomie Considerations, 303
Typical Cervical Vertebrae (C3-6), 264 Intracervical Articulations (C2-7), 281 J o in t S tru c tu re and L ig a m e n to u s
Atypical Cervical Vertebrae (C1-2 and Protraction and Retraction, 282 S u p p o rt, 304
C7), 264 H o riz o n ta l P iane K in e m a tic s , 282 T h o ra c o lu m b a r Fascia, 306
Thoracic Region, 265 Axial Rotation, 282 Kinematics, 306
Typical Thoracic Vertebrae (T2-T10), Atlanto-axial Joint Complex, 282 Functional Considerations, 307
265 Intracervical Articulations (C2-7), 282 S tre s s R elief, 307
Atypical Thoracic Vertebrae (TI and F ronta l P iane K in e m a tic s , 283 S ta b ility D u rin g Load T ra n s fe r:
T11-12), 267 Lateral Flexion, 283 M e c h a n ic s o f G e n e ra tin g a N u ta tio n
Lumbar Region, 267 Atlanto-occipital Joint, 284 T o rq u e a t th S a c ro ilia c J o in t, 307
Sacrum, 269 Intracervical Articulations (C2-7), 284 Stabilizing Effect of Gravity, 307
Coccyx, 269 Thoracic Region, 284 Stabilizing Effect of Ligaments and
ARTHROLOGY, 269 F u n c tio n a l A n a to m y o f T h o ra c ic A rtic u la r Muscles, 308
Typical Intervertebral Junction, 269 S tru c tu re s , 284
T erm inology that D e scrib e s M ovem ent, K in e m a tic s a t th T h o ra c ic R egion, 286
271 Flexion and Extension, 286
S tru c tu re and F u n c tio n o f th Axial Rotation, 287
A p o p h y s e a l and In te rb o d y J o in ts , 273 Lateral Flexion, 287
Apophyseal Joints, 273
INTRODUCTION
region, vertebral column, and sacroiliac joints, and how th
The axial skeleton includes th cranium, vertebral column, many articulations provide stability and movement while
ribs, and sternum (Fig. 9 - 1 ) . This chapter presents th transferring loads through th axial skeleton. Muscles play a
kinesiologic interactions between th osteology and arthrol large role in th function of th axial skeleton, and they are
ogy of th axial skeleton. The focus is on th craniocervical th primary focus of Chapter 10.
251
252 Section III Axal Skeleton
A X IA L S K E L E T O N
Suptnation: Note:
Carrying angle
ParaUel forearm bones
in anatomical position
Palmar surface of
hand faces anteriorly
Pronaon: Noie:
Straight axis -
Crossed forearm bones
Originai don ai aspect
of radius and hand
noto fa ce anteriorly
Ulna - Fentur:
FIGURE 9 - 1 . Anterior view of an adult male skeleton-
Radius G reaier trochanier
H ead in acetabulum (From Grays Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Medi
Neck
cine and Surgery, 38th ed. New York, Churchill Living-
Metacarpals stone, 1995.)
Phalanges-
Femoral condyles
Patella
M ediai malleolus
Luterai malleolus -
Phalanges
Disease, trauma, and normal aging can cause a host of movements and habitual postures of th vertebral column
neuromuscular and musculoskeletal problems involving th increase th likelihood of connective tissues impinging on
axial skeleton. Disorders of th vertebral column are often neural tissues. An understanding of th detailed osteology
associated with pain and impairment, primarily because of and arthrology of th axial skeleton is cruciai to an apprecia-
th dose anatomie relationship between neural tissue (spinai uon of th associated pathomechanics, as well as th ration-
cord and nerve roots) and connective tissue (vertebrae and ale for clinical interventions.
associated ligaments, discs, and synovial joints). A slipped The terminology used to describe th relative location or
disc," for example, can increase pressure on th adjacent region within th axial skeleton can differ from that used to
spinai nerves or spinai cord, causing pain, muscle weakness, describe th appendicular skeleton. Table 9 - 1 summarizes
and reduced reflexes. To further complicate matters, certain this terminology.
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 253
TABLE 9 - 1. Terminology Describing Relative head and neck, such as th trapezius and splenius capitus
Location or Region Within th Axial Skeleton muscles. The inferior nuchal line marks th anterior edge of
th attachment of th semispinalis capitis.
Term Synonym Definition
RIBS
Twelve pairs of ribs enclose th thoracic cavity, forming a
protective cage for th cardiopulmonary organs. The poste
rior end of a typical rib has a head, a neck, and an articular
tubercle (Fig. 9 - 6 ) . The head and tubercle articulaie with a
thoracic vertebra, forming two synovial joints: costovertebral
and costotransverse, respectively (Fig. 9 - 5 B ) . These joints
anchor th posterior end of a rib to its respective vertebra. A
costovertebral joint connects th head of a rib to a pair of
costai facets that span two adjacent vertebrae and th inter-
vening intervertebral disc. A costotransverse joint connects th
articular tubercle of a rib with a costai facet on th trans
verse process of a corresponding vertebra.
The anterior end of a rib consists of flattened hyaline
cartilage. Ribs 1 to 10 attach to th stemum, thereby com-
pleting th thoracic rib cage anteriorly (see Fig. 9 - 1 ) . The
254 Secfion III Axial Skeleton
Inf'erior vicw
External occipital protuberance
Trapezi us
Superior nuchal line
Semispinalis capitis
Interior nuchal line
Splenius capitis
Lambdoidal suture
Sternocleidomastoid
Mediai nuchal line
Longissimus capitis
Longus capitis
Carotid canal
Zygomatic process
FIGURE 9 3. Interior view of th occipital and temperai bones. The lambdoidal sutures separate th occipital bone
mediali)*, troni th temperai bone laterally. Distai muscle attachments are indicated in gray, and proximal attachments are
indicated in red.
cartilage of ribs 1 to 7 attaches directly to th lateral border do not attach to th stemum, but are anchored by lateral
of th stermini via seven stemocostal joints (Fig. 9 - 7 ) . The abdominal muscles.
cartilage of ribs 8 to 10 attaches to th stemum by fusing to
th cartilage of th immediately superior rib. Ribs 11 and 12
STERNUM
The stemum is slightly convex and rough anteriorly, and
slightly concave and smooth posteriorly. The bone has three
parts: th manubrium (from th Latin, handle), th body,
and th xiphoid process (from th Greek, sword) (see Fig.
9 - 7 ) . Developmentally, th manubrium fuses with th body
of th stemum at th manubriostemal joint, a (brocartilagi-
nous articulation that often ossifies later in life.110 Just lateral
to th jugular notch of th manubrium are th clavicular jacets
ot th stemoclavicular joints. Immediately inferior to th ster-
noclavicular joint is a costai facet that accepts th head c :
th first rib at th first stemocostal joint.
Luterai view
Superior a r t i c u l a r ' ' " Superior articular process
Pedicle
FIGURE 9-5. The essential characteristcs of a vertebra. A, Lateral view of th sixth and seventh vertebrae (T6 and T7). B, Supenor view of
th sixth vertebra with right rib.
Body barge rounded cylindrical mass of cancellous bone surrounded Primary weight-bearing structure of th
by a thin cortex of bone vertebral column
Intervertebral disc Thick ring of fibrocartilage between vertebral bodies of C2 Shock absorber and spacer throughout
and below th vertebral column
Interbody joint A symphysis joint formed between th superior and inferior Primary bond between vertebrae
surfaces of an intervertebral disc and adjacent vertebral
bodies
Pedicle Short, thick dorsal projection of bone from th mid-to-supe- Connects th vertebral body to th
rior part of th vertebral body posterior parts of a vertebra
Lamina Thin vertical piate of bone connecting th base of th spinous Protects th posteiior aspect of th spi
process to each transverse process. (The term laminae de- nai cord
scribes both right and left lamina.)
Vertebral canal Central canal located just posterior to th vertebral body. The Protects th spinai cord
canal is surrounded by th pedicles and laminae.
Intervertebral foramen Lateral opening between adjacent vertebrae Passageway for nerve roots entenng
and exiting th vertebral canal
Transverse process Horizontal projection of bone from th junction of a lamina Attachments for muscles, ligaments,
and a pedicle and ribs
Costai facet (on body) Rounded impressions formed on th lateral sides of th tho- Attachment sites for th heads of ribs
racic vertebral bodies. Most thoracic vertebral bodies have (costovertebral joints)
superior and inferior facets on each side.
Costai facet (on trans- Ovai facets located at th anterior tips of each thoracic trans Attachment sites for th articular tu
verse process) verse process berete of ribs (costotransverse joints)
Spinous process Dorsal midiine projection of bone from th laminae Midiine attachments for muscles and
ligaments
Superior and inferior Paired vertical articular processes arising from th junction of Superior and inferior articular facets
articular processesi a lamina and pedicle. Each process has smooth cartilage- form paired apophyseal (interverte-
ncluding articular lined articular facets. in generai, superior articular facets bral) joints. Tliese synovial joints
facets and apophy face posteriori)'; inferior articular facets face anteriori)'. guide th direction and magnitude
seal (intervertebral) of intervertebral movement.
joints
256 Section III Axial Skeleton
Inferior view
Posterior view
Posterior end Neck
Head'
Costai g ro tta
The lateral edge of th body of th stemum is marked by umn. It is not uncommon, for example, for th transverse
a series of costai facets that accept th cartilages of ribs 2 to processes of C7 to have thoracic-like facets to accept a rib.
7. The arthrology of th stemocostal joints is discussed in or L5 may be sacralized (i.e., fused with th base or top of
greater detail in Chapter 11. The xiphoid process is attached th sacrum).
to th inferior end of th body of th stemum by th
xiphistemal joint. Like th manubriostemal joint, th xiphi- NormaI Curvatures within th Vertebral Column
stemal joint is connected primarily by fibrocartilage. The The human vertebral column consists of a series of recipro
xiphistemal joint often ossifies by 40 years of age.110 cai curvatures in th sagittal piane. While standing at res:
th curvatures define th neutral posture of th vertebral
VERTEBRAL COLUMN column (Fig. 9 -8 A ). The cervical and lumbar regions are
naturally convex anteriorly and concave posteriorly, exhibit-
The word trunk describes th body of a person, including ing an alignment called lordosis, meaning io bend back-
th stemum and ribs, but excluding th head, neck, and ward. The degree of lordosis is generally less in th cervical
limbs. Vertebral (spinai) column describes th entire set of region than in th lumbar region. The thoracic and sacrococ-
vertebrae, excluding th ribs, stemum, and pelvis. The terms cygeal regions, in contrast, exhibit a naturai kyphosis. Kypho-
superior and inferior are used interchangeably with th sis describes a curve that is concave anteriorly and convex
terms cranial and caudal, respectively. posteriorly. The anterior concavity provides space for th
The vertebral column usually consists of 33 vertebral seg- organs within th thoracic and pelvic cavities.
ments, divided into live regions. Normally there are seven The naturai curvatures within th vertebral column are
cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, five sacrai, and four not fixed, but rather they are dynamic and change shape
coccygeal segments. The sacrai and coccygeal vertebrae are during movements and different postures. Extension of th
usually fused in th adult, forming individuai sacrai and vertebral column accentuates th cervical and lumbar lordo
coccygeal bones. individuai vertebrae are abbreviated alpha- sis, but reduces th thoracic kyphosis (Fig. 9 - 8 B ) . In con-
numerically; for example, C2 for th second cervical, T6 for trast, flexion of th vertebral column decreases, or flattens.
th sixth thoracic, and LI for th first lumbar. Each region th cervical and lumbar lordosis, but accentuates th tho
of th vertebral column (e.g., cervical and lumbar) has a racic kyphosis (Fig. 9 -8 C ). In contrast, th sacrococcygeal
distinct overall morphology that reflects its specific function. curvature is fixed, being concave anteriorly, convex posteri
Vertebrae located at th cervicothoracic, thoracolumbar, and orly. This curvature is essentially fixed by th position of th
lumbosacral junctions often share characteristics that reflect pelvis by means of th sacroiliac joints.
th transition between major regions of th vertebral col The embryonic vertebral column is kyphotic throughout
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 257
FIGURE 9-8. A side view shows th sagittal piane curvatures of th vertebral column. A, Neutral static position while one is
standing. B, Extension of th vertebral column increases th cervical and lumbar lordosis, but reduces (straightens) th thoracic
kyphosis. C, Flexion of th vertebra! column decreases th cervical and lumbar lordosis, but increases th thoracic kyphosis.
LIG A M EN T U M FLA V U M
Ligamentum flavum Between th anterior surface of one Limits flexion Contains a high percentage of elastin
lamina and th posterior surface Lies posterior to th spinai cord
of th lamina below Thickest in th lumbar region
Supraspinous and in- Between th adjacent spinous pro- Limits flexion Ligamentum nuchae is th cervical
terspinous liga cesses from C7 to th sacrum and cranial extension of th su
ments praspinous ligaments, providing a
midiine structure for muscle at
tachments, and passive support for
th head.
Intertransverse liga- Between adjacent transverse pro- Limits contralateral lateral Few fbers exist in th cervical re
menis cesses flexion gion. In th thoracic region, th
ligaments are rounded and inter-
twined with locai muscle. In th
lumbar region, th ligaments are
thin and membranous.
Anterior longitudinal Between th basilar part of th oc Adds stability to th ver
ligament cipiti bone and th entire tebral column
length of th anterior surfaces of Limits extension or ex-
all vertebral bodies, including cessive lordosis in th
th sacrum cervical and lumbar
regions
Chapier 9 Osteology and Arthrology 261
Posterior longitudinal Throughout th length of th pos Stabihzes th vertebral Lies within th vertebral canal, just
ligament terior surfaces of all vertebra! column anterior to th spinai cord
bodies, between th axis (C2) Limits flexion
and th sacrum Reinforces th posterior
annulus ftbrosus
Capsule of th Margin of each apophyseal joint Strengthens and supports Becomes taut at th extremes of all
apophyseal joints th apophyseal joint intervertebral motions, except for
extension
FIGURE 9 -1 3 . Functional biomechanics of th ligamentum flavum durtng extension and flexion. A, The ligamen-
tum flavum is slackened in extension and stretched in flexion. Excessive flexion can cause trauma. B, The stress-
strain relationship of th ligamentum flavum is shown between full extension to a point of failure (rupture) at
extreme flexion. Note th ligament fails at a point 70% beyond its full slackened length. (Data from Nachemson
A, Evans J: Some mechancal properties of th third lumbar interlaminar ligament. J Biomech 1:211-220, 1968.)
Posterior view
Superior articular
Mamillary process
process
Apophyseal
joint capsule
Interspinous ligament
Supraspinous
M o s t a p o p h y s e a l j o in t s c o n t a in intra-articuiar structures S e v e r a l d if f e r e n t f o r m s o f i n t r a - a r t ic u ia r s t r u c t u r e s lo c a t e d
lo c a t e d b e t w e e n t h in t e r n a i s id e o f t h c a p s u le a n d t h w it h in t h lu m b a r a p o p h y s e a l j o in t s a r e illu s t r a t e d in F ig
p e r ip h e r y o f t h a r t ic u la r c a r t ila g e . T h e s t r u c t u r e s c o n t a in u r e 9 - 1 6 . T h e m e n is c o id s m a y b e in v o lv e d in a n a c u t e
s m a ll f a t p a d s m ix e d w it h t h in s h e e t s o f c o n n e c t iv e t is - lo c k e d b a c k " c o n d it io n . D u r in g f le x io n , a m e n is c o id m a y
s u e s t h a t e x t e n d p a r t ia lly in to t h jo in t. T h e s e s t r u c b u c k le o n it s e lf a n d b e c o m e lo d g e d u n d e r t h a d j a c e n t
t u r e s t e r m e d f ib r o a d ip o s e m e n i s c o i d s m a y h e lp p r o - c a p s u le . T h e m e n s ic o id m a y t h e n a c t a s a s p a c e - o c c u p y -
t e c t e x p o s e d c a r t ila g e a n d s y n o v ia l m e m b r a n e f r o m in g le s io n , b lo c k in g f u ll e x t e n s io n . 12
Superior view
T2-T9 Equal width and Fiat, face mostly Fiat, face mostly
depth posterior anterior
Costai facets for at-
tachment of th
heads of ribs 2 to 9
TI and Equal width and As above As above
TI 0-12 depth
TI has a full costai
facet for rib 1 and
a partial facet for
rib 2
T I0-12 each has a
full costai facet.
LI -5 Wider than deep Slightly concave, L I-4 slightly con
L5 is slightly wedged face mediai to vex, face lateral
(i.e., higher height posierior-me- lo anterior-lateral
anteriorly than pos- dial L5: fiat, face ante
teriorly). rior and slightly
lateral
Sacrum Fused Fiat, face posterior None
Body of first sacrai and slightly
vertebra most evi- mediai
dent
Coccyx Fusion of four rudi- Rudimentary Rudimentary
mentary vertebrae
O n
Spinous Processes Vertebra! Canal Transverse Processes Comments
None, replaced by a Triangular, largest Largest of cervical region Two large lateral masses,
small posterior tu of cervical region joined by anterior and
berete posterior arches
Largest of cervical re- Large and triangular Form anterior and pos Contains large spinous
gion, bifid terior tubercles process
Bifd Large and triangular End as anterior and pos Corrsidered typical cervi
terior tubercles cal verLebrae
barge and prominent, Triangular Thick and prominent, Often called vertebral
easily palpable may have a large an prominens due to
terior tuberete form- large spinous process
ing an extra rib."
Long and pointed, Round, smaller than Project horizontally and Constdered typical tho-
slant inferiorly cervical slightly posterior, racic vertebrae
have costai facets for
tubercles of ribs
Stout and rectangular Triangular, contains Stender, project laterally Superior articular pro
cauda equina cesses have mammil-
lary bodies
Typical Cervical Vertebrae (C3-6I Within th C 3 - 6 region, consecutive superior and infe
C 3 - 6 have small rectangular-shaped bodies, vvider from side- rior articular processes form a continuous articular pillar,'
to-side than front-to-back (Figs. 9 - 1 7 and 9 - 1 8 ) . The supe- interrupted by apophyseal joints (Fig. 9 - 2 1 ) . The articular
rior and inferior surfaces of ihe bodies are noi as fiat as facets within each apophyseal joint are smooth and Dai, with
most other vertebrae, but are curved or notched. The supe- joint surfaces oriented midway between th vertical and hor-
rior surfaces are concave side-to-side, with raised posterior- izontal planes. The superior articular facets face posterior and
lateral hooks called uncinate processes (uncus means hook). superior, whereas th inferior articular facets face anterior and
The inferior surfaces, in contrast, are concave anterior-poste- inferior.
rior, with elongated anterior and posterior margins. When The spinous processes of C 3 - 6 are short, with some pro
articulated, small uncovertebral joints form between th unci cesses being bifid (i.e., doubl) (see Fig. 9 - 1 7 , C3). The
nate process and adjacent part of th superior vertebra be transverse processes are short lateral extensions that terminate
tween C3 and C7. Uncovertebral joints are often called th as variably shaped anterior and posterior tubercles. The tuber-
joints of Luschka, named after th person who first de- cles are unique to th cervical region, serving as attachments
scribed them.39 Small fissures extend from th uncovertebral for muscles, such as th anterior scalene, levator scapulae.
joints into th adjacent outer rings (annuii) of th interverte- and splenius cervicis.
bral discs. The exact function of uncovertebral joints is un-
clear, although they probably add stability to th cervical Atypical Cervical Vertebrae (C1-2 and C7)
interbody joints.33 Atlas (C l)
The pedides of C 3 - 6 are short and curved posterior- As indicated by its name, th primary function of th
lateral (see Fig. 9 - 1 7 ) . Very thin laminae extend posterior- atlas is to support th head. Possessing no body, pedicle,
medial from each pedicle (Fig. 9 - 2 0 ) . The triangular-shaped lamina, or spinous process, th atlas is essentially two large
vertebra/ canal is large in th cervical region in order io lateral masses joined by anterior and posterior arches (Fig ,
accommodate th thickening of th spinai cord associated 9 - 2 2 ) . The short anterior arch has an anterior tubercle for
with th formation of th cervical plexus and brachial attachment of th anterior longitudinal ligament. The muchi
plexus. larger posterior arch forms nearly half th circumference of]
th entire atlantal ring. A small posterior tubercle marks th
midiine of th posterior arch. The lateral masses support th
Anterior view prominent articular processes.
The large and concave superior articular facets face erari -1
ally, in generai, io accept th large, convex occipital cor.-l
dyles. The inferior articular facets are fiat to slightly concave
These facet surfaces generally face mferiorly, with their la I
eral edges sloped downward, approximately 30 degrees frorr I
th horizontal piane (Fig. 9 - 2 2 B ). The alias has large, palpaJ
ble transverse processes, usually th greatest of th cerv cM
vertebrae.
Axis (C2)
The axis has a large, tali body that serves as a base for
upwardy projeetmg d'ens (odontoid process) (Fig. 9 -2 3 A anc
B). Part of th elongated body is formed from remnants &. I
th body of th atlas and th intervening disc. The demi
provides a rigid vertical axis for rotation of th atlas anzi
Intervertebraf head (Fig. 9 - 2 4 ) . Projecting laterally from th body is a pai: I
foramen of superior articular processes (Fig. 9 -2 3 A ). These large fla: I
to slightly convex processes have superior facets that ar-: I
Uncinate
process generally in a cranial position, exhibiting a 30-degree slope
which matches th slope of th inferior articular facets o: I
th atlas. Projecting from th prominent superior articular
processes of th axis are a pair of stout pedicles and r I
Transverse Posterior pair of short transverse processes (Fig. 9 - 2 3 B ). A pair 1
process tubercle inferior articular processes project inferiorly from th I
pedicles, with articular facets facing anteriorly and ir.-1
feriorly (see Fig. 9 - 2 1 ) . The spinous process of th axis 1
bifid and very broad. This palpable spinous process serve.-1
as an attachment for many muscles, such as th sem; - 1
spinalis cervicis.
S P E C I A L F O C U S
C e r v ic a l O s te o p h y te s : O n e P o s s ib le C o n s e q u e n c e o f D is c o s t e o p h y t e ( b o n e s p u r ) , d e p ic t e d a t t h C 4 -C 5 in t e r v e r t e
D is e a s e b r a l j o in t in F ig u r e 9 - 1 9 . O s t e o p h y t e s d e v e lo p in a c c o r d -
a n c e w it h t h c e n t u r y - o ld Wolff's / .a w th a t S ta te s " B o n e
O n e im p o r t a n t f u n c t io n o f a h e a lt h y , w e ll- h y d r a t e d in t e r -
is la id d o w n in a r e a s o f h ig h s t r e s s a n d r e a b s o r b e d in
v e r t e b r a l d is c is t o u n lo a d t h u n c o v e r t e b r a l jo in t s . T h is
a r e a s o f l o w - s t r e s s . " A la r g e o s t e o p h y t e m a y e n c r o a c h o n
u n lo a d in g , o r " c u s h i o n i n g " e f f e c t , is illu s t r a t e d a t t h O S
a n e x it in g s p in a i n e r v e ro o t, p r o d u c in g a p in c h e d n e r v e
CA in t e r v e r t e b r a l ju n c t io n in F ig u r e 9 - 1 9 . T h e e f f e c t m a y
s y n d r o m e w it h p a in a n d w e a k n e s s t h r o u g h o u t t h p e r ip h -
b e r e d u c e d in t h c a s e o f a d e g e n e r a t e d o r d e h y d r a t e d
e r a l d is t r ib u t io n .
d is c . O v e r t im e , i n c r e a s e d c o m p r e s s io n f o r c e o n t h u n
c o v e r t e b r a l j o in t m a y s t im u la t e t h f o r m a t io n o f a n
Anterior view
Intervertebral foramen
Anterior tubercle of
transverse process
iarge transverse processes, as illustrated in Figure 9 - 1 8 . A costai facet that articulates with th tubercle of th corre-
-ypertrophic anterior tubercle on th transverse process may sponding rib. Short, thick laminae form a broad base for th
-prout an extra cervical rib, which may impinge on th downward slanting spinous processes. The articular proc
'rachial plexus. This vertebra also has a large, single pointed esses have facets that are oriented nearly vertical, with th
.nnous process, characteristic of other thoracic vertebrae (see superior Jacets facing generally posterior and th injerior facets
Fig. 9 - 2 1 ) . facing generally anterior. The apophyseal joints are aligned
dose to th frontal piane (Fig. 9 - 2 5 ) .
Thoracic Region
Each head of ribs 2 to 10 forms a costovertebral joint by
Typical Thoracic Vertebrae IT2-T10) articulating at th junction of th T I - 2 through T 9 - 1 0
The second through th tenth thoracic vertebrae demonstrate vertebral bodies. The head of a rib articulates with a pair of
similar features (see Fig. 9 - 5 ) . Pedicles are directed posteri- costai facets that span one intervertebral junction. A thoracic
orly from th body, which reduce th size of th vertebral (intercostal) spinai nerve root exits through a corresponding
canal as compared with th cervical region. The large trans- thoracic intervertebral foramen. The intervertebral foramen is
verse processes project posterior-laterally, each containing a located just anterior to th apophyseal joints.
266 Secton li Axial Skeleton
Pedicle of axis
Anterior
and
Posterior
tubercles
Pair ol partial
costai facets
Superior view
Posterior tubercle
Posterior
arch -
Transverse
process
Transverse
foramen Superior
articolar facet
Anterior - FIGURE 9-22. The atlas. A, Se
tubercle Anterior perior view. B, Anterior view.
arch
Anterior view
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrobgy 267
Superior view
A nterior view
Bifid spinous process
Dens
Superior Superior
articular facet articular process
Transverse
process
articular facet
Arpicai Thoracic Vertebrae (TI and T11-12) The neck of ribs 11 and 12 typically do not form articula-
The first and last two thoracic vertebrae are considered atyp- tions with corresponding transverse processes.
cal mainly due to th particular manner of rib attachment.
71 has a full costai facet superiorly that accepts th entire
-jead of th first rib, and a partia facet inferiori) that accepts Lumbar Region
nart of th head of th second rib (see Fig. 9 - 2 1 ) . The Lumbar vertebrae have massive wide bodies, suitable for sup-
spinous process of T I is especially elongated and often as porting th entire superimposed weight of th head, trunk,
orominent as th spinous process of C7. The bodies of T l l and arms (Fig. 9 - 2 6 ) . The total mass of fve lumbar verte
and T12 each have a single, full costai facet for articulation brae is approximately twice that of th seven cervical verte
with th heads of th eleventh and twelfth ribs, respectively. brae (Fig. 9 - 2 7 ) .
Lateral view
Superior view
FIGURE 9-24. A superior view of th median atlanto-axial articula FIGURE 9-25. A lateral view of th sixth through eighth thoracic
tion. vertebrae.
268 Section III Axial Skeleton
For th most part, th lumbar vertebrae possess similar th pointed, sloped spinous processes of th thoracic region.
characteristics. Laminae and pedicles are short and thick, Short mammillary processes project from th posterior sur-
forming th posterior and lateral walls of th nearly triangu- faces of each superior articular process. These structures
lar-shaped vertebral canal. Thin transverse processa project serve as attachment sites for th multifidi muscles.
almost laterally. Spinous processes are broad and rectangular, The articular facets of th lumbar vertebrae are oriented
projecting horizontally from th junction of each lamina nearly vertical. The superior facets are moderately concave,
(Fig. 9 - 2 8 ) . This shape is strikingly different from that of facing mediai to posterior-medial. As depicted in Figure
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 269
Luterai view th cauda equina. Pedicles are very thick, extending laterally
as th ala (lateral wings) of th sacrum. Stout superior articu
lar processes have articular facets that face generally poste-
rior-medial. These facets articulate with th inferior facets of
L5 to form L5-S1 apophyseal joints (see Fig. 9 - 3 1 ) . The
large auticular surface articulates with th ilium, forming th
sacroiliac joint. The sacrum narrows caudally to form its
apex, a point of articulation with th coccyx.
Coccyx
The coccyx is a small triangular bone consisting of four
fused vertebrae (see Fig. 9 - 3 1 ) . The base of th coccyx joins
th apex of th sacrum at th sacrococcygeal joint. The joint
has a fibrocartilaginous disc and is held together by several
small ligaments. The sacrococcygeal joint usually fuses late
in life. In youths, small intercoccygeal joints persist; however,
these typically are fused in adults.110
S P E C I A L F O C U S
Cauda Equina b a t h e d w it h in c e r e b r o s p in a l f lu id a n d lo c a t e d w it h in t h
lu m b o s a c r a l v e r t e b r a l c a n a l.
T h e s p in a i c o r d a n d v e r t e b r a l c o lu m n h a v e d if f e r e n t
S e v e r e f r a c t u r e o r t r a u m a in t h lu m b o s a c r a l r e g io n
g ro w th ra te s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , th c a u d a l e n d o f th
m a y d a m a g e t h c a u d a e q u in a , b u t s p a r e t h s p in a i c o r d .
a d u lt s p in a i c o r d u s u a lly t e r m in a t e s a d j a c e n t t o t h L 1 -2
D a m a g e t o t h c a u d a e q u in a m a y r e s u lt in m u s c le p a r a ly -
in t e r v e r t e b r a l f o r a m e n (F ig . 9 - 2 9 ) . T h e l u m b o s a c r a l n e r v e s
s is a n d a t r o p h y , a lt e r e d s e n s a t io n , a n d r e d u c e d r e f le x e s .
m u s t t r a v e l a g r e a t d is t a n c e b e f o r e r e a c h in g t h e ir c o r r e -
S p a s t ic it y w it h e x a g g e r a t e d r e f le x e s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s w it h
s p o n d in g in t e r v e r t e b r a l f o r a m in a . A s a g r o u p , t h e lo n -
d a m a g e t o t h s p in a i c o r d .
g a t e d n e r v e s r e s e m b le a h o r s e 's t a il, h e n c e cauda equina.
T h e c a u d a e q u in a is a s e t o f p e r ip h e r a l n e r v e s t h a t a r e
C a u d a equina
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 271
A n t e r i o r v ie w Posterior-lateral view
M ultifdi
articularis
Spinai tubercles
Auricular
Lateral tubercles
Erector spinae
and m u ltifid i
Gluteus maxim us
th piane and direction of rotation for a given region. Mo- C 4 - 5 axial rotation to th left, for example, a point on th
tions are typically defined by their planes, with an associated anterior body of C4 rotates to th left, although th spinous
axis of rotation located approximately through th body of process rotates to th right.
th interbody joint (Table 9 - 6 ) . By convention, movement Arthrokinematic terminology describes th relative move
throughout th vertebral column, including th head on th ment between articular facet surfaces within a given apophy
cervical spine, occurs in a cranial-to-caudal fashion, with th seal joint. Most joint surfaces are fiat or nearly fiat, and
direction of movement referenced by a point on th anterior terms such as approximation, separation, and sliding de-
side of th more cranial (superior) vertebral segment. During scribe th arthrokinematics (Table 9 - 7 ) .
* Axial rotation of th spine is defined by th direction of movement of a point on th anterior side of Lhe vertebral body.
Spinai Coupling
M o v e m e n t o f t h v e r t e b r a l c o lu m n in o n e p ia n e is u s u -
a lly a s s o c ia t e c i w it h a n a u t o m a t ic a n d , a t t i mes , nearly
im p e r c e p t ib le m o v e m e n t in a n o t h e r p ia n e . T h is k in e -
m a t ic phenomenon is called spinai coup/ing. Although
m a n y c o u p lin g p a t t e r n s a r e d e s c r ib e d , t h m o s t c o n s is -
t e n t p a t t e r n in v o lv e s a n a s s o c ia t io n b e t w e e n a x ia l r o t a -
t io n a n d la t e r a l f le x io n .
T h e m e c h a n ic a l r e a s o n f o r s p in a i c o u p lin g v a r ie s b e
t w e e n r e g io n s , a n d it o f t e n is n o t c le a r . E x p la n a t io n s
in c lu d e m u s c le a c t io n , a r t ic u la r f a c e t a lig n m e n t , a n d
g e o m e t r y o f t h p h y s io lo g ic c u r v e it s e lf . 18 T h e la t t e r
e x p la n a t io n m a y b e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y u s in g a f le x ib le
ro d a s a m o d e l o f t h s p in e . B e n d t h ro d a b o u t 3 0 to
40 d e g r e e s in o n e p ia n e t o m im ic t h n a t u r a i lo r d o s is o r
k y p h o s is o f a p a r t ic u la r r e g io n . W h i l e m a in t a in in g t h is
c u r v e , " l a t e r a l l y f le x " t h r o d a n d n o t e a s lig h t a u t o
m a t ic a x ia l r o t a t io n . T h e b ip la n a r b e n d p la c e d o n a
f le x ib le r o d a p p a r e n t ly c r e a t e s u n e q u a l s t r a in s t h a t a r e FIGURE 9-34. Typical spatial orientations for selected superior artic-
d is s ip a t e d a s t o r s io n . T h is d e m o n s t r a t io n d o e s n o t e x - ular facet surfaces of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae. The
p la in a ll c o u p lin g p a t t e r n s o b s e r v e d c l i n i c a l l y t h r o u g h o u t red line indicates th piane of th superior articular facet, measured
t h v e r t e b r a l c o lu m n , h o w e v e r . against a vertical or horizontal reference line.
Interbody Joints
The interbody joint is formed by th connections between
STRUCTURE A N D F U N C T IO N O F T H E A P O P H Y S E A L intervertebral discs, vertebral endplates, and adjacent verte
AND IN T E R B O D Y JO IN T S bral bodies. Anatomically, this joint complex is classified as
an amphiarthrosis.
Apophyseal Joints
Structural Considerations of th Lumbar Intervertebral Disc
The vertebral column contains twenty-four pairs of apophy
Most of what is known about th intervertebral disc is based
seal joints. Each apophyseal joint is formed by th articula-
on data from th lumbar region. This region-specifc interest
tion between opposing facet surfaces (see Fig. 9 - 1 5 ) . Me-
reflects th greater incidence of disc herniation (rupture).
chanically, apophyseal joints are classified as piane joints.
Discs in other spinai regions possess slightly different struc
Although exceptions and naturai variations are common, th
tural characteristics.67
articular surfaces of most apophyseal joints are essentially
fiat. Slightly curved joint surfaces are present primarily in Nucleus Pulposus and Annulus Fibrosus
th upper cervical and throughout th lumbar regions. The intervertebral disc consists of a centrai nucleus pul
The word apophysis means bony outgrowth, illustrating posus surrounded by an annulus fibrosus (Fig. 9 - 3 5 ) . The
th protruding nature of th articular processes. Acting as nucleus pulposus is a pulplike gel located in th mid-to-
mechanical barricades, th articular processes permit certain posterior part of th disc. Consisting of 70 lo 90% water,
movements and block others. The orientation of th piane of th nucleus functions as a modified hydraulic shock ab-
th facet surfaces within each joint influences th kinematics sorber that dissipates and transfers loads between consecu
at different regions of th vertebral column. As a generai tive vertebrae. The nucleus pulposus is thtckened by rela-
rule, horizontal facet surfaces favor axial rotation, whereas ver tively large branching proteoglycans. Each proteoglycan is an
tical facet surfaces (in either sagittal or frontal planes) block aggregate of many water-binding glycosaminoglycans linked
axial rotation. Most apophyseal joint surfaces, however, are to core proteins.12 The nucleus also contains type 11 collagen
oriented somewhere between th horizontal and vertical. Fig fbers, elastic fibers, and other noncollagenous proteins. In
ure 9 - 3 4 shows th typical joint orientation for articular th very young, th nucleus pulposus contains a few chon-
facets in th cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions. The drocytes that are remnants of th primitive notochord.110
piane of th facet surfaces explains, in part, why axial rota The annulus fibrosus in th lumbar discs consists of 10 to 20
tion is far greater in th cervical region than in th lumbar concentric layers, or rings, of collagen fibers. Like dough
region. Additional factors that influence th predominant surrounding jelly in a doughnut, th collagen rings encase
motion at each spinai region include th sizes of th inter- and physically entrap th liquid-based centrai nucleus. Com-
vertebral discs, shapes of th vertebrae, locai muscle actions, pression force increases th hydrostatic pressure within th
and attachments of th ribs or ligaments. entrapped and water-logged nucleus pulposus. The increase
274 Section III Axial Skeleton
FIGURE 9-35. The intervertebral disc is shown lifted away from th Vertebral Endplates
underlying vertebral endplate. (Modified from Kapandji IA: The The vertebral endplates are thin caps of hyaline and fibro-
Physiology of Joints, voi. 3. New York, Churchill Livingstone, cartilage located on th superior and inferior surfaces of each
1974.) vertebral body. The collagen fibers within th annulus fibro
sus blend with th endplates of two consecutive vertebrae
(Fig. 9 - 3 7 ) . The anatomie bond between th endplates and
annulus forms th primary adhesion between th vertebrae.
in pressure absorbs shock across th interbody joint. The The vertebral endplates, being semipermeable, also allow nu-
annulus fibrosus contains material similar to that found in trients to pass from blood vessels in th vertebral body to
th nucleus pulposus, differing only in proportion. In th deeper regions of th disc.
annulus, collagen makes up about 50 to 60% of th dry
weight, as compared with only 15 to 20% in th nucleus Intervertebral Disc as a Hydrostatic Shock Absorber
pulposus.'2 The vertebral column is th primary' support structure for
The intervertebral discs add considerable stabilii)' to th th trunk and neck. Although highly dependent on th posi-
vertebral column, as well as being shock absorbers. The tion of th spine, approximately 80% of th load across two
stabilizing function of th disc is due primarily to th struc- lumbar vertebrae is carried through th interbody joint. The
tural configuration of th collagen fibers within th annulus remaining 20% is carried by posterior structures, such as
fibrosus. As shown in Figure 9 - 3 6 , th fibers are oriented in apophyseal joints and laminaeri
a precise geometrie pattem. In th lumbar region, collagen The intervertebral discs are uniquely designed as shock
rings lie about 65 degrees from th vertical, with fibers of absorbers, protecting th bone from th compression forces
adjacent layers traveling in opposite directions.12-61 This produced by body weight and muscle contraction. Compres
structural arrangement resists distraction (vertical separation), sion forces push th endplates inward and toward th nu
shear (sliding), and torsion (twisting).12 If th imbedded col cleus pulposus (Fig. 9 - 3 8 ) . Being filled rnostly with water
lagen fibers ran nearly vertical, th dsc would resist distrac- and therefore essentially incompressible, th nucleus re-
sponds by deforming radially and outwardly against th an
nulus fibrosus (Fig. 9 -3 8 A ). Radiai deformalion is resisted
by th tension created within th stretched rings of collagen
and elastic fibers. Internai resistance reinforces th walls of
th annulus fibrosus (Fig. 9 - 3 8 B ). As a result, back pressure
FIGURE 9-36. The detailed organization of th annulus fibrosus FIGURE 9-37. A vertical slice through th interbody joint shows th
shown with th nucleus pulposus removed. Collagen fibers are structure of th vertebral endplates. The inner two thirds of th
arranged in multiple concentric layers, with fibers in every other annulus fibrosus blends with th endplate, forming its fibrocartilagi-
layer running in identical directions. The orientation of each colla nous component. The outer one third of th annulus fibrosus
gen fiber (depicted as 0) is about 65 degrees from th vertical. blends directly with bone (i.e., ring apophysis). (From Bogduk N
(From Bogduk N: Clinical Anatomy of th Lumbar Spine, 3rd ed. Clinical Anatomy of th Lumbar Spine, 3rd ed. New York, Church
New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1997.) ill Livingstone, 1997.)
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 275
The lisi docs not include limiutions of motion caused by stretched muscles or by compression force created within th apophyseal and interbody joints
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 277
Atlanto-occipital joints
Atlanto-axial joint complex
Intracervical apophyseal joints (C2-7)
may generate excessive tension as a means to protect an Sagittal Piane Kinematics at th Craniocervical Region
injured vertebral segment. Spasm in locai muscles following Osteokinematics of flexion and extension
acceleration-deceleration (whiplash) injury of th neck is a Arthrokinematics of flexion and extension
common expression of this protective guarding. In cases of Atlanto-occipital joint
disease, such as severe rheumatoid arthritis, limited spinai Atlanto-axial joint complex
mobility has no protective function, but is instead an intrin- Intracervical apophyseal joints (C2-7)
sic part of th pathologic process. Understanding th specific Osteokinematics of protraction and retraction
role of connective tissues in limiting motion is useful in Horizontal Piane Kinematics at the Craniocervical Region
devising therapeutic activities for persons with spinal-related
pain or dysfunction. Osteokinematics of axial rotation
Arthrokinematics of axial rotation
Atlanto-axial joint complex
Craniocervical Region Intracervical articulations (C2-7)
The terms craniocervical region and neck are used inter- Frontal Piane Kinematics at the Craniocervical Region
changeably. Both terms refer to th combined set of three
Osteokinematics of lateral flexion
articulations: atlanto-occipital joint, atlanto-axial joint complex,
Arthrokinematics of lateral flexion
and intracervical apophyseal joints (C 2 -7 ). The overall organi-
Atlanto-occipital joint
zation used to present th regional anatomy and kinematics Intracervical articulations (C2-7)
of th craniocervical region is outlined in Table 9 - 9 . The
278 Section III Axial Skeleton
TABLE 9 - 1 0 . Approximate Range o f Motion for th Three Planes of Movement for th Joints
of th Craniocervical Region
The horizontal and frontal piane moiions are to one side only. Data are compiled from multiple sources (see text) and subject io large intersubjea
variatiorts.
th vertebral artery pierces th posterior atlanto-occipital apophyseal joints. The median joint is formed by th dens of
membrane to enter th foramen magnum. This artery sup- C2 projecting through a ring created by th transverse liga-
plies blood to th brain. The concave-convex structure of th ment and th anterior arch of th atlas (Fig. 9 - 4 4 ) . The
atlanto-occipital joints permits angular rotation in two de- joint complex has two synovial cavities. The smaller anterior
grees of freedom. The primary motions are flexion and ex- cavity consists of a synovial membrane that surrounds th
tension. Lateral flexion is slight. Axial rotation is severely articulation between th anterior side of th dens and th
restricted and not considered as a degree of freedom. posterior border of th anterior arch of th atlas. A small
Atlanto-axial Joint Complex anterior facet on th antenor side of th dens marks this
articulation (see Fig. 9 -2 3 A ). The much larger posterior
The atlanto-axial joint complex consists of two joint struc- cavity has a synovial membrane that separates th posterior
tures: a median joint and a pair of laterali)' positioned side of th dens and a cartilage-lined section of th transverse
Anterior view
Posterior view
A n t e r io r lo n g itu d in a l lig a m e n t (cut)
P o s t e r io r a tla n t o - o c c ip it a l O c c ip ita l b o n e
A t la n t o - o c c ip it a l
m e m b ra n e (cu t) O c c ip ita l c o n d y le A n t e r io r a tla n to -o c c ip ita l
jo in t c a p s u le
m e m b ra n e
F o ra m e n
m agnum Exposed pro cess
a tla n to -a x ia l
A tla n t o - a x ia l (a p o p h y s e a l i
S u p e r io r a r tic u la r (a p o p h y s e a l jo in t)
A t la n t o - o c c ip it a l jo in t c a p s u le
fa c e t
jo in t c a p s u le (cu t) P o s t e r io r A p o p h y s e a l jo in t c a p su le
lo n g itu d in a l
A n te r io r
T ra n s v e rs e lig a m e n t (cu t)
- Alias T e c to ria l tu b e rc le
pro cess
T ra n s v e rs e
m e m b ra n e
P o s t e r io r p ro ce ss
A tla n t o -a x ia l A n t e r io r
T ra n s v e rs e tu b e rc le
(a p o p h y s e a l) lo n g itu d in a l
jo in t c a p s u le fo r a m e n lig a m e n t (cu t)
S u p e r io r v ie w
S y n o v ia l c a v itie s p ro ce ss
V e rte b ra l c a n a l P o s t e r io r a rc h
P o s t e r io r tu b e rc le
S p in o u s p r o c e s s
280 Secfion HI Axial Skeleton
EXTENSION
O c c ip ita l b o n e .,.
M a s t o id p r o c e s s
C r a n i o c c r v i c a l f le x io n
FLEXION
considered th close-packed position at th cervical apophy- backward (retraction) within th sagittal piane.78 Protraction
seal joints, as well as th other regions throughout th verte of th head flexes th lower-to-mid cervical spine and ex-
bra! column. This position results in maxima! jomt contact tends th upper craniocervical region (Fig. 9 -5 0 A ). Retrac
and load-bearing. The inferior sliding of th articular facets tion of th head, in centrasi, extends or straightens th
of superior vertebrae tends to slacken th joint capsule. The lower-to-mid cervical spine and flexes th upper craniocervi
close-packed position of most synovial joints increases th cal region (Fig. 9 - 5 0 B ). In both movements, th lower-to-
tension in th surrounding capsule and associated ligaments. mid cervical spine follows th translation of th head. Al-
The apophyseal joints are one of th few exceptions to this though protraction and retraction of th head are
generai rule. physiologically norma! useful motions, they may be associ
Flexion is also initiated at th lower cervical spine ated with faulty posture. Prolonged periods of protraction
( C 4 - 7 ) .H The movements are th reverse of those described may leacl to a chronic forward head posture, causing in-
for extension. The inferior articular facets of th superior creased strain on th craniocervical extensor muscles.
vertebrae slide superiorly and anteriorly, relative to th supe
rior articular facets of th inferior vertebrae. As depicted in
Figure 9 - 4 7 C , th sliding between th articular facets pro- HORIZONTAL PLANE KINEMATICS AT THE
duces approximately 35 degrees of (lexion. Flexion stretches
CRANIOCERVICAL REGION
th capsule of th apophyseal joints and reduces th area for Osteokinematics of Axial Rotation
joint contact.
Axial rotation of th head and neck is a very important
Overall, approximately 105 degrees of cervical flexion and
function, intimately related to Vision and hearing. As shown
extension occur as a result of th sliding between apophyseal
in Figure 9 - 5 1 , th craniocervical region rotates about 90
joint surfaces. This extensive range of motion is due in part
degrees to each side, for a total range of nearly 180 degrees
to th relatively long and unobstructed are of motion pro-
With an additional 150 io 160 degrees of total horizontal
vided by th oblique piane of th facet surfaces. On average,
piane movemeni of th eyes, th visual field approaches 360
about 20 degrees of sagittal piane motion occur at each
degrees, with little or no movement of th trunk! This wide
intervertebral junction between C 2 - 3 and C 6 - 7 . This is a
visual field depends, of course, on factors such as range of
considerably greater angular motion than at th adjacent
motion and sight.
upper thoracic region. The largest angular displacement
About half th axial rotation of th craniocervical region
tends to occur between C5 and C6,H possibly accounting for
occurs at th atlanto-axial joint complex, with th remaining
th relatively high incidence of spondylosis68 and hyperflex-
throughout C 2 - 7 . 106 Rotation at th atlanto-occipital joint is
ion-related fractures at this level (Fig. 9 - 4 8 ) .
restricted due to th deep-seated placement of th occipital
condyles within th superior articular facets of th atlas.
Osteokinematics of Protraction and Retraction
In addition to flexion and extension in th craniocervical Arthrokinematics of Axial Rotation
region, th head can also translate forward (protraction) and Atlanto-axial Joint Complex
The atlanto-axial joint complex is designed for maximal rota
tion within th horizontal piane. The design is most evident
by th structure of th axis (C2), with its vertical dens and
nearly horizontal superior articular facets (see Fig. 9 - 3 4 )
The ring-shaped atlas twists about th dens, producing
about 40 to 45 degrees of axial rotation in each direction
(Fig. 9 -5 1 A ). The fiat to slightly concave inferior articular
facets of th atlas slide in a circular path across th broad
"shoulders ol th superior articular facets of th axis. These
surfaces have also been described as slightly convex when
considering th thickness of th articular cartilage. Because
of th limited axial rotation permitted at th atlanto-occipital
joint, th cranium follows th rotation of th atlas, essen-
tially degree for degree. The axis of rotation for th head and
atlas is through th vertically projected dens. Horizontal
piane rotation of th atlas is coupled with slight lateral flex
ion to th opposite side.79
Tension in th alar ligaments increases with rotation at
th atlanto-axial joint complex, especially in th ligament
located opposite to th direction of th rotation.79 Tension in
th alar ligaments and capsules of th lateral apophyseal
FIGURE 9-48. In viiro cervical fkxion and extension motions aver-
joints, plus th many muscles about th neck, limit axial
aged over ten specimens. Daia are expressed as a percent of th rotation.
total range of sagittal piane motion in th cervical region. (Data
from Holmes A, Han ZH, Dang GT, et al: Changes in cervical canal Intra cervical Articulations (C2-7)
spinai volume during in vitro flexion-extension. Spine 2 1 1 3 1 3 - Rotation throughout C 2 - 7 is guided primarily by th spanai
1319, 1996.)
orientation ot th facet surfaces within th apophyseal joints.
Chapler 9 Osteology and Arthwlogy 283
Flexion and Extension and Its Effect on th Diameter of compressing against a nerve root causes radiculopathy.
th Intervertebral Foramen Symptoms include radiating pain down th ipsilateral arm,
usually th path of th cervical dermatome. Patients with
Flexion increases th diameter of a cervical intervertebral
this problem often describe shooting pain down th arm.
foramen; extension, in contrast, decreases it.113 The me-
This is in conjunction with craniocervical hyperextension
chanics of this relationship are shown for flexion at C3-4
and/or lateral flexion toward th side of th stenosis. This
in Figure 9-494 and 6. As shown in Figure 9 - 496, an
movement is common in men while shaving under th
upward and forward slide of th inferior articular facet of
chin. Cervical traction performed with th neck partially
C3 significantly increases th diameter of th C3-4 inter
flexed widens th stenosed intervertebral foramen. Thera-
vertebral foramen. Flexion, therefore, allows greater room
peutic traction can decompress an irritated spinai nerve
for passage of a spinai nerve. This principle has clinical
root and often reduces painful symptoms.
relevance in cases of stenosed (narrowed) intervertebral
foramen due to osteophyte formation. A large osteophyte
The facet surfaces are oriented about 45 degrees between th FRONTAL PLANE KINEMATICS AT THE
horizontal and frontal planes (see Fig. 9 - 3 4 ) . The inferior CRANIOCERVICAL REGION
facets slide posteriorly and somewhat inferiorly on th same
Osteokinematics of Lateral Flexion
side as th rotation, and anteriorly and somewhat superiorly
on th side opposite th rotation (Fig. 9 - 5 1 B ). Approxi- Approximately 40 degrees of lateral flexion is available io
mately 45 degrees of axial rotation occur to each side over each side throughout th craniocervical region (Fig. 9 - 5 2 ) .
th C 2 - 7 region, nearly equal to that permitted at th at- The extremes of this movement can be demonstrated by
lanto-axial joint complex. Rotation is greatest in th more attempting to touch th ear to th tip of th shoulder. Most
cranial vertebral segments. of this movement occurs at th C 2 - 7 region; however,
284 Section III Axial Skeleton
Protraction Retraction
about 5 degrees may occur at th atlanto-occipital joint. pling, however, can be altered by muscular action at th
Luterai flexion at th atlanto-axial joint complex is negligible. atlanto-occipital joint.
90" rotaton
A la r lig a m e n t
(taut)
S u p e r io r fa c e t
C a p s u le o f o f a x is
a p o p h y s e a l jo in t
V e rte b ra l c a n a l
In fe rio r fa c e t
o f a tla s
Superior view
Atlanto-axial joint complex (C1-C2) Fntracervical region (C2-C7)
FIGURE 9-51. Kinematics of craniocervical axial rotaton. A, Atlanto-axial joint complex. B, Intracervical region (C2-7).
C a p s u le o f
O c c ip ita l b o n e apophyseal
jo in t.
M a s to ic i p r o c e s s
LATERAL
FLEXION
R e c t u s c a p itis
la t e ra lis
The thoracic vertebrae are well stabilized by th ribs and The arthrokinematics at th apophyseal joints in th tho
associated costovertebral and costotransverse joints. Stability racic spine are generally similar to those described for th
protects th spinai cord from trauma. During a fall, for C 2 - 7 . Subtle differences are related primarily to different
example, th impact to th thoracic spine is partially ab- shapes of th vertebrae and different spadai orientadons of
sorbed and dissipated by th ribs and th associated muscles th articular facets. Flexion between T 5 - 6 , for example.
and connective tissues.
P o s t e r io r lo n g itu d in a l
lig a m e n t
C o s t o t r a n s v e r s e lig a m e n ts
A n t e r io r lo n g itu d in a l
lig a m e n t
S u p e r io r c o s to t r a n s v e r s e
lig a m e n t R a d ia te a n d c a p s u la r
lig a m e n ts o f th
S p in o u s
c o s to v e r te b r a l jo in t
Exposed
jo in t
C o s to tr a n s v e r s e
S u p e r io r a r tic u la r
lig a m e n ts
fa c e t
ra d ia te lig a m e n ts c o s to v e r te b ra l jo in t
A n n u lu s f ib r o s u s
B N u c le u s p u lp o s u s
occurs by a superior and slighily anterior sliding of th of lateral flexion occurs to each side in th thoracic region.
interior facet surfaces o f T5 on th su p erior facet surfaces o f The magnitude o f ibis inten'eriebra moiion remains rea-
T6 (Fig. 9 - 54A). Extension occurs by a reverse process (Fig. tively Constant throughout th entire thoracic region. As de
9 -5 5 A ). picted in Figure 9 57A, lateral llexion of T 6 on T7 occurs
as th inferior facet surface of T 6 slides superiorly on th
Kinematics of Axial Rotation side contralateral to th lateral flexion and inferiorly on th
Approximately 30 degrees of horizontal piane (axial) rotation side ipsilateral to th lateral flexion. Note that th ribs drop
occurs to each side throughout th thoracic region. This slightly on th side of th lateral flexion, and rise slightly on
motion is depicted in conjunction with axial rotation across th side opposite th lateral flexion.
th entire thoracolumbar region in Figure 9 - 5 6 . Rotation As in th cervical spine, lateral flexion and axial rotation
between T6 and T7, for instance, occurs as th near frontal are mechanically coupled in an ipsilateral manner.107 Cou-
piane-aligned inferior articular facets of T6 slide for a short phng is most evident in th upper thoracic spine where th
distance against th similarly aligned superior articular facets articular facets possess a closer orientation to those in th
of T7 (Fig. 9 -5 6 A ). In generai, th freedom of axial rotation lower cervical region. The influence of th coupling de
decreases in th thoracic spine in a cranial-to-caudal direc creases and is inconsistent in th middle and lower thoracic
tion. In th mid to lower thoracic spine, th greater verti- regions.
cally oriented apophyseal joints tend to block horizontal
piane motion. STRUCTURAL DEFORMITIES OF THE THORACIC SPINE
Kinematics of Lateral Flexion Maintaining th spine in normal alignment throughout life
The predominant frontal piane orientation of th thoracic requires a delicate balance between intrinsic forces, govemed
facet surfaces suggests a relative freedom of lateral flexion. by muscles and osseous-ligamentous structures, and extrinsic
This potential for movement is never fully expressed, how- forces govemed by gravity. When th balance fails, deformity
ever, because of th stabilization provided by th attach- occurs. Hemiated discs and nerve root impingements are
ments to th ribs. Lateral flexion in th thoracic region is relatively uncommon in th thoracic spine. This finding
illustrated in context with lateral flexion over th entire thor may be due, in part, to th relatively low intervertebral mo-
acolumbar region in Figure 9 - 5 7 . Approximately 25 degrees bility and high stability provided by th rib cage. Thoracic
288 Seclton III Axial Skeleton
Thoracolumbar flexion
^ C o m p re sse c i
a n n u lu s
In te rs p in o u s
f ib r o s u s
lig a m e n t
S u p r a s p in o u s
lig a m e n t
FIGURE 9-54. The kinemaiics of thoracolumbar flexion is shown through an 85-degree are th sum of 35
degrees of thoracic flexion and 50 degrees of lumbar flexion. A, Kinematics at th thoracic region B Kinematics
at th lumbar region. Elongated and taut tissues are indicated by thin black arrows.
postural abnormalities, however, occur relatively frequently. The two most common conditions associated with kypho
The thoracic spine, constituting about half th entire length sis are Scheuermann disease and osteoporosis. Scheuermann
of th vertebral column, is particularly vulnerable to th disease, or juvenile kyphosis, is a hereditary condition that
effeets of gravity and torsion. The two most common exam- starts in adolescence. Although th cause of th disease is
ples of postural abnormalities of th thoracic spine are exces- unknown, il is characterized by wedging of th atiterior side
sive kyphosis and scoliosis. 1he following sections revrew of th vertebral bodies, ultimately causing and perpetuating
th biomechanics of these conditions. More detailed informa- excessive kyphosis. Up to 10% of th adolescent population
tion on th biomechanics, medicai management, and physi- shows signs of this disorder.111
cal therapy can be found in other sources (see references 25 Osteoporosis ol th spine is often associated with excessive
32, and 36).
thoracic kyphosis, most often observed in th elderly. Com-
Excessive Kyphosis pression tractures in osteoporotic thoracic vertebrae eventu
a l i lead to reduced height in th vertebral bodies. Shorten-
On average, about 42 degrees of naturai kyphosis is present ing of th midthoracic vertebrae can initiate a biomechanical
while standing (see Fig. 9 - 4 0 ) . 52 In some persons, however, cycle that accelerates th flexion deformity. Figure 9 58
excessive kyphosis occurs and can cause functional limita- demonstrates one mechanical scenario associated with th
tions. The acquired forni of excessive kyphosis may occur as progression of a severe kyphosis.76 In th ideal spinai pos
a consequence of trauma and related spinai instability, dis- ture, th line-of-force due to body weight falls slightly to th
ease, or connective tissue changes that may be associated concave side of th apex of th normal cervical and thoracic
with age. In generai, age-related thoracic kyphosis is usually curvatures (Fig. 9 - 5 8 A). Gravity acts with an external mo
slight and not debilitating.
ment arm that can maintain th normal thoracic and cervical
Chapter 9 O steobgy and Arthrology 289
FIGURE 9-55. The kinematics of thoracolumbar extension is shown through an are of 35 io 40 degrees: ihe sum of 20 to
25 degrees of thoracic extension and 15 degrees of lumbar extension. A, Kinematics at th thoracic region. B, Kinematics at
th lumbar region. Elongated and taut tissue is indicated by thin black arrows; slackened tissue is indicated by a wavy black
line.
curvatures. Assume that th posture shown in Figure 9 -5 8 A (see Fig. 9 - 5 8 B ). increased extensor rnuscle and ligamen-
creates a small cervical extension torque and small thoracic tous force is needed to hold th trunk, neck, and head
flexion torque. In th thoracic spine, th naturai kyphosis is upright. The increased force passes through th interbody
limited by compression forces on th anterior side of th joints, possibly creating small compression fractures in th
interbody joints. Vertebrae weakened from osteoporosis and vertebral bodies. At this point th vicious circle is well estab-
dehydrated intervertebral discs may be unable to resist th lished.
anterior compression forces. Over time, th compression The thoracic posture shown in Figure 9 - 5 8 B may pro
forces reduce th height of th anterior side of th interbody gress, in extreme cases, to that shown in Figure 9 -5 8 C .
joint, thereby accentuating th kyphosis (Fig. 9 -5 8 B ). At While standing, th line-of-force due to body weight has
this point, a pathologic deforming process is initiated. The produced a small upper cervical extension torque and a large
increased flexed posture shifts th line-of-force due to body- thoracic flexion torque. Note that despite th large thoracic
weight farther anteriorly, thus increasing th length of th kyphosis, th person can extend her upper craniocervical
extemal moment arm (EMA') and magnitude of th flexed region enough to maintain a horizontal visual gaze. The
kyphotic posture. As a result, both thoracic and cervical main point of Figure 9 -5 8 C , however, is to appreciate th
spine regions may be subjected to a moderate flexion torque biomechanical and physiologic impact that a large extemal
290 Sceltoti III Axial Skeleton
S te rn u m
Thoracic region
9 0 c r a n io c e r v ic a l ro ta tio n
3 5 t h o r a c o lu m b a r
a x ia l ro ta tio n
125
S u p e r io r fa c e t o f T 7
I n te rio r fa c e t o f T 6
Lumbar region
Superior view
J o in t
a p p r o x im a tio n
J o in t
s e p a ra tio n
S u p e r io r fa c e t o f L 2
I n te rio r fa c e t o f L1
Superior view
FIGURE 9-56. The kinematics of thoracolumbar axial rotation is depicted as th subject rotates her face 125
degrees to th right. The thoracolumbar axial rotation is shown through a 35-degree are: th sum of 30 degrees
of thoracic rotation and 5 degrees of lumbar rotation. ,4, Kinematics at th thoracic region. B, Knematics at th
lumbar region.
flexion torque can have in predisposing a person to an parent biologie or mechanical cause.106 Idiopathic scoliosis
exaggerated thoracic kyphosis. Compression fractures from most commonly affeets adolescent girls. Most of th remain-
osteoporosis further accelerate th kyphotic process. ing 10 to 20% of cases are caused by neuromuscular or
Scoliosis musculoskeletal conditions or by congenital abnormalities. In
these cases, th imbalanced forces that produce th scoliosis
Scoliosis (from th Greek, meaning curvature) is a deformity are due most frequently to poliomyelitis, muscular dystro-
of th vertebra! column characterized by abnormal curva- phy, spinai cord injury, trauma, or cerebral palsy.25
tures in all three planes, most notably in th frontal and Typically, scoliosis is described by th location, direction,
horizontal (Fig. 9 - 5 9 ) . The deformity most often involves and number of fixed frontal piane curvatures daterai bends)
th thoracic spine; however, other regions of th spine are within th vertebral column. The most common pattern of
often affected. Scoliosis is typically defned as either func- scoliosis consists of a single lateral curve, with an apex m
tional or structural. Functional scoliosis can be corrected by th T 7 - 9 region.19 Many other patterns involve a secondari
an active shift in posture, whereas structural scoliosis is a or compensatory curve, most often in th lumbar spine. The |
fixed deformity that cannot be corrected fully by an active direction of th primary lateral curve is defned by th side
shift in posture. of th convexity of th lateral deformity. Because th tho
Approximately 80 to 90% of all cases of structural scolio racic vertebrae are most often involved with scoliosis, asyir
sis are termed idiopathic, meaning th condition has no ap- metry of th rib cage is often present. The ribs on th side
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 291
T h o ra c ic region
LATERAL
T h o ra c o lu m b a r lateral flexion FLEXION S u p e r io r fa c e ts o f T 6
S u p e r io r fa c e t o f T 7
L u m b a r region
LATERAL r . . . . . .
FLEXION S u p e r io r fa c e ts o f L1
V ____
intertransverse
lig a m e n t
In te rio r fa c e t o f L1
S u p e r io r fa c e t o f L 2
FIGURE 9-57. The kinematics of thoracolumbar lateral flexion is shown through an approximate 45-degree are: th sum of 25 degrees of
thoracic lateral flexion and 20 degrees of lumbar lateral flexion. A, Kinematics at th thoracic region. B, Kinematics at th lumbar region.
Note th slight contralateral coupling pattern between axial rotation and lateral flexion in th lumbar region. Elongated and taut tissue is
indicated by a thin black arrow.
FIGURE 9-58. Lateral views show th biomechanical relationships between th line-of-force due to body weight (BW) and
varying degrees of thoracic kyphosis. In each of th three models, th axes of rotation are depicted as th midpoint of th
thoracic and cervical regions (dark circles). The extemal moment arms used by body weight are shown as dashed lines. A, In a
person with ideal standing posture and normal thoracic kyphosis, body weight created a small cervical extcnsion torque and a
small thoracic flexion torque. B, In a person with moderate thoracic kyphosis, body weight created a moderate cervical and
thoracic flexion torque (EMA', extemal moment arm at midthoracic spine; EMA, extemal moment arm at midcervical spine;
IMA, internai moment arm for trunk extensor muscle force). C, In a person with severe thoracic kyphosis, body weight caused
a small cervical extension torque and a large thoracic flexion torque. All three models are based on x-rays of patients. (From
Neumann DA: Arthrokinesiologic considerations for th aged adult. In Guccione AA (ed): Geriatrie Physical Therapy. Chicago,
Mosby-Year Book, 2000.)
292 Section III Axial Skeleton
ES/34fj
L3-4 C
interbody Erector spinae
L5-S1 joint across L3-4
apophyseal
jo in t
apophyseal joints restrains additional forward migration of a apophyseal joints may become overstretched from a chronic,
superior vertebra.96 The extreme flexed position signifcantly slumped sitting posture.
reduces th contact area within th facet surfaces of th Lumbar Flexion: Its Effect on th Diameter o f th
apophyseal joints. Paradoxically, although a fully flexed lum- Intervertebral Foramen and Migration o f th
bar spine reduces th total force on a given apophyseal joint,
Nucleus Pulposus
th pressure (force per unit area) increases on th decreased Relative to a neutral position, full flexion of th lumbar
surface area under contact. High pressure may damage joints spine increases th diameter of th intervertebral foramina by
that have abnormally developed articular surfaces. 19% and increases th volume of th vertebral canal by
As a way of comparison, Figure 9 - 6 4 shows th relative 11%.45 Therapeutically, flexion of th lumbar region is often
resistance provided by locai connective tissues to extreme used to temporarily reduce th pressure on a lumbar nerve
flexion in th lumbar region.4 Of clinical interest is th root that is impinged by an obstructed foramen. In certain
relatively large resistance provided by th stretched articular
capsule that surrounds th flexed apophyseal joints. In th
healthy lower back, th passive tension within th capsule of
flexed apophyseal joints reduces th compression load on
th intervertebral discs. A weakened or overstretched articu
lar capsule, however, may not be able to generate sufficient
tension to protect th discs from injury. The capsules of th
9 - 1 3 . Organization of th Discussion
T A B L E
circumstances, however, ihis potential therapeutic advantage person with a weakened posterior annulus, however, poste-
may be associaied with a potential therapeutic disadvantage. rior migration of th nuceus pulposus increases pressure on
For example, fexion of th lumbar region generates com- th spinai cord or nerve roots. These contrasting therapeutic
pression forces on th anterior side of th disc, which tend effects of fexion in th lumbar region are to be considered
to migrate th nucleus pulposus posteriorly.30 The magni- when planning an exercise program for a person with gener-
tude of th migration is small in th healihy spine. In a alized low back pain.
S P E C I A L F O C U S 9 - 1 0
j9
Herniated Nucleus Pulposus search on methods of diagnosis,40 mechanisms of hernia
The formai name for a ruptured or slipped disc is herni tion,69 associated epidemiology,70'01 physical rehabilitation,51
ated nucleus pulposus. Most herniations involve a signifi and efficacy of surgery.85
c a i posterior-lateral or posterior migration of th nucleus Two mechanisms are typically involved with disc herni
pulposus toward th spinai cord or spinai nerve roots ation.23 The first mechanism involves a very large, sudden
(Table 9-14 and Fig. 9-65). Nuclear protrusion, th mild- compression force delivered over a lumbar spine that is
est form of herniation, may cause locai back pain owing flexed or, most likely, flexed and axially rotated (twisted).
to pressure exerted against th posterior annulus and/or
posterior longitudinal ligament. Herniations that result in TABLE 9 - 1 4 . Types of Herniated
prolapse, extrusion, or sequestration, however, can place Nucleus Pulposus
pressure directly on neural elements. As a consequence,
pain often radiates away from th back and toward th N uclear Type Defnition
associated dermatomes in th lower extremities. Muscle
weakness and altered deep tendon reflexes in th legs Protrusion Displaced nucleus pulposus remains within
may also result from impingement on th neural tissues. th annulus tbrosus, but may create a
Although a herniated disc typically causes low-back pressure bulge on th spinai cord.
Prolapse Displaced nucleus pulposus reaches th
pain, not everyone with low-back pain has disc involve-
ment. Low-back pain may be caused by a number of posterior edge of th disc, but remains
essentially confned within th outer lay-
factors besides, or in addition to, disc prolapse. Factors ers of th annulus fbrosus.
include muscle-ligament sprains, inflamed apophyseal or Extrusion Annulus fbrosus ruptures, allowing th nu
sacroiliac joints, and irritated or impinged nerve roots. cleus pulposus to completely escape from
Often th reason for pain is unknown, and occasionally th disc into th epidural space.
th pain spontaneously subsides. Pain, in generai, is a Sequestration Parts of th nucleus pulposus and fragments
relatively common occurrence, even in otherwise healthy of annulus fbrosus become lodged
persons. within th epidural space.
The percentage of persons with low-back pain due to
a disc herniation is uncertain, but likely significant. The The lypes are presented in increasing magnitudes of severity.
subject of disc herniation has generated extensive re- From Magee DL: Orthopedic Physical Assessment, 3rd ed. Philadel-
phia, WB Saunders, 1997.
FIGURE 9 65. Types of disc herniations. (From Magee DL: Orthopedic Physical Assessment, 3rd ed Philadelphia, WB Saunders,
i yy /.)
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 297
This mechanism of injury is often associateci with a single preexisting fissure in th posterior annulus. A partially
event such as a fall or th lifting of a large load. The rotated spine renders only half th posterior fibers of th
second mechanism involves a series of multiple, low mag- annulus taut, thereby reducing th potential resistance
nitude compression forces, often imposed over a flexed that can be applied against approaching nuclear gel.
lumbar spine. This mechanism of prolapse generally oc- Despite th abundance of literature and anecdotal evi-
curs gradually from cumulative microtrauma, such as that dence, a single unifying cause-and-effect explanation for
which may occur from many years of repetitive lifting or all forms of disc herniation is lacking. The four factors
bending with an excessively flexed back. listed in th box, however, appear to be particularly im-
A flexed and/or twisted lumbar spine renders th disc portant.2 Disc prolapse can occur even in th absence of
mechanically vulnerable to protrusion. A flexed spine trauma or mechanical overload. A habitual, chronic sitting
stretches and thins th posterior side of th annulus as posture involving a rounded and flexed lumbar spine cer-
th nuclear gel is forced posteriorly, often under large tainly may predispose a person to posterior migration of
hydrostatic pressure.71 The amount of hydrostatic pressure th nucleus pulposus. A chronically flexed lumbar posture
increases with greater trunk muscle activation, usually in may, in time, overstretch th posterior annulus to a point
response to large external torques. With sufficiently high where it is unable to resist a potent hyperflexion-induced
hydrostatic pressure, th nuclear gel creates or finds a posterior migration of th nucleus. This explanation, how
ever, is subject to scrutiny because th incidence of disc
prolapse in th lumbar region is very low in cultures
whose people habitually squat with near maximal flexed
Factors that Favor Disc Herniation in th lumbar spines.28
Lumbar Spine The healthy lumbar disc with an intact annulus fibrosus
1. Propensity for fissures or tears in th posterior annulus is remarkably resistant to disc herniation, even from a
that aliows a path for th flow of nuclear material large flexion force. The reason for th relatively high inci
2. Sufficiently hydrated nucleus structurally capable of ex-
dence of disc prolapse in Western cultures is stili not
erting high pressure
3. inability of th posterior annulus to resist radiai pres
fully understood. Several factors involving different and
sure from th nucleus perhaps interrelated variables must be considered. These
4. Axial loading applied over a bent (flexed) and twisted factors include mechanical overload, pathology, poor nu-
spine trition, age, lifestyle, earlier injury, work habits, socioeco-
nomics, and genetics.
Extension of th Lumbar Region men, limit acttvities that involve hyperextension. Extension,
Extension of ihe lumbar region is essentially th reverse of however, tends to migrate th nucleus pulposus anteriorly.30
flexion (Fig. 9 - 5 5 B ), and it. increases th naturai lordosis. Persons with a nuclear protrusion or prolapse may find,
When lumbar extension is combined with full hip extension, therefore, that extension reduces th pain associated with
passive tension in th stretched hip flexor muscles helps pressure on th spinai cord or nerve roots. The normal
maintain lordosis by anteriori) tilting th pelvis. Extension lumbar lordotic posture may restrict th migration of th
between L2 and L3, for example, occurs as th inferior nucleus pulposus within a weakened disc from approaching
articular facets of L2 slide inferiorly and slightly posteriorly th neural elements. It is uncertain whether th nucleus
relative to th superior facets of th L3. Full extension in pulposus migrates in a similar manner in both healthy and
creases both th amount of load and area of contact at th degenerated discs.10
apophyseal joints.87
Lumbopelvic Rhythm During Trunk Flexion
In th neutral standing posture, th healthy disc is th
primary load-bearing structure in th lumbar region. As and Extension
such, healthy discs reduce th load imposed on apophyseal In conjunction with th hip joints, th lumbar region pro-
ioints and thereby protect them from excessive wear. In vides th major flexion and extension pivot point for th
diseased or severely dehydrated discs, however, a greater trunk, especially during activities such as forward bending,
proportion of th total load is shifted to th apophyseal climbing, and lifting. The kinematic relationship between th
joints. It is not uncommon, therefore, for a person with lumbar spine and hip joints during sagittal piane movemenls
severe disc disease to develop osteoarthritis in th lumbar is called lumbopelvic rhythm. An understanding of th normal
lumbopelvic rhythm during flexion and extension of th
apophyseal joints.
trunk can help distinguisi! pathology affecting th spine and
Extension of th Lumbar Spine and Its Effect on th that affecting th hips.
Diameter of th Inlervertebral Forameli and
Migration of th Nucleus Pulposus Lumbopelvic Rhythm During Trunk Flexion
Relative to th neutral position, full lumbar extension Consider th common action of bending forward and
reduces th diameter of th intervertebral foramina by 11% toward th ground while keeping th knees straight. This
and reduces th volume within th vertebral canal by 15%.45 motion is measured as a combination of about 40 degrees of
For this reason, clinicians often suggest that a person with lumbar flexion and 70 degrees of hip (pelvic-on-femoral)
nerve root impingement, from a stenosed intervertebral fora- flexion (Fig. 9 -6 6 A ).27 Although many strategies are possi-
298 Section III Axial Skeleton
Norinal lunibar and hip ilexion I Jniitcd hip flexion with Limited luinbar flexion
execssive lumhar flexion with excessive hip flexion
FIGURE 9-66. Three different lumbopelvic rhythms used to flex th trunk forward and toward th floor with knees held straight.
A, Typical lumbopelvic rhythm consists of about 40 degrees of flexion of th lumbar spine and 70 degrees of flexion ai th hips
(pelvis on femurs). B, With limited flexion in th hips (for example, from tight hamstrings), greater flexion s required of th
lumbar and lower thoracic spine, C, With limited lumbar mobility, greater flexion is required of th hip joints. Red arrows
indicate limited or restricted mobility.
ble, th hips and lumbar spine typically flex simultaneously force at th hips. In persons with healthy hips, this relatively
throughout th are of trunk flexion, with motion usually low-level increase in compression force is usually tolerated
initiated al th lumbar spine.75 Figure 9 - 6 6 B and C shows without cartilage degeneration or discomfort. In a person
obvious abnormal lumbopelvic rhythms associated with with a preexisting hip condition (e.g., osteoarthritis and
marked restriction in mobility at th hip joints (B) or lumbar gross joint asymmeiry), however, th increased compression
region (C). In both B and C, th amount of overall trunk force may accelerate degenerative changes.
flexion is reduced. lf greater trunk flexion is required, th
hip joints or lumbar region may mutually compensate for Lumbopelvic Rhythm During Trunk Extension
th others limited mobility. This situation may increase th The typical lumbopelvic rhythm used to extend th trunk
stress on th compensating region. As depicted in Figure from a forward bent position is depicted in a series of
9 -6 6 B , with limited hip flexion due to restricted ham- consecutive phases in Figure 9 -6 7 A to C. Extension of th
string extensibility, for example, bending th trunk toward trunk with knees extended is normally initiated by extension
th floor requires greater flexion in th lumbar and lower of th hips (Fig. 9 -6 7 A ). This is followed by extension of
thoracic spine. Eventually, exaggerated flexion may over- th lumbar spine (Fig. 9 - 6 7 B to C).75 This normal lumbo
stretch posterior connective tissues, such as th inter- pelvic rhythm reduces th demands on th lumbar extensor
spinous ligaments, posterior annular fibrosus, posterior muscles and underlying apophyseal joints and discs, thereby
longitudinal ligarnem, apophyseal joint capsule, and thora- protecting th region against high stress. Delay in lumbar
columbar fascia, or increase stress on th discs and apophy extension shifts th extensor torque demand to th powerful
seal joints. hip extensors (hamstrings and gluteus maximus), at th tinte
In contrast, as depicted in Figure 9 -6 6 C , limited mobility when th external flexion torque on th lumbar region is
in th lumbar spine may require greater flexion of th hip greatest (external moment arm depicted as dark black line:
joints. Greater forces may be required from th hip extensor see Fig. 9 -6 7 A ). In this scenario, th demand on th lumbar
m uscles w hich, as a consequenee, increase th compression extensor muscles increases only after th trunk is sufficienti)-
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 299
FIGURE 9-67. A typical lumbopelvic rhythm shown in ihree phases and used to extend ihe trunk from a forward bent
position. The moiion is arbitrarily divided into ihree chronologic phases (A lo C). In each phase, ihe axis of rotation (or th
trunk exlension is assumed io pierce ihe body of L3. A, In th early phase, trunk extension occurs to a greater extern ihrough
extension of th hips (pelvis on femurs), under strong actvation of hip extensor muscles (gluteus maximus and hamstrings).
B, In th middle phase, trunk extension occurs to a greater degree by extension of th lumbar spine. The middle phase
requires increased activation from lumbar extensor muscles. C. At th completion of th event, muscle activity typically ceases
once th line-of-force from body weight falls posterior to th hips. The external moment arm used by body weight is depicted
as a solid black line. The greater intensily of red indicates relative greater intensity of muscle activation.
raised and th extemal moment arm, relative to body trunk motion. A second movement strategy involves a rela-
weight, is minimized (Fig. 9 - 6 7 B). Persons with severe low- tively short-are tilt of th pelvis, with th trunk remaining
back pain may purposely delay active contraction of th nearly stationary. As depicted in Figure 9 -6 8 A to D, an
lumbar extensor muscles until th trunk is nearly vertical. anterior or a posterior pelvic tilt accentuates or reduces th
After standing completely upright, hip and back muscles are lumbar lordosis. Measured whtle standing, an approximate
typically inactive, as long as th force vector due to body one-to-one relationship exists between th change in pelvic
weight falls posterior to th hip joints (Fig. 9 - 6 7 C). tilt and th associated change in lumbar lordosis., '5 The
Effect of Pelvic Tilt on th Lumbar Spine change in lordosis alters th position of th nucleus pulpo-
Flexion and extension of th lumbar spine can occur by two sus within th disc and alters th diameter of th interverte-
fundamentally different movement strategies. The first strat- bral foramina.
egy is typically used io maximally dispiace th upper trunk The axis of rotation for pelvic ttlting is through both hip
and upper extremities relative to th thighs, such as when joints. This mechanical association strongly links th move
lifting or reaching. As depicted in Figures 9 - 6 6 and 9 - 6 7 , ment (pelvic-on-femoral) of th hip joints with that of th
this strategy combines maximal flexion and extension of th lumbar spine. This relationship is discussed further in th
lumbar spine with a wide are of pelvic-on-femoral (hip) and next section and again in Chapter 12.
300 Section III Axial Skeleton
Anterior pelvic tilt with lumbar extension Posterior pelvic tilt with lumbar flexion
L u m b a r e x te n s o r s
H ip f le x o r s
In te rv e rte b ra l Apophyseal
d is c jo in t
N u c le u s I n te rs p in o u s
In te rs p in o u s p u lp o s u s lig a m e n t
lig a m e n t
In te rv e rte b ra l S p in a i n e rv e
fo r a m e n
D
FIGURE 9-68. Anterior and posterior tilt of th pelvis and its effect on th ktnematics of th lumbar spine. A and C, A n t e n o r p elv ic tilt
extends th lumbar spine and increases lordosis. This action tends to shift th nucleus pulposus anteriori). and reduces th diameter of th
intervertebral foramtna B and D, P o s te r io r p elv ic tilt flexes th lumbar spine and decreases lordosis This action tends to shift th nucleus
pulposus posteriorly and increases th diameter of th intervertebral foramina. Muscle activity is shown in red
Therapeutic and Kinesiologic C.orrelations betwcen The lumbar region may demonstrate greatly exaggeratec
Anterior Pelvic Tilt and Increascd Lumbar Lordosis lordosis that is undesirable from a medicai perspective. The
Active anterior tilt of th pelvis is caused by th hip paihomechanics of severe lordosis often involves a hip flex-
flexor and back extensor muscles (Fig. 9 -6 8 A ). Strengthen-
ion contracture with greatly increased passive tension in th
ing and increasing th control of these muscles, in theory, hip flexor muscles (Fig. 9 -6 9 A and B). Possible negative
favors a more lordotic posture of th lumbar spine. Although
consequences of exaggerated lordosis include increased com- I
this idea is intriguing, whether a person can subconsciously
pression force on th apophyseal joints and increased ante- I
adopt and maintain a newly leamed pelvic posture is uncer-
rior shear force at th lumbosacral junction, possibly leadinc
tain. Nevertheless, maintaining th naturai lordotic posture
to spondylolisthesis.
in th lumbar spine is a fundamental principle espoused by
McRenzie*'5 for persons with a hemiated disc. Increased lum Therapeutic and Kinesiologic Correlations betwcen
bar extension reduces th pressure within th disc71 and, in Posterior Pelvic Tilt and Decreased Lumbar Lordosis
some cases, reduces th contact pressure between th dis- Active posterior tilting of th pelvis is produced by hip I
placed nuclear material and th neural elements.59 Evidence extensor and abdominal muscles (see Fig. 9 - 6 8 B ). Strength- I
of th latter is often described dinically as centralization of ening and increasing th patients conscious control ove: I
low-back pain, meaning that discogenic pain (form erly in th these muscles theoretically favors a redu ced lum bar lordosis I
iowej e.xircmties due io nerve to o l im pm gem en t) migrates
This con cep t was th trademark o f th Williams flexion 1
toward [he low b ack .22 Centralization, therefore, suggests re- exercise, a therapeutic approach that stressed stretching th I
duced disc pressure on th nerve root. hip flexor and back extensor muscles and strengthening th
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 301
B o d y w e ig h t B o d y w e ig h t
FIGURE 9-70. Sitting posture and effects on th alignment of th lumbar and craniocervical regions. A, With a slouehed sitting
posture, th lumbar spine flexes, which reduces its norma] lordosis. As a consequence, th head tends to assume a forward
posture (see text). B, With an ideal sitting posture aided with a cushion, th lumbar spine assumes a normal lordosis, which
facilitates a more desirable chin-in position of th head.
base of th cervical spine. The forward-head posture in- be improved by a combination of awareness; strengthening
creases th extemal flexion torque on th cervical column as and stretching th appropriate muscles; eyeglasses; and er-
a whole, requiring greater force production from th exten- gonomically designed seating, which includes adequate lum
sor muscles and locai connective tissues. Sitting posture may bar support.
S P E C I A L F O C U S 9 - 1 1
U
Flexion and Extension Exercises for Treatment of Low-
Back Pain Understanding th "Trade-Offs" 9 - 1 5 . Biomechanical Conscquences of
T A B L E
Lumbar Flexion and Extension
As described, flexion and extension of th low back have
marked and usually contrasting biomechanical conse- Movement Biom echanical Consequences
quences on intervertebral joints from disc migration to
th relative loading of th apophyseal joints (Table 9-15). Flexion 1. Tends to migrate th nucleus pulposus pos-
Considerable controversy exists on th effectiveness of leriorly, toward neural tissue.
different exercise approaches for th treatment of low- 2. Increases th size of th opening of th inter-
vertebral foramina.
back pain. An exercise approach that stresses flexion, for
3. Transfers load from th apophyseal joints to
example, may be th most appropriate biomechanical in-
th intervertebral discs.
tervention for one patient but not for another. Complicat- 4 Increases tension in th posterior connective
ing matters is often th lack of understanding of th exact tissues (ligamentum flava, apophyseal joint
mechanical dysfunction underlying a person's low-back capsules, interspinous and supraspinous lig-
pain. Although th mechanics and treatment for low-back aments, posterior longitudinal ligament) and
pain are sometimes obvious, th exact medicai diagnosis posterior margin of th annulus fibrosus.
is not in many cases. 5. Compresses th anterior side of th annulus
A thorough discussion of th various physical therapy fibrosus.
Services for chronic low-back pain is not in th scope of Extension 1. Tends to migrate th nucleus pulposus cinte-
this chapter. As a generai principle, however, physical riorly, away from neural tissue.
therapy is used to devise th exercises that strengthen 2. Decreases th size of th opening of th in
and stabilize th low back, to educate patients on ways to tervertebral foramina.
reduce th load or stress on th low back during activi- 3. Transfers load from th intervertebral disc to
ties of daily living, and to encourage a pain-free, more th apophyseal joints.
normal range of movement. Regardless of th specific 4. Decreases tension in th posterior connective
tissues (see above) and posterior margin of
therapeutic approach, th therapist and physician must
th annulus fibrosus.
understand th underlying biomechanical contraindications 5. Stretches th anterior side of th annulus
relevant to th diagnosis. Developing this understanding fibrosus.
requires a sound knowledge of th anatomy and kinesiol-
ogy of th lumbar region and years of clinical practice.
Chapter 9 Osteolog y and Arthrology 303
Horizontal Piane Kinematics at th Lumbar Regina: 2. The thoracic spine permits a relatively Constant amount
Axial Rotation of lateral flexion. This kinematic feature reflects th generai
Only 5 degrees of horizontal piane rotation occurs to each frontal piane orientation of th apophyseal joints combined
side throughout th lumbar region. This motion is shown in with th stabilizing function of th ribs.
context with th rotation of th thoracolumbar region in 3. The thoracic spine supports and protects th thorax
Figure 9 - 5 6 6 . Axial rotation to th tight, between LI and and its enclosed organs. As described in Chapter 11, an
L2 for instante, occurs as th left inferior articular facet of importam function of th thorax is io provide a mechanical
LI approximates or compresses against th left superior ar- bellows for ventilation.
ticular facet of L2. Simultaneously, th right inferior articular 4. The thoracolumbar spine, from a cranial-to-caudal direc
Acet of LI separates (distracts) from th right superior artic tion, permits increasing amounts of flexion and extension, at
ular facet of L2. th expense of axial rotation. This feature reflects, among
The amount of actual intervertebral motion during axial other things, th progressive transformation of th orienta
rotation is ver)-' limited in th lumbar region. Only 1.1 de tion of th apophyseal joints, from th horizontal/frontal
grees of unilateral axial rotation is measured at th L 3 - 4 planes in th cervical-thoracic junction to th near sagittal
intervertebral junction.93 The near sagittal piane orentaton piane in th lumbar region. The prevailing near sagittal piane
of th apophyseal joints physically blocks axial rotation. As and vertical orientation of th lumbar region naturally favors
indicateci in Figure 9 - 5 6 6 , th apophyseal joints located flexion and extension, but restricts axial rotation.
contralateral to th side of th rotation compress, thereby 5. The lumbar spine, in combination with flexion and
blocking further movement. Axial rotation is also restricted extension of th hips, forms th primary pivot point for
by tension created in th stretched capsules of th apophy sagittal piane motion of th entire superimposed trunk.
seal joints35 and stretched fibers within th annulus fibrosus.54
Axial rotation, as little as 1 to .3 degrees per intervertebral
unction, has been shown to damage th articular facet sur- SACROILIAC JOINTS
taces and annulus fibrosus.12
The naturai resistance to axial rotation provides vertical The sacroiliac joints mark th transition between th caudal
stability throughout th lower end of th vertebral column. end of th axial skeleton and th lower appendicular skele
The well-developed lumbar multifidi muscles and relatively ton. The analogous articulations at th cranial end of th
ngid sacroiliac joints reinforce this stability. axial skeleton are th sternoclavicular joints within th
shoulder complex. Both th sternoclavicular and sacroiliac
Frontal Piane Kinematics at th Lumbar Region: joints possess unique structural characterisdcs needed to sat-
Lateral Flexion isfy equally unique functional demands. The saddle-shaped
sternoclavicular joint is designed primarily for mobility. In
About 15 to 20 degrees of lateral flexion occurs to each side contrast, th large, tight-ftting sacroiliac joint is designed
in th lumbar region.81 Except for differences in orientation primarily for stability, with mobility being a secondary, al
and strutture of th apophyseal joints, th arthrokinematics though nonetheless importam, function.
of lateral flexion are essentially th same in th lumbar
The structural differences in th sternoclavicular and
region as in th thoracic region. Soft tissues on th side
sacroiliac joints generally reflect th differences in overall
opposite th lateral (lexion limit th motion (Fig. 9 - 5 7 6 ) . functions of th upper and lower extremities. The stemocla-
The nucleus pulposus migrates slightly toward th convex vicular joints enjoy three degrees of freedom, a definite ne-
side of th bend. cessity for providing wide placement of th hands in space.
As with th cervical and thoracic regions, lateral flexion in The sacroiliac joints, in contrast, are stable and relatively
th lumbar region is coupled with relatively small amounts rigid, ensuring effettive load transfer among th vertebral
of axial rotation, and vice versa.1842,82 Although th precise column, lower extremities, and earth.
magnitude and direction of th coupling varies between sub- The exact relationship between structure and function of
jects and within th lumbar region, research does suggest an th sacroiliac joint is controversial.6,37,87,97 The location of th
overall contralateral pattern. Active lateral flexion to th sacroiliac joints seems to make it susceptible to abnormally
nght, for example, is typically accompanied with slight axial large stresses due to asymmetry in leg length and abnormal
rotation to th left.93 Mechanisms to explain th coupling posture of th lower spine or pelvis. A mechanism that
pattern in th lumbar spine are not clear. describes th deterioratimi or malalignment of th sacroiliac
joint as a common cause of low-back pain, however, is not
universally agreed upon. Mixed conclusions are reached re-
SUMMARY OF THE KINEMATICS WITHIN garding th efficacy of diagnostic clinical testing and clinical
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN intervention.6098105 Adding to th clinical ambiguity of th
sacroiliac joint is th lack of standard terminology to de-
The following points summarize th main kinematic themes scribe th related anatomy and kinesiology. As a result, th
of th vertebral column: biomechanical and clinical importance of th sacroiliac joint
is often either understated or exaggerated.
1. The cervical spine permits relatively large amounts of
motion in all three planes. Most notable is th high degree
Anatomia Considerations
of axial rotation permitted at th atlanto-axial joint complex.
Ampie range of motion is necessary for spadai orientation of The structural demands placed on th sacroiliac joints are
th neck and head th site of hearing, sight, smeli, and considered in context with th entire pelvic ring. The compo-
equilibrium. nents of th pelvic ring are th sacrum, th pair of sacroiliac
304 Section III Axial Skeleton
joints, th three bones of each hemipelvis (ilium, pubis, and th sacroiliac joint as a reliable method to determine th
ischium), and th pubic symphysis joint (Fig. 9 - 7 1 ) . The approximate age of a specimen.
pelvic ring transfers body weight bidirectionally between th The rather dramatic changes in th articular structure of
trunk and femurs. The strength of th pelvic ring depends th sacroiliac joints between young and old age are in som;
on th fit and stability of th sacrum, wedged between th ways similar to those of joints that develop osteoarthritis. '
two halves of th pelvis. The sacrum, anchored by th two For unexplained reasons, degenerative-like changes o c c h i
sacroiliac joints, is th keystone of th pelvic ring. more frequently on th cartilage on th side of th ilium.471:
is likely that th degenerative changes are not pathologic. ir
JOINT STRUCTURE AND LIGAMENTOUS SUPPORT th strict sense of th word, but rather a naturai response t
S h o r t p o s te r io r
s a c r o ilia c lig a m e n ts
Ligaments that Stabilize th Sacroiliac Joint
P rim a ry L o n g p o s t e r io r
2. Interosseous ligament G re a te r s c ia t ic fo r a m e n
3. Short and long posterior sacroiliac ligaments
S a c r o s p in o u s lig a m e n t
S econ dary
4. Sacrotuberous ligament S a c r o t u b e r o u s lig a m e n t
5. Sacrospinous ligament
L e s s e r s c ia t ic fo r a m e n
Superior view
T r a n s v e r s u s a b d o m in is
E r e c t o r s p in a e
M u lt if id u s
THORACOLUMBAR FASCIA less, are lypically used for this purpose: nutation and coun-
The thoracolumbar fascia is believed to have an important temutation. They describe movements limited to th sagittal
functional role in th mechanical stability of th low back, piane, about a mediai-lateral axis of rotation that traverses
including th sacroiliac jo in t.103 Thts tissue is most extensive th interosseous ligament (Fig. 9 - 7 7 ) . Nutation (meaning to
in th lumbar region, where it is organized into anterior, nod) is defned as th relative anterior tilt of th base (top
middle, and posterior layers. Three layers of th thoracolum of th sacrum relative to th iltum. Counternutation is a
bar fascia partially surround and compartmentalize th pos reverse motion defined as th relative posterior tilt of th bas-
terior muscles of th lower back (Fig. 9 - 7 6 ) . of th sacrum relative to th ilium. (Note th term relatri e
The anterior and middle layers of th thoracolumbar fascia used in th above definitions.) As depicted in Figure 9 - 7 7
are named according to their position relative to th quadra nutation and counternutation can occur by sacral-on-iliaa
tus lumborum muscle. Both layers are anchored medially to rotation (as previously defined), by ilium-on-sacral rotation,
th transverse processes of th lumbar vertebrae, and inferi- or by both motions performed simultaneously.
orly to th iliac crests. The posterior layer of th thoracolum
bar fascia lies over th posterior surface of th erector spinae
and, more superfcially, th latissimus dorsi muscle. Thts Motions at th Sacroiliac Joint
layer of th thoracolumbar fascia attaches to th spinous 1. Nutation occurs by anterior sacral-on-iliac rotation, poste
processes of all lumbar vertebrae and th sacrum, and to th rior ilium-on-sacral rotation, or by both motions per
ilium near th posterior superior-iliac spines. These extensive formed simultaneously.
skeletal attachments provide mechanical stability to th 2. Counternutation occurs by posterior sacral-on-iliac rota
tion, anterior ilium-on-sacral rotation, or by both mo
sacroiliac joint. Stability is enhanced by attachments made
tions performed simultaneously.
by th gluteus maximus and latissimus dorsi.
The posterior and middle layers of th thoracolumbar
fascia fuse at their lateral margins, forming a lateral raphe.
This tissue serves as an attachment for th internai obliquus
abdominus and transversus abdominus muscles. The func
tional signifcance of these muscular attachments is clarified
in th discussion on lifting mechanics in Chapter 10.
Kinematics
Relatively small rotational and translational movements occur
at th sacroiliac joint, primarily in th sagittal piane.26'50'89-95
Data from th studies that measured th movements vary
considerably. Typical mean values fall within th 0.2- to
2-degree range for rotation, and 1- to 2-mm range for trans-
lation.26-30-95 Passive range of motion of 7 to 8 degrees has
been measured during th extremes of bilateral hip motions.89
Movements at th sacroiliac joint likely occur as a combina-
f e l l i Anterior sacrai tilt 0 Posterior sacrai tilt
tion of compression force on th articular cartilage and ac-
1___ | Posterior iliac tilt 1 1Anterior iliac tilt
tual slight movement between joint surfaces.
Several terms and axes of rotation have been proposed to
FIGURE 9-77. The kinematics at th sacroiliac joint: A, Nutation 7
describe th motion at th sacroiliac joints.6'48 Although no
Counternutation. (See text for definitions.) Sacrai rotations are ind -
terminology completely describes th complex multiplanar cated in gray, and iliac rotations in white. The axis of rotation fot
rotational and translational movements, two terms, neverthe- sagittal piane movement is indicated by th small circle.
Chapter 9 Osteology and Arthrology 307
E re c to r
s p in a e
S a c ro tu b e ro u s
lig a m e n t
B ic e p s
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C h a p t e r 10
Axial Skeleton:
Muscle and Joint Interactions
Donald A. Neumann, PT, PhD
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
IN N ERVATIO N TO THE M USCLES A N D Anatomy and Actions of th S ta b iliz in g th C ra n io c e rv ic a l R egion, 339
JOINTS W IT H IN THE TR U N K A N D Abdominal Muscles, 325 P ro d u c in g E xtensive and W e ll-
: r a n io c e r v i c a l r e g i o n s , 312 S e t 3: A d d itio n a l M u s c le (llio p s o a s and C o o rd in a te d M o v e m e n ts o f th H ead
entrai Ramus Innervation, 312 Q u a d ra tu s L u m borum ), 327 and N e ck: O p tim izin g th P la c e m e n t
P lexus, 312 Muscles of th Trunk Section II: o f th Eyes, Ears, and N ose, 340
S e g m e n ta i In n e rv a tio n , 313 Functional Interactions Among Muscles, SELECTED B IO M E C H A N IC A L ISSUES OF
borsai Ramus Innervation, 314 328 LIFTING: A FOCUS ON REDUCING BACK
S e g m e n ta i In n e rv a tio n , 314 P ro v id in g C ore S ta b ility to th T ru n k , 329 IN JU R Y , 342
TRUNK A N D CRANIO CERVICAL REGIONS, Intrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of th Muscular Mechanics of Extension of th
314 Trunk, 329 Low-Back While Lifting, 342
Action of th Muscles of th Trunk and Extrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of th E stim a tin g th M a g n itu d e o f Force
Craniocervical Region, 315 Trunk, 330 Im p o se d on th L o w B a c k W h ile
P ro d u c tio n o f In te rn a i T o rq u e , 315 C o n tro llin g th S it-u p M o v e m e n t, 331 L iftin g , 342
S p e c ia l C o n s id e ra tio n s fo r th S tu d y o f Muscles of th Craniocervical Region W a y s to R edu ce th F o rce D em a nds on
M u s c le A c tio n w ith in th A x ia l Section I: Anatomy and Individuai th B a c k M u s c le s W h ile L iftin g , 344
S ke le to n , 315 Muscle Action, 333 Rote o f In c re a s in g In tra -A b d o m in a l
Muscles of th Trunk Section I: Anatomy C e rv ic a l F ascia, 334 P re s s u re W h ile Liftin g , 345
and Individuai Muscle Action, 316 S et 1: A n te rio r-L a te ra l M u s c le s o f th A d d itio n a l S o u rc e s o f E xtensio n T o rq u e
S et 1: M u s c le s o f th P o s te rio r T ru n k C ra n io c e rv ic a l R egion, 334 U sed fo r L iftin g , 346
( " B a c k " M u s c le s ), 316 Sternocleidomastoid, 334 Passive Tension Generation from
Muscles in th Superficial and Scalenes, 336 Stretching th Posterior
Intermediate Layers of th Back, Longus Colli and Longus Capitis, 336 Ligamentous System, 346
317 Rectus Capitis Anterior and Rectus Muscular-Generated Tension
Muscles in th Deep Layer of th Capitis Lateralis, 336 Transferred Through th
Back, 317 S et 2: P o s te rio r M u s c le s o f th Thoracolumbar Fascia, 347
Erector Spinae, 318 C ra n io c e rv ic a l R egion, 337 A Closer Look at Lifting Technique, 347
Transversospinal M uscles, 321 Splenius Cervicis and Capitis, 337 T w o C o n tra s tin g Liftin g T e c h n iq u e s : The
Short Segmentai Group of Muscles, 323 Suboccipital Muscles, 338 S to o p v e rs u s th S q u a t Lift, 347
S et 2: M u s c le s o f th A n te rio r-L a te ra l Muscles of th Craniocervical Region Summary: Factors that Contribute to Safe
T ru n k (" A b d o m in a l" M u s c le s ), 323 Section II: Functional Interactions Lifting, 348
Formation of th Rectus Sheaths and Among Muscles that Cross th
Linea Alba, 323 Craniocervical Region, 338
zius muscle, for example, attaches to th clavicle and th both sensory and motor fbers.) Once within th interverte-
scapula within th appendicular skeleton, and to th verte- bral foramen, th spinai nerve thickens owing to th merg-
bral column and th cranium within th axial skeleton, Pro- ing of th motor and sensory neurons and th presence of
tective guarding due to an itiflamed upper trapezius can th dorsal root ganglion.
affect th quality of motion throughout th upper extremity The vertebral column contains 31 pairs of spinai nerves:
and craniocervical region. 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacrai, and 1 coccygeal.
Consider th many neurologie reflexes that exist within The abbreviations C, T, L, and 5 with th appropriate super-
th craniocervical region that help coordinate sight, hearing, script number designate each spinai nerve, or nerve root
and equilibrium. Muscular dysfunction in this region is for example, C5 and T6. The cervical region has seven verte-
therefore often associated with severe headache, vertigo, brae bui eight cervical nerves. The suboccipital nerve (C:
emotional tension, and hypersensitivity to light and sound. leaves th spinai cord between th occipital bone and posie-
The primary aim of this chapter is to elucidate th struc- rior arch of th atlas (C l). The C8 spinai nerve leaves th
ture and function of th muscles within th axial skeleton. spinai cord between th seventh cervical vertebra (C7) and
This information is essential to th evaluation and treatment th first thoracic vertebra (T l). Spinai nerves T l and below
of a wide range of musculoskeletal disorders, such as pos leave th spinai cord below their respective vertebral bodies
tumi malalignment, muscle and soft tissue strain, and disc Once a spinai nerve exits its intervertebral foramen, it
herniation. immediately divides into a ventral and dorsal ramus (from th
Latin ramus, meaning path). The ventral ramus forms
nerves that innervate th muscles, joints, and skin ol th
anterior-lateral trunk and neck and all th extremities. The
INNERVATION TO THE MUSCLES AND dorsal ramus, in contrast, forms nerves that innervate th
JOINTS WITHIN THE TRUNK AND muscles, joints, and skin of th posterior trunk and neck.
CRANIOCERVICAL REGIONS
Ventral Ramus Innervation
An understanding of th organization of th peripheral in-
nervation of th craniocervical and trunk muscles begins Each ventral ramus of a spinai nerve forms a plexus or
with an appreciation of a typical spinai nervo (Fig. 1 0 - 1 ). continues as a single nerve that innervates tissue in a highly
Each spinai nerve is formed by th union of a ventral and a segmentai fashion.
dorsal nerve root: th ventral nerve mot contains primarily
outgoing (elferent) axons that supply motor drive to mus
PLEXUS
cles and other effector organs associated with th autonomie
System. The dorsal nerve root contains primarily incoming A plexus is an intermingling of ventral rami that form pt
(afferenti dendrites with th celi body of th neuron located ripheral nerves. The four major plexus, excluding th smal
in an adjacent dorsal root ganglion. Sensory neurons trans- coccygeal plexus, are formed by ventral rami: cervical (C1
mit information to th spinai cord from th muscles, joints, brachial ( G - T 1), lumbar (T l2-L4), and sacrai (L4-S4). With
skin, and other organs associated with th autonomie ner- th exception of th cervical plexus, most of th nerves tha:
vous System. exit th brachial, lumbar, and sacrai plexus innervate struc-
Protected within th vertebral canal, th ventral and dor tures associated with th appendicular skeleton. Only a few
sal nerve roots join to form a mixed spinai nerve. (The nerves from th brachial, lumbar, and sacrai plexus innerva-.
adjective mixed" indicates that th spinai nerve contains structures associated with th axial skeleton (Fig. 1 0 -2 A )
D ura
S u b d u ra i sp a ce
A ra c h n o id
S u b a ra c h n o id sp a ce
Pia
D orsa l root D orsa l root FIGURE 10-1. A cross-section of th spinai cord
ga n g lio n shows th dorsal (sensory) and ventral (moloc
S pinai ne rve roots forming a spinai nerve. The spinai nerve d
vides into a relatively small dorsal ramus and a
D orsa l ram us much larger ventral ramus. (Modified with permi;-
sion from Jenkins DB: Hollingsheads F u n a io li.
V entral ro ot
Anatomy of th Limbs and Back, 7th ed. Philade.-
phia, W B Saunders, 1998.)
V entral ra m us
R am i co m m u n i-
ca n te s
f
Cervical (C1-4) : :r ~
Intercostal nerves (T1-12)
M u scle : 1. lo n g u s co lli and
lo n g u s c a p itis M u scle : 1. in te rco sta l m u scle s (T 2-T 12)
2. d ia p h ra g m 2. "a b d o m in a r m u scle s (T 7- L 1)
S kin: to p o f th c h e s t and S kin: a n te rio r-la te ra l tru n k (T 1' 12)
s h o u ld e rs (s u p ra c la v ic u la r (a n te rio r cu ta n e o u s ne rves)
n e rves) Jo in t: s te rn o c o s ta l jo in t
J o in t: s te rn o c la v ic u la r jo in t
YMi
m zz.
F ~ Recurrent meningeal
Brachial (C5- ! -1)
nerves (C 1- S 4)
M u scle : rh o m b o id s
M u scle : no ne
S kin: none
S kin: none
Jo in t: none
FIGURE 1 0 -2 . Examples of tissues associated Jo in t: in te rb o d y jo in t
vitti th axial skeleton that are innervated by
entrai rami of spinai nerves, via plexus (A) or
segmentai innervation (B).
Lumbar (L1-4)
M u scle : p so a s m a jo r
S kin: no ne
Jo in t: s a c ro ilia c jo in t (L3-4)
1 ... ......
Sacrai (L4-S 4)
M u scle : 1. g lu te u s m a x im u s (by
a ctio n o f ch a n g in g
th d e g re e o f lu m b a r
lord osis)
2. p irifo rm is (as a s ta b iliz e r
o f th s a c ro ilia c jo in t)
S kin: no ne
J o in t: s a c ro ilia c jo in t (L4- S 2)
Introduction
FIGURE 10-3. The cutaneous distribution is shown for th dorsi
The muscles of th axial skeleton can be organized into two rami of spinai nerves. The nerves are numbered on th righi side re
categories. (1) th trunk and (2) th craniocervical region 2C for th C2 nerve, IT for th T1, and so forth. The spinoci
processes of various vertebral levels are numbered on th left sidf
(7C for C7, IL for LI, and so forth). The dotted line on th lev
mdicates th lateral limit of skin that is innervated by th dorsal
rami. (From Williams PL, Bannister LH, Berty M, et al: Gray^
TABLE 1 0 - 1 . Examples of Tissues Innervateci by Anatomy, 38th ed. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995.)
Dorsal Rami of Spinai Nerves
Muscle
1. Muscles in th deep layer of th back, such as th erector (Table 1 0 - 2 ) . The muscles within each caiegory are furthe:
spinae and transversospinal muscles (C2-S3) organized into sets, based on generai location.
2. Splenius capitis (C3-7)
The material within each category is presented in twc
3. Suboccipital muscles (C1)
Skin sections, th ftrst covering anatomy and individuai muscle
Posterior trunk (C2-S5)* actions, and th second covering examples of th func-
Joint tional interactions among th related muscles or muscle
1. Capsule of apophyseal joints groups. Throughout this chapter, th reader is encouraged to
2. Ligaments to th posLerior aspect of a vertebrae consult Chapter 9 for a review of th pertinent osteology
3. Sacroiliac joints and associated ligaments (L-S2) related to th attachments of muscles. Appendix 111, Parts A
to C, should be consulted for a summary of more detailed
* Dorsal rami of lower sacrai nerves fuse with dorsal rami of coccygeal muscular anatomy and innen'ation to th muscles of th
nerves (sensory only). axial skeleton.
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 315
Frontal piane
LATERAL
FLEXION
O b liq u u s e x te rn u s
a b d o m in is
skeleton, with some combination of lateral flexion and con- vis. With th pclvis stabilized, th muscle can extend th
tralateral or ipsilateral axial rotation. The term lateral flexion thorax; with th thorax stabilized, th muscle can rotate (tilt)
of th axial skeleton implies ipsilateral lateral flexion. th pelvis. If th thorax and pelvis are both free to move,
The action of a muscle within th axial skeleton depends, th muscle can simultaneously extend th thorax and anteri-
in pari, on th relative degree of fixation, or stabilization, of orly tilt th pelvis. Unless otherwise stated, it is assumed
th attachments of th muscle. As an example, consider th that th superior (cranial) end of a muscle is less constrained
effect of a contraction of a member of th erector spinae and, therefore, freer to move than its inferior or caudal end.
group a muscle that attaches to both th thorax and pel- Depending on body position, gravity routinely assists or
resists movements of th axial skeleton. Slowly flexing th
head from th anatomie position, for example, is normally
controlled by eccentrie activation of th neck extensor mus
cles. Gravity, in this case, is th prime flexor of th head,
whereas th extensor muscles control th speed and extern
of th action. Rapidly flexing th head, however, requires a
burst of concentric activation from th neck flexor muscles,
because th desired speed of th motion may be greater than
that produced by action of gravity alone. Unless otherwise
stated, it is assumed that th action of a muscle is performed
via a concentric contraction, rotating a body segment against
gravity or against some other forni of extemal resistance.
Muscles in th Superficial and Intermediate Layers of from an embryologic perspective, they were originally associ-
th Back ated with th front limb buds and only later migrated
The muscles in th superficial layer of th back are pre- dorsally to their final position on th back, lnterestingly,
sented in th study of th shoulder (see Chapter 5). They muscles such as th levator scapula, rhomboids, and serratus
include th trapezius, latissimus dorsi, rhomboids, levator anterior, although located within th back, are actually up
scapula, and serratus anterior. The trapezius and latissimus per limb muscles. All extrinsic muscles of th back are,
dorsi are mesi superficial, followed by th deeper rhomboids therefore, innervated by ventral rami of spinai nerves (i.e.,
and levator scapula. The serratus anterior muscle ts located brachial plexus or intercostal nerves).
more laterally on th thorax.
In generai, bilateral activation of th muscles of th super Muscles in th Deep Layer of th Back
ficial layer extends th adjacent region of th axial skeleton. Muscles in th deep layer of th back are th (1) erector
Unilateral activation, however, laterally flexes and, in most spinae group, (2) transversospinal group, and (3) short seg
cases, axially rotates th region. mentai group (Table 1 0 - 3 ). The anatomie organization of
The muscles included in th intennediate layer of th th erector spinae and transversospinal groups is illustrated
back are th serratus posterior superior and th serratus in Figure 1 0 - 7 .
posterior inferior. They are located just deep to th rhom In generai, from superficial to deep, th fiber lengths of
boids and latissimus dorsi. The serratus posterior superior th muscles in th deep layer become progressive!)' shorter.
and inferior are thin muscles that likely contribute little to A muscle within th more superficial erector spinae group
th movement or stability of th trunk. Their function is may extend virtually th entire length of th vertebral col-
more likely related to th mechanics of ventilation and, as umn. In contrast, muscles within th deeper short segmentai
such, are described in Chapter 11. group each cross only one intervertebral junction.
Muscles within th superficial and intennediate layers of Although exceptions prevail, muscles in th deep layer of
th back are often referred to as extrinsic muscles because, th back are innervated segmentali)' through th dorsal rami
General Fiber
Group (and Relative Depth) Individuai Muscles Direction Comments
E r e c to r S p in a e (S u p e r fic ia l) Iliocostalis lumborum Cranial and lateral Most effettive leverage for lateral flexion
Iliocostalis thoracis Vertical
Iliocostalis cervicis Cranial and mediai
Longissimus thoracis Vertical Most developed of erector spinae group
Longissimus cervicis Cranial and mediai
Longissimus capitis Cranial and lateral
Spinalis thoracis Vertical Poorly defned, fuses with semispinalis muscles
Spinalis cervicis Vertical
Spinalis capitis Vertical
T r a n s v e r s o s p in a l (In te r m e d ia te ) Semispinalis
Semispinalis thoracis Cranial and mediai Cross six to eight intervertebral junctions
Semispinalis cervicis Cranial and mediai
Semispinalis capitis Vertical
Multifidi Cranial and mediai Cross two to four intervertebral junctions
Rotatores
Rotator brevis Cranial and mediai Rotator longus crosses two intervertebral junc-
Rotator longus Horizontal tions; th rotator brevis crosses one inter
vertebral junction. The rotatores are most
developed in thoracic region.
S h ort S eg m en ta i (D eep ) lnlerspinalis Vertical Both muscles cross one intervertebral junction.
Intertransversarus Vertical Most developed in th cervical region.
Interspinalis muscles are mixed with th inter-
spinous ligaments.
Superior view
FIGURE 1 0 -7 . Cross-sectional
view through T9 highlighting
th topographic organization of
th erector spinae and th trans-
versospinal group of muscles.
The short segmentai group of
muscles is not shown.
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 319
Iliocostalis Muscles
The iliocostalis muscles include th iliocostalis lumborum,
iliocostalis thoracis, and iliocostalis cervicis. They occupy th
most lateral column of th erector spinae group. The iliocos-
talis muscies run cranialiy from th common tendon. The design more suited for control o f gross movements o f th
iliocostalis lumborum and thoracis insert generally lateral to entire axial skeleton than for control of finer movements at
th angle o f th ribs. The iliocostalis cervicis attaches to th individuai intervertebral junctions. As a group, hilateral con-
posterior tubercles of th transverse processes of th mid traction of th erector spinae extends th trunk, neck, or
cervical vertebrae, along with th longissimus cervicis. head (Fig. 1 0 - 9 ).
By attaching to th sacrum and to th pelvis, th erector
Sumniary of th Erector Spinae Group spinae can anteriorly tilt th pelvis, thereby accentuating th
The erector spinae muscies cross a considerable distance lumbar lordosis. (Pelvic tilt describes a sagittal piane rotation
along th axial skeleton. This anatomie feature suggests a of th pelvis about th hips. The direction of th tilt is
0 S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 0 -
Forces Generateci by th Lumbar Extensor Muscies carrying loads in a standard backpack generated, on
While Carrying External Loads average, about th same magnitude from th lumbar
Because of th ventral positioning of th eyes and erector spinae as that produced when not carrying a
arms, external loads are frequently manipulated, passed, load.15 This is in sharp contrast to th large EMG re-
or carried anterior to th body. The lumbar extensor sponse from th same muscies when carrying th same
muscies such as th erector spinae are consist load anterior to th trunk.
e n ti required to produce large internai forces in re- Note in Figure 10-10 th large disparity in erector
sponse to these ventrali placed external loads. The spinae EMG when hand-held loads are carried either
force demands on th entire set of lumbar extensor ipsilateral or contralateral to th side of th lumbar
muscies are typically large due to th muscle groups' extensor muscle. The contralateral load requires a large
overall poor mechanical advantage (i.e., th ratio of lateral flexion torque produced unilaterali by th lum
internal-to-external moment arm; see Chapter 1). A typi- bar erector spinae, as well as th other lumbar exten
cal erector spinae muscle in th lumbar region, for sor muscies. This information is helpful when advising
instance, may have an internai moment arm of 5 cm, persons about safe methods of carrying hand-held
whereas th external moment arm of a hand-held load loads, especially when unilateral muscle, joint, or con-
could be as great as 70 cm th horizontal distance nective tissue injury is suspected.
between th lumbar vertebral body and th outstretched
hand. Given a mechanical advantage of .07 (5/70), th 1 6 -i
extensor muscies must produce a force 14 times larger 10% B ody weight
than th weight of th load (i.e., th reciprocai of th C 3 20% B ody weight
mechanical advantage). For example, holding a gallon of
12-
water weighing about 35.6 N (about 8 Ib) at a distance o
70 cm in front of th chest requires at least 498 N >
(about 112 Ib) of force from th lumbar extensor mus
cies. If th additional external torque created by both o'
outstretched arms is considered, th total force re o
quired by th lumbar extensor muscies is more than UH
doubled! Although this muscular force is only about
25% of th total maximal force potential of th lumbar
extensor muscies,10 this example does partially explain
why th lumbar spine and associated extensor muscies
are inherently vulnerable to injury when one handles
relatively light materials.
For persons vulnerable to disabling low-back pain,
Ipsilateral Posterior Contralateral Anterior
carrying loads should be limited, especially when held
in front of th body. If loads must be carried, they Carrying Position
should be as lig h t as possible, and carried as d o s e to FIGURE Mean electromyographic (EMG) values ex-
1 0 -1 0 .
th body as possible. Carrying a load directly over th pressed as a percent of maximal voluntary isometric contraction
head reduces th demands on all muscies of th trunk. (MV1C) from th lumbar erector spinae muscies while walking
Although carrying loads in this method is popular in and carrying loads of two sizes and lour carrying positions. The
some regions of th world, it does have th disadvan- carrying position noted on th X axis is based on th position of
tage of increased compression forces on th cranio- th load relative to th erector spinae muscies. The bold horizon
tal line marks th EMG response while subjects walked without
cervical region which, generally speaking, is not de-
carrying a load. (Data from Cook TM, Neumann DA: The effeets
signed to support large loads. Carrying loads in a of load placement on th EMG activity of th low back muscies
backpack is an alternative. As shown by th electromy- during load carry by men and women. Ergonomics 30 1413-
ographic (EMG) study associated with Figure 10-10, 1423, 1987.)
Chapter IO Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 321
Posterior view
Average Number of
Intervertebral
FIGURE 10-11. A posterior view shows th more superficial semi Muscle Relative Length Junctions Crossed
spinalis muscles within th transversospinal group. For clarity, only
th left semispinalis cervicis, left semispinalis thoracis, and right Semispinalis Long 6 -8
semispinalis capitis are included. (From Luttgens K, Hamilton N: Multifdi Intermediate 2 -4
Ktnesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 9th ed. Madison, Rotatores Short 1 -2
WI, Brown and Benchmark, 1997. The McGraw-Hill Companies.)
322 Section 111 Axial Skeleton
Semispinalis Muscles
TABLE 1 0 - 6 . Multiple Attachments of th
The semispinalis muscles consist of th semispinalis thor-
Multifidi Throughout th Lumbosacral Region
acis, semispinalis cervicis, and semispinalis capitis (Fig. 1 0 -
11). In generai, each muscle, or main set of fibers within
Inferior Attachments
each muscle, crosses six io eight intervertebral junctions. The
semispinalis thoracis consists of many thin muscle fasciculi, 1. Mammillary processes of lumbar vertebrae
interconnected by long tendons. Muscle fibers attach from 2. Lumbosacral ligaments
transverse processes of T 6-10 to spinous processes of C6-T4. 3. Deeper pari of th common tendon of th erector spinae
The semispinalis cervicis, much thicker and more devel- 4. Posterior surface of th sacrum
oped than th semispinalis thoracis, attaches from upper 5. Posterior-superior iliac spine of pelvis
thoracic transverse processes to spinous processes of C2-5. 6. Capsule of apophyseal joints
Muscle fibers that attach to th prominent spinous process Superior Attachments
of th axis (C2) are particularly well developed, serving as
important stabilizers for th suboccipital muscles. 1. Lumbar spinous processes
The semispinalis capitis lies deep to th splenius and trape-
zius muscles. The muscle arises primarily from upper tho
racic transverse processes. The muscle thickens superiorly as
it attaches to a relatively large region on th occipital bone,
filling much of th area between th superior and inferior Multifidi
nuchal lines (see Fig. 9 - 3 ) . Multifidi lie under th semispinalis muscles. The plural
The semispinalis cervicis and capitis are th largest mus multifidi indicates a collection of multiple fibers, rather
cles that cross th posterior side of th neck. Their large size than a set of individuai muscles. All multifidi share a similar
and near-vertical fiber direction provide significant exlension fiber direction and length, extending between th posterior
torque to th craniocervical region. Right and left semispin sacrum and C2. In generai, th multifidi originate from th
alis capitis muscles are readily palpable as thick and round transverse process of one vertebra and insert on th spinous
cords on either side of th midiine of th upper neck, process of a vertebra located two to four segments above
especially evident in infants and in thin, muscular adults (see Fig. 1 0 -1 2 ).
(Fig. 1 0 -1 3 ). Multifidi are thickest and most developed in th lumbo
sacral region (Table 1 0 - 6 ) .51 Muscle fibers within th lum
bar region fili much of th concave space forrned between
th spinous and transverse processes. Throughout th lum
bar region, th multifidi approach th spinous processes at
essentially right angles to th long axis of each correspond-
ing spinous process.48 This angle is only apparent from a
lateral view. This line-of-force maximally converts a force
into a torque. The multifidi, therefore, provide an essential
source of extension torque and stability to th base of th
spine. Excessive force in th lumbar multifidi due either to
attive contraction or protective spasm maybe expressed
clinically as an exaggerated lordosis.
Rotatores
The rotatores are th deepest of th transversospinal
group of muscles. Like th multifidi, th rotatores consist of
a large set of individuai muscle fibers. Although th rotatores
exist throughout th entire vertebral column, they are best
developed in th thoracic region (see Fig. 1 0 - 1 2 ). Each
fiber attaches between th transverse process of one vertebra
and th lamina and base of th spinous process of a vertebra
located one or two segments above. By definition, th rotator
brevis muscle spans one intervertebral junction, and th rota
tor longus muscle spans two intervertebral junctions.
Summary of th Transversospinal Muscle Group
The transversospinal muscles consist of those that, on
average, cross fewer intervertebral junctions than th erector
spinae group. This feature suggests that, in generai, th mus
cles are designed to produce relatively fine controlled move-
ments across th axial skeleton, at least when compared with
FIGURE 10-13. A thin, healthy 22-year-old female demonstrates th th erector spinae.
contours of th activated right and left semispinalis capitis muscles. Contracting bilaterally, th transversospinal muscles ex-
Manual resistance is applied against an extension effort of th head. tend th axial skeleton (Fig. 1 0 -9 B ). lncreased extension
The red dot indicates th spinous process of th C7 vertebra. torque exaggerates th lumbar and cervical lordosis and de-
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint lnteractions 323
creases th thoracic kyphosis. The size and thickness of th ple, each intertransversarus muscle is divided imo small an
transversospinal muscles are greatest ai either end of th terior and posterior muscles, between which pass th ventral
axial skeleton. Craniali)', th semispinalis cervicis and capitis rami of spinai nerves.
are very well-developed extensors of th craniocervical re- As a group, unilateral contraction of th intertransversales
gion; caudally, th lumbar multifidi are very well-developed laterally flexes th vertebral column. Although th magnitude
extensors of th lumbar region. of th lateral tlexion torque is relatively small compared with
Contracting unilaterally, th transversospinal muscles lat other muscle groups, th torque likely provides an important
erali)' flex ihe spine; however, their leverage for this action is source of intervertebral stability.
limited due to their dose proximity to th vertebral column.
Summary of th Short Segmentai Group of Muscles
The more obliquely oriented transversospinal muscles assist
The interspinalis and intertransversarus muscles consist of
with contralateral axial rotation. From a relatively fixed
multiple short pairs of fibers, each of which crosses only one
transverse process, contraction of a single righi multihdus or
intervertebral junction. The highly segmented nature of these
rotator longus, for example, can rotate a superiori) located
muscles contributes io fine control of th axial skeleton.
spinous process toward th tight and, as a result, rotate th
These muscles also provide a rich source of segmentai sen-
anterior side of th vertebra to th left. Compared with all
sory feedback, especially in th craniocervical region.10 Feed
th trunk muscles, however, th transversospinal muscles are
back helps coordinate th position of th head and neck
secondary axial rotators. The leverage for axial rotation is
with th position of th visual and auditory systems.
relatively poor due to th muscles proximity to th vertebral
column. Compare th multifidi to th obliquus abdominis
externus, for example, in Figure 1 0 -4 C . Furthermore, th SET 2: M U S C L E S OF THE A N T E R I O R - L A T E R A L T R U N K
prevailing line-of-force typical of transversospinal muscle fi- ("A B D O M IN A L" M USCLES)
ber is directed more vertically than horizontally, thereby
The muscles of th anterior-lateral trunk include th rectus
providing a greater force potential for extension than for
abdominis, obliquus externus abdominis, obliquus intemus
axial rotation.
abdominis, and transversus abdominis (Fig. 1 0 -1 4 A to D).
Short Segmentai Group of Muscles As a group, they are often re ferrod to as th abdominal
The short segmentai group of muscles consists of th inter- muscles. The rectus abdominis is a long straplike muscle,
spinalis and th intertransversarus muscles (see Fig. 1 0 -1 2 ). located on either side of th midiine of th body. The obli
The plural interspinales and intertransversales is often quus externus abdominis, obliquus intemus abdominis, and
used to describe all th members within th entire set of transversus abdominis th lateral abdominals are wide
these muscles.) They lie deep to th transversospinal group and fiat, layered superficial to deep, across th lateral aspect
o f muscles. The nam e short segm entai" refers to th ex- o f th abdom en .
remely short length and highly segmented organization of The abdominal muscles have several physiologic and ki-
he muscles. Each individuai interspinalis or intertransversa nesiologic functions (Table 1 0 - 7 ). This chapter emphasizes
rus muscle crosses just one intervertebral junction. The short th muscles kinesiologic functions.
segmentai group of muscles exists throughout th vertebral
column except for th thoracic region. These muscles are Formation of th Rectus Sheaths and Linea Alba
most developed in th cervical region, where fine control of The obliquus externus abdominis, obliquus internus abdomi
:he head and neck is so criticai. nis, and transversus abdominis muscles from th tight and
Each pair of interspinalis muscles is located on either side left sides of th body fuse at th midiine of th abdomen
of, and often blends with, th corresponding interspinous through a blending of connective tissues. Each muscle con
ligament. The interspinales have a relatively favorable lever tributes a thin bilaminar sheet of connective tissue that ulti-
age and optimal fiber direction for producing extension mately forms th anterior and posterior rectus sheaths. As
torque. The magnitude of this torque is relatively small, depicted in Figure 1015, th anterior rectus sheath is
however, considering th small size of th muscles. formed from connective tissues from th obliquus externus
Each righi and left pair o f intertransversarus m uscles is abdominis and th obliquus intemus abdom in is muscles.
located between adjacent transverse processes. As a group, The posterior rectus sheath is formed from connective tis
th anatomy of th intertransversales is more complex than sues from th obliquus internus abdominis and transversus
that of th interspinales.84 In th cervical region, for exam abdominis. Both sheaths surround th vertically oriented ree-
FIGURE 10-14. The four abdominal muscies of th anterior-lateral trunk. A, Rectus abdominis with th anterior rectus sheath removed. B,
Obliquus extemus abdominis. C, Obliquus internus abdominis, deep to th obliquus extemus abdominis. D, Transversus abdominis, deep io
other abdominal muscies. (Frani Luttgens K, Hamilton N: Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 9th ed. Madison W1 Brown and
Benchmark, 1997. The McGraw-Hill Companies.)
Chapler 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 325
Superior vievv
Rectus Linea alba Anterior rectus
abdominis sheath
Posterior rectus
sheath
FIGURE 10-15. Honzontal cross-
sectional view of th anterior ab-
dominal wall shown at th ap-
proximate level of th third
iumbar vertebra.
tus abdominis muscle and continue medially to fuse with with th anterior rectus sheath. The rectus abdominis arises
identical connective tissues from th other side of th abdo- from th region on and surrounding th crest of th pubis,
men.7' (This generai anatomie arrangement pertains to th and it attaches superiorly on th xiphoid process and carti-
abdominal wall located above th level of th iliac crests. lages of th fifth through seventh ribs.
Below this level both anterior and posterior rectus sheaths The anatomie organization of th obliquus externus ab
course anterior to th rectus abdominis.) The connective dominis, obliquus internus abdominis, and transversus ab
tissues thicken and crisscross as they traverse th midiine, dominis muscles is different from that of th rectus abdomi
forming th linea alba (from th Latin linea, line, and albus, nis. As a group, th lateral muscles originate laterally or
white). Anatomically, th linea alba is described as a tendi- posterior-laterally on th trunk and run in a different direc
nous raphe," running longitudinally between th xiphoid tion toward th midiine, eventually blending with th linea
process and pubic symphysis and pubic crest.84 alba and contralateral rectus sheaths (Table 1 0 - 8 ).
The crisscross arrangement of th fibers within th linea The obliquus externus abdominis is th largest and most
alba adds considerable strength to th abdominal wall, much superficial of th lateral abdominal muscles. The extemal
like th laminated structure of plywood. The linea alba also oblique muscles travel in an inferior-and-medial direction, as
mechanically links th right and left lateral abdominal mus if th hands were placed in pockets. The obliquus internus
cles, providing an effective way to transfer muscular force abdominis is located immediately deep to extemal oblique
across th midiine of th body. muscle, forming th second layer of th lateral abdominals.
Most of its fibers originate on th iliac crest and adjacent
Anatomy of th Abdominal Muscles
thoracolumbar fascia. From this lateral attachment point, th
The rectus abdominis muscle consists of right and left halves, fibers course in a cranial-and-medial direction toward th
separated by th linea alba. Each half of th muscle runs linea alba and lower ribs. As evident in Figure 1 0 -1 4 C , th
longitudinally, widening as it ascends within an open sleeve mferior attachments of th internai oblique muscle extend to
formed between th anterior and posterior rectus sheaths. th inguinal ligament. The mean fiber direction of th inter
The muscle is intersected and reinforced by three fbrous nai oblique muscle is nearly perpendicular to th mean fiber
bands, known as tendinous intersections. These bands blend direction of th overlying extemal oblique muscle.
Obliquus externus Lateral side of ribs 4 -1 2 Iliac crest, linea alba, and Bilaterally: flexion of th trunk and poste
abdominis contralateral rectus rior tilt of th pelvis
sheaths Unilaterali)/: lateral flexion and contralat
eral rotation of th trunk.
Obliquus internus Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, and Ribs 9 -1 2 , linea alba, and Bilaterali)/: as above, plus increases tension
abdominis thoracolumbar fascia contralateral rectus in th thoracolumbar fascia
sheaths Unilaterali)/: lateral flexion and ipsilateral
rotation of th trunk
Transversus Iliac crest, thoracolumbar fascia, inner Linea alba and contralateral Bilaterali)/: compression of th abdominal
abdominis suri'ace of th cartilages of ribs 6 - rectus sheaths cavty, plus increases tension in th
12, and th inguinal ligament thoracolumbar fascia
326 Section III Axial Skeleton
Superior view
Linea alba
& FIGURE 10-17. Horizontal cross-sec
Rectus tional view through several muscles
V abdominis <&
4 ? %' K .
of th trunk at th approximate
level of th third lumbar vertebra.
The potemial of muscles to pro
Obliquus externus duce a torque in both sagittal and
abdominis frontal planes is shown. The an-
Obliquus internus terior-posterior (AP) axis of rota
Left lateral
iS
have th potential to flex and ex-
tend th trunk, respectively; mus
Latissimus dorsi
Erector ... cles located right and left to th
spinae T llocos,ahs' anterior-posterior axis have th po-
LLongissimus &
lential to laterally flex th trunk to
S S right and left, respectively.
P o s t e r io r
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 327
trunk within th sagittal piane. Various muscle actions can power axial rotations, such as sprinting, wrestling, and
be verified by studying th position of th muscles relative throwing a discus or javelin. The demands are very low,
to th axes of rotation (see Fig. 1 0 -1 7 ). however, during activities that involve slow twisting of th
The internai and external oblique muscles are th most trunk in an upright position, such as walking. Because axial
effective axial rotators of th trunk. Strong axial rotation rotation occurs in th horizontal piane, th muscles do not
potential is due to their relatively large combined cross- have to overcome th extemal torque generated by gravity.46
sectional area and favorable leverage (see Fig. 1 0 -4 C , ex- Their primary resistance is that caused by th inertia of th
tended moment arm length of th obliquus externus abdom- upper body and th passive tension created by th stretching
inis). During axial rotation, th external oblique muscle antagonist muscles.
functions synergistically with th contralateral intentai
oblique muscle (see Fig. 1 0 -1 6 ). As a pair, th external and Trunk Flexor versus Trunk Extensor Peak Internai Torque
internai oblique muscles from opposite sides of th body In th healthy adult, th magnitude of maximal effort trunk
produce a diagonal line-of-force that crosses th midiine flexion torque is typically less than maximal effort trunk
through their mutuai attachments into th linea alba. When extension torque. Although data vary owing to gender, age,
contracting together, th two muscles reduce th distance health, and angular velocity of th testing device, th flexor-
between one shoulder and th contralateral iliac crest. By to-extensor ratios determined isometrically are generally be
considering each muscle separately, th external oblique tween .51 and .77.H-65 Although th trunk flexor muscles
muscle is a contralateral rotator of th trunk, and th inter possess greater leverage for sagittal piane torque, th trunk
nai oblique muscle is an ipsilateral rotator of th trunk. extensor muscles possess greater mass and, equally impor
Although anatomically thought of as two separate muscles, tant, greater overall vertical orientation of muscle fibers.2458
during active rotation of th trunk th extemal and internai The relatively greater torque potential of th back extensor
oblique muscles from opposite sides function as one muscle, muscles, at least isometrically, reflects th muscles predomi-
joined in th midiine by th linea alba. nant role in counteracting gravity, either for th maintenance
The torque demands placed on th axial rotators of th of upright posture or for carrying loads in front of th chest.
trunk vary considerably based on th nature of th given
activity. Torque demands are relatively large during high- SET 3: ADDITIONAL MUSCLES (ILI0PS0AS AND
QUADRATUS LUMBORUM)
Iliopsoas
Role of Trunk Extensors as "Rotational Synergists" to
The iliopsoas is a large muscle consisting of two parts: th
th Oblique Abdominal Muscles
iliacus and th psoas major (see Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 ). As are most
Although th external and internai obliques are consid- hip fexors, th iliopsoas is innervated by th femoral nerve,
ered th primary axial rotators of th trunk, they rarely a large branch from th lumbar plexus. The iliacus has a
act alone during this activity. Secondary axial rotators proximal attachment on th iliac fossa and lateral sacrum,
of th trunk include th ipsilateral latissimus dorsi, th just anterior and superior to th sacroiliac joint. The psoas
more oblique components of th ipsilateral longissimus major attaches proximally to th transverse processes of th
and iliocostalis muscles, and th contralateral transver- T I 2 to L5, including th intervertebral discs. The two mus
sospinal muscles. In addition to contributing, at least cles fuse distai to th inguinal ligament and attach as a
minimally, to axial rotation torque, th secondary axial single tendon to th lesser trochanter of th femur.
rotators perform th more important function of counter- The iliopsoas is a long muscle, exerting a potent kinetic
acting th trunk flexion potential of th oblique abdomi influence across th lumbar spine, lumbosacral junction, and
nal muscles.39 Axial rotation of th trunk to th left, for hip joint. Crossing anterior to th hip, it is a dominant
example, requires strong activation from both right and flexor, drawing th femur toward th pelvis or th pelvis
left transversospinal muscles in th thoracic region.22 toward th femur. In th last movement, th iliopsoas can
Bilateral activation resists th bilateral flexion tendency anteriorly tilt th pelvis, a motion that increases th lordosis
of th oblique abdominal muscles. of th lumbar region (see Fig. 9 -6 8 A ).
The multifidi muscles provide extension stability to Function of th Psoas Major at th Lumbosacral Region
th lumbar region during axial rotation.4883 Pathology In th anatomie position, th psoas major demonstrates ef
involving th apophyseal joints or discs in th lumbar fective leverage for lateral flexion of th lumbar spine.45
region may be associated with weakness, fatigue, or Little, if any, leverage exists for axial rotation. The flexor and
reflexive inhibition of these muscles. Without adequate extensor capacity of th psoas major differs throughout th
activation from th multifidi during axial rotation, th lumbosacral region (Fig. 1 0 - 1 8 ). Across th L5-S1 junction,
partially unopposed oblique muscles would, in theory, th psoas major has an approximate 2-cm moment arm for
create a subtle flexion bias to th base of th spine. flexion.59 The psoas major is, therefore, an effective flexor of
Such a bias may partially explain th rounded (flexed) th lower end of th lumbar spine relative to th sacrum.
posture of th low back typically seen in a person with Progressing superiorly toward L I, th line-of-force of th
spondYlosis or disc disease of th lumbar spine. psoas major gradually shifts slightly posterior, fal/ing either
through or just posterior to th multiple medial-lateral axes
328 Section III Axial Skeleton
of rotation. This reduces or eliminates its flexor or extensor Both th psoas major and th quadratus lumborum pro
capacity. Psoas major is neither a dominant flexor nor exten vide substantial muscular stability to th lumbar spine. Both
sor of th lumbar region, but rather a dominant vertical muscles run nearly vertical on either side of th lumbar
stabilizer.72 The term vertical stabilizer describes a muscu- vertebrae (see Fig. 1 0 -1 7 ). A strong bilateral contraction of
lar funaion o f stabilizing a region o f th axial skeleton in a both m uscles affords excellent vertical stability throughout
near vertical position while maintaining its naturai physio- th entire base of th spine, including th L5-S1 junction.
logic curve. Because of th lack of effective leverage in th
lumbar region, th psoas major has a minimal role in di-
rectly infiuencing th degree of lordosis.72 The iliopsoas, as Muscles of th Trunk Section II: Functional
most hip flexors, can indirectly increase th lordotic posture Interactions Among Muscles
of th lumbar spine by tilting th pelvis anteriorly.
Section I describes th individuai actions of th muscles of
Through attachments on th lumbar spine, th psoas ma
th trunk. These actions are summarized in Table 1 0 - 9 .
jo r affords excellent control of th sagittal piane positions of
Section II highlights th functional interactions among th
th trunk relative to th thighs, especially when sitting.40
muscles of th trunk during two activities: (1) generating
core stability to th trunk, and (2) controlling th sit-up
movement. The second interaction exemplifies a classic kine-
Actions of th Iliopsoas
siologic relationship between th trunk and hip muscles.
lliacus
1. Predominant hip flexor, both femur-on-pelvis and pelvis-
on-femur
Psoas Major
1. Lateral flexor of th lumbar region Posterior view
2. Flexor of th lower lumbar spine (L5) relative to th
sacrum (S I)
3. Venical stabilizer of th lumbar spine
Quadratus Lumborum
Anatomically, th quadratus lumborum is considered a mus-
cle of th posterior abdominal wall. The muscle attaches
inferiorly to th iliolumbar ligament and iliac crest, and
superiorly to th 12th rib and th tips of th transverse
processes of L l-4 (Fig. 1 0 -1 9 ). The relative thickness of th
muscle is evident by viewing Figure 1 0 - 1 7 . The quadratus
lumborum is innervated by th ventral rami of spinai nerves
T i2-L3.
Contracting bilaterali)/, th quadratus lumborum is an ex
FIGURE 10 19. A posterior view of th quadratus lumborum mus
tensor of th lumbar region. Its action is based on th line-
cle. (From Luttgens K, Hamilton N: Kinesiology: Scientifc Basis of
of-force passing about 3.5 cm posterior to th medial-lateral Human Motion, 9th ed. Madison, W l, Brown and Benchmark,
axis of rotation at L3.i9 1997. The McGraw-Hill Companies.)
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 329
Psoas major X X XX
Quadratus lumborum XX XX _
A) Intrinsic muscular B) Spatial orientation out such control, th vertebral column is vulnerable to exag-
stabilizers (a) of musclc's gerated spinai curvature and instability.
line-of-force
Percent of force
directed: In trin sic Muscular Stabilizers of th Trunk Include
Horizontal (FH) 1. Transversospinal group
Vertical (Fv) Semispinalis muscles
a = 0 Multifidi
Fh = 0% Rotatores
Fv = 100% 2. Short segmentai group
Interspinalis muscles
Intertransversarus muscles
Multifidus a = 20
(crosses 2 -4 segments) Fh = 34%
Fy = 94%
Rotator longus a = 45
(crosses 2 segments) Fh = 71 % Obliquus externus
Fy= 71%
Quadratus lumborurr
Transversus abdominis
th pelvis with th lower extremities. External siabilizers ratus lumborum, and erector spinae muscles provides sub
provide core stabilily lo ihe trunk by regulating rigidity stantial vertical stability to th lumbar and lumbosacral
within th trunk, and between th trunk and lower extremi regions, in both th frontal and sagittal planes. Co-contrac-
ties. Core stability is particularly important in th lumbar tion of th abdominal muscles in particular th transversus
and lumbosacral regions, where external forces applied abdominis reinforces th stability of th lumbar region by
against th upper body can develop substantial destabilizing increasing th tension within th thoracolumbar fascia,
leverage against th more caudal or inferior regions of th thereby creating a corset effect across th low back.
axial skeleton. Instability at th base of th spine can lead to Activation of th abdominal muscles is essential to stabili-
postural malalignment throughout th entire vertebral col- zation of th pelvis against th pul of trunk extensor mus
umn, as well as predispose a person to impairments related cles, especially th erector spinae, quadratus lumborum, and
to (1) spondylolisthesis or spondylosis, (2) abnormal lordo- hip muscles (see Fig. 1 0 - 2 1 ). With th pelvis well stabi-
sis, and (3) damaging forces on th apophyseal, interbody, lized, forces that have an impact on th trunk are effectively
and sacroiliac joints. transferred across th sacroiliac joints, through th hips, and
ultimately through th lower extremities. Strengthening exer-
cises, designed to increase th stability of th low back and
Primary Extrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of th Trunk lower trunk regions, ideally include those that challenge
Include both th trunk and th hip muscles in all planes.
1. Muscles of th anterior-lateral trunk
Abdominals
rectus abdominis CONTROLLINO THE SIT-UP MOVEMENT
obliquus extemus abdominis
The muscles of th trunk interact with each other and with
obliquus intemus abdominis
th muscles of th hip joint during many activities. Con-
transversus abdominis
2. Erector spinae sider, for instance, th combined movements of th trunk
3. Quadratus lumborum and hips while swinging a baseball bat, figure skating, or
4. Psoas major shoveling snow. To underscore this important synergistic
5. Muscles that connect th pelvis with th lower extrem- relationship, th following discussions focus on th muscular
ity th hip muscles. actions of th sit-up movement.
Several strategies are used to strengthen th abdominal
muscles. The common goal of th exercises is to increase th
Figure 1 0 - 2 1 shows a person activating his external mus strength and control of these muscles, often as a way to
cular stabilizers in response to an external force. Note th improve core stability within th trunk. In a very broad
concentration of muscular activity in th lower region of th sense, abdominal exercises fall into one of four categories. In
spine. (Although th intrinsic muscular stabilizers are also column 1 of Figure 1 0 - 2 2 , th abdominal muscles produce
active for th purposes described, they are omitted from th an isometric force to maintain a Constant distance between
illustration for clarity.) Activation of th psoas major, quad th xiphoid process and th anterior pelvis. In columns 2 to
3 ^
FIGURE 10-22. Categones of abdominal strengthening exercises, with selected examples. The examples marked by th
asterisk are pictured below.
332 Seniori III Axial Skeleton
FIGURE 10 23. A typical activation pattern is shown of a sample of muscles, as a healthy person performs a traditional sit-up maneuver. The
intensity of th red color is related to th assumed intensity of th muscle activation. A, The trunk flexion phase of th sit-up involves strong
activation of th abdominal muscles, especially th rectus abdominis. B, The hip flexion phase of th sit-up involves strong activation of th
abdominal and hip flexor muscles. Note in B th farge pelvic-on-femoral kinematic contribution to die sit-up maneuver.
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 333
During th trunk jlexon phase of th full sit-up, th thora- Persons with moderately weakened abdominal muscles
columbar spine flexes, and th pelvis is tilted posteriorly, typically display a characteristic posture when attempting to
flattening th lumbar spine. The EMG level of th hip flexor perform a full sit-up. Throughout th attempt, th hip flexor
muscles is relatively low, regardless of th position of th muscles dominate th activity. As a result, there is minimal
hips and knees.2 Partially flexing th hips prior to th exer- thoracolumbar flexion and excessive and early pelvic-on-
cise increases th passive tension in th gluteus maximus, femoral (hip) flexion. The dominating contraction of th hip
assisting with th posteriov tilting posture of th pelvis. flexor muscles exaggerates th lumbar lordosis, especially
During th hip jlexon phase of th sit-up, th pelvis and during th initiation of th maneuver.42
trunk rotate toward th femurs. The hip flexion phase is
driven by active contraction of th hip flexor muscles. Al-
though any hip flexor muscle can assist with this action, Muscles of th Craniocervical Region
Figure 10-2315 shows th iliacus and rectus femoris as th Section I: Anatomy and Individuai Muscle
active participants. Relative levels of EMG from th iliacus, Action
sartorius, and rectus femoris are signifcantly greater when
th legs are held fixed to th supporting surface.2 The axis of The following sections describe th anatomy and individuai
rotation during th hip flexion phase of th full sit-up shifts actions of th muscles that act exclusively within th cranio
toward th hip joints. The abdominal muscles remain iso- cervical region. Musculature is di vi ded into two sets: th
metrically active, holding th flexed thoracolumbar region muscles of th anterior-lateral region and th muscles of th
against th rotating pelvis. posterior region (see Table 1 0 - 2 ).
The full sit-up places different mechanical workloads on Figure 1024 depicts many of th muscles of craniocervi
th abdominal muscles as compared with th hip flexor cal region as flexors or extensors, or tight or left lateral
muscles. (Work, in this context, is th product of muscle flexors, depending on their attachment relative to th axes of
force times th distance il contracts.) In th trunk flexion rotation through th atlanto-occipital joints. Although Figure
phase of th sit-up, th abdominal muscles produce work by 1 0 - 2 4 describes th muscle actions at th atlanto-occipital
rotating th trunk toward th pelvis; in th hip flexion joint only, th relative position of th muscles provides a
phase, th hip flexor muscles produce work by contracting useful guide for an understanding of th actions at other
and rotating th pelvis and trunk toward th femurs. joints within th craniocervical region.
Inferior view
Posterior
Semispinalis
Splenius capitis
Sternocleiomastoid
Longissimus capitis
(O
i co'
a> ML axis
tu
IC Obliquus capitis superior co
CU t
Q>
Rectus capitis posterior
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Rectus capitis lateralis
Stylohyoid
Rectus capitis anterior
Longus capitis
Flexor and left Flexor and right
lateral flexor lateral flexor
Anterior
FIGURE 10-24. The potential action of muscles that attach to th inferior surface of th occipital and temperai bones is highlighted. The
actions of th muscles across th atlanto-occipital joints are based on their location relative to th medial-lateral (ML) (black) and
anterior-posterior (red) axis of rotation at th level of th occipital condyles. Note that th actions of most muscles fu into one o( four
quadrants.
334 Section III Axial Skeleton
Superior view
Torticollis
Torticollis (from th Latin tortus, twisted; collum, neck)
or "wryneck" describes a condition of chronic contrac-
FIGURE 1 0 -2 6 .The lefi stemocleidomasioid muscle durng active tion of at least one of th cervical muscles, most com-
rotation of th head and neck to th righi. The muscle is evident as monly th stemocleidomastoid. The condition may be
a thick cord between th left mastoid process, just inferior to th congenital or acquired. Shortening of th muscle may
ear, and th left stemoclavicular joint. Both stemal and clavicular
be due to a fibrous mass or may indicate neuromuscu-
heads of th muscle are visible.
lar disease. Often th cause of torticollis is unknown.
A person with unilateral torticollis involving a right or
left stemocleidomastoid typically has an asymmetrical
tachment, th muscle ascends obliquely across th neck to craniocervical posture that reflects components of th
attach along a thin line, extending across much of th mas muscle's action (Fig. 10-28). Parents of a child with
toid process of th temporal bone and th lateral half of th torticollis are often taught how to stretch th tight mus
superior nuchae line. cle and how to position and handle th child to pro
Acting unilaterally, th stemocleidomastoid is a lateral mote elongation of th involved muscle. In severe cases
flexor and contralateral axial rotator of th craniocervical of contracture, th muscle may be surgically released,
region. The axial rotation action is demonstrated in Figure most commonly at th sternal and clavicular heads.85
1 0 - 2 6 . Bilaterally, th sagittal piane action of th stemoclei Postsurgical treatment typically involves physical ther-
domastoid depends on th level of th craniocervical region. apy to maintain th overcorrected position of th neck
and reduce scar formation.
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 0 - 5
M
Vulnerability of th Longus Colli and Longus Capitis to torso has shown that th longus colli and longus
Acceleration Injury capitis are particularly vulnerable to strain injury from
hyperextension-associated whiplash. Whiplash from ex-
The cervical spine is vulnerable to acceleration (whip- cessive hyperextension produced a 56% strain (elonga-
lash) injury, especially as a result of an automobile tion) in th longus colli, and whiplash from excessive
accident. Vulnerability is due, in part, to th large mass lateral flexion produced a 57% strain in th longus capi
moment of inertia of th relatively heavy head. An im tis.18 Both these levels of strain can cause tissue dam
pact that creates a large angular velocity of th head age.
generates a proportionally large angular momentum Clinically, a person with a hyperextension injury often
throughout th entire craniocervical region. If directed shows marked tenderness and protective spasm in th
in th sagittal piane, th momentum of th flexing or region of th longus colli. Tenderness may also be as
extending head can damage tissues that are exces- sociated with excessive strain in other flexor muscles,
sively strained or compressed. Momentum directed in such as th sternocleidomastoid and scalenus anterior,
th frontal piane can create lateral flexion whiplash, and th cervical viscera. Spasm in th longus colli
which also damages tissue. tends to produce a straight cervical spine, lacking th
Whiplash associated with cervical hyperextension normal lordosis. Persons with a strained and painful
generally creates greater strain on muscles and soft longus colli often have difficulty shrugging their shoul-
tissues than does whiplash associated with cervical ders. Without th adequate stabilization provided by th
flexion.68 The greater range of hyperextension can se- longus colli and other flexors, th upper trapezius mus
verely strain th flexor muscles and cervical viscera, cle loses stable cranial attachment and, therefore, be-
and it can excessively compress th apophyseal joints comes an ineffective elevator of th shoulder girdle.68
and posterior aspects of th cervical spine (Fig. 10- This clinical scenario is an excellent example of th
31/4). The maximum extent of flexion is partially blocked interdependence of muscle function, in which one mus-
by th chin striking th chest (Fig. 10-316). cle's action depends on th stabilization force of an-
Research on replicas of th human head, neck, and other.
FIGURE 10-31. During acceleration (whiplash) injuries, cervical extension (A) typically exceeds cervical flexion
(B). As a result, th anterior structures of th cervical region are more vulnerable to strain injury. (From
Porterfield JA, DeRosa C: Mechanical Neck Pain: Perspectives in Functional Anatomy. Philadelphia, WB Saunders,
1995.)
Posterior view
Obliquus
Rectus capitis
capitis inferior
posterior major
FIGURE 10-32. A posterior view of th left splenius cervicis, right FIGURE 10-33. A posterior view of th suboccipital muscles. The
splenius capitis, and right levator scapula. Although not visible, th left obliquus capitis superior, left obliquus capitis inferior, left rec
levator scapula has similar cervical attachments as th splenius cer tus capitis posterior minor, and right rectus capitis posterior major
vicis. (From I.uttgens K, Hamilton N: Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of are shown. (From Luttgens K, Hamilton N: Kinesiology: Scientific
llum an Moilon, 9ih ed. Madison, \V1, Brown and Benchmark
1997. The McGraw-Hill Companies.) Basis of Human Motion, 9th ed. Madison, WI, Brown and Bench
mark, 1997. The McGraw-Hill Companies.)
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 339
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 0 - 6
P
Specialized Muscles that Control th Atlanto-Axial and b e t w e e n r ig h t a x ia l r o t a t io n a n d r ig h t la t e r a l f le x io n ( s e e
Atlanto-Occipital Joints: An Example of Fine-Tuning of F ig . 9 - 5 2 6 ) . In o r d e r t o m a in t a in a le v e l h o r iz o n t a l v i
th Cervical Coupling Pattern s u a l g a z e t h r o u g h o u t a x ia l r o t a t io n , t h le ft r e c t u s c a p i-
t is la t e r a lis , f o r in s t a n c e , p r o d u c e s a s lig h t le f t la t e r a l
T h e s p e c ia liz e d m u s c le s t h a t c o n t r o l t h a t la n t o - a x ia l
flexion to rq u e to th head v ia t h a t la n t o - o c c ip it a l
a n d a t la n t o - o c c ip it a l j o in t s e x e r t f in e c o n t r o l o v e r t h
jo in t s . T h is m u s c u la r a c t io n o f f s e t s t h t e n d e n c y f o r t h
m o v e m e n t o f t h u p p e r c r a n i o c e r v i c a l r e g io n . O n e b e n
h e a d t o b e n d t o t h r ig h t w it h t h r e s t o f t h c e r v i c a l
e f it o f t h is f in e le v e l o f c o n t r o l is r e la t e d t o t h c o u p lin g
r e g io n d u r in g t h r ig h t a x ia l r o t a t io n . S im ila r ly , r ig h t
p a t t e r n o f t h c e r v i c a l r e g io n . A s d e s c r ib e d in C h a p t e r
la t e r a l f le x io n o f t h C 2 -7 r e g io n , w h i c h a ls o r e s u lt s in
9, a n i p s ila t e r a l c o u p lin g p a t t e r n e x is t s in t h C 2 -C 7
r ig h t a x ia l r o t a t io n o f t h is c e r v i c a l r e g io n , m a y b e a c -
r e g io n b e t w e e n t h m o t io n s o f a x ia l r o t a t io n a n d la t e r a l
c o m p a n ie d b y a s lig h t , o f f s e t t in g le f t a x ia l r o t a t io n
f le x io n . A x ia l r o t a t io n , d u e p r im a r ily t o t h o r ie n t a t io n o f
t o r q u e t o t h h e a d b y t h le f t o b liq u u s c a p it is in f e r io r
t h a p o p h y s e a l jo in t s , is a s s o c i a t e d w it h s lig h t ip s i l a t
m u s c le . In b o th e x a m p le s , m o v e m e n t o f t h h e a d a n d
e r a l la t e r a l f le x io n a n d v ic e v e r s a . T h e e x p r e s s io n o f
e y e s c a n b e m o r e p r e c i s e l y m a in t a in e d w it h in t h h o r i
t h is c o u p lin g p a t t e r n c a n b e o b s c u r e d , h o w e v e r , b y t h
z o n t a l p ia n e , t h e r e b y f a c ilit a t in g t h v is u a l t r a c k in g o f a
s p e c ia liz e d m u s c le s t h a t c o n t r o l t h a t la n t o - o c c ip it a l a n d
m o v in g o b j e c t w h ile r o t a t in g t h h e a d .
a t la n t o - a x ia l jo in ts . C o n s id e r , f o r e x a m p le , t h c o u p lin g
Scalenus posterior XX
Longus colli XX XX
Longus capitis XX XX
Rectus capitis posterior major XXX (AOJ and AAJ) XX (AOJ only) XX (IL) (AAJ only)
* Upper parts of stemocleidomastoid extend th upper cervical region, atlanto-axial joint, and atlanto-occipital joint.
A muscles relative potential to move or stabilize a region is scored X, minimal, XX, moderate, and XXX, maximum; indicates no effective muscular
action. AOJ, atlanto-occipital joint; AAJ, atlanto-axial joint; CL, contralateral rotation; IL, ipsilateral rotation.
340 Section III Axial Skeleton
F
L
E
XIO
NE
X
T
EN
SNL
IOA
T
E
F
LR
XA
LF
IO
N A
XIT
A
IL
ATLANT0-0C CIP1TAL J0INT
L
EX
IO
NE
X
T
EN
S
IO
NR
O
T
A O
N
ATLANTO-AXIAL J0INT and extensor muscles counterbalance each other and, as ,
consequence, vertically stabilize th region. Note that th
MUSCLES * muscles depicted in Figure 1 0 -3 5 A are anchored inferiori*-
Rectus capitis
anterior XX - X
to several different structures: th stemum, clavicle, ribs j
- - -
scapula, and vertebral column. These bony structures must
Rectus capitis be stabilized by other muscles, such as th lower trapezius j
lateralis - - XX -
and subclavius muscles for securing th scapula and cavick
Rectus capitis respectively.
posterior major XXX XX XXX XX(IL)
Rectus capitis
posterior minor XX X -
rHUDUCING EXTENSIVE AND WELL-COORDINATED
Obliquus capitis MOVEMENTS OF THE HEAD AND NECK: OPTIMIZING
inferior - XX XXX(IL) THE PLACEMENT OF THE EYES, EARS, AND NOSE
Obliquus capitis
superior XXX XXX The craniocervical region allows th greatest triplanar mobil-
-
ity of any region of th axial skeleton. Ampie movement is
CL = contralateral rotation, IL = ipsilateral rotation essential to optimal spatial orientation of th eyes, ears, arte
nose. Although all planes of motion are important in this
FIGURE 1 0 -3 4 . A posterior view depicts th lines-of-force of mus-
cles that exert exclusive control of th atlanto-occipital and atlanto- regard, th following section highlights movement within th
axial joints. The joints each allow two primary degrees of freedom. horizontal piane.
Note that th attachment of th semispinalis cervicis muscle pro- Figure 1 0 - 3 6 illustrates a total body movement that ex-
vides a stable base for th rectus capitis posterior major and th hibits a sample of th muscular interactions used to maxi-
obliquus capitis inferior, two of th larger and more dominant mize th extent of axial rotation of th craniocervical region.
suboccipital muscles. The chart summarizes th actions of th mus- Note that lui! axial rotation of th craniocervical region pro-
cles at th atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial joints. A muscle's rela vides th eyes with at least 180 degrees of visual scanning
tive potential to perform a movement is assigned one of three As depicted, rotation to th right is driven by simultaneous
scores: X, minima!; XX, moderate; and XXX, maximum. The
activation of th left stemocleidomastoid and scalenus ante-
dash indicates no effective torque production.
nor (Fig. 1 0 -3 6 A ); right splenius capitis and cervicis; right
upper erector spinae, such as th longissimus capitis; and
left transversospinal muscles, such as th multifidi (Fig. 1 0 -
36B). Activation of these muscles provides th required rota-
tional power to th head and neck, as well as simultaneously
stabilizing th craniocervical region in bolh th frontal and
whiplash event.18 For this reason, aihletes need to anticipate
sagittal planes. For example, th extension potential provjded
a potentially harmful situation and contract th neck musco
by th splenius capitis and cervicis and th upper erector
lature before impact. The timing of muscle contraction ap-
spinae is offset by th flexion potential of th sternocleido-
pears as imporiant in protecting th neck as does th magni-
mastoid and scalenus anterior. Furthermore, th left lateral
tude of muscle force.
flexion potential of th left stemocleidomastoid is offset by
In addition to protecting th neck, forces produced by
th right lateral flexion potential of th right splenius capitus
muscles provide th primary source of vertical stability to and cervicis.
th craniocervical region. The criticai load of th cervical
Full axial rotation of th craniocervical region requires
spine (i.e., maximum compressive load that th neck, un-
muscular interactions that extend into th trunk and lower
supported by muscle, can sustain before buckling) is be-
extremities. Consider, for example, th activation of th right
tween 10.5 and 40 N (between ~ 2 .4 and 9 Ib). This is less
and left oblique abdominal muscles (see Fig. 1 0 -3 6 A ). They
Chapter 10 Axiai Skeleton: Muscle and Joint Interactions 341
provide much of th torque needed to rotate th base of The latissimus dorsi is an ipsilateral rotator of th trunk
th craniocervical region. As shown in Figure 1 0 -3 6 B , when th glenohumeral joint is well stabilized by other mus
th erector spinae and transversospinal muscles throughout cles. Selecied left hip muscles actively rotate th pel vis and
th entire posterior trunk are active to offset th potent attached lumbosacral region to th right, relative to th lxed
trunk flexion tendency of th oblique abdominal muscles. left femur.
Scalenus anterior
Gluteus maximus
Biceps femoris
Data
In te rn a i m o m e n t a rm ( D i) = 5 cm.
T o tal b o d y w e ig h t = 800 N (-1 8 0 Ibs).
Parte/ body weight (BW) above L2= 65% ot total body weight,
o r - 520 N.
E x te rn a l m o m e n t a rm tr a m B W (D 2) = 13 cm.
E x te rn a l Io a d (E L ) = 2 5 % o f tota) b o d y w e ig h t = 200 N ( - 4 5 Ibs).
E x te rn a l m o m e n t a rm fr o m E L (D 3 ) = 2 9 cm .
I Forces = 0
that decreases by 1000 N each subsequent decade. These WAYS T0 REDUCE THE FORCE DEMANDS 0N THE
force values are generai estimates that do not apply equally BACK MUSCLES WHILE LIFTING
to all persons in all lifting situations.
The static model ver)' likely underestimates th actual An essential point to recognize, from th calculations per-
compressive force on th L2 vertebra for th following two formed in Step 3 of Figure 1 0 - 3 8 , is that th MF vector is
reasons. First, th model accounts for muscle force produced by far th most influential variable for determining th mag
by th back extensors only. Other muscles, especially those nitudo of th compression force. Proportional reductions in
with near-vertical fiber orientation such as th rectus abdom- muscle force have th greatest effect on reducing th overall
inis and th psoas major, certainly add to th muscular- compression force on th structures in th low back.
based compression on th lumbar spine. Second, th model The primary factor responsible for th large force required
by th low-back muscles while lifting is th disparity in th
contains an assumption of a condition of static equilibrium,
length of th internai and external moment arms. The inter
thereby ignoring th additional forces needed to accelerate
nai moment arm (D ,) depicted in Figure 1 0 - 3 8 is assumed
th body and load upward. A rapid lift requires greater
to be 5 cm. The extensor muscles are therefore at a sizable
muscle force and imposes greater compression and shear on
mechanical disadvantage and must produce a force manv
th joints and connective tissues in th low back. For this
times larger than th weight of th load being lifted. As
reason, it is usually recommended that a person lift loads
previously demonstrated, lifting an external load weighing
slowly and smoothly, a condition not always practical in
25% of ones body weight produces a compression force on
occupational settings.
L2 of four times body weight!
Chapter 10 Axial Skeleton: Muscle and Joint lnteractions 345
Load distance
-20 cm
------------ 30 cm
FIGURE 10-39. Graph shows ihe predicted corri- O
- - - - - 40 cm
pression force at th L5-S1 disc as a function of 0 =.
load size and th dislance th loads are held in ^ $ ------------ 50 cm
front of th body (1 Ib = 4.448 N.). The two red Oq
horizontal lines indicate (1) th maximal load-carry- gj
ing capacity of th lumbar region before structural (D*9
failure, and (2) th upper safe limits of compresson Q. m
force on th lumbar spine as determined by th | ~Z
National lnstitute of Occupational Safety and o W
Health. (Plot modified from Chaffin DB, Andersson
GBJ: Occupational Biomechanics, 2nd ed. New
York, John Wiley and Sons, 1991.
Therapeutic and educational efforts directed toward re- off th floor, for example, tends to flex th lumbar spine,
iuction of th likelihood of back injury are often directed thereby decreasing th lordosis. Even if lifting while main-
toward reduction of th muscle force demands by four taining an exaggerated lumbar lordosis, th associated in
"Tiethods. First, reduce th rate of lifting. As previously creased compression force on th apophyseal joints may not
uated, reducing th lifting velocity proportionately decreases be well tolerated.
die amount of back extensor muscle force.
Second, reduce th weight of th extemal load. This point
is obvious, but not always possible.
Third, reduce th length o f th external moment arm of Four Ways to Reduce th Amount of Force Required of
die external load. This is likely th most effective and practi- th Back Extensor Muscles While L iftin g
:al method of decreasing compression forces on th low 1. Reduce th speed of lifting
back. As demonstrated in Figure 1 0 - 3 8 , a load should be 2. Reduce th magnitude of th extemal load
jfted from between th legs, thereby minimizing th distance 3. Reduce th length of th external moment arm
between th lo ad and th lum bar region. As estimated, lift 4. Increase th length o f th internai moment arm
ing a heavy load using ideal technique produced a compres
sion force on th lumbar region that remained dose to th
ip p er lim its o f safety p r o p o s e d b y NIOSH. Lifting th sante
ioad with a longer extemal moment arm creates very large R0LE 0F INCREASING INTRA-ABDOMINAL PRESSURE
WHILE LIFTING
and potentially dangerous compression forces on th low
rack. Figure 1 0 - 3 9 sh ow s a p lo t o f p red icted com pression In 1957, B artelink7 in trodu ced th notion that th Valsalva
'orces on che L5-S1 disc as a function o f dodi io a d size an d maneuver (named after th Italian anatomist, 1 6 6 6 -1 7 2 3 ),
distance between th load and th front of th chest.12 Al- typically used while lifting loads, may help unload and
though an extreme example, th plot predicts that holding thereby protect th lumbar spine. The Vaisalva maneuver
in extemal load that wetghs 200 N (45 Ib) 50 cm in from describes th action of voluntarily increasing intra-abdominal
f th body creates about 4500 N of compression force, pressure by vigorous contraction of th abdominal muscles
greatly exceeding th upper safe limit of 3400 N. In every- against a closed glottis. The Valsalva maneuver creates a
day life, lifting an object from between th legs is not always rigid, vertical column of high pressure within th abdomen
practical. Consider th act of sliding an obese patient toward that pushes upward against th diaphragm and dow nw ard
die head of a hospital bed. Inability to reduce th distance against th pelvic floor. Acting as an inflated intra-abdomi
between th patient's center of mass (located anterior to S2) nal balloon, Bartelink proposed that activating this rnecha-
and th lifter can dramatically compromise th safety of th nism while lifting may partially reduce th demands on th
lifter. lumbar extensor muscles and, therefore, lower th compres
Fourth, increase th internai moment arm available to th sion force on th lu m bar spine.
!ow-back extensor muscles. A larger internai moment arm Although th notion of increasing intra-abdominal pres
for extension allows a given extension torque to be gener- sure as a way to reduce compression forces on th spine is
ated with less muscle force. As stated, less muscle force intriguing, studies have refuted th biomechanical validity of
typically equates to less force on th vertebral elements. th concept.5-34-57-61 Contraction of th abdominal muscles
Increased lumbar lordosis does indeed raise th internai mo p rod u ces forces that increase th vertical com pression on th
ment arm available to th lumbar erector spinae muscles.77 lumbar spine. Because th abdominal muscles flex th lum
Lifting with an accentuated lumbar lordosis, however, is not bar spine, their strong activation requires increased counter-
always practical or even desirable. Lifting a very heavy load balancing torques from th extensor muscles, thereby adding
346 Section III Axial Skeleton
to th overall myogenic compression on th lumbar spine. 1 0 - 3 8 would have exceeded his theoretical 200 Nm thresh-
Most persons, however, likely do benefit from th Vaisalva old if th extemal load were increased to about 80% of his
maneuver while lifting. In a healthy person, increased com body weight. Although this is a considerable weight, it is not
pression on th lumbar spine, especially when produced unusual for a person to successfully lift much greater loads,
through co-contraction of th surrounding muscles, provides such as those regularly encountered by heavy labor workers
an effective source of vertical stability to th region. Muscles and by competitive power lifters. In attempts to explain
such as th transversus abdominis and obliquus intemus this apparent dilemma, two secondary sources of extension
abdominis are very active w hile lifting,l6J7 providing an ad- torque are p ro p osed : (1) passive tension gen erated from
ditional corset effect across th posterior lumbar region. stretching th posterior ligamentous System, and (2) muscu-
Strong contraction of these muscles also resists unwanted lar-generated tension transferred through th thoracolumbar
torsions created by th asymmetrical lifting of an extemal fascia.
load.
In summary, th Vaisalva maneuver, typically performed P a ssive T e nsion G e n e ra tio n fro m S tre tc h in g th P o s te rio r
while lifting, is likely a beneficiai action that provides an L ig a m e n to u s S yste m
important element o f stability to th lumbar spine. The in When stretched, healthy ligaments and fascia exhibit some
creased stability is th result of th increased myogenic lum degree of naturai elasticity. This quality allows connective
bar compression and direct splinting action on th low back. tissue to temporarily store a small part of th force that
The increased intra-abdominal pressure while lifting is more initially causes th elongation. Bending forward in prepara-
a consequence of strong contraction of th abdominal mus tion for lifting progressively elongates several connective tis-
cles and not a method, in itself, to unload th lumbar spine. sues in th lumbar region and, presumably, th passive ten
sion developed in these tissues can assist with an extension j
ADDITIOJMAL SOURCES OF EXTENSION TORQUE USED torque.21 These connective tissues, collectively known as th
FOR LIFTING posterior ligamentous System, include th posterior longitudine '
ligament, ligamentum fiavum, apophyseal joint capsule, in-
The maximal force-generating capacity of th low-back ex- terspinous ligament, and th posterior layer of th thoraco
tensor muscles in a typical young adult in estimated to be lumbar fascia.30
approximately 4000 N (900 lb).10 By assuming an average In theory, about 72 Nm of total passive extensor torque is
internai moment arm of 5 cm, this muscle group is expected produced by maximally stretching th posterior ligamentous
to produce about 200 Nm of trunk extension torque. Al- System (Table 1 0 - 1 4 ) .10 Adding this passive torque to th
though this estimation varies for any given person, it serves hypothetic 200 Nm of active torque yields a total of 272 Nm
as a useful reference for th following discussion. Given a of extension torque available for lifting. A fully engaged
hypothetic maximal voluntary trunk extensor torque of (stretched) posterior ligamentous System can, therefore, gen
about 200 Nm, how is th faci explained that lifting typi erate about 25% of th total extension torque for lifting
cally requires extensor torques that greatly exceed 200 Nm? Note, however, that this 25% passive torque reserve is only
For instance, th person dep icted lifting th load in Figure
available after th lumbar spine is maximally fiexed, which
Average Maximum Tension Extensor Moment Arm Maximal Passive Extension Torque
Ligament (N) (m)2 (Nm)3
Posterior longitudinal ligament 90 .02 1.8
Ligamentum flava 244 .03 7.3
Capsule of apophyseal joints 680 .04 27.2
Inierspinous ligament 107 .05 5.4
Posterior layer of thoracolumbar 500 .06 30
fascia, including supraspi-
nous ligaments and th apo-
neurosis covering th erector
spinae muscles
Total
71.7
in reality is rare while lifting. Even some competitive power sion torque in th lumbar region and, as such, may augment
lifters, who appear to lift with a fully rounded low back, th torque created by th low-back musculature.
avoid th extremes of flexion.14 It is generally believed that In order for th thoracolumbar fascia to generate useful
maximum flexion of th lumbar spine should be avoided tension, it must be stretched and rendered taut. This can
while lifting.54155 The lumbar region should be held in a near occur in two ways. First, th fascia is stretched simply by
neutral lordotic position neither hyperlordotic or hypolor- bending forward and flexing th lumbar spine in preparation
dotic.55 The neutral position of th lumbar spine apparently for lifting. Second, th fascia is stretched by active contrac
aligns th locai extensor muscles to more effectively resist tion of muscles that attach imo th thoracolumbar fascia,
anterior shear produced at th lumbar spine while lifting.54 such as th obliquus intemus abdominis, transversus abdom-
Although th neutral position of th lumbar spine may re inis, latissimus dorsi, and gluteus maximus. These muscles
duce th chance of injury to th low back, it engages only a are active during lifting.
small portion of th total passive torque reserve available to Vigorous contraction of th abdominal muscles naturally
assist with extension. Most of th extension torque must be occurs as a person lifts. This phenomenon is associated with
generated by active muscle contraction.69 Muscle tissue can an increase in intra-abdominal pressure. In theory, a contrac
be significanti)' strengthened through resistive exercise in or- tion force generated by th obliquus intemus abdominis and
der to meet th large demands imposed by lifting. transversus abdominis can be transferred posteriori) to th
thoracolumbar fascia to generate an extension torque in th
lumbar region. The prevailing horizontal fiber direction of
most of th thoracolumbar fascia limits th amount of exten
*t S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 0 - 8 sion torque that can be produced.9 The force generated by
th abdominal muscles may indirectly produce 6 Nm of
extensor torque across th lumbar spine50 compared with th
Period of "Electrical Silence" of th Erector approximately 200 Nm of active torque generated by th
Spinse Muscles low-back extensor muscles. Although th actual extension
As described, flexing th lumbar spine engages th torque may be small, th tension transferred through th
posterior ligamentous System to produce a passive ex thoracolumbar fascia may provide important static bracing to
tension torque, thereby potentially relieving some of th th lumbar region, much like a corset.
force demands placed on th extensor muscles. The full The latissimus dorsi and gluteus maximus may also indi
expression of this unloading phenomenon can be dem- rectly contribute to lumbar extension torque via attachments
onstrated by placing surface EMG electrodes over th to th thoracolumbar fascia. The two muscles attach exten
lumbar erector spinae muscle group. The subject then sively into th thoracolumbar fascia. Both are active during
slowly bends th trunk forward while keeping th hips lifting, bui for different reasons (Fig. 1 0 -4 0 ). The gluteus
and knees as extended as possible. Throughout this maximus stabilizes and Controls th hips. The latissimus
motion a variable amount of EMG activity from th dorsi heps transfer th ex tem a/ lo ad bein g lifted from th
erector spinae is observed, reflecting this muscle's ec- arms to th trunk. In addition to attaching into th thoraco
centric activity while lowering th trunk. Once in full lumbar fascia, th latissimus dorsi attaches into th posterior
lumbar flexion, however, th EMG signal from th erec aspect of th pelvis, sacrum, and spine. Basecl on these
tor spinae group typically ceases.26 The weight of th attachments and its relative moment arm for producing lum
flexed trunk is supported totally by th passive torque bar extension (see Fig. 1 0 - 1 7 ), th latissimus dorsi has all
generateci by th fully stretched posterior ligamentous th attrbutes o f an extensor o f th low back. The ob liqu e
System, as well as th stretched connective tissues fiber direction o f th muscle as it ascends th trunk can also
provide torsional stability to th axial skeleton, especially
within th electrically silent erector spinae. From th
when bilaterally active. This stability may be especially useful
flexed position, th subject actively and swiftly returns
when handling large loads in an asymmetrical fashion.
th trunk to an erect position. As th lumbar spine
progressively extends, th passive torque reserve of th
posterior ligamentous System progressively falls. The ex
A Closer Look at Lifting Technique
tension torque is then generated actively by contracting
th erector spinae muscles, as evident by th large Extensive research has been conducted in th attempt to
increase in th EMG signal. define th safest technique for lifting, especially with regard
to th posture of th lumbar spine. 19202833-60-757R No tech
nique is considered th safest for all persons across th wide
spectrum of lifting situations.
Muscular-Generated Tension Transferred Through th
Thoracolumbar Fascia TWO C0NTRASTING LIFTING TECHNIQUES: THE
The thoracolumbar fascia is thickest and most extensively ST00P VERSUS THE SQUAT LIFT
developed in th lumbar region (see Fig. 9 - 7 6 ) . Much of
th tissue attaches to th lumbar spine, sacrum, and pelvis The stoop lift and th squat lift represent th biomechanical
in a position well posterior to th axis of rotation at th extremes of a broad continuum of possible lifting strategies
lumbar region. Theoretically, therefore, passive tension (Fig. 1 0 - 4 1 ). The stoop lift is performed primarily by ex-
within stretched thoracolumbar fascia can produce an exten tending th hips and lumbar region, while th knees remain
348 Section III Axial Skeleton
Maintain th extemal load as dose to Minimizes th extemal moment arm of th Holding th load between th knees while
th body as possible. load, thereby reduces torque and force de lifting is ideal but not always possible.
mands on back muscle.
Lift with th lumbar spine held as Concentrating on holding th lumbar spine in Lifting with minimal-to-moderaie flexion or
dose to a neutral lordotic posture a neutral lordotic position may help pre- extension in th lumbar spine may be
as possible. Avoid th extremes of vent th spine from extremes of flexion acceptable for some persons, depending
flexion and extension. Exact posi- and extension. Vigorous contraction of th on th health and experience of th lifter
tion of th spine can vary based back extensor muscles, with th lumbar and th situation. Minimal-to-moderate
on comfort and practicality. spine maximally jlexed, may produce dam- flexion or extension both have a biome-
aging forces on th intervertebral discs. In chanical advantage:
contrast, vigorous contraction of th back Minimal-to-moderate flexion increases
extensor muscles with th lumbar spine th passive tension generated by th
maximally extended may damage th posterior ligamentous System, possi-
apophyseal joints. bly reducing th force demands on
extensor muscles.
Minimal-to-moderate extension places
th apophyseal joints nearer to their
close-packed position, thereby pro-
viding greater stability io th re-
gion.
When lifting, fully utilize th hip Very large forces produced by low-back ex Persons with hip or knee arthritis may be
and knee extensor muscles to tensor muscles can injure th muscles unable to effectively use th muscles in
minimize th force demands on themselves, intervertebral discs, vertebral th legs to assist th back muscles.
th low-back muscles. endplates, or apophyseal joints. The squat lift may encourage th use of
th leg muscles but also increases th
overall work demands on th body.
Minimize th vertical and horizontal Minimizing th distance that th load is Using handles or an adjustable-height plat-
distance that a load must be lifted. moved reduces th total work of th lift, form may be helpful.
thereby reducing fatigue; minimizing th
distance that th load is moved reduces th
extremes of movement in th low back and
lower extremities.
Avoid twisting when lifting. Torsional forces applied to vertebrae can pre Properly designed work environment can
dispose th person to intervertebral disc reduce th need for twisting while lift
injury. ing.
Lift as slowly and smoothly as con- A slow and smooth lift reduces th large peak
ditions allow. force generated in muscles and connective
tissues.
Lift with a moderately wide and A relatively wide base of support affords
slightly staggered base o f support greater overall stabilicy o f th body,
provided by th legs. thereby reducing th chance of a fall or
slip.
When possible, use th assistance of Using assistance while lifting can reduce th Using a mechanical hoist (Hoyer lift) or a
a mechanical device or additional demand on th back of th pnmary lifter. two-man transfer may be prudent in
people while lifting. many settings.
allows th lifter to combine some of th benefits of th squat Those persons with a history of or propensity for low-
lift with th more metabolically efficient stoop lift. Workers back injury should heed th following three common sense
have reported a higher, self-perceived, maximal safe limit considerations: (1) know your physical limits, (2) think th
when allowed to lift in a freestyle technique rather than in lift through before th event, and (3) within practical and
a set tech n iqu e.76 A lthough not ideal for everyone and health limits, stay in optim al physical and cardiovascular
every lifting task, th technique depicted in Figure 1 0 - 3 8 condition.
llustrates two safety features: (1) th lumbar spine is held in
a near-neutral lordotic position, and (2) th load is lifted
from between th legs. These and additional consider- REFERENCES
ations for safe lifting techniques are also listed in Table 1. Adams MA, Dolan P: A technique for quanlifying th bending moment
1 0 -1 5 . acting on th lumbar spine in vivo. J Biomech 24:117-126, 1991.
350 Section 111 Axial Skeleton
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66. Panjabi MM, Cholewtcki J. Nibu K, et al: Criticai load of th human 613-624, 1991.
cervical spine: An in litro experimental study. Clin Biomech 1 3 1 1 - 1 7 83. Wilke H-J, Wolf S, Claes LE, et al: Stability increase of th lumbar
1998.
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/ Patwardhan AG, Havey RM, Ghanayem AJ, et al: Load-carrying capacity 84. Williams PL, Banmster LH, Berry M, et al: Grays Anatomy, 38th ed.
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85. Wolfort FG, Kanter MA, Miller LB: Torticollis. Piasi Reconstr Surg 84'
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tional Anatomy. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1995.
69. Potvin JR, McGill SM, Norman RW. Trunk muscle and lumbar ligament
contributions to dynamic lifts with varying degrees of trunk flexion
Spine 16:1099-1107, 1991
70. Potvin JR, Norman RW, McGill SM: Reduction in anterior shear forces
on th L4/L5 disc by th lumbar musculaiure. Clin Biomech 6:88-96 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1991. Adattai MA, M cN ally DS, C hinn H, et al: Posture and th compressive
Rizk NN.: A new description o ( th anterior abdom m al waII in man and strength of th (umbar spine. Clin Biomech 9 :5 -1 4 , 1994.
mammals. J Anai 131:373-385, 1980. Chaffin DB, Park KS: A longitudinal study of low back pain as associated
*2. Santaguida PL, McGill SM: The psoas major muscle: A three-dimen- with occupational weight lifting factors. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 34:513-
sional geometrie study. J Biomech 28:339-345, 1995. 525, 1973.
~3- Schipplem OD, Reinsel TE, Andersson GBJ, et al: The in/iuence of E kholm J, A rborelius UP. Nemeth G: The load on th lumbosacral jo in t and
inma/ horizontal weight placement on th loads at th lumbar spine trunk muscle activity during lifting. Ergonomics 25:145-16f, 1982.
while lifting. Spine 20:1.895-1898, 1995. Halpem AA, Bleck EE; Sit-up exercises: An electromyographic study. Clin
' Schipplein OD, Trafimow JH, Andersson GBJ, et al: Relaiionship be- Orthop 145:172-178, 1979.
tween moments at th L5/S1 level, hip and knee joint when lifting, J Keshner EA, Campbell D, Katz RT, et al: Neck muscle activation pattems in
Biomech 23:907-912, 1990. humans during isometric head stabtlization. Exp Brain Res 75:335-344,
*5. Shirazi-Adl A, Pam ianpour M : Elfecl o f changes in lordosis on mechan- 1989.
ics of th lum bar spine-lumbar curvature in lifting. J Spinai Dis 5:436- Moroney SP, Schultz AB, Miller JAA: Analysis and measurement of neck
44 r, 1999. loads. J O rthop Res 6 :7 1 3 - 720, 1988.
C h a p t e r 11
Kinesiology
Mastication and Ventilation
Donald A. Neum ann , PT, Ph D
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
PART 1: M A S T IC A T IO N , 352 Arthrokinematics, 360 Thorax, 369
0 S T E 0 L 0 G Y A N D TEETH, 352 P ro tru s io n and R e tru sio n , 360 M a n u b rio s te rn a l J o in t, 370
Regional Surface Anatomy, 352 L a te ra l E xcu rsio n , 362 S te rn o c o s ta l J o in ts , 370
Individuai Bones, 352 D e p re ssio n and E le va tio n , 362 In te rc h o n d ra l J o in ts , 370
M a n d ib le , 352 M USC LE A N D J O IN T IN TER AC TIO N , 362 C o s to tra n s v e rs e and C o s to v e rte b ra l
Innervation to th Muscles and Joints, 362 J o in ts , 370
Changes in Intrathoracic Volume During
M a x illa e , 353
Temporal Bone, 354 Moscular Anatomy and Function, 363
Z y g o m a tic B one, 355 P rim a ry M u s c le s o f M a s tic a tio n , 363 Ventilation, 371
S p h e n o id B one, 355 Masseter, 363 M U S C U LA R AC TIO N S DURING
H yoid B one, 355 Temporalis, 363 V E N T ILA TIO N , 372
Teeth, 355 Mediai Pterygoid, 364 Muscles of Quiet Inspiration, 372
ARTHROLOGY, 356 Lateral Pterygoid, 364 D ia p h ra g m , 372
Osseous Structure, 356 S e c o n d a ry M u s c le s of M a s tic a tio n , 365 S c a le n e M u s c le s , 372
M a n d ib u la r C ondyle, 356 S u m m a ry o f In d iv id u a i M u s c le A c tio n , In te rc o s ta le s M u s c le s , 372
M a n d ib u la r Fossa, 356 365 Muscles of Forced Inspiration, 373
Articular Disc, 356 M u s c u la r C o n tro l o f O pening and C losing C h ro n ic O b s tru c tiv e P u lm o n a ry D isease
Capsular and Ligamentous Structures, 357 o f th M o u th , 366 A lte re d M u s c le M e c h a n ic s , 373
Osteokinematics, 358 TE M P O R O M A N D IB U LA R DISORDERS, 367 Muscles of Forced Expiration, 376
P ro tru s io n and R etrusion, 358 A b d o m in a l M u s c le s , 376
PART 2: V EN T ILA TIO N , 368
L a te ra l E x c u rs io n , 358 T ra n s v e rs u s T h o ra c is and In te rc o s ta le s
ARTHROLOGY. 369 377
D e p re s s io n an d E levation , 359
L a t e r a l view
M a ndibu lar
notch
Mediai
pterygoid
M andib ular muscle
Occipital -ygomaT/S con dyle
bone yjonsg.
External acoustic
meatus
'Wax.ijiaT.
Mastoid process Masseter
muscle-
Styloid process-
Condyle of
te m p o ro m a n d ib u la r jo in t
Mental foramen
Angle Masseter Z yg om a tic
muscle arch
FIGURE 1 1 -2 . Lateral view of th mandible. Muscle attachments are
shown.
FIGURE 11-1. Lateral view o f th skull with emphasis on bony
andmarks associateci with th temporomandibular joint. The proxi-
mal attachments of th temporalis and masseter muscles are indi
cateci in red. poralis muscle. The condyle of th mandible extends upward
from th posterior border of th ramus. The condyle forms
th convex bon y com pon en t o f th TMJ. The mandibular
muscles, ligaments, and capsule of th TMJ. Muscles of masti- neck is a siightly constricted region located immediately be-
-ation attach either directly or indirectly to th mandtble. low th condyle. The lateral pterygoid muscle attaches to th
Muscle contraction brings th teeth embedded within th anterior-medial surface of th mandibular neck, wdthin a
mandible against th teeth embedded within th fixed maxil- small depression called th pterygoid fossa (Figs. 1 1 - 2 and
be. 1 1 -4 ).
MAXILLAE
Relevant Osteologie Features of the Mandible
Body The right and left maxillae fuse to form a single maxilla, or
Ramus upper jaw. The maxilla is fixed within the skull through
Angle
Coronoid process
Condyle
Neck
Mandibular notch
Pterygoid fossa
Molars
The two main parts of the mandible are the body and the
:wo rami (Fig. 1 1 - 2 ). The body, the horizontal portion of
the bone, accepts the lower 16 adult teeth (see Fig. 1 1 -3 ).
The rami of the mandible project verticali)' from the poste Tip of
rior aspect of the b od y (see Fig. 1 1 -2 ). Faeh ramus has an coronoid
process
external and internai surface, four borders, and two pro-
cesses at its superior aspect the coronoid process and the
condylar process. Extending betw een the coron oid an d con-
dylar process is the mandibular notch. The posterior and Lateral
pole
tnferior borders of th ramus join ai the readily palpable
angle o f the mandible. The masseter and mediai pterygoid Mediai M a n d ib u la r
muscles two powerful muscles of mastication share simi- pole condyle
lar attachments in the region of the angle of the mandible. FIGURE 1 1 -3 . The mandible as viewed from above. The names of
The coronoid process is a triangular projection of thin bone the permanent teeth are indicated. The long (side-to-side) axis
that extends upward from the anterior border of the ramus. through each mandibular condyle interseets at an approximate 160-
This process is the primary inferior attachment of the tem- degree angle.
354 Section III Axial Skeleton
Pterygoid
fossa
Coronoid
process FIGURE 11-4. Lniernal view of
th righi side of th mandible
The bone is bisected in th mie
M a n d ib u la r sagittal piane. The attachmemr:
foramen
of th mylohyoid and gemohyoiTi
muscles are indicated in red: th
attachment of th anterior beB 1
Symphysis menti Mediai
of th digastric and mediai pter-j
(attachment for pterygoid
th geniohyoid muscle ygoid muscles are indicated c j
muscle)
gray. Note th one missing wis-j
dom tooth (third molar).
Inferior view
Postglenoid Zygomatic process, Zygomatic Temporal process
Posterior Anterior
Mediai
Chaptcr 11 Kinesiology o f Mastication and Ventlation 355
SPHENOID BONE
T A B LE 1 1 - 1 . Permancnt Teeth
FIGURE 11-8. The tooth and its periodontal supportive structures. Articular Disc
The width of th periodontal ligaments is greatly exaggerated for
illustrative purposes. (From Okeson JP: Management of Temporo- The articular disc within th TMJ consists primarily of dense I
mandibular Disorders and Occulsion, 4th ed. Chicago, Mosby, fibrous connective tissue that, with th exception of its pe-
1998.) riphery, lacks a blood supply (see Fig. 1 1 - 9 ). The tissue i=
Chapter 11 Kinesiobgy o j Masticaton and Ventilation 357
Lateral view
Superior joint cavity Articular disc regions
i
r Superior
Retrodiscal lam inae-j
Interior
Lateral pterygoid
Interior head-
FIGURE 11 9. A lateral v iew o f a sagittal piane cross-section through a normal right temporomandibular joint. The mandible is in
a posiuon ot maxima! intercuspation, with th disc in iis ideal position relative to th condyle and th temporal bone.
tfexible but firm owing to its high collagen coment. The its intermediate region.47 The constriction, flanked by th
tire periphery of th disc anaches to th surrounding cap adjacent thicker anterior and posterior regions, forms a dim-
ale of th joint.
ple on th discs mferior surface. In maximal intercuspation,
The disc is divided into three regions: posterior, interme- th dimpled region of th intermediate region of th disc fits
te, and anterior (see Fig. 1 1 - 9 ). The shape of each region between th anterior-superior edge of th condyle and th
ows th disc to accommodate th contour of th condyle articular eminence of th fossa.33 The disc position proteets
d th fossa. The posterior region of th disc is convex th condyle as it slides forward across th articular eminence
periorly and concave inferiorly. The concavity accepts during th later phase of opening th mouth widely.
most of th condyle much like a ball-and-socket joint. The
estreme posterior region atlaches to a loosely organized ret
iseli laminae, containing collagen and elastin fibers. Con-
The A n terio r Region of th Articular Disc Attaches to th
tions made by th laminae anchor th disc posteriorly to
1. Periphery of th superior neck of th mandible along
ne (see th box). A meshwork of fat, blood vessels, and
with th anterior capsule of th TMJ.
ory nerves flls th space between th superior and infe- 2. Tendon of th superior head of th lateral pterygoid
~r laminae. muscle.
3. Temporal bone ju st anterior to th articular eminence.
Osteokinematics
The osteokinematics descriptors of mandibular motion are
protrasion and retrusion, lateral excursion, and depressior
and elevation (Figs. 1 1 - 1 2 to 1 1 - 1 4 ). All of these move-
ments are used during mastication. For a more detailed
FIGURE 11-10. A, The lateral ligament of th temporomandibular analysis of mandibular movements, th reader is encouraged
joint. B, The lateral ligaments mairi fibers: oblique and horizontal. to consult th classic work by Posselt,51 thoroughly summz
rized by Okeson.47
and part of th anterior edge of disc, attaches to th tendon PROTRUSION AND RETRUSION
of th superior head of th lateral pterygoid muscle (see Fig.
1 1 - 9 ). Prolrusion of th mandible occurs as it translates anteriori.
The capsule supports th joint, produces synovial fluid, without signifcant rotation (Fig. 1 1 -1 2 A ). Protrusion is ar
and contains sensory nerve endings. Medially and laterally important component of th mouths opening maximali
th capsule is hrm, providing stability to th joint during Retrusion of th mandible occurs in th reverse directio*
lateral movements such as those produced during chewing. (Fig. 1 1 -1 2 B ). Retrusion provides an important componer:
Anteriorly and posteriorly, however, th capsule is lax, al- of closing th widely opened and protruded mouth.
lowing th condyle and disc to translate forward when th
mouth is opened. LATERAL EXCURSION
Lateral excursion of th mandible occurs primarily as a side-
LATERAL LIGAMENT
to-side translation (Fig. 1 1 -1 3 A ). The direction (right <:c]
The primary ligament reinforcing th TMJ is th lateral (tem left) of active lateral excursion can be described as eith:
poromandibular) ligament (Fig. 11-1 0 A ). The lateral ligament contralateral or ipsilateral to th side of th primary me
is typically described as a combination of horizontal and action. In th adult, an average of 11 mm of maximal unLr-l
oblique fibers (Fig. 1 1 -1 0 B ).59 The more superficial oblique eral excursion is considered norm al60 Lateral excursion i
fibers course in an anterior-superior direction, from th pos- th mandible is usually combined with other relatively si
terior neck of th mandible to th lateral margins of th
articular eminence and zygomatic arch. The deeper, horizon
tal fibers share similar temporal attachments. They course
horizontally and posteriorly to attach into th lateral pole of
th mandibular condyle. ivieaiai view
The primary function of th lateral ligament is to stabilize Capsule of of th sphenoid bone
Stylomandibular
ACCESSORY LIGAMENTS ligament
Protrusion
Retrusion
I .alerai excursion
Depressimi Elevatimi
B
FIGURE 11-14. Depression (A) and elevation (B) of th mandible.
edges of th upper and lower incisors is considered ab- translational movemenl, th mandibular condyle and disc slide
normal. Elevation of th mandible doses th mouth an essentially together. This is referred to as condyle-disc complex
action used to grind food during mastication (Fig. translation. The disc is stretched in th direction of th trans-
1 1 -1 4 B ). lating condyle.
Opening th mouth
Internai Derangement of th Disc-Condyle Complex th disc to its ideal position. The abrupt movement may
Mechanical problems within th TMJ can cause impair- create a single or a reciprocai clicking sound, depending
ments in mastication. A common cause of impairment is on th degree of th disc displacement.4752
internai derangement of th disc-condyle complex.*1 The A displaced disc can deteriorate to chronic dislocation.
condition is defined as an abnormal position of th disc The disc remains abnormally anterior and mediai to th
relative to th condyle and fossa. The derangement can condyle both at rest ("closed-lock position") and through-
be caused by abnormal disc shape, overstretched collat- out th entire opening and closing cycle. A TMJ with a
eral ligaments, chronic inflammation, loss of elasticity chronically dislocated disc typically does not emit clicking
within th superior retrodiscal lamina, or abnormal forces sounds because th disc usually does not relocate or
from th lateral pterygoid muscle.34 "reduce" to its ideal position during movement. The ab
normal position of th disc blocks forward translation of
th condyle. Mouth opening is limited, often associated
with a deviation of th mandible toward th affected side.
Internai Derangement of th Disc-Condylc Complex A joint with chronic disc dislocation or malalignment often
becomes inflamed and painful. In severe cases, th joint
Disc displacement
Pain, clicking sounds, and timited range in opening tissues may degenerate and eventually become arthritic
th mouih (Fig. 11-16). As in other synovial joints, an arthritic TMJ
Chiome disc dislocation may demonstrate crepitus during movement and, in ex-
Pain, very limited range in opening th mouth, in treme cases, may ankylose or fuse.
flammation possibly leading to osteoarthritis The clinical course of a patient with internai derange
ment of th disc-condyle complex is highly variable. Often
th patient offers an extended history of nonpainful move-
ments that emit clicking sounds. The condition may gradu
Regardless of th cause of th derangement, th disc a l i or suddenly worsen, with recurring periods of in-
and condyle translate out of phase with each other. This creased pain, cessation of clicking, and episodes of
condition is referred to as disc displacement. Even at rest, locking or severely limited motion.26 The condition is often
th intermediate region of th disc is displaced anterior exacerbated by a forced yawn, a minor trauma to th jaw,
and mediai to th anterior margin of th condyle. At- or a dentai procedure that requires prolonged opening of
tempts at fully opening th mouth may abruptly relocate th mouth.
movement varies depending on th degree of opening of th The arthrokinematics of closing th mouth occur in th
mouth. reverse order of that described for opening. When th
mouth is fully opened and prepared to dose, tension in th
superior retrodiscal lamina starts to retract th disc, initiating
LATERAL EXCURSION
th early phase of closing. The later phase is dominated by
Lateral excursion involves primarily a side-to-side translation rotation of th condyle within th concavity of th disc.
of th condyle and disc within th fossa. Slight multiplanar terminated when contact is made between th upper and
rotations are typically combined with lateral excursion.47 Fig lower teeth.
ure 1 1 -1 3 B shows an example of lateral excursion com
bined with slight horizontal piane rotation. The left condyle
forms a pivot point within th fossa as th right condyle MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
rotates slightly anteriorly and medially. Slight rotations also
occur in sagittal and frontal planes, owing primarily to th Innervation to th Muscles and Joints
effect of th condyle and disc sliding across th sloped artic-
The muscles of mastication and their innervation are listec
ular eminence.
in Table 1 1 - 2 . Based primarily on size, th muscles of
mastication are divided into two groups: primary and se:
DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION ondary. The primary muscles are th masseter, temporalr-
Opening and closing of th mouth occur by depression and medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid. The secondary mu:-
elevation of th mandible, respectively. During these move- cles are much smaller. The primary muscles of masticaticr.
ments, each TMJ experiences a combination of rotation and are innervated by th mandibular nerve, a diVision of th
translation between th mandibular condyle, articular disc, trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). This nerve exits th sk cl
and fossa. Because rotation and translation occur simulta- via th foramen ovale (see Fig. 1 1 -5 ).
neously, th axis of rotation is constantly moving. In th
ideal case, th movements within both joints result in a
maximal range of mouth opening with a minimal stress
placed on th articular surfaces. TABLE 1 1 - 2 . Primary and Secondary Muscles of
The arthrokinematics of opening th mouth are depicted
j Mastication and Their Innervation
for an early and a late phase in Figure 1 1 - 1 5 . The early
Primary Muscles Innervation
phase, constituting th frst 35 to 50% of th range of mo-
tion, involves primarily rotation of th mandible relative to Masseter Branch of th mandibular nerve.
th cranium.57-67 As depicted in Figure 1 1 -1 5 A , th condyle a division of cranial nerve V
rolls posteriorly within th concave inferior surface of th
Temporalis Branch of th mandibular nerve,
disc. The direction of th roll is in relation to th rotation of
a division of cranial nerve V
a point on th ramus of th mandible. The rolling motion
swings th body of th mandible inferiorly and posteriorly. Mediai Pterygoid Branch of th mandibular nerve,
The axis of rotation is not fxed but migrates within th a division of cranial nerve V
vicinity of th condyles.20' 50 Lateral Pterygoid Branch of th mandibular nerve.
The rolling motion of th condyle stretches th oblique a division of cranial nerve V
portion of th lateral ligament. The increased tension in th
Secondary Muscles Innervation
ligament helps to initiate th late phase of th mouths open
ing.49' 59 Suprahyoid Croup
The late phase of opening th mouth comprises th final
50 to 65% of th total range of motion. This phase is Digastric (posterior belly) Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
marked by a graduai transition from primary rotation to Digastric (anterior belly) Inferior alveolar nerve (branch of
primary translation. The transition can be readily appreciated th mandibular nerve, a divi
by palpaling th condyle of th mandible during th full sion of cranial nerve V)
opening of th mouth. During th translation, th condyle
Geniohyoid C1 via th hypoglossal nerve
and disc slide together in a forward and inferior direction
(cranial nerve XII)
against th slope of th articular eminence (Fig. 1 1 -1 5 B ). At
th end of opening, th axis of rotation shifts inferiorly. The Mylohyoid Inferior alveolar nerve (branch of
exact point of th axis is difficult to define because it de- th mandibular nerve, a divi
sion of cranial nerve V)
pends on th persons unique rotation-to-translation ratio.30
At th later phase of opening, th axis is usually below th Slylohyoid Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
neck of th mandible.20
Infrahyoid Group
Full opening of th mouth maximally stretches and pulls
th disc anteriorly. The extent of th forward translation Omohyoid Ventral rami of C1' 3
(protrusion) is limited, in part, by tension in th stretched,
Stemohyoid Ventral rami of C1-3
elastic superior retrodiscal lamina. The intermediate region of
th disc translates forward while remaining between th su Stemothyroid Ventral rami of CU3
perior aspect of th condyle and th articular eminence. This Thyrohyoid Ventral rami of C1 (via cranial
placement of th disc maximizes joint congruency and re- nerve XII)
duces large variation in intra-articular stress.
Chapter 11 Kinesiology o f Mastication and Ventiation 363
A B
FIGURE 1 1 -1 7 . The masseter (A) and temporalis (B) muscles. (Modified from Okeson JP: Management of Tempo-
romandibular Disorders and Occlusion, 4th ed. Chicago, Mosby, 1998.)
The synovial membrane and th centrai pan of th articu- slightly. Unilateral contraction of th masseter, however,
lar disc within th TMJ lack sensory innervation. The pe- causes slight ipsilateral excursion of th mandible. Such an
riphery of th disc, capsule, lateral ligament, and retrodiscal action may occur during a lateral grinding motion while
tissues, however, possess pain fibers and mechanorecep- chewing (Fig. 1 1 - 1 8 ). The multiple actions of th masseter
I tors.'H-66 Mechanoreceptors and sensory nerves, from orai are useful for effective mastication.
mucosa, periodontal ligaments, and muscles, provide th
nervous System with a rich source of proprioception. This T e m p o ra lis
source of information helps to protect th tissues through The temporalis is a fiat, fan-shaped muscle that fills much of
neuromuscular reflex actions and allows coordination be- th concavity of th temporal fossa of th skull (Fig. 1 1 -
tween th muscles and joint. The sensory innervation to th
TMJ is carried through two bran ches o f th mandibular
nerve: auriculotemporal and masseteric.
Active lateral excursion
M a s s e te r
L a te ra l P te ry g o id
(Fig. 11 9 )., 56S The precise distai attachments are stili :
The lateral pterygoid has a superior and an inferior head subject of debate.27 About 65% of th fibers of th superior
(Fig. 1 1 -1 9 B ). The superior head arises from th greater head attach into th pterygoid fossa (see Fig. 1 1 - 2 ) ; th
wing of th sphenoid bone. The considerably larger inferior remaining attach into th mediai wall of th capsule, and a
head arises from th lateral surface of th lateral pterygoid relatively small portion into th mediai side of th ariicuk-
piate. As a whole, th muscle traverses nearly horizontally io disc. Activation of th superior head exerts an anterior-me-
insert into (1) th neck of th mandible at th pterygoid dial force on th capsule and disc. This muscular action mav
fossa, (2) th articular disc, and (3) th capsule of th TMJ be involved in th pathomechanics of excessive anterior-
Lateral pterygoid
superior head
Lateral pterygoid
inferior h e a d
FIGURE 11-19. A, The mediai view of th righi mediai pterygoid. B, The lateral view of th two heads of th lateral pterygoid.
(A with permission from Okeson JP; Management of Temporomandibular Disorders and Occlusion, 4th ed. Chicago, Mosby,
1998. B modified from Kaplan AS and Assael LA: Temporomandibular Disorders: Diagnosis and Treatment Philadelphia WB
Saunders, 1991.)
Chapter 11 Kinesiology o f Mastication and Ventilation 365
Depression
Elevation (opening
(closing of of th
Muscle th mouth) mouth) Lateral Excursion* Protrusion Retrusion
Masseter XXX X (IL) X
S P E C I A L F O C U S
Passive Muscular Tension and its Possible Influence on disc-condyle complex. Although th data suggest an asso-
th Posture of th Mandible ciation between abnormal craniocervical posture and dis-
Based on muscular anatomy, it is logicai to assume that orders of th TMJ, th literature does not unequivocally
th posture of th head can influence th resting posture support a cause-and-effect relationship between these
of th mandible.8-22-39 Consider, for example, th chronic variables.69
forward head posture described previously in Chapters 9
and 10. The person depicted in Figure 11-21 shows a
Forw ard Head Posture
variant of this posture. Observe that th protracted (for
ward) head is combined with a flexed upper thoracic and
lower cervical spine and with an extended upper cervical
and craniocervical region. This posture stretches infra-
hyoid muscles, such as th sternohyoid and omohyoid,
which can create an inferior and posterior traction on th
hyoid. The traction is transferred to th mandible through
suprahyoid muscles such as th anterior belly of th di-
gastric. As a result, th mandible is pulled in a direction
of retrusion and depression. Because of th attachment of
th omohyoid to th scapula, poor posture of th shoulder
girdle could indirectly place additional tension against th
mandible.
Altering th resting posture of th mandible changes
th position of its condyle within th fossa. A posteriorly
Suprahyoids
displaced condyle could, in theory, compress th delicate
retrodiscal tissues, creating inflammation and muscle Sternohyoid
spasm. Spasm in th lateral pterygoid muscle may be a
naturai protective mechanism to protrude th mandible Omohyoid
away from th compressed retrodiscal tissues. Chronic
spasm within this muscle may, however, abnormally posi FIGURE 11-21. A forward head posture shows one mechanism by
tion th disc anterior and mediai to th condyle. As de which passive tension in selected suprahyoid and infrahyoid mus
cles altere th resting posture of th mandible. The mandible is
scribed in Special Focus 11-1, this situation may predis
pulled inleriorly and posteriorly, changing th position of th con
pose a person to a condition of derangement of th dyle within th temporomandibular joint.
TeinporaliS;
Lateral pterygoid
superior head
Superior N Lateral
FIGURE 1 1 -2 2 .The muscle and etr.odfscal pterygoid
lamina Lateral s u ftM rh e a d
joint interaction while opening pterygoid
(A) and closing (B) th mouth. piate
The relative degree of muscle W Lateral H F L a te r a l
pterygoid pterygoid
activation is indicated by th k interior interior head ^
different intensity of red. In B ;Whead-
th superior head of th lateral
pterygoid muscle is shown ec-
centrically active. (These loca-
tions of th axes of rotation in Masseter \ / / '
A and B are estimates only.)
Suprahyoids
Mediai pterygoid '
Hyoid bone
Infrahyoids
TEMPOROMANDIBULAR DISORDERS
Diaphragm
PART 2: VENTILATION
m S P E C I A L F O C U S
4
Factors that Can Oppose Expansion of th Thorax
The work performed by th muscles of inspiration must FIGURE 11-25. The bony housing of th thorax is shown along
overcome th naturai elastic recoil of th lung tissue with th enclosed lungs, parietal and visceral pleural, and intercos-
and th joints that compose th thorax. Additional work tal and diaphragmatic muscles. (Modified with permisston from
is performed to overcome th resistance of th inspired McNaught AB and Callander R: Illustrated Physiology. New York,
air as it passes through th extensive airways. The Churchill Livingstone, 1975.)
amount of air that reaches th alveoli depends on th
reduced alveolar pressure, which is determined in part
by th net effect of muscle contraction and th me-
naturally decreased by th elastic recoil of lungs, thorax, and
chanical properties that oppose thoracic expansion.
connective tissues of stretched inspiratory muscles. Forced
Several factors can oppose expansion of th thorax.
expiration, such as that required to cough or blow out a
Advanced age, for example, is associated with in
candle, requires th active force produced by expiratory
creased stiffness of th joints and connective tissues
muscles, such as th abdominals.
that make up th thorax.18 The lung parenchyma, how-
ever, loses elastic recoil and becomes more compliant
with aging. Compliance, in this context, is a measure of ARTHROLOGY
th distensibility of th lungs produced for a given drop
in transpulmonary pressure or th slope of th volume- Thorax
pressure curve. When combined, th total System (tho
rax and lungs) shows a net decrease in compliance The rib cage, or thorax, is a closed System that functions as
with aging.68 A greater reduction in pressure is required th mechanical bellows of ventilation (Fig. 1 1 -2 5 ). The in
to inspire a given volume of air. In effect, muscles have ternai aspect of th thorax is sealed from th outside by
to work harder during inspiration. This partially explains several structures (Table 1 1 - 4 ) . Although this chapter fo-
why aging is typically associated with a slight decrease
in tidal volume and slight increase in respiratory fre-
quency.
Diseases or abnormal postures can also oppose tho TABLE 1 1 - 4 . Tissues that Seal th Thorax
racic expansion. Rheumatoid arthritis, for example, can
increase th stiffness of th cartilage of th sternocos- Posterior-laterally
tal joints, thereby resisting an increase in intrathoracic
volume. Severe scoliosis or kyphosis may physically thoracic vertebrae
limit th expansion of th thorax. ribs
intercostal muscles and membrane
Anteriorly
costai cartilages
Expiration s th process of expiring (exhaling) air from sternum
th lungs into th environment. In accord with th analogy intercostal muscles and membranes
to th piston previously described, decreasing th volume
within th chamber of a piston increases th pressure on th
Superiorly
contained air, forcing it outward. Expiration in th human upper ribs and clavicles
occurs by a similar process. Reducing th intrathoracic vol cervical fascia that surrounds th esophagus and trachea
ume increases th alveolar pressure, thereby driving air from cervical muscles
th alveoli to th atmosphere.
Inferiorly
Quiet expiration is primarily a passive process that does
not depend on muscle activation. When th muscles of in diaphragm muscle
spiration relax after contraction, th intrathoracic volume is
M a n u b rio s te m a l
lig a m e n t o v e r
Articulations within th Thorax
m a n u b rio s te m a l jo in t
Manubriostemal joint
Sternocostal joints (including th costochondral and chon-
drosternal junctions)
lnterchondral joints
Costotransverse joints
C o sta i fa c e t of th
Costovertebral joints
4 th ch o n d ro ste rn a l
ju n c tio n
(S te rn o co sta l joint)
MANUBRIOSTERNAL JOINT
The manubrium fuses with th body of th stemum at th
manubriostemal joint (Fig. 1 1 -2 6 ). This fibrocartilaginous ar-
X ip h o id p ro ce ss
ticulation is an amphiarthrosis, similar to th strutture of th
pubic symphysis. A partial disc fills th cavity of th manu-
briosternal joint, completely ossifying late in life. Before ossi- ln te rc h o n d ra l lig a m e n ts
fication, th joint may contribute modestly to expansion of in te rch o n d ra l jo in t
th thorax.
Changes in Intrathoracic Volume During of th axis of rotation that runs through th costotransverse
I
Ventilation and costovertebral joints. In th upper six ribs, th axis
makes an approximate 25- to 35-degree angle with th fron-
VERTICAL CHANGES tal piane; in th lower six tibs, th axis makes an approxi
I During inspiration, th vertical diameter of th thorax is mate 35- to 45-degree angle with th frontal piane. The
I tncreased primarily by contraction and subsequent lowering anatomie specimen used to illustrate Figure 1 1 -2 7 A shows
I o f th dome o f th diaphragm musc/e (see Fig. 1 1 -2 4 B ). an approxim ate 3 5 -d eg ree angle. This slight d ifferen ce in
angulation causes th upper ribs to elevate slightly more in
I During quiet expiration, th diaphragm relaxes, allowing th
th anterior direction, thereby facilitating th forward and
dome to recoil upward to its resting position.
upward movement of th stemum.
The e/evating ribs and stemum create s/ight bending and
twisting movements within th pliable cartilages associated
ANTERIOR-POSTERIOR AND MEDIAL-LATERAL
with th joints of th thorax. As depicted in Figure 1 1 -2 7 6 ,
CHANGES
torsion created in th twisted cartilage within a sternocostal
Elevation and depression of th ribs and sternum produce joint Stores a component of th energy used to elevate th
Icnanges in th anterior-posterior and medial-lateral diameters ribs. The energy is partially recaptured during expiration, as
of th thorax. To varying degrees, all five articulations within th rib cage recoils to its relatively constricted state.
th thorax contribute to these changes in diameter. Because of th contrast in length of th first seven ribs
During inspiration, th shaft of th ribs elevates in a path and th differences in stiffness between th first and th
I generally perpendicular to th axis of rotation that courses remainder of th sternocostal joints, elevation of th ribs
between th costotransverse and costovertebral joints (Fig. places dissimilar stresses on th lateral edge of th stemum.
1 1 -2 7 ). The downward sloped shaft of th ribs rotates up Part of th stress may be dissipated by slight movement ai
ward and outward, increasing th intrathoracic volume in th manubriosternal joint.
both anterior-posterior and medial-lateral diameters. Only a During expiration, th muscles of inspiration relax, allow-
slight rotation at th posterior joints produces a relatively ing th ribs and th stemum to return to their preinspiration
large displacement of th shaft of th ribs. This mechanism position. The lowering of th body of th ribs combined
is somewhat similar to th rotation of a bucket handle. with th inferior and posterior movements of th stemum
The specific path of movement of a given rib clepends decreases th anterior-posterior and medial-lateral diameters
partially on its unique shape, and on th spadai orientation of th thorax.
Superior view
372 Section III Axial Skeleton
and th more lateral intercostales interni are most active indirectly mcrease intrathoracic volume. The muscles listed
during ipsilateral trunk rotation.55 in Table 1 1 - 6 are illustrated elsewhere in this textbook. The
In summary, th human body apparently has several serratus posterior superior and serratus posterior inferior,
strategies available for activating th intercostales. Both sets however, are illustrated in Figure 1 1 - 2 9 ; th levator costae
of muscles may elevate or depress th ribs, depending on muscles are illustrated in Figure 1 0 -1 2 .
th workload placed on th ventilatory System and th The muscles of forced inspiration are typically used in
torque demands placed on th trunk as a whole, and which healthy persons to increase both th rate and volume of
of th two adjacent ribs is freest to move.14 inspired air. These muscles may also compensate for th
One function of th intercostales that is clear is their dysfunction of one or more of th primary muscles of inspi
ability to stabilize th intercostal spaces. During inspiration, ration, such as th diaphragm. This compensation is fre-
th intercostales muscles contract to stiffen th rib cage.4 quently employed in persons with severe chronic obstructive
With th assistance of th scalene muscles, th splinting pulmonary disease.
action prevents th thoracic wall from being partially sucked
tnward by th reduced intrathoracic pressure caused by con- Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Altercd
traction of th diaphragm.11 Muscle Mechanics
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a disordei
Muscles of Forced Inspiration that typically incorporates three components: (1) chronic
bronchitis, (2) emphysema, and (3) asthma. Symptoms in
Forced inspiration requires additional muscles to assist th clude chronic inflammation and narrowing of th bronchi-
primary muscles of inspiration. As a group, th additional oles, chronic cough, and mucus-filled airways, with overdis-
muscles are referred to as muscles o f fo rced inspiration, or tension and destruction of th alveolar walls. A significarti
accessory muscles o f inspiration. Tabie 1 1 - 6 shows a sample complication of COPD is elastic recoil loss within th lungs
of th mode of action of several muscles of forced inspira and collapsed bronchioles. As a result, air remams trapped
tion. Each muscle has a line-of-action that can directly or in th lungs at th end of quiet or forced expiration. This
S P E C I A L FOCUS 1 1 -
?I
"Paradoxical Breathing" Following Cervical Spinai Cord city is accounted for by contraction and full descent of
Injury th diaphragm. The vital capacity of a person immediately
In th healthy person, ventilation typically involves a char- following a C4 spinai cord injury may fall as low as
acteristic pattern of movement between th thorax and 300 mL.64 Although th diaphragm may be operating at
abdomen. During inspiration, th thorax expands out- near normal capacity, th constricting, rather than th
wardly owing to th elevation of th ribs and sternum. normally expanding, thorax limits th inhalation of 2700 mL
The abdomen may protrude slightly because of th ante- of air. Several weeks following a spinai injury, however,
rior displacement of th abdominal viscera, compresseti th atonie (flaccidi intercostales typically become hyper-
by th descending diaphragm. tonic. The increased muscle tone can act as a spfint to
A complete cervical spinai cord injury below th C4 th thoracic wall, as evident by th fact that vital capacity
vertebra does not paralyze th diaphragm because its in an average size adult with a C4 or below injury often
innervation is primarily from th C4 nerve root. The inter returns to near 3000 mL.
costales and abdominal muscles, however, are typically In addition to th constriction of th upper thorax dur
totally paralyzed. The patient with this level of spinai cord ing inspiration, a person with an acute cervical injury
injury often displays a "paradoxical breathing" pattern.45 often displays marked forward protrusion of th abdomen
The pathomechanics of this breathing pattern provide in- during inspiration. The atonie and paralyzed abdominal
sight into th normal interaction of th diaphragm, inter muscles offer little resistance to th forward migration of
costales, and abdominal muscles during inspiration. th abdominal contents. Without this resistance, th con-
Without th splinting action of th intercostales across tracting diaphragm has little leverage to expand th mid
th intercostal spaces, th lowering of th dome of th dle and lower ribs. These pathomechanics also contribute
diaphragm creates an internai suction within th chest to th loss of vital capacity following a cervical injury.
that constricts th upper thorax, especially in its anterior- While seated, th person with an acute cervical spinai
posterior diameter. The term paradoxical breathing de- cord injury may benefit from an elastic abdominal binder.
scribes th constriction, rather than th normal expansion, In th seated position, th dome of th diaphragm rests
of th rib cage during inspiration.45 The constriction of th lower than in th supine position. An abdominal binder
thorax can reduce th vital capacity of a person with an can offer beneficiai resistance to th descent of th dia
acute cervical spinai cord injury. In th healthy adult, vital phragm until th anticipated return of firmness in th
capacity is about 4000 mL. About 3000 mL of this capa muscles that support th anterior abdominal wall.2'
Chapter 11 Kinesiology of Masticatori and Ventilatori 375
Serratus postenor infe- Stabilizes th lower ribs for contraction of lntercostal nerves (ventral rami Chapter 11
rior th diaphragm -p-1 2 )
Levator costae (longus Increases intrathoracic volume by elevating Branches of dorsi rami of adjacent Chapter 10
and brevis) th upper ribs thoracic spinai nerves
Stemocleidomastoid Increases intrathoracic volume by elevating Primary source: spinai accessory Chapter 10
th sternum and upper ribs nerve (cranial nerve XI)
Latissimus dorsi Increases intrathoracic volume by elevating Thoracodorsal nerve (C6-8) Chapter 5
ribs; this function requires th arms to
be ftxed.
lltocostalis thoracts and Increases intrathoracic volume by extend- Adjacent dorsal rami of spinai Chapter 10
cervicis (erector spi- ing th trunk; stabilizes th neck for nerves
nae) contraction of th stemocleidomastoid
and scalenes.
Pectoralis minor Increases intrathoracic volume by elevating Mediai pectoral nerve (C7-*) Chapter 5
th upper ribs; requires activation from
muscles such as trapezius and levator
scapulae to stabilize th scapula.
Pectoralis major (ster Increases intrathoracic volume by elevating Lateral and mediai pectoral nerves Chapter 5
na! head) th middle ribs and sternum; this fune- (C-T 1)
don requires th arms to be fixed.
Greater flexion or abduction of th shoul-
ders increases th vertical line-of-force
of th muscle fibers relative to its tho
racic attachments: this strategy increases
th effectiveness o f this muscle in ex-
panding intrathoracic volume.
Serratus anterior Increases intrathoracic volume by elevating Long thoracic nerve (C5-7) Chapter 5
th ribs.
Quadratus lumborum Stabilizes th lower ribs for contraction o f Ventral rami o f T'--L Chapter 10
th diaphragm during early forced in
spiration.
complication is caled hyperinflation o f th ungs, 10-54 In ad- th lin e-of-force o f th m u scle can paradoxically draw th
vanced cases, th thorax remains in a chronic state of near lower ribs inward, thereby inhibiting inspiration.
full inflation, regardless of th actual phase of ventilation. Because of th compromised function of th diaphragm,
The thorax of a person with COPD, therefore, typically de- persons with advanced COPD often depend on muscles of
velops a barrel-shaped appearance. forced inspiration in addition to other primary muscles of
The excessive air in th ungs at th end of expiration inspiration. Even at rest, ventilation appears labored. Muscles
alters th geometry of th muscles of inspiration, especially such as th scalenes, stemocleidomastoid, erector spinae,
;he diaphragm. Throughout th ventilation cycle, th dia and pectoralis major can be observed contracting. Often, a
phragm flattens and remains abnormally low in th thorax. person with COPD may stand or walk with th body par-
rhe change in position and shape of th diaphragm alters its tially bent over while placing one or both arms on a stable
i-esting length and line-of-force.41 These two factors reduce th object, such as th back of a chair, grocery cart, or walker.2
dfectiveness of th diaphragm during inspiration. Operating This strategy stabilizes th distai attachments of arm muscles,
H a shortened length on its length-tension curve compro- such as th sternal head of th pectoralis major and latissi
nises force production. Furthermore, functioning in a low- mus dorsi. As a consequence, these muscles can assist with
:red position redireets th line-of-force of th costai fibers of inspiration by elevating th sternum and ribs. Although this
he diaphragm more horizontally. This robs th muscles method increases th number of muscles available to assist
iffectiveness at elevating th ribs. At a low enough position, with inspiration, it also increases th workload of standing
376 Section ili Axial Skeleton
Stem um
T ransversus Intercostales
thoracis interni Important Physiologic Functions of th Abdominal
Muscles
Forceful expiration is driven primarily by th abdominal
muscles. These muscles are included in several physio
logic functions, including singing, laughing, coughing,
and adequately responding to a "gag" reflex when
choking. The latter two functions are particularly vital to
health and safety. Coughing or vigorously "clearing th
throat" is a naturai way to remove secretions from th
bronchial tree, thereby reducing th likelihood of lung
infection. A sfrong contraction of th abdominal mus
cles is also used to dislodge objects lodged in th
trachea.
Persons with weakened or completely paralyzed ab
dominal muscles must learn alternative methods of
coughing or have others "manually" assist with this
function. Consider, for example, a person with a com
Diaphragm T ransversus
plete spinai cord lesion at th T4 level. Because of th
abdom inis
innervation of th abdominal muscles (ventral rami of
FIGURE 11-31. An internai view of th anterior thoracic wall shows
T7-L'), that person would likely have completely para
th transversus thoracis (red), intercostales interni, diaphragm, and
lyzed abdominal muscles. Persons with paralyzed or
transversus abdominis. (Modified with permission from Luttgens K
very weakened abdominal muscles must exercise extra
and Hamilton N: Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion,
9th ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1997 With pennission of th caution to prevent choking.
McGraw-Hill Companies.)
pared to initiate a more forceful contraction at th next The muscle is located on th internai side of th thorax,
inspiration cycle. fanning in an oblique and inferior direction between th
upper ftve ribs and th stemum (Fig. 1 1 -3 1 ). The muscles
TRANSVERSUS THORACIS AND INTERCOSTALES neural activation is coupled with that of th abdominal mus
cles during forced expiration.15
The transversus thoracis muscle, also known as th triangu- The intercostales, especially th interni fibers, depress th
laris stemi or sternocostalis, is a muscle of forced expiration. ribs during forced expiration.12
Location of
Muscle Mode of Action Innervation lllustrations
Abdominal muscles 1. Decreases intrathoracic volume by flexing th Intercostal nerves; ventral Chapter 10
rectus abdominis trunk and depressing th ribs. rami T7-Ll.
obliquus extemus abdominis 2. Compresses th abdominal wall and contents,
obliquus internus abdominis which increases intra-abdominal pressure; as a re-
transversus abdominis sult, th relaxed diaphragm is pushed upward, de-
creasing intrathoracic volume.
Transversus thoracis Decreases intrathoracic volume by depressing th ribs. Intercostal nerves (adjacent Chapter 11
ven erai r a m i)
Intercostales The intercostales, especially th interni fibers, de- Intercostal nerves; ventral Chapter 11
crease intrathoracic volume by depressing th ribs. rami T2-T 12
378 Section III Axia! Skeleton
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regenerate? Ann R Coll Surg Engl 75:231-236, 1993.
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Temporomandibular Joint Radiology Research and Education Founda Clin North Am 27:573-594, 1983.
tion, San Francisco, 1983
58. Sari S, Sonmez H, Oray GO, et al: Temporomandibular joint dysfunc-
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temporomandibular disc. J Orofac Pain 9:9 -1 5 , 1995. Dent 24:59-62, 1999.
28. Iglarsh ZA, Snyder-Mackler L. Temporomandibular joint and th cervi 59. Saio H, Slrom D, Carisson GE. Controverstes on anatomy and function
cal spine. In Richardson JV, Iglarsh ZA (eds): Clinical Orthopaedic of th ligaments associated with th temporomandibular joint: A Jiteni
Physical Therapy. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1994. ture survey. Orofac Pain 9:308-316. 1995.
Chaptcr 11 Kinesiology of Mastication and Ventilation 379
60- Sinn DP, de Assis EA, Throckmorton CS: Mandibular e.xcursions and temporomandibular disorders (TMD). J Craniomand Pract 14:225-232,
maximum bite forces in paiients wilh temporomandibular joim disor 1996.
ders. J Orai Maxillofac Surg 54:671-679, 1996
61. Stohler CS: Muscle-related temporomandibular disorders. ) Orofae Pain
13:273-284, 1999 ADDITIONAL READINGS
62. Suvinen TI, Reade PC, Sunden B, et al: Temporomandibular disorders.
Part 1: A comparison of symptom profilcs in Australian and Fmnish Campbell EJM: The role of th scalene and stemomastoid muscles in
patients. J Orofae Pain 11:58-66, 1997. breathing in a normal subject: An eleciromyographic study J Anat 89
63. Whitelaw WA, Ford GT, Rimmer KP, ei al: Intercostal musces are used 378-386, 1955.
during rotation of th thorax in humans. J Appi Physiol 72:1940-1944 Di Fabio RP: Physical therapy for patients with TMD: A descriptive study of
1992. treatment, disability, and health status. J Orofacial Pain 12 124-134
1998.
64. Williams PL, Bannister LH, Berry M, et al: Gray's Anatomy, 38th ed.
New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995. Goldman MD, Loh L, Sears TA: The respiratory activity of human levatoi-
65. Wilkinson TM: The relationship between th disk and th lateral ptery- costae muscles and its modification by posture. J Physiol .362:189-204
1985
goid muscle in th human temporomandibular joim. J Prosthet Dent
60:715-724, 1988. Goodheart G: Applied kinesiology in dysfunction of th temporomandibular
joint. Dent Clin North Am 27:613630, 1983.
66. Wink CS, Onge MS, Zimmy ML: Neural clemenls in th human lem-
Krumpc PE, Knudson RJ, Parsons G, et al: The aging respiratory System .
poromandibular articular disc. J Orai Maxillofac Surg 50:334-337
Clin Geriatrie Med 1:143-175, 1985.
1992
Lipton JA, Ship JA, Larach-Robinson D Estimated prevalence and distribu-
67 Yusttn DC, Rieger MR, McGuckin RS, et al: Determination of th exts-
tion of reported orofacial pain in th United States. J Am Dent Assoc
tence of hinge movements of th temporomandibular joint durmg nor- 124:115-121, 199.3.
mal openmg by Cine-MRl and computer digitai addition. J Prosthodont McKay GS, Ycmm R, Cadden SW: The strutture and function of th lempo-
2:190-195, 1993.
romandibular joint, Br DentJ 173:127-132, 1992.
68. Zaugg M, Lucchinetti E. Geriatrie anesthesia: Respiratory functioti in th Passero PL, Wyman BS, Bell JW, et al: Temporomandibular joint dysfunc-
elderly. Aneslh Clm N o rlh Am 18:47-58, 2000. uon syndrome. Phys Ther 65:1203-1207, 1985
69. Zonnenberg AJ, Van Maanen CJ, Oostendorp RA, et al: Body posture Widmark G: On surgical intervention in th temporomandibular joint. Swed
photographs as a diagnostic aid for musculoskeetal disorders related to DentJ 1235:1-87. 1997.
A p p e n d i x III
MUSCLES OF THE A X IA L SKELETON Part B: M u scle s of th Craniocervical Part C: M iscellaneous: The Quadratus
Part A: M u scle s of th Trunk Region Lumborum
S e t I: M u s c le s o f th P o s te rio r T ru n k S e t I: M u s c le s o f th A n te rio r-la te ra l Part D: M uscles of M astication
S et II: M u s c le s o f th A n te rio r-la te ra l C ra n io c e rv ic a l R egion Part E: Suprahyoid M uscles
T ru n k S e t II: M u s c le s o f th P o s te rio r Part F: Infrahyoid M uscles
C ra n io c e rv ic a l R egion Part G: M u scle s Related Prim arily to
Ventilation
Innervation to th semispinalis muscles: dorsal rami of adja- Part B: Muscles of th Craniocervical Region
cent spinai nerves ( G - T 6)
SET 1: MUSCLES OF THE AIMTERIOR-LATERAL
Short Segmentai Group CRANIOCERVICAL REGION
Interspinalis and Intertransversarus Muscles Longus Capitis
Interspinalis Muscles Inferior attachments: anterior tubercles of transverse proc
These paired muscles attach regularly between adjacent esses of C 3 - 6
spinous processes within th cervical vertebrae, except C I Superior altachment: inferior surface of th basilar part of
and C2, and th lumbar vertebrae. In th thoracic spine, th th occipital bone, immediately anterior to th attach-
interspinalis muscles exist only at th extreme upper and ment o f th rectus capitis anterior
lower regions. Innervation: ventral rami of spinai nerves ( O - C 5)
Innervation: dorsal rami of adjacent spinai nerves (C3- L 5) Longus Colli
Intertransversarus Muscles S u p e r i o r O b l i q u e P o r t io n
These paired right and left muscles attach between adja Inferior attachments: anterior tubercles of transverse proc
cent transverse processes of all cem cal, lower thoracic, and esses o f C 3 - 5
lumbar vertebrae. In th cem cal region, th intertransversa Superior attachment: tubercle on anterior arch of CI
rus muscles are subdivided imo small anterior and posterior V e r t i c a l P o r t io n
muscles, indicating their position relative to th anterior and Inferior attachments: anterior surface of th bodies of
posterior tubercles of th transverse processes, respectively. C 5 -T 3
In th lumbar region, th intertransversarus muscles are sub
Superior attachments: anterior surface of th bodies of
divided into small lateral and mediai muscles, indicating C 2 -4
their relative position between th transverse processes.
I n fe r io r O b liq u e P o r tio n
Innervation: th anterior, posterior, and lateral intertrans
Inferior attachments: anterior surface of th bodies of
versarus muscles are innervated by ventral rami of ad
T l-3
jacent spinai nerves (C3- L 5); th mediai intertrans
versarus muscles, within th lumbar region, are Superior attachments: anterior tubercles of transverse proc
esses of C 5 - 6
innervated by th dorsal rami of adjacent spinai nerves
( L '- L 5). Innervation: ventral rami of spinai nerves (C2- C 8)
Lower Extremity
Giunrtriceps
contractinn
S E C T ! O N I V
Lower Extremity
C h a r t e r 12: Hip
C h a r t e r 13: Knee
386
C h a p t e r 12
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
0 S T E 0 L 0 G Y , 388 Lumbopelvic Rhythm, 404 Overall Function of th Hip Internai
Innominate, 388 P e lv ic - o n - F e m o r a l R o ta tio n in th Rotators, 415
lliu m , 388 S a g it t a l P ia n e : T h e A n t e r io r a n d Hip E xte n so r M u s c le s , 415
P ubis, 390 P o s t e r io r P e lv ic T ilt, 404 Anatomy and Individuai Action, 415
Is c h iu m , 391 P e lv ic - o n - F e m o r a l R o ta tio n in th F ro n ta l Overall Function of th Hip Extensors,
A c e ta b u lu m , 391 P ia n e , 406 417
Femur, 391 P e lv ic - o n - F e m o r a l R o ta tio n in th Hip A b d u c to r M u s c le s , 420
"A n g le o f In c lin a tio n ," 392 H o riz o n ta l P ia n e , 406 Anatomy and Individuai Action, 420
"T o rs io n A n g le ," 392 Arthrokinematics, 406 Hip Abductor Mechanism, 421
In te rn a i S tru c tu re o f th P ro x im a l Fem ur, Hip E xte rn a l R o ta to r M u s c le s , 423
M USC LE A N D J O IN T IN TER AC TIO N , 407
394
Innervation to th M u scle s and Joint, Functional Anatomy of th "Short
ARTHROLOGY, 394 407 External Rotators, " 423
Functional Anatomy of th Hip Joint, 394 S e n s o ry In n e rv a tio n to th H ip, 409 Overall Function of th External
F em oral H ead, 394 M uscu lar Function at th Hip, 409 Rotators, 424
A c e ta b u lu m , 395 Hip F le xor M u s c le s , 410 M a x im a l T o rq u e P ro d u c e d by th Hip
A c e ta b u la r A lig n m e n t, 395 Anatomy and Individuai Action, 410 M u s c le s , 424
C apsule and L ig a m e n ts o f th Hip, 397 Overall Function of th Hip Fiexors, Examples of Hip Disease, 425
Close-packed Position, 400 411 R a tio n a le fo r S e le c te d T h e ra p e u tic and
Osteokinematics, 400 Hip A d d u c to r M u s c le s , 412 S u rg ic a l In te rv e n tio n , 425
F e m o ra l-o n -P e lv ic O s te o k in e m a tic s , 402 Functional Anatomy, 412 Fracture of th Hip, 426
Rotation of th Femur in th Sagittal Overall Function of th Hip Adductors, Hip Osteoarthritis, 426
Piane, 402 412 Therapeutic Intervention for a Painful
Rotation of th Femur in th Frontal F ro n ta l P ia n e F u n c tio n o f t h A d d u c t o r s , or Structurally Unstable Hip, 427
Piane, 404 413 Surgical Intervention Following
Rotation of th Femur in th Horizontal S a g it t a l P ia n e F u n c t io n o f th Fracture or Osteoarthritis, 429
Piane, 404 A d d u c t o r s , 413 B io m e c h a n ic a l C o n s e q u e n c e s o f C o x a
387
388 Section IV Lower Extremity
Lateral view
^Vuteus m in imus
Tensor fasciae latae
Gluteus maximus
FIGURE 1 2 -1 . A view from th side
Posterior-superior iliac spine
1 Anterior-superior iliac spine
ot th righi innominate bone. Proxi-
Sartorius rnal attachments of muscle are indi-
Posterior gluteal line
Inferior gluteal line cated in red, distai attachments in
Posterior-inferior iliac spine gray.
W
Anterior-inferior iliac spine
'J Greater
sciatic notety
Ischia! spine
Rectus femoris
Acetabulum
A n t e r io r view
rior rim of th ilium, continues posteriorly and ends at th The internai aspect of th ilium has two surfaces (see Fig.
posteror-superior iliac spine (Fig. 123). The soft tissue su- 1 2 - 2 ). Anteriorly, th smooth concave iliac fossa is filled by
perficial to th posterior-superior iliac spine is often marked th iliacus muscle. Posteriorly, th aurcular surface articu-
by a dimple in th skin. The less prominent posterior-inferior lates with th sacrum at th sacroiliac joint, shown on th
iliac spine marks th superior rim of th greater sciatic noti. right side in Figure 1 2 - 2 . Just posterior to th auricular
The opening of this notch is bridged by th sacrotuberous surface is th large, rough iliac tuberosity formed by attach-
and sacrospinous ligaments to form th greater sciatic forameli. ments of sacroiliac ligaments.
390 Section IV Lower Extremity
PUBIS
The superor pubic ramus extends anteriorly from th anterior
wall of th acetabulum to th large flattened body of th
pubis (see Fig. 1 2 - 2 ). On th upper surface of th superior
ramus is th pectineal line, marking th attachment of th
pectineus muscle. The pubic tubero le projects anteriorly from
th superior pubic ramus, serving as an attachment for th
mguinal ligament.
P o s te rio r view
Posterior-inferior
iliac spine
Lesser
sciatic notch
f!Il
U hm
Adductor brevis -
FIGURE 12-3. The posterior aspect of th pelvis, sacrum, and righe proximal femur. Proximal attachments ,
rea, distai attachmenis in gray.
Chapter 12 Hip 391
ISCHIUM A n te r io r view
Obturator internus
The sharp ischial spine projects from th posterior side of th
and gemelli
ischium, just inferior to th greater sciatic notch (see Fig.
1 2 - 3 ). The tesser sciatic notch is located just inferior to th
spine. The sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments convert
th lesser sciatic notch into a tesser sciatic foram en.
ACETABULUM
Located just above th obturator foramen is th large cup-
shaped acetabulum (see Fig. 1 2 - 1 ) . The acetabulum forms
th socket of th hip. All three bones of th pelvis form part
of th acetabulum: th ilium and ischium contributing 80%
and th pubis th remaining 20%. The speciftc features of
th acetabulum are discussed in th section, Arthrology.
Adductor magnus
"ANGLE OF INCLINATION"
Articularis genu-
The angle o f inclination of th femur describes th angle
within th frontal piane between th fem oral n eck and th
mediai side of th femoral shaft (Fig. 1 2 - 8 ). Al birth, this
-A dd uctor magnus on angle measures about 140 to 150 degrees. Because of th
supracondylar line and
loadmg across th femoral neck during walking, this angle
-a dductor tuberete
usually reduces to its normal adulthood value of about 125
degrees.6; As depicted in Figure 1 2 - 8 , this angle provides
Gastrocnemius optimal alignment of th joint surfaces.
(mediai head) A change in th angle of inclination can occur owing to
acquiied or congenital factors. In generai, coxa vara (Latin
gazasi coxa, hip, 4- vara, to bend inward) desenbes an angle of
inclination markedly less than 125 degrees. Coxa valga (Latin
FIGURE 12-5. The mediai aspect of th nghr femur. Proxima! at-
tachments of muscles are indicated in red, distai attachments in valga, to bend outward) describes an angle of inclination
gray. The femoral attachments of th hip joint capsule and th knee markedly greater than 125 degrees (Fig. 1 2 - 8 B and O.
joint capsule are indicated by dashed lines. These abnormal angles alter th alignment between th fem
oral head and th acetabulum, thereby altering hip biome-
chanics. In a severe case, malalignment may lead io abnor
mal joint wear or hip dislocation.
Posterior view
Superior view
is generally considered abnormal. A torsion angle signifi-
Angle of inclination
C Coxa Valga
th aceiabulum (Fig. 1 2 -1 0 A and B). Over time, children securely in th acetabulum. Thick layers of articular carti-
may develop contracture of th internai rotator muscles and lage, muscle, and cancellous bone in th proximal femur
various Iigaments, thereby reducing external rotation range help dampen th large forces that routinely cross th
of motion.23 Approximately 50% of th children with in- hip. Failure of any of these protective mechanisms due to
toeing eventually walk normally.18 The gatt pattern im- disease or injury often leads io deterioration of th joir.-
proves primarily because of strnctural compensation in other structure.
pans of th lower extremity, mosi commonly th tibia.
FEMORAL HEAD
INTERNAI. STRUCTURE OF THE PROXIMAL FEMUR
fhe femoral head is located just inferior to th middle
Compact and Cancellous Bone
third of th tnguinal ligament. On average, th centers of
Walking produces tension, compression, bending, shear, and th two adult femoral heads are 17.5 cm (6.9 in) apart from
torsion on th proximal femur (see Chapter 1). Each type of each other. '* The head of th femur forms about twe
lerce produces a different kind of stress on th proximal thirds of a nearly perfect sphere (Fig. 1 2 - 1 3 ) . Located
femur. (Stress is a resistance produced by tissue in response slightly posterior to th center of th head is a prommen;
to an external load.) In order to tolerate repetitive stresses pit, or fovea (see Fig. 1 2 - 5 ) . The entire surface of th
throughout a lifetime, th proximal femur must resist and femoral head is covered by articular cartilage, except for
absorb mechanical energy. These two functions are accom- th region of th fovea. The cartilage tends to be thickest
plished by two strikingly different compositions of bone. in a broad region above and anterior to th fovea (Fte
Compaci bone is very dense and unyielding, with an ability to 1 2 - 1 4 ) .42
withstand large external loads. This type of bone is particu-
larly thick in th cortex, th outer shell, of th lower femoral
neck and entire shaft (Fig. 1212). These regions are sub-
Osteologie Features of th Femoral Head and Acetabulum
jected to large shear and torsion forces. Cancellous bone, in
Femoral Head
contrast, consists of a three-dimensional lattice of branching
Fovea and ligamentum teres
trabeculae. The relative spongy consistency of cancellous
bone absorbs external forces. Cancellous bone tends to con Acetabulum
centrate along lines of stress, forming trabecular networks A Acetabular notch
mediai trabecular and an arcuate trabecular network are visible Transverse acetabular ligament
within th femur shown in Figure 1 2 - 12.65 The overall Acetabular labrum
pattern ol th trabecular network changes when th proxi Lunate surface
mal femur is subjected to abnormal forces over an extended Acetabular fossa
lime.
femoral head, th major supply provided by arteries that incomplete near its inferior pole, creating th acetabular noteh
course through th joint capsule. (see Fig. 1 2 - 1 ) . The transverse acetabular ligament spans th
acetabular notch.
ACETABULUM The acetabular labrum is a ring of fibrocartilage that sur-
rounds th circumference of th acetabulum (see Fig. 1 2 -
The acetabulum is a deep, hemispheric cup-like socket that 13). The labrum is triangular in cross-section, with its base
accepts th femoral head. The bony rim of th acetabulum is attaching along th rim of th acetabulum. Adjacent io th
acetabular notch, th labrum blends with th transverse ace
tabular ligament. The labrum deepens th concavity of th
socket and securely grips th periphery of th femoral head.
The acetabular labrum, therefore, adds significantly to th
stability of th articulation. Traumatic dislocation of th hip
usually tears th labrum.
The femoral head contacts th acetabulum only along its
horseshoe-shaped lunate surface (see Fig. 1 2 -1 3 ). This sur-
face is covered with articular cartilage, thickest along th
superior-anterior region of its dome (see Fig. 1 2 - 1 4 ) .42 The
regions of thickest cartilage correspond to roughly th
regions of highest joint pressures when walking.13 During
walking, hip forces lluctuate between 13% of body-weight
during mid swing phase to over 300% body-weight during
stance phase (Fig. 1 2 - 1 5 ) .13 During stance phase, th lunate
surface flattens slightly as th acetabular notch widens,
thereby increasing contact area and reducing peak pressure.47
Forces on th acetabulum during walking are also trans-
ferred to th sacroiliac joint and pubic symphysis jo in t.13
Hypomobility at these joints may increase stress at th hip,
possibly causing excessive wear.
The acetabular /ossa is a depression located deep within
th floor of th acetabulum. Because th fossa does not
normally make contact with th femoral head, it is devoid of
cartilage. Instead, th fossa contains th teres ligament, fat,
synovial membrane, and blood vessels.
ACETABULAR ALIGNMENT
In th anatomie position, th aceLabulum projeets laterally
from th pelvis with a varying amount ol inferior and ante-
B Excessive anteversion
rior tilt. Acetabular dysplasia describes a congenital or an
acquired condition in which th acetabulum is abnormally
shaped and poorly aligned. A malaligned acetabulum does
not adequately cover th femoral head, often causing chronic
dislocation and osteoarthritis.50 Two angles describe th ex
tern to which th shape of th acetabulum naturally covers
th femoral head; th center-edge angle and th acetabular
anteversion angle.
Center-Edge Angle
The center-edge angle (also called th angle of Wiberg) de
scribes th extern to which th acetabulum covers th femo
ral head within th frontal piane (Fig. 1 2 -16A ). The center-
edge angle is highly variable but, on average, measures about
35 to 40 degrees in th x-rays of adults.1 The normal center-
edge angle provides a protective shelf over th temoral head.
A more vertical alignment (i.e., a smaller angle) offers less
containment of th femoral head and is associated with an
increased risk of dislocation.*
FIGURE 12-9. The angle of lorsion is shown between th neck and
shaft of th femur: A, normal anteversion; B, excessive anteversion;
Acetabular Anteversion Angle
and C, retroversion. The pair of red dots in each figure indicates
th different alignments of th hip joint surfaces. Optimal alignment The acetabular anteversion angle describes th extern to
is shown in A. which th acetabulum surrounds th femoral head within
396 Section /V Low er E x tre m ity
th hcirizontal piane.' A normal acetabular anteversion this side of th hip. Persons with excessive anteversion of
angle of about 20 degrees exposes pan of th anterior side both th femur and th acetabulum are susceptible to ante
ol th femoral head (Fig. 1 2 -1 6 B ). The ihick anterior cap- rior joint dislocation, especially at th extremes of extemal
sular iigament of th hip and th iliopsoas tendon cover rotation.
FIGURE 12-13. The tight hip joint is opened to expose its internai
components.
< 2 .0 > 1 .5 mm
<0 5 mm <1.0 mm
398 Section IV Lower Extremity
3 .5 - |
3 ~
0 8 30 40 60 75 85 100
EVENTS Initial Foot Mid Heel Toe off Heel
heel fiat stance off contact
contact
menis of th hip (Table 1 2 l ) .21 All three ligaments are ai acetabulum. Fibers forni distinct mediai and lateral fastidili
least partially taut in full hip extension. each attaching to either end of th mtertrochanteric line o?
The iliofemoral ligament (or Y-ligameni) is a very thick and th femur. lhe motion of full hip extension stretches th
strong sheet of connective tissue, resembling an inverted Y. iliofemoral ligament and anterior capsule.85 Full extemal ro-
Proximally, th iliofemoral ligament attaches near th ante- tation elongates th lateral fasciculus of th iliofemoral liga-
rior-inferior iliac spine and along th adjacent margin of th ment.21
Anterior view
Posterior view
The iliofemoral ligament is one of th thickest and thus
one of th strongest ligaments of th body. When a person
stands with th hip fully extended, th anterior surface of
th femoral head rests against th iliofemoral ligament. Pas
sive tension in this ligament forms an important stabilizing
force that resists further extension of th pelvis on th fe
mur. Persons with paraplegia often use th passive tension o f
an elongated (or taut) iliofemoral ligament to assist with
standing (Fig. 1 2 -1 9 ).
Although thinner and more circular than th fibers of th
iliofemoral ligament, th pubofemoral and ischtofemoral liga-
ments blend with and strengthen th inferior and posterior
aspects of th capsule. The pubofemoral ligament attaches
along th anterior and inferior rim of th acetabulum and
adjacent parts of th superior pubic ramus and obturator
membrane (see Fig. 1 2 -1 7 ). The fibers blend with th me
diai fasciculus of th iliofemoral ligament, becoming taut in
hip abduction and extreme extension.
The ischiofemoral ligament attaches from th posterior and
inferior aspects of th acetabulum, primarily from th adja
cent ischium (see Fig. 1 2 -1 8 ). Fibers from this ligament FIGURE 12-18. The posterior capsule and ligaments of th righi
join circular fibers located deeper within th capsule. Other hip.
400 Section IV Lower Extremity
Hip Motion Magnitudo of Hip Motion Exam ples o f Tissue that may Limit th Extrem es o f M otion
Extension 20 of extension (with Predominanti)' iliofemoral ligament and anterior capsule; some
knee extended)* components of th pubofemoral and ischiofemoral ligaments
0 (with knee fully flexed) Rectus femoris muscle
Abduction 40 Pubofemoral ligament, inferior capsule, adductor and hamstring
muscles
Adduction 25 Superior fbers of ischiofemoral ligament, iliotibial band, and ab-
ductor muscles such as th tensor fasciae Iatae
Internai Rotation 35 Ischiofemoral ligament, extemal rotator muscles (e.g., piriformis)
Extemal Rotation 45 Lateral fasciculus of iliofemoral ligament, iliotibial band, and inter
nai rotator muscles (e.g., gluteus minimus, tensor fasciae Iatae)
Lateral Mediai
Ischiofemoral
ligament
Supcrior vie Anterior
Taut iliofemoral
ligament from
extension
FIGURE 12-20. A, The hip is shown in a neutral position, with all three capsular ligamenis identified. 6, Superior view of th
hip in its close-packed position, i.e., fully extended with slight abduction and internai rotation. This position elongates ai least
some component of all three capsular ligaments.
weakness, or trauma to bone and joint. Limited hip motion femur about a relatively fxed pelvis. Pelvic-on-femoral hip
can impose significam functional limitations when walking osteokinematics, in contrast, describes th rotation of th pel
or tying shoelaces. vis, and often th superimposed trunk, over relatively fxed
Two terms describe th range of motion of th hip. Femo- Temurs. Regardless o f whether th femur or th pelvis is
ral-on-pelvic hip osteokinematics describes th rotation of th considered th moving segment, th osteokinematics are de-
0 S P E C I A L F OCUS
scribed from th anatomie posttion. The names of th move- most of th longitudinal axis of rotation lies outside th
ments are as folows: flexion and extension in th sagittaJ femur itself (see Fig. 1222^4 and fi). The extramedullary
piane, abduction and adducton in th frontal piane, and inter location of th axis has implications in th understanding of
nai and external rotation in th horizontal piane. The term some of th actions of muscles, a point discussed later in
horizontal ts used with th assumption that a subject is this chapter,
standing in th anatomie position. Unless otherwise specified, th following discussions on
Reporting th range of motion at th hip uses th ana osteokinematics include average passive ranges of motion at
tomie position as th 0-degree or neutral reference point. In th hip. The connective tssues and muscles that limit mo
th sagittal piane, for examp/e, fem oral-on -pelvic flexion is tion are also d escrib ed (see Table 1 2 -1 ). The m uscles used
described by th rotation of th femur anterior to th 0- to produce and control th hip motion are discussed later in
degree position. Extension, th reverse movement, is de this chapter. Although femoral-on-pelvic and pelvic-on-femo-
scribed as th rotation o f th femur posterior to th 0-degree ral movements often occur simultaneousiy, they are pre-
position. The term hyperextension is not used to describe sented here separately.
normal range of motion at th hip.
As dep icted in Figure 1 2 - 2 2 , each pian e o f m otion is FEMORAL-ON-PELVIC OSTEOKINEMATICS
associated with a unique axis of rotation. The axis of rota-
tion for internai and external rotation is often referred to as Rotation of th Femur in th Sagittal Piane
th longitudinal axis of rotation. The longitudinal axis of On average, with th knee fully flexed, th hip flexes to 120
rotation is also referred to as a vertical axis. The latter de- degrees (Fig. 1 2 -2 3 ).72 Tasks such as squatting and tying a
scription, however, assumes th subject is standing with th shoelace typically require near full hip flexion.35 With th
hip in th anatomie position. This axis extends as a line knee extended, hip flexion is limited to about 80 degrees
between th center of th femoral head and th center of th because of th passive tension within th stretched ham-
knee joint. Because of th angle of inclination of th proxi- string and gracilis muscles.10 Full hip flexion slackens most
mal femur and th antenor bowing of th femoral shafl. ligaments, but stretches th inferior capsule.
* T'Anterior
Posterior..
pelvic tilt
pelvic tilt ^
ABDUCTION ADDUCTON
FLEXION
EXTENSION
EXTERNAL
ROTATION
c o n -p e iii'^
FIGURE 12-22. The osteokinematics of th righi hip joint Femoral-on-pelvic and pelvic-on-femoral rotations occur in three planes,
depicted as red arrows. The axis of rotation for each piane of movement is shown as a red dot, located at th center of th femoral
head. A, Side view shows sagittal piane rotations about a medial-lateral axis of rotation. B, Front view shows frontal piane rotations about
an anterior-posterior axis of rotation. C, lop view shows horizontal piane rotations about a longitudinal, or vertical, axis of rotation.
Chapter 12 Hip 403
Psoas major
lliofemoral
ligament
lliofemoral ligament
fiaterai fasciculus)
FIGURE 12-23. The approximate maximal range of passive femoral-on-pelvic (hip) motion is depicied in th sagittal piane (A), frontal
piane (B), and horizontal piane (C). Ligaments and muscles, elongated and pulled taut, are indicated by straight black (or dashed)
arrovvs. Slackened tissue is indicated by a wavy black arrow.
404 Section IV Lower Extremity
The hip normally extends about 20 degrees beyond th essentially stationary as th pelvis rotates over th femurs.
neutral position.73 When th knee is fully flexed during th This type of rhythm is used during walking and dancing and
hip extension, passive tension in th stretched rectus fe- other activities in which th position of th supralumbar
moris, which crosses both th hip and knee, reduces hip trunk, mcluding th head and eyes, needs to be held fixed in
extension to about th neutral position. Full hip extension space, independent of th rotation of th pelvis. In this man-
increases th passive tension in most capsular connective ner, th lumbar spine functions as a mechanical de-coupler,"
tissues, especially th iliofemoral ligament, and th hip flexor allowing th pelvis and th supralumbar trunk to move inde-
muscles. pendently. A person with a fused lumbar spine, therefore, is
unable to rotate th pelvis about th hips without a similar
Rotation of th Femur in th Frontal Piane rotation of parts of th supralumbar trunk. This abnormal
On average, th hip abducts 40 degrees (Fig. 1 2 -2 3 B ).72 This situation is readily apparent when th individuai walks.
motion is limited primarily by th pubofemoral ligament and Figure 1 2 - 2 5 shows pelvic-on-femoral osteokinematics at
by th adductor and hamstring muscles. The hip adducts 25 th hip, organized by piane of motion. These kinematics are
degrees beyond th neutral position.7 In addition to interfer- all based on th contra-directional lumbopelvic rhythm. The
ence with th contralateral limb, passive tension in stretched range of motions depicted in each figure have been esti-
hip abductor muscles, iliotibial band, and superior fibers of mated using photographs of healthy young adults. In most
th ischiofemoral ligament all limit full adduction. cases, th amount of pelvic-on-femoral rotation is restricted
by th naturai limitations of movement at th lumbar spine
Rotation of th Femur in th Horizontal Piane
Pelvic-on-Femoral Rotation in th Sagittal Piane:
Like most movements, internai and external rotation of th The Anterior and Posterior Pelvic Tilt
hip shows large intersubject variability. On average, th hip Hip flexion can occur through a limited are via an untene
inlemally rolates about 35 degrees from th neutral position tilt (Fig. 1 2 -2 5 A ) of th pelvis over stationary femori.
(Fig. 1 2 - 2 3 C ) .72-77 With th h ip fully extended, maximal heads. As d efin ed in C hapter 9, pelvic tilt is a sagitu.
internai rotation elongates external rotator muscles, such as piane rotation of th pelvis relative to th femur. The direc
th piriformis, and parts of th ischiofemoral ligament. In tion of th tilt either anterior or posterior is based or J
healthy young adults, th amount of internai rotation re- th direction of rotation of a poini on th iliac cresi. The \
mains essentially unchanged with th hip flexed or extended.72 associated increased lumbar lordosis offsets most of th un-
The extended hip extemally rotates on average about 45
degrees. Excessive tension in th tensor fasciae latae, iliotibial
band, and lateral fasciculus of th iliofemoral ligament may
limit full extemal rotation. The position of hip flexion de- Contra-directional"
creases active extemal rotation motion to 30 to 35 degrees. lumbopelvic
rhythm
PELVIC-ON-FEMORAL OSTEOKINEMATICS
Lumbopelvic Rhythm
The lower, caudal end of th axial skeleton is firmly attached
to th pelvis by way of th sacroiliac joints. As a conse-
quence, rotation of th pelvis over th femoral heads typi-
cally changes th configuraton o f th lu m bar spine. This
important kinematic relationship is known as lumbopelvic
rhythm, introduced in Chapter 9. This concept is revisited in
this chapter with a focus on th kinesiology at th hip.
Figure 1 2 - 2 4 shows two contrasting types of lumbopel
vic rhythms frequently used during pelvic-on-femoral hip
flexion. Although th kinematics depicted are limited to th
sagittal piane, th concepts apply to pelvic rotations in all
planes.
Figure 1 2 - 2 4 shows an example of an ipsi-directional lum
bopelvic rhythm, where th pelvis and lumbar spine rotate in
th same direction. This movement maximizes th angular
displacement of th entire trunk relative to th lower ex-
tremities, and it is useful for activities such as extending th
reaching capacity of th upper extremities. The kinematics of
th ipsi-directional lumbopelvic rhythm are discussed in de-
tail in Chapter 9. In contrast, during contra-directional lumbo FIGURE 12-24. Two contrasting types of lumbopelvic rhythms used
pelvic rhythm, th pelvis rotates in one direction while th to rotate th pelvis over fixed femurs. A, An ipsi-directional'
rhythm describes a movement in which th lumbar spine and
lumbar spine simultaneously rotates in th opposite direction
pelvis rotate in th same direction, thus amplifying overall trunk
(Fig. 1 2 -2 4 B ). The important consequence of this move
motion. B, A contra-directional rhythm describes a movement in
ment is that th supralumbar trunk (i.e., that part of th which th lumbar spine and pelvis rotate in opposite directions. See
body located above th First lumbar vertebra) can remain text for further explanation.
Chapter 12 Hip 405
FLEXION EXTENSION
(anterior pel vie tilt) (posterior pelvic tilt)
Slack iliofemorai
FIGURE 12-25. The maximal range of passive pelvic-on-femoral hip motion in ihe sagittal piane (A), frontal piane (Et), and horizonial
piane (C), The motion assumes that th supralumhar trunk remains essentially stationary during th hip motion Ligaments and
muscles elongated and pulled taut are indicated by straight black arrows; tissues slackened are indicated by wavy black arrows.
406 Secfion IV Lower Extremity
desired forward moiion of th supralumbar trunk. The ante- gion on th side of th adducted hip. A hypomobile lumbar
rior tilt of th pelvis occurs about a medial-lateral axis of spine and/or marked decreased length within th iliotibial
rotation through both femoral heads. While sitting upright band or hip abductor muscles, such as th gluteus medius.
with 90 degrees of hip flexion, th normal adult can achieve piriformis, or tensor fasciae latae, may restrict th extremes
about 30 degrees of additional pelvic-on-femoral hip flexion of this motion.
before betng restncted by a completely extended lumbar
spine. Full anterior tilt of th pelvis slackens th iliofemoral Pelvic-on-Femoral Rotation in th Horizontal Piane
ligament and elongates th inferior capsule. Pelvic-on-femoral rotation occurs in th horizontal piane
As depicted in Figure 1 2 -2 5 A , th hips can be extended about a ongitudinal axis of rotation (Fig. 1 2 -2 5 C ). Interna,
about 10 to 20 degrees from th 90-degree sitting posture rotation of th support hip occurs as th iliac cresi on th
via a posterior tilt of th pelvis. The lumbar spine flexes or side of th nonsupport hip rotates forw ard in th horizontal
flailens as th pelvis is tilted. The iliofemoral ligament and piane. During extem al rotation, in contrast, this same iliac
iliopsoas muscle are slightly elongated. crest rotates backward in th horizontal piane. If th pelvis is
rotating beneath a relatively stationary trunk, th lumbar
Pelvic-on-Femoral Rotation in th Frontal Piane spine must rotate or twist in th opposite direction as th
Pelvic-on-femoral rotations in th frontal and horizontal rotating pelvis. The modest amount of axial rotation nor-
planes are best described assuming a person is standing on
one limb. The weight-bearing extremity is referred to as th
support hip.
mally permitted in th lumbar spine limits th full rotation
potential of th support hip. In th healthy person, there-
fore, th ligaments and capsule at th hip are not signifi-!
j
Abduction of th support hip occurs by raising or hiking cantly stretched during horizontal piane pelvic-on-femoral I
th iliac crest on th side of th nonsupport hip (Fig. rotation.
1 2 -2 5 B ). Assuming that th supralumbar trunk remains sta-
tionary, th lumbar spine must bend in th direction oppo-
site th rotating pelvis. A faterai convexity occurs within th Arthrokinematics
lumbar region toward th side of th abducting hip. During hip moiion, th nearly spherical femoral head re-1
Pelvic-on-femoral hip abduction is restricted to about 30 mains snugly seated within th confnes of th acetabulum. |
degrees, pnmarily due to th naturai limits of lateral bending The steep walls of th acetabulum, in conjunction with th I
in th lumbar spine. Severe tightness in th adductor mus- tightly futing acetabular labrum, limit significani translatior1
cles and/or restriction in th pubofemoral ligament limits between th joint surfaces. Hip arthrokinematics are base; I
pelvic-on-femoral hip abduction. In th event of marked on th traditional convex-on-concave or concave-on-convex 1
adductor contracture, th iliac crest on th side of th non principles (see Chapter 1).
support hip remains lower than th iliac crest of th support Figure 1 2 - 2 6 shows a highly mechanically based illustra-1
hip, markedly interfering with walking. don of a hip opened to enable visualization of th paths of I
Hip adduction of th support hip occurs by a lowering of articular motion. Abduction and adduction occur across th |
th iliac crest on th side of th nonsupport hip. This rno- ongitudinal diameter of th joint surfaces (red). With thr I
tion causes a slight lateral concavity within th lumbar re hip extended, internai and extem al rotation occur across th 1
o
fo r internai and
FIGURE 12-26. A mechanical" drawing
O extemal rotation of th right hip. The joint surfaces are
exposed by swinging th femur oper.
like a door on a funge. The articular
paths of hip frontal and horizontal
piane motion occur along th ongitu
Axis of rotation for flexion dinal (red) and transverse (gray) diame-
and extension ters, respectively.
for abduction
and adduction
CO
Chapter 12 Hip 407
FIGURE 12-27. The path and generai proximal-to-distal order of muscle innervaiion for th femoral nerve and obturator
nerve (A) and th sciatte nerve (B). The locaiions of certain muscles relative to th joint are altered slightly for clarity.
The roots for each nerve are shown in parenthesis. (Modifed from deGroot J: Correlative Neuroanatomy, 2 lst ed.
Norwalk, Appleton & Lange, 1991.)
Illustratimi continued on following page
transverse diameter of th joint surfaces (gray). Flexion and cluding th quadriceps femoris. Nerves from th sacrai
extension occur as a spin between th femoral head and th plexus innervate th muscles of th posterior and lateral hip,
lunate surfaces of th acetabulum. The axis of rotation for posterior thigh, and entire lower leg.
this spin passes through th femoral head.
L u m b a r P le x u s
^ * x ^ T e n s o r fasciae latae
Gluteus mlnimus
. SC IA T IC N ER V E
'4 / (L 4~S4)
Interior gluteal nerve to
gluteus maximus ^
B !
FIGURE 12-27. Continued
Like th femoral nerve, th obturator nerve is formed from shows key muscles typically used to test th functional status
th ventral rami of L2- L 4 nerve roots. Motor branches inner of th L2- S ventral nerve roots.
vate th hip adductor muscles. The obturator nerve divides
into anterior and posterior branches as it passes through th
obturator foramen. The posterior branch innervates th obtu
SENSORY INNERVATION TO THE HIP
rator externus and anterior head of th adductor magnus. As a generai rule, th hip capsule receives sensory innerva
The anterior branch innervates part of th pectineus, th tion by th same nerve roots that supply th overlying mus-
adductor brevis, th adductor longus, and th gracilis. The cle. The femoral nerve sends nerve flaments into th ante
obturator nerve has a sensory distribution to th skin of th rior aspect of th hip capsule. Nerve branches enter th
mediai thigh. posterior joint capsule from all roots of th sacrai plexus.32-85
The obturator nerve sends flaments into th mediai aspect
S a c ra i P le x u s of th hip and of th knee joint. This explains why inflam-
The sacrai plexus, located on th posterior wall of th pelvis, mation of th hip may be perceived as pain in th mediai
is formed from th ventral rami of (L4- S 4).85 Most nerves knee region.
from th sacrai plexus exit th pelvis via th greater sciatic
foramen to innervate th posterior hip muscles (Fig. 12-27B ). Muscular Function at th Hip
Throughout this chapter, th line-of-force of several muscles
is illustrated relative to th axes of rotation at th hip. Fig
Primary Sources of Lower Limb Muscular Innervaiion ure 1 2 - 2 8 , for example, shows a sagittal piane representa-
from th Sacrai Plexus
tion of th signifcant flexor and extensor muscles of th
Nerve io th piriformis (S1-2)
Nerve to th obturator intemus and gemellus superior
(L5- S 2)
Nerve to th quadratus femoris and gemellus inferior (L4- S l) Superior
Superior gluteal nerve (L4- S )
Inferior gluteal nerve (L5- S 2)
Sciatic nerve (L4- S 3) with tibial and common peroneal
portions
hip.1617 Although Figure 1 2 - 2 8 provides useful insight imo cus and th psoas major. The iliacus attaches on th iliac
th potential function of several muscles of th hip, two fossa and extreme lateral edge of sacrum, just over th sacro-
limitations are considered. First, th line-of-force of each iliac joint. The psoas major attaches along th transverse
muscle does not represent a force vector, only th overall processes of th last thoracic and all lumbar vertebrae, in-
direction of th muscles force. The figure does not provi de cluding th intervertebral discs. The fibers of th iliacus and
th information needed to compare th strength or th psoas major fuse just anterior to th femoral head (see
torque potential of each muscle. This comparison requires Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 , right side). A tendon forms that anchors th
additional data, especially th muscles cross-sectional area. muscle to th femur, near and on th lesser trochanter. In
Second, th lines-of-force and subsequent lengths of th mo route to its distai insertion, th broad tendon of th iliopsoas
ment arms depicted in Figure 1 2 - 2 8 apply only to th is deflected posteriorly about 35 to 45 degrees, immediately
anatomie position. Once th hip moves out of this position, after it crosses th rim of th pubis. With th hip in full
th potential action and torque potential of each muscle extension, this deflection raises th lendons angle-of-inser-
change. This partially explains why th maximal-effort, inter tion to th femur, thereby increasing th muscles leverage
nai torque of a muscle group varies throughout th range of for hip flexion.
motion. The iliopsoas is a potent hip flexor, from both a femoral-
Throughout this chapter, a muscles action is considered on-pelvic and pelvic-on-femoral perspective. From th ana
either primary or secondary (Table 1 2 - 2 ). The designation tomie position, th iliopsoas is not an effective rotator. In th
of muscle action is based on data such as moment arm, hip abducted position, th iliopsoas can assist in extema!
muscle size, and, when available, reports from EMG-based rotation.99
and anatomie studies. Unless otherwise specified, muscle ac- The iliopsoas muscle produces forces that cross th lumbar
tions are based on a concentric contraction, originating from and lumbosacral regions as well as th hip.2'37J6 The iliacus,
th anatomie position. A muscle with a relatively insignifi- by anterior tilting of th pelvis, can accentuate th lumbar
cant action, or an action that is more substantial outside th lordosis if th pelvis is not well stabi lized by a muscle such as
anatomie position, is not included in Table 1 2 - 2 . Consult th rectus abdominis. The psoas major provides excellent ver-
Appendix IVC for a listing of detailed attachments of tical stability to th lumbar spine (see Chapter 10).
muscles of th hip. The psoas minor lies anterior to th muscle belly of th
psoas major. This slender muscle attaches proximally be
tween th twelfth thoracic and first lumbar vertebra, anc
HIP FLEXOR M U S C L E S
distally to th pelvis near th pectineal line. Unlike th psoas
The primary hip flexors are th iliopsoas, sartorius, tensor major, th psoas minor has little, if any, functional signifi-
fasciae latae, rectus femoris, pectineus, and adductor longus cance in hip motion. The psoas minor is absent in abou:
(Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 ) .17 Figure 1 2 - 2 8 shows th excellent flexion 40% of people.85
leverage of many of these muscles. Secondary hip flexors are The sartorius, th longest muscle in th body, originates ai
th adductor brevis, gracilis, and anterior fibers of th glu- th anterior-superior iliac spine (see Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 ). This thm.
teus minimus. fusiform muscle courses inferiori)' and medially across th
thigh to attach distally on th mediai surface of th proximal
A n a to m y a n d In d iv id u a i A c tio n
tibia (see Fig. 1 3 - 7 ) . The name sartorius is based on th
The iliopsoas is large and long, spanning between th last Latin root sartor, referring to a tailors position of crossed-
thoracic vertebra and th proximal femur (see Fig. 1 2 -2 9 ). legged sitting. This name describes th muscles combined
Anatomically, th iliopsoas consists of two muscles: th ilia- action of hip flexion, external rotation, and abduction.
Each action assumes a muscle contraction originating from th anatomie position. Many of these muscles will have different actions if they contract from
a position other than th anatomie position.
Chapter 12 Hip 411
Psoas minor
Sartorius (cut)
lliacus
lliacus
Piriformis
lliofemoral ligament
Tensorfasciae latae
Pectineus (cut)
FIGURE 12-29. Muscles of th anterior
hip region. The right side shows th Pectineus externus
primary flexors and adductor muscles Gracilis Adductor longus (cut)
of th hip. Many muscles on th left Adductor longus
Gracilis (cut)
side are cut to expose th adductor
Sartorius
brevis and adductor magnus. Adductor brevis
Rectus temoris
Vastus medialis
Vastus lateralis (cut)
traci (cut)
Rectus femoris (cut)
Sartorius (cut)
The tensorfasciae latae attaches to th ilium just lateral to th knee extended often incorporates various combinations
th sartorius (see Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 ). This relatively short muscle of hip adduction and extension.
attaches distally to th proximal part of th iliotibial band or The proximal part of th rectus fem oris emerges between
tract.85 The band extends distai to th knee to th lateral an inverted V, formed by th sartorius and tensor fasciae
tubercle of th tibia. latae (see Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 ). This large bipennate-shaped muscle
The iliotibial tract is a component of a more extensive has its proximal attachment at th anterior-inferior iliac
connective tissue known as th fascia lata o f th thigh,36 spine and along th superior rim of th acetabulum and into
Laterally, th fascia lata is thickened by attachments from th th joint capsule. Along with th other members of th
tensor fasciae latae and th gluteus maximus. At multiple quadriceps, th rectus femoris attaches to th tibia via th
locations, th fascia lata tums inward between muscles, ligamentum patelae. The rectus femoris is responsible for
forming distinct fasciai sheets known as intermuscular septa. about one third of th total isometric, flexor torque at th
These septa partition each of th main muscle groups of th hip.48 In addition, th rectus femoris is a primary knee
thigh according to innervation. The septa, along with most extensor. The combined two-joint actions of this important
muscle are considered in Chapter 13. The anatomy and
attachments of th adductor muscles, are anchored to th
function of th pectineus and adductor longus are described
femur along th linea aspera.
in th section on th adductors of th hip.
From th anatomie position, th tensor fasciae latae is a
primary flexor and abductor of th hip. The muscle is also a
secondar)' internai rotator of th hip.66 As indicated by its Overall Function of th Hip Flexors
name, th tensor fasciae latae increases tension throughout Pelvic-on-Femoral Hip Flexion: Anterior Pelvic Tilt
th fascia lata. Tension passed inferiori)' through th iliotibial The anterior pelvic tilt is performed by a force-couple be
tract may help stabilize th lateral aspect of th extended tween th hip flexors and low-back extensor muscles (Fig.
knee. Repetitive tension within th iliotibial band may cause 1 2 -3 0 ). With fxed femurs, contraction of th hip flexors
inflammation at its insertion site near th lateral tubercle of rotates th pclvis about th medial-lateral axis through both
th tibia. Stretching an excessively tight iliotibial band with hips. Although Figure 1 2 - 3 0 illustrates th iliopsoas and
412 Section IV Lower Extremity
rectus femoris, any muscle capable o f femoral-on-pelvic flexion abdominal muscles are only moderately weak, secondar)' io
is equally capable of tilting th pelvis anteriorly. Clinically, th disuse atrophy or abdominal surgery. In this case, persons
most important aspect of th anterior tilt is related to th may develop low-back pain due to th increased compres-
increase in lordosis at th lumbar spine. Greater lordosis sion force on th apophyseal joints of th chronically, fully
increases th compressive loads on th lumbar apophyseal extended lumbar vertebrae.
joints.
A lumbopelvic posture with norma! lumbar lordosis opti-
mizes th alignment of th entire spine (see Chapter 9). HIP ADDUCTOR MUSCLES
Some persons have difficulty maintaining lumbar lordosis The primary adductors of th hip are th pectineus, adduc-
while standing. Increased stiffness in connective tissue tor longus, gracilis, adductor brevis, and adductor magnus
around th lumbar spine and/or increased passive resistance (see Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 ). Secondary adductors are th biceps fe
from hamstring muscles favors a relatively fiat (i.e., slightly moris (long head), th gluteus maximus, especially th infe-
flexed) lumbar spine. The quantitative relationship between rior fbers, and th quadratus femoris. The line-of-force of
th degree of hamstring tightness and posture of th pelvis these muscles is shown in Figure 1 2 - 3 3 .
and lumbar spine remains controversial.'
Femoral-on-Pelvic Hip Flexion Functional Anatomy
Femoral-on-pelvic hip flexion is performed through a syn- The adductor muscle group occupies th mediai quadrant of
ergy between th hip flexors and abdominal muscles. This th thigh. Topographically, th adductor muscles are orga-
cooperation is most apparent during activities that require nized into three layers (Fig. 1 2 - 3 4 ). The pectineus, adduc
large amounts of hip flexor force. Consider, for example, th tor longus, and gracilis occupy th superficial layer. Proxi-
straight-leg-raise exercise often used to strengthen th ab mally, these muscles attach along th superior and inferior
dominal muscles. This action requires that th rectus ab- pubic ramus and adjacent body of th pubis. Distally, th
dominis generate a potent posteror pelvic tilt in order to pectineus and th adductor longus attach to th posterior
neutralize th strong anterior pelvic tilt potential of th hip surface of th femur near and along varying regions of th
flexor muscles (Fig. L 2 -3 1 A ). Without sufficient stabilization linea aspera. The long and slender gracilis attaches distally to
from th rectus abdominis, contraction of th hip flexor th mediai side of th proximal tibia (see Fig. 1 3 - 7 ).
muscles is ineffcienily spent tilting th pelvis anteriorly (Fig. The middle layer of th adductor group is occupied by th
1 2 -3 1 B ). The excessive anterior tilt of th pelvis accentuates triangular-shaped adductor brevis. The adductor brevis at
th lumbar lordosis. taches to th pelvis on th inferior pubic ramus, and to th
The pathomechanics depicted in Figure 1 2 - 3 1 B are most fem ur along th proxim al one third o f th linea aspera.
severe in situations in which th abdominal muscles are The deep layer of th adductor group is occupied by th
weak, but th hip flexors remain relatively strong. With th massive, triangular-shaped adductor magnus (see Fig. 1 2 - 2 9
exception of poliomyelitis or muscular dystrophy, this pat left side, and Fig. 1 2 - 4 0 , right side). This large muscle
tern of weakness is relatively rare. More commonly, th attaches prtmarily from th entire ischial ramus and part o:
th ischial tuberosity. From its proxim al attachment, th
adductor magnus forms anterior and posterior heads.
The anterior head o f th adductor magnus has two sets of
fbers: horizontal and oblique. The relatively small set of
horizontally directed fbers crosses from th inferior pubi:
ramus to th extreme proximal end of th linea aspera, often
called th adductor minimus. The Iarger obliquely directed
fbers run from th ischial ramus to nearly th entire length
of th linea aspera, as far distally as th mediai supracondv-
lar line. Both parts of th anterior head are innervated by th
obturator nerve, which is typical of th adductor muscles
The posterior head o j th adductor magnus consista o f a
thick mass of th fbers arising from th region of th pelvis
adjacent to th ischial tuberosity. From this posterior attach
ment, th fbers run vertically and attach as a tendon on th
adductor tubercle on th mediai side of th distai femur.
The posterior head of th adductor magnus is innervated bv
th tibial branch of th sciatte nerve, as are th hamstring
muscles. Because of a similar location, innervation, and ac
tion as th hamstring muscles, th posterior head is often
referred io as th extensor head of th adductor magnus.
FIGURE 12 31. The stabilizing role of th abdominal muscles is shown dunng a umlateral straight-leg raise. A, VVith normal
activation of th rectus abdominis, th pelvis is stabilized and prevented from anterior tilting by th pul of th hip flexor
muscles. B, With teduced activation of th rectus abdominis, contraction of th hip flexor muscles causes a marked anterior tilt
of th pelvis. Note th increase in lumbar lordosis that accompanies th anterior tilt of th pelvis. The reduced activation in th
abdominal muscle is indicated by th lghter red.
adductors in th frontal and sagittal planes. The secondary hamstring muscles. In generai, th remaining adductor mus
action o f these m uscles as internai rotators is discusseci later cles, h ow ev er, are flexors or extensors, dep en d in g on h ip
in this chapter. position.1769 Consider, for example, th adductor longus as
Frontal Piane Function of th Adductors
a representative adductor muscle during a fast sprint (Fig.
1 2 -3 6 A ). From a position of at least about 50 to 60 degrees
The most obvtous function of th adductor muscles is pro
of hip flexion, th line-of-force of th adductor longus is
duction of adduction torque. The torque Controls th kine-
posterior to th medial-lateral axis of th joint. At this posi
matics of both femoral-on-pelvic as well as peivic-on-femoral
tion, th adductor longus has an extensor moment arm and
hip adduction. Figure 1 2 - 3 5 shows an example of th ad-
is capable of generating an extension torque similar to th
ductor muscles contracting bilaterali)' to control both forms
posterior head of th adductor magnus. From a hip position
of motion. On th tight side, several adductors are shown
less than 60 degrees of hip flexion, however, th line-of-force
accelerating th femur toward th ball. Adding to th force-
of th adductor longus shifts anteriori)/ to th medial-lateral
fulness of this action is th downward rotation or lowering
axis of rotation (Fig. 1 2 -3 6 B ). The adductor longus now has
of th righi iliac crest a motion controlled through pelvic-
a flexor moment arm and generates a flexor torque similar to
on-femoral hip adduction at th left hip. Although only th
th rectus femoris, for example.
adductor magnus is shown on th left side, other adductor
The adductors provide a useful source of flexor and ex
muscles assist in this action.
tensor torque at th hip. The bidirectional torques are useful
Sagittal Piane Function o f th Adductors during high pow er, cyclic m otions such as sprinting, cycling,
Regardless of hip position, th posterior fibers of th adduc running up a steep hill, and descending and rising from a
tor magnus are powerful extensors of th hip, similar to th deep squat. When th hip is near full flexion, th adductors
414 Secrton IV Lower Extremity
FIGURE 12-34. The anatomie organization and proximal attachments of th righi adductor muscle gvoup, as seen from a lateral view
through a transparent femur.
The guteus maximus has numerous proximal attachments The hamslring muscles have their proximal attachment
from th posterior side of th iliurn, sacrum, coccyx, sacro- on th posterior side of th ischial tuberosity, and attach
tuberous and posterior sacroiliac ligaments, and adjacent fas distally io th tibia and fibula. Based on these attachments,
cia. The muscle attaches into th iliotibial band of th fascia th hamstrings extend th hip and flex th knee. The anat-
lata, along with th tensor fasciae latae, and th gluteal omy and function of th posterior head of th adductor
tuberosity on th lemur. The gluteus maximus is a primary magnus is described under th section on adductors of th
extensor and extemal rotator of th hip. hip.
S u p e r io r vievv
50%
Percent of gait cycle
Pattem ,of several muscles of the nghl hip is depicted during various parts of th gaii cycle The hip
heT p lL r i h T fafCT alae 8 Uler s m 5' anlenor Parts of th giuteus medtus, and adductor longus) are shown rotatine
he pelvis in th honzontal piane over a relatively fixed righi femur. (Compare the bottom and top views.) The tensor fasciae latae and
he glutea muscles function as hip abductors by controlling the frontal piane stability of the pelvis. (The images were prepared from
J T phS f af SK UbjeCt Wf lk.lng at a relatively fast sPeed of about 1.9 m/s. This relatively fast walking spted has exaggerated the
normal amount of honzontal piane rotation used during walking ) s K cxaggcraiea ine
Gluteus medius
Gluteus medius
Gluteus maximus (cut)
Gluteus maximus Piriformis
Gemellus superior
internus
FIGURE 12-40. The posterior muscles
Gemellus inferior
of th hip. The left side highlights th
gluteus maximus and hamstring mus femoris
Adductor
cles (long head of th biceps femoris, maximus (cut)
semitendinosus, and semimembrano- femoris 1
sus). The nghi side shows th ham Semitendinosus Wcut)
string muscles cut io expose th adduc- lliotibial tract SemimembranosusJ
tor magnus and short head of th
Biceps femoris Adductor magnus
biceps fetnoris. The righi side shows
(long head)
th gluteus medius and five of th six Biceps femoris
short external rotators, i.e., piriformis, Semitendinosus
(short head)
gemellus superior and inferior, obtura-
Biceps femoris
tor intemus, and quadratus femoris.
(long head) (cut)
Gracilis (cut)
Semitendinosus (cut)
Semimembranosus (cut)
A
A A
m
a
O
o o
_L _L J __
15 30 45 60 75
t f- f-
A Adductor magnus
O Semitendinosus
Body weight O Gluteus maximus
FIGURE 12-42. The hip extensor muscles are shown controlling a forward lean of th pelvis over th thighs. A, Slight forward
lean of th upper body displaces th body-weight force slightly anterior to th mediai-/alerai axis of rotation at th hip B A
more significaci forward lean displaces th body-wetght force even fanher anteriorly. The greater flexion of th hips rotates
th tschial tuberostes postenorly, thereby mcteasmg th hip extension moment arm of th hamstrings. The tatti Ime (wifh
arrow head within th stretched hamstring muscles) indicates th increased passive tension. In both A and B th relative
demands placed on th muscles are shown by relative shades o f red. At tight is a graph showing th length of hip extension
moment arms of selected hip extensors as a function of forward lean. (Data from Pohtilla JF: Kinesiology of hip extension at
selected angles of pelvilemoral extension. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 50:241-250, 1969.)
H ip A b d u c to r M e c h a n is m
FIGURE 12-43. Relaiively high demands are placed on hip extensor Control of Frontal Piane Stability of th Pelvis during Walkmg
muscles while climbing a mountain and supporting an external The abduction torque produced by th hip abductor muscles
load. is essential to th control of frontal piane, pelvic-on-femoral
kinematics during walking. During most of th stance phase, trochanter. The right muscle, for example, becomes frm as
th hip abductors stabilize th pelvis over th relatively fixed th left leg lifts off th ground. The bursa located at th
femur (see Fig. 1 2 - 3 9 ) .3J-51 During th stance phase, there- point of distai attachment of th hip abductor muscles may
fore, th hip abductors have a role in controlling th pelvis become inflamed. Trochanteric bursitis can be very painful,
in th frontal piane and, as discussed earlier, in th horizon- especially during activation of th abductor muscles during
tal piane. single-limb support.
The abduction torque produced by th hip abductor The frontal piane stabilizing function of hip abductor
muscles is particularly important during th single-limb muscles is an extremely important component of walking.
support phase of gait. During this lime, th opposite leg is The force produced by th abductors during stance accounls
off th ground and swinging forward. Without adequate ab for most of th compressive forces generated at th hip.
duction torque on th stance limb, th pelvis and trunk may
drop uncontrollably toward th side of th swinging limb. Role of th Hip Abductors in th Production of Hip Force
The activation of th hip abductor muscle is verified by Figure 1 2 - 4 5 shows th major factors involved with frontal
palpating th gluteus medius just superior to th greater piane stability of th right hip during single-limb support
HAF
FIGURE 12-45. A frontal piane diagram shows th function of th righi hip abductor muscles dunng single-limb support on th
right hip. On th left, th pelvis-and-trunk are in stane equilibriti about th righi hip. The sum o f th torques in th frontal piane
equal zero. Ihe counterclockwise torque (solid circle) is th product of Lhe hip abductor force (HAF) times moment arm (D)- th
doekwise torque (dashed circle) is th product of body weight (BW) times moment arm (D,). Static stability occurs when HAF X
BVV. X D|; , e see-saw model (righi) simplifies th major kinetic events during single-limb support. A joint reaction force
(JRF) is directed through th fulcrum of th see-saw (hip joint). The sample data in th box are used in th torque and force
equilibnum equations These equattons determine th magnitude of th hip abductor force and joint reaction force needed during
smgle-hmb support. (See text.) Note that for simplicity, th calculations assume static equilibrium and that all force vectors are
acting in a vemcal direction. (From Neumann DA: Biomechamcal analysis of selected principles of hip joint protection Arthntis
Care Res 2:146-155, 1989. Reprirued with permission from Anhritis Care and Research. American College of Rheumatology.)
Chapter 12 Hip 423
FIGURE 12-46. Superior view depicts th oremation and action o f th obturacor intemus muscie. A, While standing at
rest, th obturator intemus muscie makes a 130-degree deflection as it courses through th pulley frmed by th tesser
sciatic notch. B, With th femur fxed dunng standing, contraction of this muscie causes pelvic-on-femoral extemal
rotation. Note that th compression force generated imo th joint is th result of th muscie contraction.
live to th axis of rotation at th hip (see Figs. 1 2 - 3 3 and 17). The belly of this muscie is visible from th anterior side
1 2 -3 7 ). after removai of th adductor longus and pectineus muscles
The sciatic nerve usually exits th pelvis below th piri- (Fig. 1 2 - 2 9 ). The muscie attaches posteriorly on th femur
formis. As described earlier in this chapter, th sciatic nerve at th introchanteric fossa (see Figs. 1 2 - 5 and 1 2 - 7 ).
tnay pass through th belly of th piriformis. A shortened
piriformis may, for example, compress and irritate th sciatic O v e ra ll F u n c tio n o f th E x te rn a l R o ta to rs
nerve. This condition, known as piriformis syndrome,85 is
As described for th internai rotators of th hip, th func-
often treated by stretching th muscie through a combina-
tional potential of th extemal rotators is most evident dur
tion of adduction and internai rotation, from a position near
full hip extension. ing pelvic-on-fem oral rotation. C onsider, for ex am p le, che
The obturator intemus muscie arises from th internai side right extemal rotator muscles contracting to rotate th pelvis
of th obturator membrane and from th adjacent ilium (see over th femur (Fig. 1 2 - 4 7 ). With th right lower extremity
Fig. 1 2 -4 4 ). From this origin, th fibers converge to a firmly in contact with th ground, concentric contraction of
tendon and exit th pelvis through th lesser sciatic foramen. th right extemal rotators accelerates th anterior side of th
The fxed pulley provided by th lesser sciatic notch deflects pelvis and attached trunk away from th fxed femur. This
th tendon about 130 degrees on its approach to th tro- horizontal piane action of planting a foot and cutting to th
chanteric fossa of th femur (Fig. 1 2-46A ). Contraction of opposite side is a naturai way to abruptly change direction
this muscie with th femur held fxed, causes th pelvis to while running. If needed, eccentric activation of th internai
rotate on th femur (Fig. 1 2 -4 6 B ). Force produced by th rotators may decelerate this action. Extremely rapid coactiva-
obturator intemus compresses th joint surface. This com tion of th adductor muscles to help decelerate extemal
pression force may help stabilize th joint during active rotation of th pelvis may cause strain injury to these
pel vie rotation. muscles. The mechanism of injury may further explatn th
The gemellus superior and gemellus inferior muscles are relatively high incidence of adductor muscie pulls during
located on either side of th centrai tendon of th obturator many sporting activities, which involve rapid rotation of th
intemus (see Fig. 1 2 - 4 4 ). The gemelli (from th Latin root pelvis-and-irunk while running.
geminus, meaning twins) are two small muscles with proxi-
mal attachments on either side of th lesser sciatic notch.
MAXIMAL TORQUE PRODUCED BY THE HIP MUSCLES
Each muscie blends in with th centrai tendon of th obtu
rator intemus for a common attachment to th femur. Im- Several studies have measured th maximal-effort torque
mediately below th gemellus inferior is th quadratus fem oris production of hip muscles.34'45 Table 1 2 - 3 summarizes th
muscie. This fiat muscie arises from th extemal side of th average maximal (isokinetic) torques produced by healthy
ischial tuberosity and inserts on th posterior side of th men and women of different age groups.8 These normative
proximal femur. data are useful when assessing progress and setting goals for
The obturator extemus muscie anses from th extemal side persons involved in strength training programs of th hip
of th obturator membrane and adjacent ilium (see Fig. 1 2 - muscles.
Chapter 12 Hip 425
Transversospinal
muscle
FIGURE 12-47. Action of th external Gluteus medius
rotator muscles during pelvic-on- (posterior fibers)
femoral external rotation of th right Piriform is
hip. Back extensor muscles are also
shown rotating th trunk. Obturator
internus
Quadratus
femoris
Gluteus
maximus
M a x im a l Torque Versus H ip J o in t A n g le R e la tio n s h ip fully shortened muscle length that corresponds to 40 degrees
In contrast to th isokinetic data presented in Table 1 2 - 3 , of abduction. Ironically, th near maximally abducted hip is
maximal-effort torque produced by hip muscles is often th position suggested for manually testing th strength of
measured isometrically, across several different joint angles. th hip abductors.39
The unique shape of a muscle groups torque-joint angle
curve can identify th points in th range of motion where
functional dem an ds are g reaiesi on th muscle. Consider, fo r Examples of Hip Disease
example, th isometric torque-angle curve of th hip abduc-
tor muscles in healthy young adults (Fig. 1 2 - 4 8 ) . The hip RATIONALE FOR SELECTED THERAPEUTIC AND
SURGICAL IN TER V EN TI
abductor muscles produce their greatest torque at full adduc-
tion (i.e., near th position associated with single-limb sup- Two of th most common causes of hip impairment occur
port). In contrast, abductor torque potential is least at th from fracture of th proximal femur and osteoarthritis. This
1 TABLE 12-3. Average Maximal-Effort Torque (N m) for th Six Major Muscle Groups at th Hip*
^Standard deviauons in parenthesis. Torques were measured isokineticaffy at 30/sec and then averaged over th fu ll range o f motion. The torques are
presented in order from greatest to least values. Data are based on 72 healthy subjects between 20 and 81 years of age. (Modified from Cahalan TD, Johnson
ME, Liu 5, ef ai: Quantitative measurements o f h ip strength in different age groups C lin O rthop 246: 1 3 6 -1 4 5 , 1989.)
Conversion: 1 36 N m = l ft-lb
426 Section TV Lower Extremity
\
I
80 T- -
Fall
UJ
3 1
o Potential Energy Dissipated Primarily over Hip Region
70 --
o i
Failure of Locai Shock Absorption
\
(e.g., reduced fat around hip, weakness/atrophy of hip mus
cles, hard impact surface)
50 --
l
Diminished Strength of Bone
40 (e.g., osteoporosis, thinned bone cortex, loss of major tra-
becufae)
30 !
10 10 20 30
Fractured Hip
HIP ANGLE
FIGURE 12-48. This plot shows che ctteci o f /roncai piane range o f From C um m ings SR, N evai MC: A hypothesis: The causes of hip frac
hip motion on ihe maximal effori, isometric hip abductor torque in tures. J Gerontol Med Sci 44: M 107-M111, 1989.
30 healthy persona. The 10-degree hip angle represems a fully
adducted position where che muscles are at a relaiively long length
(Data from Neumann DA, Soderberg GL, Cook TM: Comparison of
maxima! isometric hip abductor muscle torques between hip sides.
Phys Ther 68:496-502, 1988.)
Hip osteoarthritis may be classified as either a primary tional activities, exercise,24-81 modalities for relieving pain,
or secondary disease. Primary or idiopathic hip osteoarthritis and aerobic conditioning. In addition, clinicians frequently
refers to an arthritic condition without a known cause. Sec give advice on how to protect th hip from large forces
ondary hip osteoarthritis, in contrast, refers to an arthritic while a person is walking.54 One method of protecting th
condition resulting from a known mechanical disruption hip is to use a cane in th hand opposite to th affected hip.
of th joint. This may occur from trauma, structural failure Use of th cane reduces joint forces that are caused by th
such as slipped capitai femoral epiphysis, anatomie asym- activation of th hip abductor muscles.59-60 Figure 1 2 - 4 9
metry such as excessive acetabular anteversion, leg length shows that applying a cane force in th left hand results in a
discrepancy, avascular necrosis of th femoral head (i.e., joint reaction force at th right hip of 1195.4 N (268.8 lb).
Legg-Calv-Perthes disease), or congenital dislocation. Per- This correlates with a 36% reduction in joint reaction force
sons who perform heavy physical work are more likely to compared with that producd when not using a cane (see
require hospitalization because of osteoarthritis of th Fig. 1 2 - 4 5 , for comparison).
hip.82 Methods of carrying external loads influence th demands
placed on th hip abductor muscles and therefore on th
T h e ra p e u tic In te rv e n tio n fo r a P a in fu l o r S tru c tu ra lly
underlying hip joint.52-56-57 Persons with painful, unstable, or
U n s ta b le H ip
surgically replaced hips are to be cautioned about th conse-
qu en ces o f carrying a hand-held baci opposite, or con trast
Using a Cane and Proper Methods for Carrying erai, to th affected hip.4'49-58 As shown in Figure 1 2 - 5 0 ,
External Loads th contralateral load has a very large external moment arm
Physical rehabilitation of a painful or structurally unstable (D2), creating a substantial clockwise torque about th right
hip often includes instructions in assisted gait40 and func- hip. For frontal piane stability, th right hip abductors must
Counterclockwise Clockwise
torque torque
FIGURE 12-49. A frontal piane diagram shows how a cane force (CF) applied by th left hand produces a frontal piane torque
about th right hip in single-limb supporr. This cane-produced torque can minimize th torque demands on th right hip abductor
muscles. Note that th clockwise torque (dashed circle) due to body weight (BW X D,) is balanced by th counterclockwise torques
(solid circles) due to th hip abductor force (HAF X D) and th cane force (CF X D2). The data shown in th box are used in th
torque and force equilibrium equations to solve for hip abductor force and joint reaction force (JRF). The moment arm used by
cane force is represented by D2. (See Fig. 1 2 - 4 5 for additional abbreviations and background.) For simplicity, th calculations in
th inset assume static equilibrium and that all force vectors are acting in a vertical direction. (From Neumann DA: Hip abductor
muscle activity in persons with a hip prosthesis while carrying loads in one hand. Phys Ther 7 6 :1 3 2 0 -1 3 3 0 , 1996. With
permission of th APTA.)
428 Section IV Luwer Extremity
FIGURE 12-50. A frontal piane diagram shows how a load held in th left hand significantly increases th
amount of righi hip abductor force (HAF) dunng single-limb support. Two clockwise torques (dashed circles)
are produced about th righi hip due to body weight (BW X D.) and th contralaterally held load (CL X DA
For equ.libnum about th nght hip, th clockwise torques must be balanced by a counterdockwise torque (sofid
frre ePr S C >' P T (HAF X D)' The data shown in lhe box used in th torque and
orce equilibrami equations lo solve for hip abductor force and joint reaction force (JRF). D, is equal to the
moment arm used by th contralateral-held load (CL). Refer to Figure 1 2 - 4 5 for background and other
abbreviauons. For simplicity, the calculations assume stane equilibrium and that all force vectors are aciine in
vertica! direct,ons. (From Neumann DA: Hip abductor muscle ac.ivity m persons with a hip p r o s t L is whik
carrying loads in one hand. Phys Ther 7 6 :1 3 2 0 -1 3 3 0 , 1996. With permission of the APTA.)
FIGURE 12-51. X-rays show two common forms of internai fixation for treatment of a fratture of th proximal
femur. A, A compression screw s used to repair an intertrochanteric fratture. The screw is designed like a piston,
compressing slightly when under th load of body weight. The compression increases bone-to-bone contact across
th fratture site. B, Three pins are used to stabilize a fratture through th femoral neck. (Courtesy of Michael
Anderson, M.D., Blount Orthopedic Clinic, Milwaukee, Wl.)
reduced functional demand placed on th hip may also per that signifcantly limits function and quality of life. This
petuate prolonged weakness in th hip abductor muscles operation replaces th diseased joint with biologically inert
which, in tum , causes deviations in gait.67 Clinicians must materiali (Fig. 12-52). A prosthetic hip is secured by ce-
meet th dual challenge of protecting a vulnerable hip from ment or through biologie fixation, provided by bone growth
excessive and potentially damaging abductor forces, while into th surface of th implanted components. Although th
sim ultaneously increasing th functional strength and endur total hip arthroplasty is typically a successful procedure, pre
ance of th abductors. This requires knowledge of th nor mature loosening of th femoral and/or acetabular compo
ma/ and abn orm al frontal p ia n e m echan ics o f th hip, th rne/ can be a postoperative problem.28 farge torsional
pathology specific to th patients condition, and th symp- loads between th prosthetic implant and th bony interface
toms that suggest th hip is being subjected to potentially may contribute to th loss of fixation.5 Until sufficient long-
damaging forces. The signs and symptoms include excessive term data emerge from clinical trials, debate regarding th
pain, marked gait deviaiion, generalized hip instability, and most durable materials and effettive methods of fixation con-
abn orm al p osition in g o f th lo w er limb. tinue.
A : POSITIVE C: POSITIVE
1. Increased moment 1. Decreased bending
arm (D ) fo r hip moment arm (T)
abductor force. decreases bending
moment (ACF x I");
2. Alignment may improve
decreases shear force
joint stability.
across femoral neck.
2. Increased functional
length of hip abductor
muscle.
B : NEGATIVE D : NEGATIVE
1. Increasedbending 1. Decreased moment
moment arm (I') arm (D ) fo r hip
increases bending abductor force.
moment (ACFx I');
increases shear force 2. Alignment may favor
across femoral neck. joint dislocation.
2. Decreased functional
length of hip abductor
muscle.
FIGURE 12-54. The negative and positive biomechanical effects of coxa vara and coxa valga are contrasted. As a reference, a hip with a
normal angle of inclination ( a = 125 degrees) is shown in th center of th display. D is th internai moment arm used by hip
abductor force; 1 is th bending moment arm across th femoral neck.
14. Delp SL, Bleck EE. Zajac FE, et al: Biomechanical analysis of th Chiari
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Knee
Donald A. Neumann, PT, P h D
TOPICS AT A G LANCE
0STE0L0GY, 435 Patellofemoral Joint, 446 A n a t o m ie C o n s id e r a t io n s , 455
Distai Femur, 435 Patellofemoral Joint Kinematics, 446 Q u a d r ic e p s A c t io n a t th K n e e :
Proximal Tibia and Fibula, 435 Path and Area of Patellar Contact on U n d e r s t a n d in g th B io m e c h a n ic a l
Patella, 437 th Femur, 446 I n t e r a c t io n s B e t w e e n E x te rn a l a n d
Collateral Ligaments, 447
ARTHROLOGY, 438 I n te rn a i T o r q u e s , 456
Considerations, 438
Functional Considerations, 447 Knee Flexor-Rotator Muscles, 463
Anterior and Posterior Cruciate Ligaments, F u n c t io n a l A n a to m y , 463
Capsule and Related Structures, 438
449
Synovial Membrane and Associated G r o u p A c t io n o f F le x o r - R o t a t o r M u s c le s ,
Distai Femur
The femoral condyles fuse anteriorly to form th inter
At th distai end of th femur are th large lateral and mediai
condylar (or trochlear) groove (see Fig. 1 3 - 4 ). This pulley-
condyles (from th Greek kondylos, knuckle) (Figs. 1 3 - 2 to
shaped structure articulates with th posterior side of th
1 3 -4 ). Lateral and mediai epicondyles project from each con-
patella, forming th patellofemoral joint. The intercon
dyle, providing elevated attachment sites for th collateral
dylar groove is concave from side to side and slightly convex
ligaments. A large intercondylar notch separates th lateral and
from front to back. The sloping sides of th groove form
mediai condyles, forming a passageway for th cruciate liga
lateral and mediai jacets. The more pronounced lateral facet
ments (Fig. 1 3 - 4 ). Interestingly, a narrower than average
extends more proximally and projects farther anteriorly than
notch may increase th likelihood of injury to th anterior
th mediai facet. The shape of th lateral facet helps to
cruciate ligament.106
stabilize th patella within th groove during knee move-
Articular cartilage covers much of th surface of th femo-
ment.
ral condyle. The articular surface for th tibia follows a curve
that is a flat-to-convex path from front to back (Fig. 1 3 - 5 ).
The most distai end of each femoral condyle is nearly fiat, Proximal Tibia and Fibula
thereby increasing th area for weight hearing.
Lateral and mediai grooves are etched faintly in th carti The fibula is essentially a non-weight-bearing bone. Although
lage of th femoral condyles (see Fig. 1 3 - 4 ). When th knee it has no direct function at th knee, th slender bone
is fully extended, th anterior edge of th tibia is aligned splints th lateral side of th tibia and helps maintain its
with these grooves. The position of th grooves highlights alignment.
th asymmetry in th shape of th mediai and lateral articu The head o f th fibula serves as an attachment for th
lar surfaces of th femur. The mediai surface curves slightly biceps femoris and th lateral collateral ligament. The
laterally from back to front, and extends farther anteriorly fibula is attached to th lateral side of th tibia by prox
than th lateral articular surface. As explained later in this imal and distai tibiofibular joints (see Fig. 1 3 - 2 ) . The
chapter, th asymmetry in shape of th condyles affects th structure and function of these joints are discussed in Chap
sagittal piane kinematics. ter 14.
436 Section IV Lower Extremity
Intercondylar notch
Proximal
tibiofibular joint
Soleus
Peroneus tertius
Soleal line
Distai
tibiofibular joint Flexor hallucis
longus
Mediai malleolus
Lateral malleolus
Tibia
P e r o n e u s lo n g u s
V e rtic a l rid g e
T ib ia lis a n te r io r
L a te ra l fa c e t
p a te lla r lig a m e n t
L a te ra l p a te lla r r e t in a c u la r fib e r s
P a te lla r lig a m e n t
th vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and iliotibial tract (see and iliotibial tract (Fig. 1 3 - 9 ). Muscular stability is provided
Fig. 1 3 - 7 ) . This extensive set of netlike fibers connects th by th biceps femoris, th tendon of th popliteus, and th
femur, tibia, patella, patellar ligament, collateral ligaments, lateral head of th gastrocnemius.
and menisci. The posteror capsule is reinforced by th oblique popliteal
The lateral capsule of th knee is reinforced by th lateral ligament and th arcuate popliteal ligament (Fig. 1 3 -1 0 ).
(fibular) collateral ligament, lateral patellar retinacular fibers, The oblique popliteal ligament spans between th semimem-
branosus tendon from which much of th ligament origi-
nates and th lateral femoral condyle. This ligament is
N o r m a l g e n u v a lg u m pulled taut in full knee extension, when th tibia is rotated
externally relative to th femur. The arcuate popliteal ligament
originates from th fibular head, then divides into two limbs.
The larger and more prominent limb arches across th ten
don of th popliteus muscle to attach to th posterior inter-
condylar area of th tibia. An inconsistent and smaller limb
attaches to th posterior side of th lateral femoral condyle,
and often to a sesamoid bone (or (labella, meaning bean)
imbedded within th lateral head of th gastrocnemius.
The posterior capsule is further reinforced by th popliteus,
gastrocnemius, and hamstring muscles, especially by th fi-
brous extensions of th semimembranosus tendon. Unlike
th elbow, th knee has no bony block against hyperexten-
sion. The muscles and posterior capsule limit hyperexten-
sion.
The posterior-lateral capsule of th knee is reinforced by
th arcuate popliteal ligament, lateral collateral ligament, and
popliteus muscle and tendon. This set of tissues is often
referred to as th arcuate complex.
The mediai capsule of th knee is very extensive, covering
th entire posterior-medial to anterior-medial region of th
knee.109 The capsule is reinforced by th mediai collateral
ligament and mediai patellar retinacular fibers, and by th
expansions from th tendon ol th semimembranosus (Fig.
1 3 -1 1 ). The mediai capsule is further reinforced by th fiat
tendons of th sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus col-
lectively referred to as th pes anserinus (from th Latin,
gooses foot) tendons. The mediai capsule and associated
structures provide stabilization to th knee.
Menisci
Anatomie Considerations
The mediai and lateral menisci are crescent-shaped, hbrocar-
Q u a d ric e p s
tilaginous discs located within th knee joint (Fig. 1 3 -1 2 ,4 G a s t r o c n e m iu s - te n d o n
and B). The menisci transform nearly fiat articular surfaces of la te ra l h e a d (cu t)
cent capsule by coronary (or meniscotibial) ligaments (see Fig. llio t ib ia l tra c t (cut)
Posterior view
S e m im e m b r a n o s u s G a s t r o c n e m iu s - m e d ia l h e a d
(cu t)
P la n t a r is (cu t)
G a s t r o c n e m iu s - la t e r a l h e a d
G r a c ilis (cu t)
P o s t e r io r t ib io f ib u la r lig a m e n t
F a s c ia i e x te n s io n o f
s e m im e m b r a n o s u s
M ediai view
Q u a d r ic e p s te n d o n
S e m im e m b r a n o s u s FIGURE 13-11. Mediai view of th right knee shows many
muscles and connective tissues. The tendons of th sarto
rius and gracilis are cut to better expose th anterior and
P o s t e r io r i posterior parts of th mediai collateral ligament.
I M e d ia i
M e d ia i p a te lla r A n t e r io r C 0 ||ate ra l
re t in a c u la r fib e r s lig a m e n t
P a te lla r lig a m e n t
P es | S a r t o r iu s ( c u t )
C
a n s e r in u s | V
te n d o n sH G r a c ilis (cu t)
- S e m it e n d in o s u s
442 Section IV Dnver Extremity
border attaching only to th lateral capsule (Fig. 1 3 - 1 3 ). describes th role of th menisci in transferring loads across
The tendon of th popliteus passes between th lateral col- th knee.
latera! ligament and th extemal border of th lateral menis-
cus. M enisci as Shock Absorbcrs. While walking, compres-
sion forces at th knee joint routinely reach approximately 2
to 3 times body weight. Forces as high as nine times body
weight may occur during maximal-effort isokinetic knee ex-
Ligaments Associated with th Menisci tension.88 By nearly tripling th area of joint contact, th
Coronar)' (meniscotibial) ligaments menisci significanti reduce pressure (i.e., force per una
Transverse ligament area) on th articular cartilage.103 A complete lateral menis-
Posterior meniscofemoral ligament
cectomy increases th peak contact pressures by 230% ,91
which likely increases th risk of developing stress-related
arthritis. Surgically repairing a meniscus instead of removing
it is clearly th treatment of choice.102
The lateral meniscus also attaches to th femur via th The menisci supporr about half th total load across th
(see Figs. 1 3 -1 2 A and 1 3 -
p o s t e r io r m e n is c o fe m o r a l lig a m en t
knee.68 At every step, th menisci deform peripherally as
13). The ligament arises from th posterior hom of th
they are compressed.108 This mechanism allows part of th
lateral meniscus and attaches to th femur along with th
compression force at th knee to be absorbed as a circumfer-
posterior cruciale ligament. This and other meniscofemoral ential tension throughout each meniscus. A torn meniscus
ligaments are sometimes th only bony attachment made by therefore loses its capacity to absorb loads.
th posterior hom of th lateral meniscus.120
Functonal Considerations
The primary function of th menisci is to reduce th
Osteokinematics at th Tibiofemoral Joint
compressive stress at th tibiofemoral joint. Other func- The tibiofemoral joint possesses two degrees of freedom:
tions include stabilizing th joint during motion, lubricat- flexion and extension in th sagittal piane and, provided th
ng th articular cartilage, reducing th fricuon, and guid- knee is slightly flexed, internai and extemal rotation in th
ing th knees arthrokinematics. The following section horizontal piane. These motions are shown for both t ib ia l-o n -
Chapter 13 Knee 443
Superior view
.G a s tro c n e m iu s ( m e d ia i he a d )
G a s t r o c n e m iu s fia te ra i he a d )
S e m it e n d in o s u s
P la n ta riS '
S e m im e m b r a n o s u s
B ic e p s fe m o r is G r a c llis
P o p lit e u s te n d o n
S a r to r iu s
L a te ra l c o lla te ra l lig a m e n t
P o s t e r io r m e n is c o fe m o r a l
lig a m e n t M e d ia i c o lla te r a l lig a m e n t
P o s t e r io r c r u c ia te lig a m e n t M e d ia i m e n is c u s
L a te ra l m e n is c u s
A n t e r io r c r u c ia te lig a m e n t
C o r o n a r y lig a m e n t
P o s t e r io r c r u c ia te lig a m e n t
In fra p a te lla r fat
A P a te lla r lig a m e n t
B A n t e r io r c r u c ia te lig a m e n t
Jemoral and femoral-on-tibial situations in Figures 1 3 - 1 4 and axis of rotation. During knee motion, therefore, th extemal
1 3 - 1 5 . Frontal piane motion at th knee occurs passively devices may rotate in a dissimilar piane as th leg. As a
only, limited to about 6 to 7 degrees.81 consequence, a hinged orthosis, for example, may act as a
piston relative to th leg, causing rubbing against and abra-
sion io th skin.
FLEXION AND EXTENSION
Flexion and extension at th knee occur about a medial-
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ROTATION
lateral axis of rotation. Range of motion varies with age and
gender, but in generai th healthy knee rotates from 130 to Internai and extemal rotation of th knee occurs in a hori-
140 degrees of flexion to about 5 to 10 degrees of hyperex- zontal piane about a vertical or longitudinal axis of rota-
tension.7-101 tion. This motion is also called axial rotation. In generai,
The medial-lateral axis of rotation for flexion and exten horizontal piane rotation increases with greater knee flexion.
sion is not fixed, but migrates within th femoral condyles. A knee flexed to 90 degrees permits about 40 io 50 degrees
The curved path of th axis is known as an evolute, or of total rotation.86-89 External rotation range of motion gener-
instant center of rotation (Fig. 1 3 - 1 6 ) .111 The path of th ally exceeds internai rotation by a ratio of 2:1.86 In full
axis is influenced by th eccentric curvature of th femoral extension, however, horizontal piane rotation is essentially
condyles.3030110 absent. Rotation is blocked by passive tension in th
The migrating axis of rotation has biomechanical and stretched ligaments and by increased bony congruity within
clinical implications. First, th migrating axis alters th th joint.
length of th internai moment arm of th flexor and exten- As depicted in Figure 1 3 - 1 5 , horizontal piane rota
sor muscles. This fact explams, in part, why maximal-effort tion at th knee occurs by either tibial-on-femoral or
internai torque varies across th range of motion. Second, femoral-on-iibial rotation. Both forms of rotation prolde
many extemal devices that attach to th knee, such as a a functional and very important element of mobility to
goniometer or a hinged knee orthosis, rotate about a fixed movement of th lower extremily as a whofe. Consider, for
444 Section IV Lower Extremity
Posterior vievv
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 3 - 2
m
Common Mechanism of Injury of th Menisci of
th Knee
A n t e r o r c r u c ia te
T e a r s o f t h m e n is c u s o f te n o c c u r b y f o r c e f u l, h o r iz o n -
lig a m e n t
t a l p ia n e r o t a t io n o f t h f e m o r a l c o n d y le s o v e r a p a r -
t ia lly f le x e d a n d w e ig h t - b e a r in g k n e e . T h e t o r s io n w it h in
t h c o m p r e s s e d k n e e c a n p in c h a n d d is lo d g e t h m e
M e d ia i c o lla te ra l n is c u s . A d is lo d g e d o r f o ld e d f la p o f m e n is c u s c a n
lig a m e n t L a te ra l c o lla te ra l b lo c k k n e e m o v e m e n t , c a u s in g t h " lo c k e d - k n e e " s y n -
lig a m e n t d ro m e .
P o p lit e u s te n d o n T h e m e d ia i m e n is c u s is in j u r e d m o r e f r e q u e n t ly t h a n
M e d ia i m e n is c u s (cu t)
t h la t e r a l m e n is c u s . T h e m e c h a n is m o f in j u r y o fte n
L a te ra l m e n is c u s in v o lv e s a n e x t e r n a l f o r c e a p p lie d t o t h la t e r a l a s p e c t
P o s t e r io r
of th knee. This force often described as a " v a lg u s
m e n is c o fe m o r a l f o r c e " c a u s e s a n e x c e s s i v e v a lg u s p o s it io n o f t h
lig a m e n t k n e e a n d s u b s e q u e n t ly s t r a in s t h m e d ia i c o lla t e r a l lig a
m e n t. T h e m e d ia i m e n is c u s m a y t e a r a s it is s t r e t c h e d
P o s t e r io r c r u c ia te
lig a m e n t b e t w e e n t h c o m p r e s s e d j o in t s u r f a c e s a n d it s c o n n e c
t io n t o t h t a u t m e d ia i c o lla t e r a l lig a m e n t .
FIGURE 13-13. Posterior view o f th deep structures of th tight example, a sharp 90-degree cutting maneuver used to
knee after all muscles and th posterior capsule are removed. Ob- change directions while running. The trunk and pelvis rotate
serve th menisci, collateral ligaments, and cruciate ligaments. Note over th femur, as th femur rotates over th tibia. Chapter
th popliteus tendon that courses between th lateral meniscus and 14 describes how th tibia rotates over th relatively fixed
lateral collateral ligament. foot.
Knee
Knee
external internai
rotation rotation
Mediai
ial H h Lateral
FIGURE 13-15. Horizontal piane (axial) rotation at th knee. A, Tibial-on-femoral rotation. B, Femoral-on-tibial rotation.
Arthrokinematics at th Tibiofemoral Joint similar but less obvious locking mechanism also takes place
during femoral-on-tibial extension (compare Fig. 1 3 -1 7 A
A C T IV E E X T E N S IO N OF TH E KN EE
with B). Rising up from a squat position, for example, th
Figure 1 3 - 1 7 depicts th arthrokinematics of th last 90 knee locks into extension as th femur intemally rotates
degrees of active knee extension. During tibial-on-femoral ex-
tension, th articular surface of th tibia rolls and slides
anteriorly on th femoral condyles (Fig. 13-17A ). The
menisci are shown pulled anteriorly by th contracting quad-
riceps muscle.
During femoral-on-tibial extension, as in standing up
| from a deep squat position, th femoral condyles simulta-
neously roll anteriorly and slide posteriorly on th articular
surface of th tibia (Fig. 1 3 -1 7 B ). These off-setting arthro-
kinematics may help limit th magnitude of anterior transla-
tion of th femur on th tibia. The quadriceps direct th roll
of th femoral condyles. The quadriceps also stabilize th
menisci against th posterior shear caused by th sliding
femur.
cle. The muscle can rotate th femur extemally to initiate Path and Area of Patellar Contact on th Femur
temoral-on-iibial flexion, or rotate th tibia internally to initi
Studies on cadavere have provided detailed descriptions of
ate tibial-on-femoral flexion.
th regions of joint contact and pressure in th patellofemo-
FIGURE 13-17. The active arthrokinematics of knee extension. A, Tibial-on-femoral perspective. B, Femoral-on-tibial perspective.
In both A and B, th meniscus is pulled toward th contracting quadriceps.
C h a p t e r 13 K n ee 447
A. Factors guiding screw-homc rotatimi ral joint.3756'82 Data from these studies and cineradiographic
observations were used to construct th model illustrateci in
Figure 1 3 - 1 9 . At 135 degrees of flexion, th patella contacts
th femur near its superior pole (Fig. 1 3 -1 9 A ). At this
flexed position, th patella rests below th intercondylar
groove, bridging th intercondylar notch of th femur (Fig.
1 3 -1 9 D ). At this position, th lateral edge of th lateral
1. S h a p e o f m e d ia i
facet and th odd facci of th patella share articular contact
fe m o r a l c o n d y le
with th femur (Fig. 1 3 -1 9 E ). As th knee extends toward
90 degrees of flexion, th contact region on th patella starts
io migrate inferiorly (Fig. 1 3 -1 9 B ). Between 90 and 60
degrees of flexion, th patellofemoral joint occupies its great-
2. T e n s io n in a n te r io r est contact area with th femur (Fig. 1 3 -1 9 D , ).82 At its
c r u c ia te lig a m e n t maximum, this contact area is only about 30% of th total
surface area of th patella. Joint pressure (i.e., compression
force per unit area), therefore, can rise to significant levels
3 . L a te ra l p u l within th patellofemoral joint.
o f q u a d r ic e p s As th knee extends through th last 20 degrees of llex-
ion, th primary contact point on th patella migrates to th
inferior pole (Fig. 1 3 -1 9 C ). In full extension th patella
rests completely above th intercondylar groove, against th
suprapatellar fat pad. In this position with quadriceps re-
E x te rn a l ro ta tio n
laxed, th patella can be moved freely within th intercondy
lar groove. Flexing th knee to about 20 or 30 degrees,
however, reduces this mobility. The patella becomes seated
in th intercondylar groove and stabilized by tension in th
stretched quadriceps and locai connettive tissues.
E x te n s io n
Collateral Ligaments
A N A T 0 M IC C 0 N S ID E R A T I0 N S
B. Patii of th tibia on th femoral condyles
The mediai collateral ligament (MCL) is a fiat, broad structure
that spans th mediai side of th joint (see Fig. 1 3 -1 1 ).
Several structures blend with and reinforce th MCL, most
notably th mediai patellar retinacular fibers and mediai cap
sule.
The MCL consists of anterior and posterior parts. The
larger anterior part consists of a relatively well-defined set of
superficial fibers about 10 cm long. Distally these fibers blend
with mediai patellar retinacular fibers before attaching to th
medial-proximal aspect of th tibia. The fibers attachments
are just posterior to th attachments of th pes anserinus
group. From proximal to distai, th anterior part of th MCL
runs in a slightly oblique posterior-to-anterior direction.
The posterior part of th MCL consists of a short set of
fibers, deep to th anterior fibers. These fibers have extensive
distai attachments to th posterior-medial joint capsule, me
diai meniscus, and thick tendon of th semimembranosus
muscle.
The lateral (fibular) collateral ligament consists of a round,
strong cord that runs nearly vertical between th lateral
FIGURE 13-18. The screw-home locking mechanism of th knee.
A, During terminal tibial-on-femoral extension, three factors con- epicondyle of th femur to th head of th fibula (see Fig.
tribuie to th locking mechanism of th knee. Each factor comrib- 1 3 - 9 ). Distally, th lateral collateral ligament blends with
utes bias to external rotation of th tibia, relative to th femur. B, th tendon of th biceps femoris muscle. Unlike its mediai
The two red arrows depict th path of th tibia across th femoral counterpart, th MCL, th lateral collateral ligament does not
condyles during th last 90 degrees of extension. Note that th attach to th adjacent meniscus (see Fig. 1 3 -1 3 ).
eurved mediai femoral condyle helps to direct th tibia to its exter-
nally rotated and locked position.
F U N C T I0 N A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
L a t e r a lf a c e t
O dd
M e d ia i
P a te lla r lig a m e n t
FIGURE 13-19. The kinematics ai th patellofemoral joint during active tibial-on-femoral extension. The circle depicted in A - C
indicates th point of maximal contact between th patella and th femur. As th knee is extended, th contact point on th patella
migrates from its superior pole to its inferior pole. Note th suprapatellar fat pad deep to th quadriceps. D and E show th path
and contact areas of th palella on th intercondylar groove of th femur. The values 135, 90, 60, and 20 degrees indicate flexed
positions of th knee.
tended, th anterior pari of th MCL provides th primary sion. In flexion, th capsule and ligaments are relatively
resistance against a valgus, or an abduction, stress. The lat slack (see Fig. 1 3 -2 0 A ). Full extension which includes th
eral collateral ligament, in comparison, provides th primary screw-home rotation elongates th collateral ligaments
resistance against a varus, or an adduction, stress.104 Many roughly 20% beyond their length at full flexion."8 Although
other tissues provide varying amounts of restraint to valgus a valuable stabilizer, a taut MCL is especially vulnerable to
and varus forces applied to th knee (Table 1 3 - 3 ) .104118 injury from a valgus (i.e., an abduction) stress delivered over
A secondary function of th collateral ligaments is to limit a planted foot. This mechanism of injury is part of th
th extremes of knee extension. This function is shared, classic clip in American football.
however, by th posterior capsule, oblique popliteal liga The collateral ligaments also provide limited resistance to
ment, knee flexor muscles, and anterior cruciate ligament. th extremes of internai and extemal rotation while th knee
Figure 1 3 -2 0 A and B demonstrates th increase in passive is partially flexed.118 Table 1 3 - 4 provides a summary of th
tension in both MCL and posterior capsule, as th knee functions and common mechanisms of injury for th major
assumes th locked position of full femoral-on-tibial exten ligaments of th knee, including th posterior capsule.
Chapter 13 Knee 449
Anterior and Posterior Cruciate Ligaments knee motions (see Table 1 3 - 4 ). The cruciate ligaments,
however, provide most of th resistance to anterior-posterior
G E N E R A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
shear forces between th tibia and femur. These forces arise
Cruciate, meaning cross-shaped, describes th spatial relation primarily from th sagittal piane progression intrinsic to
of th ligaments as they cross within th intercondylar notch walking, squatting, running, and jumping.17 The ligaments
of th femur (Fig. 1 3 -2 1 A and B). The cruciate ligaments help to guide th arthrokinematics at th knee.
are intracapsular structures that are covered by an extensive Injury to th cruciate ligaments can lead to marked insta -
synovial lining. Since most of th surface of th ligaments bility of th knee. Because th cruciates do not spontane-
lies between th synovial membrane and th capsule, th ously heal on their own, surgical reconstruction often re-
cruciates are considered extrasynovial. The ligaments are quires autograft (patellar tendon or hamstring/adductor
supplied with blood from small vessels in th synovial mem tendon), and less frequently, an allograft (artificial ligament).
brane and nearby soft tissue. Although these reconstructions are reasonably successful at
The cruciate ligaments are named according to their at- restoring basic stability, th naturai kinematics at th re-
tachment to th tibia (see Fig. 1 3 -1 2 A and B). Both liga paired knee are never completely normal. A retrospective
ments are thick and strong, reflecting their important role in review of th literature suggests that th likelihood of gonar-
providing stability to th knee. Acting together, th antenor throsis (or arthrosis) of th knee increases signifcantly fol-
and posterior cruciate ligaments resist th extremes of all lowing injury to th anterior cruciate ligament.35
Mediai view
450 Seclion IV Lower Extremity
Mediai collateral I. Resists valgus (abduction) 1. Valgus force with foot planted (e.g., "clip in
ligament 2. Resists excesstve knee extension football)
3. Resists axial rotation 2. Severe hyperextension of th knee
Lateral collateral 1. Resists varus (adduction) 1. Varus force with foot planted
ligament 2. Resists knee extension 2. Severe hyperextension of th knee
3. Resists axial rotation
Posterior capsule 1. Resists full knee extension 1. Hyperextension or combined hyperextension with
2. Oblique popliteal ligament resists extemal extemal rotation of th knee
rotation
3. Posterior-lateral capsule resists varus
Anterior cruciate 1. Most fibers resist excessive anterior trans- 1. Hyperextension of th knee
ligament lation of th tibia or excessive posterior 2. Large valgus force with foot planted
translation of th femur 3. Either of th above combined with large internai
2. Most fibers limit full knee extension axial rotation torque (e.g., th fernur forcefully
3. Resists extremes of varus, valgus, and axial extemally rotates over a fixed tibia)
rotation
Posterior cruciate 1. Most fibers resist excessive posterior trans 1. Hyperflexion of th knee
ligament lation of th tibia or excessive anterior 2. Dashboard injuries with excessive posterior
translation of th fernur translation of th tibia relative to th fernur
2. Most fibers become taut at full flexion 3. Severe hyperextension of th knee with a gapping
3. Some fibers become taut ai maximal hy- of th posterior side of th joint
perextension and th extremes of varus, 4. Large valgus or varus force with foot planted
valgus, and axial rotation 5. Any of th above combined with large axial rota
tion torque
I n te rc o n d y la r g r o o v e
(to r p a te lla )
P o s t e r io r c r u c ia te
A n te r io r c r u c ia te lig a m e n t
lig a m e n t
FIGURE 13 21. The anterior and posterior cruciate [igaments. A, Lateral view. B, Anterior view. The two fiber bundles within th
antenor cruciate ligament are evident in A.
Chapter 13 Knee 451
A N T E R IO R C R U C IA T E L IG A M E N T
th quadriceps muscle during this event may add to th
Functional Anatomy severity of th injury. Marked hyperextension frequently in
volves trauma to th collateral ligaments and th posterior
The anterior cruciate ligament (AGL) attaches along an
capsule.
approximate 30-mm impression on th anterior intercondy-
lar area of th tibia] plateau.36 From this attachment, th
ligament runs obliquely in a posterior, slightly superior, P O S T E R IO R C R U C IA T E L IG A M E N T
and lateral direction to attach on th mediai side of th
lateral femoral condyle (see Fig. 1 3 -2 1 A and B). The colla-
Functional Anatomy
gen fibers within th AGL twist upon one another, thereby The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) provides another im-
forming spiraling fascicles, or bundles. The bundles are portant source of resistance to th anterior-posterior shear
often referred to as posterior-lateral and anterior-medial, forces at th knee. Slightly thicker than th ACL, th PCL
named according io their relative attachment on th tibia.36 attaches from th posterior intercondylar area of th tibia to
The posterior-lateral bundle is th main component of th th lateral side of th mediai femoral condyle (see Figs. 1 3 -
ACL. 12A and B, 1 3 - 1 3 , and 1 3 -2 1 A and B). The course of this
The length and orientation of th twisting ACL change ligament is more vertical and slightly less oblique than that
as th knee joint rotates. Although some fibers of th of th ACL.
ACL remain taut throughout th full range of motion, most The specific anatomy of th PCL is variable. It has two
fibers, especially within th posterior-lateral bundle, become bundles: a larger anterior set (anterior-lateral), forming th
more taut as th knee approaches full extension (Fig. 1 3 - bulk of th ligament, and a smaller posterior set (posterior-
22A).'W Along with th posterior capsule, collateral liga- medial).15-4284
ments, and hamstring muscles, th ACL produces useful Two accessory components of th PCL are often present.
tension that helps stabilize th extended or near-extended In about 70% of knees, either an anterior menisco femoral
knee. ligament or a posterior meniscofemoral ligament is present.45
These ligaments have a mass of only 20% of th PCL and,
Mechanism of Injury to th Anterior Cruciate Ligament therefore, play a minor role in stability. Figures 1 3 -1 2 A and
The ACL is th most frequently injured ligament of th 1 3 - 1 3 show a segment of th more common posterior men
knee, occurring often during sports activities such as foot iscofemoral ligament, originating from th lateral meniscus
ball, downhill skiing, basketball, and soccer. An ACL injury and blending into th posterior fibers of th PCL.
may occur in conjunction with injury to other structures, Like th ACL, some fibers within th PCL remain taut
such as th mediai collateral ligament and mediai meniscus. throughout th entire range of motion. The majority of th
One of th most common and relatively simple manual ex- ligament (i.e., th larger anterior fibers), however, becomes
ams for ACL integrity is called th anterior drawer test. The taut at th extremes of flexion.36 As depicted in Figure 1 3 -
basic component of this test involves pulling th leg forward 2 2 C, th PCL is pulled taut by th hamstring muscle con-
with th knee flexed lo about 90 degrees (see Fig. 13-2 2 A traction and subsequent posterior slide of th tibia. Adding a
and B). In th normal knee, th ACL provides about 85% of forceful quadriceps contraction to an existing hamstring con-
th total passive resistance to th anterior translation of th traction reduces th tension and stretch on th PCL.48
tibia.11 An anterior laxity of 8 mm (1/3 in) greater than th One of th most common exams of th integrity of th
contralateral knee is indicative of an ACL tear. With th PCL is th posterior drawer test. This test involves pushing
knee flexed and unlocked, secondary restraint structures th leg posteriorly with th knee flexed to 90 degrees (Fig.
such as th posterior capsule, collateral Hgaments, and flexor 1 3 -2 2 D ). Normally, th PCL provides about 95% of th
muscles offer less resistance to an anteriorly translating tibia. total passive resistance to th posterior translation of th
Spasm in th hamstring muscles may limit anterior transla tibia.11 Ollen, following a PCL injury, th tibia sags posteri
tion of th tibia, thereby masking a tom ACL. orly against th femur. This observation, in conjunction with
The oblique manner in which th ACL courses through a positive posterior drawer sign, suggests a ruptured PCL.
th knee allows at least a pari o f this structure io resist th Another important function o f th PCL is to limit th
extremes of all movements. Although th spatial orientation extern of anterior translation of th femur over th fxed
o f th ACL provides a wide range o f stabifity, il also predis- tibia. Activities, such as rapidly descending into a squat
poses th person to ligament injury. As listed in Table 1 3 - 4 , and landing from a jump with knee partially flexed, create
th ACL is pulled taut as a result of many tibial-on-femoral a large anterior shear force on th femur against th tibia.
or femoral-on-tibial movements. One finding common to The femur is held from sliding off th anterior edge of
many ACL injuries is a high-velocity stretch while th liga th tibia by forces in th PCL, joint capsule, and muscle.
ment is under tension. This may occur, for example, when The popliteus muscle, by Crossing th posterior side of th
th foot is firmly planted and th femur is vigorously exter- knee, may share a portion of th force naturally placed on
nally rotated and/or translated posteriorly. As noted by ob- th PCL.42
serving a skeletal model or Figure 1 3 - 2 1 , this movement in
conjunction with a valgus force can elongate and potentially Mechanism of Injury to th Posterior Cruciate Ligament
tear th ACL. Injury to th PCL accounts for only 5% io 20% of all such
Another common mechanism for injuring th ACL in injuries to th knee.14 Half of PCL injuries occur with inju
volves excessive hvperextension of th knee while th foot ries to other knee structures, most often th ACL and poste
:s planted on th ground. Very large forces produced by rior-lateral capsule. Three mechanisms are proposed for rup-
452 Section IV Lower Extremity
Taut ACL
FIGURE 13-22. The interaciion between muscle comracuon and tension changes in th cruciate ligaments is shown. A, Con-
traction of th quadriceps muscle extends th knee and slides th tibia anterior relative to th femur. Knee extension als elon-
gates most of th anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), posterior capsule, hamstring muscles, and collateral ligaments (not shown).
Note that th quadriceps and ACL have an antagonistic relationship throughout most of th terminal range of extension. B, The
antenor drawer test can help evaluate th integrity of th ACL. C, Contraction of th hamstring muscles flexes th knee and slides
th tibia posterior relative to th femur. Knee flexion elongates th quadriceps muscle and most of th fibers within th posterior
cruciate ligament (PCL). D, The posterior drawer test checks th integrity of th PCL. Tissues pulled taut are tndicated by thin
black arrows.
Chapter 13 Knee 453
V o lu m e s o f m a t e r ia l h a v e b e e n w r it t e n o n t h A C L , e s p e - a p p r o a c h e s f u ll e x t e n s io n , t h a c t iv e q u a d r ic e p s p r o d u c e s
c i a l l y r e la t e d t o t h t o p i c s o f b io m e c h a n i c s 66-73-92 s u r g ic a l a n a n t e r io r s h e a r o n t h t ib ia , w h ic h c a n s t r a in t h A C L
n o n s u r g ic a l r e h a b ilit a t io n . 28 M u c h o f t h d e b a t e a n d c o n - lo a d p l a c e d o n t h A C L . 47 A s a r e s p o n s e to t h e s e r e p o r t s ,
t r o v e r s y a s s o c ia t e d w it h t h is lit e r a t u r e a b o u t t h A C L is c l i n i c i a n s r o u t in e ly a d v o c a t e e x e r c i s e s t h a t c o n c e n t r a t e
b e y o n d t h s c o p e o f t h is te x t. O n e t o p ic , h o w e v e r , t h a t is o n lo a d in g t h quadriceps muscle d u r in g th Ia s t 45 d e
h ig h lig h t e d h e r e is t h is s u e o f s t r e n g t h e n in g t h q u a d r i g re e s of femoral-on-tibial extension .l2-46 T h e s e e x e r c i s e s
c e p s a s a p a r t o f A C L r e h a b ilit a t io n . a r e o f te n r e f e r r e d t o a s " c l o s e d k in e t ic c h a i n " e x e r c is e s .
lim it q u a d r ic e p s a c t iv it y w h ile w a lk in g . P e r s is t e n t w e a k - r e s is t a n c e , s in g le - le g h a lf s q u a t s , a n d le g p r e s s e s p r o
n e s s o f t h m u s c le m a y e n s u e , d e s p it e im p r o v e m e n t in d u c e e q u a l, 4 o r le s s , s t r a in o n t h A C L t h a n t ib ia l- o n -
m a n y f u n c t io n a l m e a s u r e s . 64 R e d u c e d f u n c t io n a l s t r e n g t h f e m o r a l r e s is t a n c e e x e r c is e s , s u c h a s lif t in g a n k le
e x t e n s io n , p o o r g a it, a n d e x c e s s iv e w e a r o n t h k n e e 's c o a c t iv a t io n o f t h k n e e e x t e n s o r a n d f le x o r m u s c le s ,
t h q u a d r ic e p s a r e t h e r e f o r e im p o r t a n t g o a ls in a n y A C L r io r - p o s t e r io r s h e a r f o r c e s . T h is m e t h o d o f e x e r c i s e m a y
r e p a ir r e h a b ilit a t io n p r o g r a m . lim it t e n s io n p l a c e d o n t h A C L a n d , a t t h s a m e t im e ,
p r o v id e a d e q u a t e r e s is t a n c e a g a in s t t h q u a d r ic e p s . A t
D e p e n d in g o n t h p a t ie n t 's a g e , t im e s i n c e s u r g e r y ,
s o m e p o in t in t h r e h a b ilit a t io n p r o c e s s , h o w e v e r , t e n s io n
a n d in j u r y s e v e r it y , it m a y b e p r u d e n t t o lim it t h a m o u n t
in t h A C L m a y a c t u a lly f a c ilit a t e h e a lin g a n d c a n b e
o f t e n s io n p l a c e d o n a h e a lin g A C L g r a ft. C e r t a in m e t h o d s
c o n s id e r e d t h e r a p e u t i c . " 5
f o r s t r e n g t h e n in g t h q u a d r ic e p s a r e c o n t r a in d ic a t e d o r a t
le a s t q u e s t i o n a l e , e s p e c i a l l y d u r in g t h e a r ly c o u r s e o f
454 Section IV Lower Extremity
of th knee are innervateci by severa! nerves from both th Muscular Function at th Knee
lumbar and sacrai piexus, bui primarily by th tibial portion
of th sciatic nerve (see Fig. 1 2 -2 7 B ). Table 1 3 - 5 summa- EXTENSOR AN D F L E X O R -R O T A T O R M U S C L E S
rizes th motor innervation to th knee. Muscles of th knee are described here as two groups:
The motor nerve roots that supply all th muscles of th th knee extensors (i.e., quadriceps) and th knee flexor-
lower extremity are listed in Appendix IVA. Appendix IVB
rotators. The anatomy of many of these muscles is pre-
shows key muscles typically used to test th functional status
sented in Chapter 12. Consult Appendix IV, Part C, for a
of th L2- S 3 ventral nerve roots.
summary of th attachments and nerve supply to th mus
cles of th knee.
SENSO RY IN N E R V A T IO N TO T H E JO IN T
Quadriceps: Knee Extensor Mechanism
Sensory inner\'ation to th knee is supplied primarily from
th L3 through L5 nerve roots, carried by anterior and Functional Considerations
posterior sets of nerves.58,65 The posterior set is derived from By isometric, eccentric, and concentric activations, th quad
th posterior tibial and obturator nerves. The posterior tibial riceps femoris muscle is able to perform multiple functions
nerve (a branch from th tibial portion of th sciatic) is at th knee. Through isometric activation, th quadriceps sta-
th largest afferent supply to th knee joint. It supplies bilizes and helps to protect th knee; through eccentric act:
sensation to th posterior capsule and associated ligaments, vation, th quadriceps Controls th rate of descent of th
and most of th internai structures of th knee as far ante- bodys center of mass, such as in sitting or stooping. Eccen
rior as th infrapatellar fat pad. The afferent ftbers within th tric activation provides shock absorption to th knee. At th
obturator nerve are th reason why inflammation of th hip heel contact phase of walking, th knee flexes slightly in
joint is often perceived as referred pain in th mediai knee response to th posteriorly located ground reaction forct
region. Eccentrically active quadriceps Controls flexion. Acting as ;
The anterior set of sensory nerves to th knee consists spring, th muscle helps dampen th impact of loading oc
primarily of sensory branches from th femoral nerve. Artic- th joint. This protection is especially useful during high
ular branches of th femoral nerve supply most of th ante- impact loading, such as landing from a jump, running, cr
rior-medial and anterior-lateral capsule and th associated descending from a high step. A person whose knee is brace;
ligaments. The anterior set also contains sensory branches or fused in full extension lacks this naturai shock absorption
from th common peroneal nerve and th saphenous nerve mechanism.
(L 3-4). In th previous examples, eccentric activation of th.
* The actions involving th knee are shown in bold. Muscles are listed in descending order of nerve root innervation.
Chapter 13 Knee 455
VI RF Anatomie Considerations
The quadriceps femoris is a large and powerful extensor mus
cle, consisting of th rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus
medialis, and deeper vastus ntermedius (Figs. 1 3 - 7 and
1 3 -2 3 ). The large vastus group produces about 80% of th
total extension torque at th knee, and th rectus femoris
produces about 20% (Fig. 1 3 - 2 4 ) .54 Contraction of th vasti
extends th knee only. Contraction of th rectus femoris,
however, causes hip flexion and knee extension.
All heads of th quadriceps unite to form a strong tendon
that attaches to th base of th patella. The quadriceps ten
don continues distally as th patellar ligament, joining th
apex of th patella to th tibial tuberosity. The vastus latera
lis and vastus medialis attach into th capsule and menisci
via patellar retinacular fbers (see Fig. 1 3 - 7 ). The quadriceps
muscle and tendon, patella, and patellar ligament are often
described as th knee extensor mechanism.
The rectus femoris attaches to th pelvis near th anterior-
inferior iliac spine. The vastus muscles, however, attach to
an extensive part of th femur, particularly th anterior-
lateral shaft and th linea aspera (see Figs. 1 2 - 4 to 1 2 - 6 ).
Although th vastus lateralis is th largest of th quadriceps
muscles, th vastus medialis extends farther distally toward
th knee.
The vastus medialis consists of fbers that form two dis-
tinct fiber directions. The more distai oblique fbers (th
vastus medialis obliquus) approach th patella at 50 to 55
degrees, mediai to th quadriceps tendon; th remaining
more longitudinal fbers (th vastus medialis longus) ap
proach th patella at 15 to 18 degrees, mediai to th quadri
ceps tendon (see Fig. 1 3 - 2 3 ) .74 These two sets of fbers are
a subset of one anatomically distinct muscle: th vastus me
dialis.35 The two sets of fbers, however, have different lines-
of-force on th patella. Although th oblique fbers account
FIGURE 13-23. A cross-section through ihe right quadriceps mus-
cle. The arrows d ep ia th approximate line-of-force of each of part
for only 30% of th cross-sectional area of th entire vastus
of th quadriceps: vastus lateralis (VL), vastus ntermedius (VI), medialis muscle,97 th oblique pul on th patella has impor-
rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis longus (VML), and vastus me- tant implications for th stabilization and orientation of th
dialis obliquus (VMO). patella as it tracks or slides through th intercondylar groove
of th femur.
The deepest quadriceps muscle, th vastus ntermedius, is
quadriceps is employed to decelerate knee flexion. Concertine located under th rectus femoris. Deep to th vastus nter
contraction of this muscle, in contrast, accelerates th tibia or medius is th articularis genu. This muscle contains a few
femur into knee extension. This action is often used to raise slips of muscle fbers that attach proximally to th anterior
th bodys center of mass, such as running uphill, jumping, side of th distai femur, and distally into th anterior cap
or standing from a seated position. sule. This muscle pulls th capsule and synovial membrane
250-i
K nee extensors
225-
iK n e e flexors
200-
z
175-
FIGURE 13-24. The maximal knee torque
produced by muscles that cross th knee is Zi 150-
O-
displayed. Note th relatively large torque o 125-
potential of th vastus group. (Data from 1-
Hoy MG, Zajac FE, Gordon ME: Musculo- co 100-
skeletal model of th human lower extrem- E 75 -
X
ity. j Biomechan 2 3 :1 5 7 -1 6 9 , 1990.) cc
50-
2
25-
o -l
Vasti Rectus femoris Hamstrings Gastrocnemius Other
456 Section IV Lower Extremity
FIGURE 13-25. An analogy is triade between a crane (A) and th human knee (B). In th crane, th moment arm is th distance
between th axis and th tip of th piece of metal that functions like a patella.
proximally during active knee extension.120 The articularis knee extension, th external moment arm of th upper body
genu is analogous to th articularis cubiti at th elbow. weight decreases from 90 to 0 degrees of knee flexion (Fig
1 3 - 2 7 D to F). Figure 1 3 - 2 7 shows th relationships be
Patella: Augmentation of Knee Extension Lever- tween th relative external torque for th two methods of
age. Functionally, th patella displaces th tendon of th extending th knee over a selected range of motion.
quadriceps anteriorly, thereby increasing th internai mo Information from th graph in Figure 1 3 - 2 7 is useful
ment arm of th knee extensor mechanism. In this way, th when designing quadriceps strengthening exercises, espe-
patella augments th torque potential of th quadriceps. Fig cially for persons with knee pathology. By necessity, exer
ure 1 3 - 2 5 shows an analogy between a mechanical crane cises that significantly challenge th quadriceps also stress
and th human knee. Both use a spacer to increase th th knee joint and its associated connective tissues. Clini-
distance between th axis of rotation and th internai lift cally, this stress is considered either therapeutic or damag-
ing force. The larger th internai moment arm, th greater ing, depending on th type and severity of th pathology o:
th internai torque produced per level of force generated by injury. A person with marked patellofemoral joint pain or
th quadriceps of th human knee (or transferred by th painful arthritis, for example, is typically advised lo avoid
cable in th crane). large forces created by th quadriceps.112 Muscle forces
are typically large when responding to large external torques.
Quadriceps Action at th Knee: Understanding th Biomechanical As depicted by th red shading in th graph in Figure
Interactions Between External and Internai Torques 1 3 - 2 7 , external torques are relatively large from 90 to 45
In many upright activities, th external (flexor) torque at th degrees of flexion via femoral-on-tibial extension, and from
knee is th produci of th external load being moved multi- 45 to 0 degrees of flexion via tibial-on-femoral extension.
plied by its external moment arm. The internai (extensor) Reducing relatively large external torques can be accom-
torque, in contrast, is th product of quadriceps force multi- plished by modifying th manner of applying resistance
plied by its internai moment arm. An understanding of how against th knee extensor muscles. An external load, for
these opposing torques are produced and how they interact example, can be applied al th ankle during tibial-on-femo-
is an important consideration in knee rehabilitation. ral knee extension between 90 and 45 degrees of flexion.
This exercise can be followed by an exercise that involves
External Torque Demands Against th Quadriceps: rising from a partial squat position, a motion that incorpo-
Contrasting Tibial-on-Fem oral with Feinoral-on-Ttb- rates femoral-on-tibial extension between 45 and 0 degrees
ial Methods of Knee Extension. Strengthening exercises of flexion. Combining both exercises in th manner de-
for th quadriceps muscle typically are reliant on resistive, scribed provides moderate to minimal external torques
external torques generated by gravity acting on th body. against th quadriceps, throughout a continuous range of
The magnilude of external torques varies depending on how motion.
th knee is being extended. During tibial-on-femoral knee
extension, th external moment arm of th weight of th Internai Torque-Joint Angle Relationship of th
lower leg increases from 90 to 0 degrees of knee flexion Quadriceps Muscle. Maximal knee extension torque typi
(Fig. 1 3 - 2 7 A to C). In contrast, during femoral-on-tibial cally occurs between 45 and 60 degrees of flexion (Fig.
Chapter 13 Knee 457
13-28).54,98,no a s depicted by th dashed red line in Figure angle curve (Fig. 1 3 -2 8 B ). Moment arm influences torque,
1 3 -28 A , th maximal-effort knee extension torque remains and muscle length influences muscle force potential (see
at least 90% of maximum between 80 and 30 degrees of Chapter 3). It is not possible to determine with certainty
flexion. This 50-degree, high-torque potential of th quadri- which variable leverage or muscle length has th greater
ceps is used during many activities that incorporate femoral- influence on th maximal torque production of th quadri
on-tibial kinematics, such as ascending a high step72 or ceps. Knee extensor torque potential (see Fig. 1 3 -2 8 A ) and
holding a partial squat position while participating in sports, internai moment ann length of th quadriceps (see Fig. 1 3 -
such as basketball and football. Note th rapid decline in 28B) both peak at about 45 degrees of flexion.
internai torque potential as th knee angle approaches full
Loss o f Full Knee Extension. The inability to extend
extension. Interestingly, th extemal torque applied against
th knee fully is a relatively common clinica! phenomenon.
th knee during femoral-on-tibial extension also declines
Factors that often prevent full knee extension can be broadly
rapidly during th same range of motion (see Fig. 1 3 - 2 7 ,
classified into three categories: (1) reduced force production
graph). There appears to be a biomechanical match in th
from th quadriceps, (2) excessive resistance front th con-
internai torque potential of th quadriceps and th extemal
nective tissues, and (3) faulty arthrokinematics. Table 1 3 - 6
torques applied against th quadriceps during th last 45
presents clinical examples for each of these categories.
to 60 degrees of femoral-on-tibial knee extension. This
match accounts, in part, for th popularity of closed-kinetic P a te llo fe m o r a l J o in t K in etics
chain exercises that focus on applying resistance to th Patellofemoral joint compression forces may reach 3.3 times
quadriceps while th person is standing upright and moving body weight while climbing stairs and may rise to 7.8 times
through th last 45 to 60 degrees of femoral-on-tibial knee body weight in performing deep knee bends.100 Such large
extension. joint forces reflect th magnitude of th forces produced
The variables of internai moment arm and muscle length within th quadriceps muscle. An additional factor is th
strongly influence th shape of th knee extension torque- angle of th knee joint at th time of muscle activation. To
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 3 - 5
FIGURE 13-27. The extemal (flexion) torques are shown imposed on th knee between flexion (90 degrees) and full
extension (0 degrees). Tibial-on-femoral extension is shown in A C, and femoral-on-tibial extension is shown in DF. The
extemal torques are equal to th product of body or leg weight times th extemal moment arm (EMA). The graph shows
th relationship between th extemal toique normalized to a maximum (100% ) torque fot each method of extending th
knee for selected knee joint angles. (Tibial-on-femoral extension shown in black; femoral-on-tibial extension shown in
gray.) Extemal torques above 70% for each method of extension are shaded in light red. The increasing red color of th
quadriceps muscle denotes th increasing demand on th muscle and underlying joint. in response to th increasing
extemal torque.
Chapter 13 Knee 459
- 45
- 40
O
co
3
o 3.0 35
TABLE 1 3 - 6 . Selected Factors that Contribute to perse th forces, th pressure at th patellofemoral joint cari
th Inability to Completely Extend th Knee rise to an intolerable leve!. Flaving th contaci area within
th joint greatest at th positions that receive th largest
Factor C linical Exam ples compression forces protects th joint against degeneration.
This mechanism allows a healthy patellofemoral joint to tol-
Reduced force pro Disuse atrophy of quadriceps following erate large compression forces over a lifetime, often with
duction from th trauma and/or prolonged immobili- little or no appreciable wear or discomfort.
quadriceps zation
Lacerated femoral nerve Tracking Within th Patellofemoral join t. During ac-
Herniated disc compressing L3 or L4 tive knee extension, several structures guide, or track, th
nerve roots
patella through th intercondylar groove of th femur (see
Severe pain
Excessive swelling in th knee
th next box). Acting alone, each structure exerts a mediai
or lateral pul on th patella as it slides in th groove (Fig.
Excessive resistance Excessive lightness in hamstring or 1 3 - 3 1 ). When these forces balance each other, they
from connective other knee flexor muscles
cooperate to track th patella through th groove with as
tissues Excessive stiffness in th anterior cruci
ate ligament, posterior capsule, or
little stress to th articular surfaces as possible.44 If th
collateral ligaments forces do not balance one another, th patella may not track
Scarring of th skin in th popliteal optimally and may even dislocate. Increased stress due to
fossa abnormal tracking may lead io arthritis, chondromalacia, re-
Faulty arthrokine- Lack of screw-home rotation mechan- current patellar dislocation, or patellofemoral joint pain syn-
matics ics drome.
Lack of anterior slide of th tibia*
Meniscal block or other derangement
Lack of superior slide of th patella*
FIGURE 13-29. The relationship berween th depth o f a squat position and th compression fo r c e within th patellofem-
oral joint is shown. A, Maintaining a partial squat requires that th quadriceps transmit a force through th quadriceps
tendon (QT) and th patellar ligament (PL). The vector addition of QT and PL provides an estimation of th
patellofemoral jo in t force (JF). B, A deeper squat requires greater force from th quadriceps owing to th greater extemal
(flexion) torque on th knee. Furthermore, th greater knee flexion (B) decreases th angle between QT and PL and,
consequently, produces a greater joint fo r c e between th patella and femur.
15.8 degrees in women, and 11.2 degrees in men.53 A Cl mal tilting of th patella as it rides in th groove. A shallow
angle greater than 15 degrees is often thought to contribute intercondylar groove of th femur is a reliable predictor of
io paiellofemoral joint pain, chondromalacia, and patellar excessive lateral tilt of th patella in women, especially near
dislocation. Little scientific evidence, however, supports this full knee extension.96 Over time, an abnormal tilt can lead to
assumption.78 increased stress on th articular cartilage and recurrent lat-
The lateral bias in pul of th quadriceps produces a eral dislocation.38
naturai bowstringing force against th patella (see Fig. I S Increased Q-angle due to bony malalignment is a possible
S I). An important function of th oblique fibers of th factor contributmg to excessive lateral tracking of th patella.78
vastus medialis is to counteract th tendency of th quadri The greater th Q-angle, th greater th lateral bowstringing
ceps muscle as a whole to dislocate th patella laterally.74 effect on th patella. Factors that increase th Q-angle also
The mediai paiellofemoral (retinacular) fibers21 and th nor- tend to increase genu valgum. These factors include an over-
mally raised lateral facet within th intercondylar groove of stretched mediai collateral ligament, internai rotation/adduc-
th femur resist th laterally encroaching patella. tion hip posturing, excessive foot pronation, and gender.
A combination of several structural and functional factors Data collected ai a large sports medicine clinic showed that
can lead to excessive lateral tracking of th patella (Table recurrent dislocation of th patella accounted for 58.4% of
1 3 - 7 ) . Abnormal tracking is often associated with an abnor- all dislocations in women, compared with only 14% in men.20
P a te llo fe m o ra l jo in t p a in syndrom e is a c o m m o n c o n d it io n
in p e r s o n s in v o lv e d in s p o r t s , r a n k in g f ir s t in t r a c k a n d
s e c o n d in A m e r i c a n f o o t b a ll a n d s o c c e r . 20 J o i n t p a in a ls o
o c c u r s in p e r s o n s n o t in v o lv e d in s p o r t s . T h o s e w h o h a v e
n o h is t o r y o f t r a u m a c a n a ls o e x p e r ie n c e jo in t p a in . C a s e s
m a y b e m ild , in v o lv in g o n ly a g e n e r a liz e d a c h in g a b o u t
t h a n t e r io r k n e e , o r t h e y m a y b e s e v e r e a n d in v o lv e
r e c u r r e n t d is lo c a t io n o r s u b lu x a t io n o f t h p a t e lla f r o m t h
in t e r c o n d y la r g r o o v e .
O v e r t im e , s o m e o f t h o s e w it h p a t e llo f e m o r a l j o in t p a in
s y n d r o m e d e v e lo p d e g e n e r a t iv e c h a n g e s in t h jo in t s u r -
f a c e s , a c o n d it io n k n o w n a s c h o n d r o m a la c ia p a t e lla e .
C h ondrom alacia p a te lla e ( fr o m t h G r e e k chondros, c a r t i
la g e , 4- m alakia, s o f t n e s s ) is a g e n e r a i t e r m t h a t d e -
s c r i b e s e x c e s s i v e c a r t ila g e d e g e n e r a t io n o n t h p o s t e r io r
s id e o f t h p a t e lla . 90' 09 T h o s e w it h t h is c o n d it io n o fte n
e x p e r ie n c e r e t r o p a t e lla r p a in a n d c r e p it u s , e s p e c i a l l y
w h ile s q u a t t in g o r c lim b in g s t e e p s t a ir s o r a f t e r s it t in g f o r
a p r o lo n g e d p e r io d . T h e c a r t ila g e b e c o m e s s o ft, p itte d ,
a n d f r a g m e n t e d . D e p e n d in g o n t h a m o u n t o f c a r t ila g e
w e a r a n d a s s o c ia t e d in f la m m a t io n , c h o n d r o m a la c ia c a n
b e v e r y p a in fu l.
T h e e x a c t c a u s e s o f ch o n d ro m a la cia are u n k n o w n . T h e
c o n d it io n o c c u r s f r e q u e n t ly in th young and old and in
t h a c t iv e a n d s e d e n t a r y , a n d it d o e s n o t a lw a y s d e v e lo p
in t o a m o r e g e n e r a liz e d o s t e o a r t h r it is o f t h k n e e . In s o m e
c a s e s , h o w e v e r , c h o n d r o m a la c ia m a y b e a s s o c ia t e d w it h Posterior
o s t e o a r t h r it is o f t h e n t ir e k n e e . F ig u r e 1 3 - 3 0 s h o w s a n
FIGURE 13-30. The distai surface of th left femur and th pa
e x t r e m e c a s e o f o s t e o a r t h r it is o f a c a d a v e r i c k n e e w it h
tella is shown in th knee of a cadaver. This specimen is from an
d e g e n e r a t io n t h r o u g h o u t its e n t ir e t y . B a s e d o n t h b io m e -
individuai who had chondromalacia patellae and generalized os-
c h a n i c s d e s c r ib e d , p e r s o n s w it h c h o n d r o m a la c ia , a c t iv e
teoarthritis of th knee. Note th irregular surfaces and marked
a r t h r it is , o r g e n e r a liz e d p a t e llo f e m o r a l jo in t p a in a r e o fte n degeneration on th cartilage of th femur and patella.
Chapter 13 Knee 463
(See Table 1 3 - 8 for a partial summary of these data.) The All hamstring muscles, except th short head of th bi
greater Q-angle reported in women may partially account for ceps femoris, cross th hip and knee. As described in Chap
this large disparity. ter 12, th three biarticular hamstrings are very effective hip
extensors, especially in th control of th position of th
Knee Flexor-Rotator Muscles pelvis and trunk over th femur.
With th exception of th gastrocnemius, all muscles that In addition to flexing th knee, th mediai hamstrings
cross posterior to th knee have th ability to flex and to (i.e., semimembranosus and semitendinosus) internally rotate
internally or externally rotate th knee. The so-called flexor- th knee. The biceps femoris externally rotates th knee.
rotator group of th knee includes th hamstrings, sartorius, Horizontal rotation occurs when th knee is flexed. This
gracilis, and popliteus. Unlike th knee extensor group, horizontal piane action of th hamstrings can be appreciated
which are all innervated by th femoral nerve, th flexor- by palpating th tendons of semitendinosus and biceps fe
rotator muscles have three sources of innervation: femoral, moris behind th knee as th leg is internally and externally
obturator, and sciatic. rotated repeatedly. This is performed while th subject is
sitting with th knee flexed 70 to 90 degrees. As th knee is
Functional Anatomy gradually extended, th pivot point for th rotating lower leg
The h a m s t n n g m u s c le s (i.e., semimembranosus, semitendi- shifts from th knee to th hip. At full extension, rotation
nosus, and long head of th biceps femoris) have their prox- at th knee ceases because th knee becomes mechani-
imal attachment on th ischial tuberosity. The short head of cally locked and most ligaments are pulled taut. Further-
th biceps has its proximal attachment on th lateral lip of more, th moment arm of th hamstrings for internai and
th linea aspera of th femur. Distally, th three hamstrings extemal rotation of th knee is reduced significantly at full
cross th knee joint and attach to th tibia and fibula (see extension.
Figs. 1 3 - 9 to 1 3 -1 1 ). The s a r t o r i u s and g r a c i li s have their proximal attachments
The semimembranosus attaches distally to th posterior on different parts of th pelvis (see Chapter 12). At th hip,
side of th mediai condyle of th tibia. Additional distai both muscles are hip flexors, but they have opposite actions
attachments of this muscle include th mediai collateral liga- in th frontal and horizontal planes. Distally, th tendons of
ment, both menisci, oblique popliteal ligament, and poplit th sartorius and gracilis travel side by side across th me
eus muscle. For most of its course, th sinewy s e m it e n d in o s u s diai side of th knee to attach to th proximal shaft of th
tendon lies immediately posterior to th semimembranosus tibia, near th semitendinosus (see Fig. 1 3 - 1 1 ). The three
muscle. Just proximal to th knee, however, th tendon of juxtaposed tendons of th sartorius, gracilis, and semitendi
th semitendinosus courses anteriorly toward th distai at nosus attach to th tibia using a common, broad sheet of
tachment on th anterior-medial aspect of tibia. Both heads connective tissue known as th p e s a n s e r in u s . As a group, th
of th b i c e p s f e m o r i s attach on th head of th fibula, beside pes muscles are effective internai rotators of th knee.
th fibular collateral ligament. Connective tissues hold th tendons of th pes group just
464 Secton IV Lower Extremity
Structural or
Functional
Abnomiality Specific Exampies
* Data collected on athletic injuries over a 7-year period at University of Rochester, Section of Sporta Medicine. Note in bold th high percentage of
recurrent patellar dislocation for women.
t The dislocation is expressed as a percentage of th total injuries by gender.
Data from DeHaven KE, Lintner DM: Athletic injuries: Comparison by age, sport, and gender Am J Sports Med 14:218-224, 1986.
Chapter 13 Knee 465
M S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 3 - 8
Control of Femoral-on-Tibial Osteokinematics. The
muscular demand needed to control femoral-on-tibial mo-
1 p tions is generali)1 larger and more complex than that needed
Kinesiologic Basis for Treatment of Abnormal to control most ordinary tibial-on-femoral knee motions. A
Patellofemoral Joint Tracking muscle like th sartorius, for example, may have to simulta-
neously control up to five degrees of freedom (i.e., two at
M u c h o f t h o r t h o p e d ic t r e a t m e n t a n d p h y s ic a l t h e r a p y th knee and three at th hip). To illustrate, consider th
fo r abnormal t r a c k in g o f th p a t e lla involves th altering
action of severa! knee flexor-rotator muscles vvhile running
of t h t ib io f e m o r a l a n d p a t e llo f e m o r a l j o in t a lig n m e n t .
lo catch a ball (Fig. 1 3 -3 3 A ). While th tight foot is frmly
S u r g e r y is o f te n p e r f o r m e d t o le s s e n t h e f f e c t o f e x a g -
ftxed to th ground, th right femur, pelvis, trunk, neck,
g e r a t e d la t e r a l f o r c e s o n t h p a t e lla . E x a m p le s in c lu d e
head, and eyes all rotate to th left. Note th diagonal flow
f a t e r a i r e t in a c u la r r e le a s e a n d r e a lig n m e n t o f t h e x t e n -
of contracting muscles between th right fibula and left side
s o r m e c h a n is m , in p a r t ic u la r t h o b liq u e f ib e r s o f t h
of th neck. The muscle action epitomizes intermuscular
v a s t u s m e d ia lis . 31
synergy. In this case, th short head of th biceps femoris
P h y s ic a l t h e r a p y f o r c h r o n ic p a t e lla r d is lo c a t io n in -
anchors th diagonal kinetic chain to th fbula. The fibula,
c lu d e s t r a in in g f o r s e le c t iv e c o n t r o l o f t h o b liq u e f ib e r s
in tum, is anchored to th tibia via th interosseous mem
o f t h v a s t u s m e d ia lis , s t r e t c h in g o f t h s o f t t is s u e , a n d
brane and other muscles.
w e a r in g o f f o o t o r t h o t ic s t o r e d u c e e x c e s s i v e p r o n a t io n
Stability and control at th knee requi re interaction of
o f t h f e e t . T a p in g o f t h s k in h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d a s a
forces produced by muscles and ligaments.9 Interaction is
w a y t o h e lp g u id e t h p a t e lla a n d / o r a lt e r t h m u s c le
espeeially important for control of movements in th hori-
a c t iv a t io n p a t t e r n o f t h v a s t u s m u s c le s . 34 A lt h o u g h
zontal and frontal planes. To illustrate, refer to Figure 1 3 -
b a s e d o n s o u n d b io m e c h a n ic a l p r in c ip le s , t h e f f i c a c y
33B. With th right foot planted, th short head of th
o f u s in g p h y s ic a l t h e r a p y t o s e le c t i v e l y a d i v a t e t h
biceps femoris accelerates th femur intemally. By way of
o b liq u e f ib e r s o f t h v a s t u s m e d ia lis to c o r r e c t a b n o r
eccentric activation, th pes anserinus muscles help deceler
m a l t r a c k in g o r r e c u r r e n t d is lo c a t io n o f t h p a t e lla r e -
ate th internai rotation of th femur and pelvis over th
m a in s a s u b j e c t o f d e b a t e . 70'93' 96' 27
tibia. The pes anserinus group of muscles functions as a
dynamic mediai collateral ligament by resisting th extema/
rotation and valgus torques produced at th knee. Muscle
action may help compensate for a weak or lax mediai collat
eral ligament.
By a strong intracapsular tendon, die popliteus attaches Maximal Torque Production o f th Knee Fiexor-Rotator
proximally to th lateral condyle of th femur, between th Muscles
lateral collateral ligament and th lateral meniscus (see Fig. Maximal effort knee flexion torque is generally greatest near
1 3 - 9 ) . The popliteus is th only muscle ol th knee that full extension, then declines steadily as th knee is progres-
attaches within th capsule. Alter exiting th posterior cap sively flexed (Fig. 1 3 - 3 4 A ) ." 0 Although th hamstrings have
sule, th popliteus has an extensive attachment to th poste
rior side of th tibia. Fibers from th popliteus attach to th
lateral meniscus and blend with th arcuate popliteal liga
ment.
The anatomy and action of th gastrocnemius and plan-
taris are considered in Chapter 14. S P E C I A L F O C U S
0
Group Action o f Fiexor-Rotator Muscles
Popliteus Muscle: The "Key to th Knee"
The flexor-rotator muscles o f th knee best perform their
actions during walking and running. Examples of these ac- T h e p o p lit e u s is a n im p o r t a n t in t e r n a i r o t a t o r a n d f le x o r
R ig h t s t e r n o c le id o m a s t o id
Left splenius capitis
(o n a n te rio r s id e )
and cervicis
FIGURE 13-33. A, Several muscles
are shown controlling th rotation of
th head, neck, trunk, pelvis, and
Left obliquus R ig h t o b liq u u s e x te rn u s a b d o m in is femur toward th approaching ball.
internus abdominis (o n a n t e r io r s id e ) Since th right foot is fixed to th
(on anterior side) ground, th right knee functions as
R ig h t tr a n s v e r s o s p in a l m u s c le an important pivot point. B, Control
of th movement of th right knee
within th horizontal piane is illus
trateci from above. The short head of
Pes P ir if o r m is th biceps femoris contracts to accel
anserinus pSartorius erate th femur intemally (i.e., th
group -i-Gracilis knee joint moves into external rota
L-Semitendinosus tion). Active force from th pes an
B ic e p s f e m o r is serinus muscles in conjunction with
(sh o rt head) Oecelerators: a passive force from th stretched
P e s g ro u p mediai collatera! ligament (MCL)
helps to decelerate, or limit, th ex-
temal rotation at th knee.
Accelerator:
B ic e p s f e m o r is ( s h o r t h e a d )
From above
their greatest internai moment arm at about 45 degrees of as th contraction speed increases.6-8'40 2 Figure 1 3 - 3 5
knee flexion (Fig. 1 3 -3 4 B ), th muscles produce their great shows a plot of th peak torque produced by th knee
est knee flexor torque when fully elongated. Flexing th hip extensors and flexors during nonisometric (isokinetic) activa
to elongate th hamstrings promotes even greater knee flex- tions.'2 The decline in peak torque occurs during concentric
ion torque.6 Length-tension relationship appears to be a very contractions for both knee extensors and knee flexors. In
influential factor in determining th flexion torque potential contrast, th peak torques remain essentially Constant during
of th hamstrings. increasing eccentric activated velocities.
Few data are available on th maximal torque potential of
th internai and external rotator muscles of th knee. With Synergy Among Monoarticular and Biarticular Muscles
th hip and knee each flexed to 90 degrees, th internai and of th Hip and Knee
external rotators at th knee produce peak torques of about
Typical Movement Combinations: Hip-and-Knee Extension or
30 Nm,107 With hips- and knees flexed to only about 20
Hip-and-Knee Flexion
degrees, th peak internai rotation torque exceeds external
Many movements performed by th lower extremities involve
rotation torque by about 40%.
th cyclic actions of hip-and-knee extension or hip-and-knee
flexion. These patterns of movement are fundamental com-
Maximal Torque Production at th Knee: Effects of Type
ponents of walking, running, jumping, and climbing. Hip-
and Speed of Muscle Activation
and-knee extension propels th body forward or upward.
Clinically, internai torque at th knee is typically measured whereas hip-and-knee flexion advances or swings th lower
using isokinetic. dynamometry (see Chapter 4). In this type limb. These movements are controlled, in part, through a
of measurement, th joint is typically rotating so that both synergy among monoarticular and polyarticular muscles.
th length and moment arm of th muscles are constantly many of which cross th hip and knee.
changing across a range of motion. Isokinetic dynamometry Figure 1 3 - 3 6 shows an interaction of muscles during th
allows internai torques to be measured during concentric, hip-and-knee extension phase of running. The vastius and
isometric, and eccentric muscle activations. In generai, inter gluteus maximus two monoarticular muscles are shown
nai torques produced through eccentric or isometric activa contracting synergistically with th biarticular semitendinosus
tions are greater than those produced through concentric and rectus femoris. The vastus group of th quadriceps and
contraction. Based on th force-velocity curve of muscle (see th semitendinosus are both electrically active, yet their net
Chapter 2), concentrically produced muscle torques decline torque at th knee favors extension. The active shortening of
Chapter 13 Knee 467
A 65 r~
60 -
E
z
ai 55 -
3
o-
c 50 -
o
'S
V
g 45
C
15
E 40
X
(O
35
FIGURE 13 -3 4 . Biomechanical varia-
bles relaied io maximal-effort knee
flexion torque. A, The plot depicts
knee flexion torque between near 0 30 J ___________!___________ 1
___________ !___________ !___________ !___________ L
degrees and 9 0 degrees of knee flex 5 15 30 45 60 75 90
ion. Knee flexor torques are pro- Knee Angle (degrees)
duced isometrieally, with th hip ex-
tended. B, This plot shows th
relationships between th internai
moment arm o f th hamstrings (left y
axis, in red) and hamstring length
(righi y axis, in blaek) between near
0 degrees and 9 0 degrees of knee
flexion. Data on muscle length were
estimated ustng a human skeleton.
Data on torque and moment arm are
based on a healthy male population.
(Data from Srnidt GL: Biomechanical
Biarticular Action
Monoarticular Muscles Action Transducers Augmented
Active hip an d knee exlension Vasti Knee extension Two-joint hamstrings Hip extension
Gluteus maximus Hip extension Rectus femoris Knee extension
Active hip an d knee flex io n lliopsoas Hip flex io n Two-joint hamstrings Knee flex io n
Biceps femoris (short Knee flexion Rectus femoris Hip flex ion
head), popliteus
After Leiber RL: Skeletal Muscle Strutture and Function. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1992.
Consider next ihe effect of muscle length on th passive between th vasti and semitendinosus. In essence, th pow-
force produced by a muscle. Based on a muscles passive erful monoarticular gluteus maximus augments knee exten
length-tension relationship, th internai resistance or force sion force by extending th hip. This, in tum, stretches th
within a muscle, such as th semitendinosus, increases as activated rectus femoris. In this example, th rectus femoris
it is stretched. The semitendinosus as well as all biartic- is th biarticular transducer, transferring force from th glu
ular hamstrings functions as a transducer by transferring teus maximus to knee extension. A summary of these and
force from th contracting vastus muscles to th extending other muscular interactions used during hip-and-knee flex
hip. ion are listed in Table 1 3 - 9 .
During active hip-and-knee extension, th gluteus maxi- The interdependence between th hip and knee extensor
mus and rectus femoris have a relationship similar to that muscles allows for th most efficient force development. This
interdependence is considered when evaluating functional
activities that require combined hip-and-knee extension,
A. Hip flcxion such as standing from a chair. Weakness of th vasti could
cause difficulty in extending th hip, whereas weakness of
and knce extension
th gluteus maximus could cause difficulty in extending th
knee.
Reaction Forces through th Normal Knee hip extension and knee flexion. The action of kicking th
A. Standing B. Walking ball involves a rapid and full contraction of th rectus fe-
moris to simultaneously flex th hip and exlend th knee.
The goal of this action is to dissipate all force in th rectus
femoris as quickly as possible. In contrast, activities such
as walking or jogging use biarticular muscles so that forces
are developed more slowly and in a repetitive or cyclic
fashion. The rectus femoris and semitendinosus, for instance,
tend to remain at a relatively fxed length throughout much
of th activation cycle. In this way, muscles avoid repetitive
cycles of storing and immediately releasing relatively large
amounts of energy. More moderate levels of active and pas
sive torces are cooperatively shared between muscles,
thereby optimizing th metabolic effciency of th move-
ment.
Excessive genu valgum th knee into genu varum, or bow-legged deformity (Fig.
(knock-knee) 1 3 -3 9 A ). A vicious circle may erupt: th varus deformity
increases mediai compartment loading, resulting in greater
loss of mediai joint space, causing greater varus deformity,
and so on. Figure 1 3 -3 9 B is an anterior view of an x-ray
showing bilateral genu varum. Both knees illustrate signs of
mediai joint osteoarthritis (i.e., loss of mediai joint space and
hypertrophic reactive bone around th mediai compartment).
Management of genu varum often involves surgery, such as a
high tibial (wedge) osteotomy. The goal of this surgery is to
correct th varus deformity and reduce th stress over th
mediai compartment (Fig. 1 3 -3 9 C ).117 In addition to sur
gery, foot orthoses are wom to reduce stress on knees with
mediai joint arthritis. Laterally wedged insoles decrease th
varus torque on th knee, and thereby decrease th load on
th mediai compartment.16
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 3 -
Case Report: Pathomechanics and Treatment of Severe continued to walk without a knee brace. She has partial
Genu Recurvatum paralysis of th left quadriceps and hip flexors, but com
Figure 13-42A shows a case of severe genu recurvatum plete paralysis of th left knee flexors. Her completely
of th left knee, caused by a flaccid muscle paralysis paralyzed left ankle joint was surgically fused in about 25
from polio, contracted 30 years earlier. The deformity has degrees of piantar flexion.
progressed slowly over th last 20 years as th individuai
Genu Recurvatum
A. llncorrected B. Corrected
FIGURE 13-42. Subject showing marked genu recurvatum of th left knee secondary to polio. In addition to sporadic muscle
weakness ihroughoul th left lower exiremily, th left ankle was surgically fused in 25 degrees of piantar flexion. A, When
standing barefoot, th subjects body weight acts with an abnormally large external moment arm (EMA) at th knee. The
resulting large extensor torque amplifies th magniiude of th knee hyperextension deformity. B, Subject is able to reduce th
severity of th recurvatum deformity by wearing a tennis shoe with a built-up heel. The shoe tilted her tibia and knee forward,
thereby reducing th length of th deforming external moment arm at th knee.
Several interrelated factors are responsible for th de- The knee functions as th middle link of th lower
velopment of th deformity depicted in Figure 13-42A limb. Consequently, th knee joint is vulnerable to deform
Because of th fixed piantar flexion position of th ankle, ing stresses from musculoskeletal pathology at either end
th tibia must be tilted posteriorly so that th bottom of of th lower extremity. This case report demonstrates how
th foot makes full contact with th ground. Over th an excessive and fixed piantar flexed ankle can predis
years, this tilted position of th tibia hyperextended th pose a person to genu recurvatum. As depicted in Figure
knee and overstretched th posterior structures of th 13 - 426, a relatively simple modification of footware was
knee. Of particular importance is th fact that total paraly- used to treat th hyperextension deformity. Wearing a
sis of th knee's flexor muscles provided no direct muscu- tennis shoe with a "built-up" heel provided excellent re-
lar resistance against th knee's hyperextension deformity. duction in th severity of th genu recurvatum. The raised
Furthermore, th greater th hyperextension deformity, th heel tilted th tibia and knee anteriorly, thereby signifi-
longer th external moment arm available to body weight cantly reducing th length of th deforming external mo
to perpetuate th deformity. Without bracing of th knee, ment arm at th knee. Body weight now produced a
th hyperextension deformity produced a vicious circle, relatively small hyperextension torque at th knee, held in
allowing continuous stretching of th posterior structures check by th anteriorly tilted tibia and by th rigidity
of th knee and continuous progression of th deformity. provided by th fused ankle joint.
473
474 Section IV Lower Extremity
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83. McNair PJ, Marshall RN, Magutre K: Swelltng of th knee joint: Effects kinetic chain exercises. Am j Sports Med 24:792-799, 1996.
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476 Section IV Lnwer Extremily
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th length pattems of th llgaments of th knee. J Biomechan 6:587- exercise. J Bone Joint Surg 66A 725-734, 1984.
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New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995 vance. Clin Orthop 258:73-85, 1990.
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ADDITIONAL READING Snyder-Mackler L, Delitto A, Bailey SL, et al: Strength of th quadriceps
Baker MM, Juhn MS: Patellofemoral pain syndrome in th Temale athlete. femoris muscle and functional recovery after reconstruction of th ante-
Clin Sports Med 19:315-329, 2000. nor cruciate ligament. J Bone Joint Surg 77A:1166-1173, 1995.
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Beaupre A, Choukroun R, Guidoutn R, et al: Knee menisci Correlation ment of th femur during knee flexion. Clin Orthop 362:162-170
betwecn microstructure and biomechanics. Clin Orthop 2 0 8 7 2 -7 5 1999.
1986. Van Eijden TMGJ, de Boer W, Weijs WA: The orientation of th distai pari
Grelsamer RP, Klein JR: The biomechanics of ihe patellofemoral joint. J of th quadriceps muscles as a function of th knee flexion-extension
Orthop Sports Phys Ther 28:286-298, 1998. angle. J Biomech 18:803-809, 1985.
C h a p t e r 14
TOPICS AT A G LANCE
Terminology for Motions and Positions, 482 Longitudinal Arch, 497 506
Ankle Foot
0STE0 L0GY ________ ________
Rearfoot
Basic Terms and Concepts Bones Bones
NAMING THE JOINTS AND REGIONS Tibia, fibula, and talus Calcaneus and talus*
Joints Joint
The term ankle refers primarily to th talocrural joint, but Talocrural Subtalar (talocalcaneal)
also includes two related articulations: th proximal and dis Proximal and distai
tai tibiofbular joints. The term foot refers to all th struc- tibiofbular
tures distai lo th tibia and fibula. Note that this classifica- Midfoot
tion scheme includes th talus as part of both th ankle and
Bones
th foot. The talus is an extremely important bone, having
Navicular, cuboid, and cunei-
an essential role in both th locai kinesiology of th ankle forms
and foot and th kinesiology of th entire lower extremity. Joints
Figure 1 4 - 1 depicts an ovemew of th terminology that Transverse tarsal
describes th regions of th ankle and foot. The terms ante- Talonavicular
rior and posterior have their conventional meanings when Calcaneocuboid
referring to th tibia and fibula (i.e., th leg). In reference to Distai intertarsal
th ankle and foot, these terms are often used interchange- Cuneonavicular
ably with distai and proximal, respectiveiy. The terms dorsal Cuboideonavicular
and piantar describe th superior (top) and inferior aspects lntercuneiform and cuneo-
of th foot, respectiveiy. cuboid complex
Within th foot are three regions, each consisting of a set Forefoot
of bones and one or more joints. The rearfoot (hindfoot) Bones
consists of th talus, calcaneus, and subtalar joint; th mid- Metatarsals and phalanges
foot consists of th remaining tarsal bones, including th Joints
transverse tarsal joint and th smaller distai intertarsal joints; Tarsometatarsal
and th forefoot consists of th metatarsals and phalanges, lntermetatarsal
including all joints distai to and including th tarsometatar- Metatarsophalangeal
Interphalangeal
sal joints. Table 1 4 - 1 provides a summary of th organiza-
tion of th bones and joints of th ankle and foot.
* The talus is included as a bone of th ankle and a bone of th foot.
individuai Bones
FIBULA
TARSAL BONES
The seven tarsal bones are shown in four different perspec-
tives in Figures 1 4 - 4 through 1 4 - 7 .
Anterior view
Interosseous ligament
Talocrural joint
DISTAL TIBIA
Anterior tibiofibular
The distai end of th tibia expands in size to accommodate
loads transferred across th ankle. On th mediai side of th malleolus
distai shaft of th tibia is th prominent mediai malleolus. On Lateral malleolus
th lateral side is th fibular notch, a triangular concavity that
accepts th distai end of th fibula at th distai tibiofibular
joint (see Fig. 1 4 -1 0 ).
Deltoid ligament
T o rs io n A n g le o f th T ib ia
In adults, th distai end of th tibia is twisted about its long FIGURE 14-3. An anterior view of th distai end of th tight tibia,
axis about 20 to 30 degrees relative to its proximal end.57 fibula, and talus. The articulation of th three bones forms th
Naturai torsion is evident by th slight externally rotated talocrural (ankle) joint. The dashed line shows th attachment of
position of th foot while standing. This twist of th leg is th capsule of th ankle joint.
480 Section IV Lower Extremity
Calcaneal
Achilles tendon
tuberosity
attaching to
tuberosity FIGURE 14-5. An inferior (piantar) view of th bones of th righi
FIGURE 14-4. A superior (dorsal) view of th bones of th righi ankle and foot. Proximal attachments of muscles are indicateci in
red, distai attachments in gray.
ankle and foot. Proximal attachments of muscles are indicated in
red, distai attachments in gray.
th neck of th talus positions th head about 30 degrees covers th adjacent head of th talus. The ovai, concave
mediai to th sagittal piane. In striali children, th head is posterior facci is th largest facet. As a functional set, th
projected medially about 40 to 50 degrees, partially account- three facets articulate with th three facets on th dorsal (su
itig for th often inverted appearance of their feet. perior) surlace of th calcaneus, forming th subtalar joint.
Figure 1 4 - 8 shows three articular facets on th piantar The lalar sulcus is an obliquely running groove located be-
(inferior) surface of th talus. The anterior and middle facets tween th anterior-middle and posterior facets.
are slighily curved and often continuous with each other. Lateral and mediai tubercles are located on th posterior-
Note that th articular cartilage that covers these facets also medial surface ol th talus (see Fig. 1 4 -4 ). A groove formed
Mediai view
Neck Facet for
mediai malleolus
Mediai tubercle
Middle Proximal
tuberoto'-
phalanx phalanx
Chapter 14 Ankle and Foot 481
Lateral view
Facet for articulation Navicular
with lateral malleolus Cuneiforms
Subtalar joint
(posterior 1st metatarsal
tarsus process
Proximal Distai
phalanx phalanx phalanges
between these tubercles serves as a pulley for th tendon of The cuneiforms contribute to th Lransverse arch of th foot,
th flexor hallucis longus (see Fig. 1 4 -1 1 ). accounting in part for th dorsal convexity to th middle
region of th foot. The lateral cuneiform has a facet for
C a lc a n e u s articulation with a portion of th mediai surface of th cu
The calcaneus, th largest of th tarsal bones, is well suited boid.
to accept th impact of heel contact during walking. The
C u b o id
large and rough calcaneal tuberosity receives th attachment
of th Achilles (calcaneal) tendon. The piantar surface of th As its name indicates, th cuboid has six surfaces, three of
tuberosity has lateral and mediai processes that serve as ai- which articulate with adjacent tarsal bones (see Figs. 1 4 - 4 ,
tachments for many of th intrinsic muscles and th deep 1 4 - 5 , and 1 4 - 7 ) . The distai surface articulates with th
piantar fascia of th foot (see Fig. 1 4 - 5 ). bases of both th fourth and frfth metatarsals. The cuboid is
The calcaneus articulates with other tarsal bones on its therefore homologous to th hamate bone of th wrist.
dorsal and anterior surfaces. The dorsal surface contains three The entire proximal surface of th cuboid articulates with
facets that join th matching facets on th talus (see Fig. th calcaneus. This surface is fiat to slightly curved. The
1 4 -8 ). The anterior and middle facets are relatively small and mediai surface has an ovai facet for articulation with th
nearly fiat. The posterior facet is large and convex, conforming lateral cuneiform and, occasionally, a very small facet for
io th concave shape of th equally large posterior facet on articulation with th navicular. A distinct groove runs across
th talus. Between th posterior and mediai facet is a wide th piantar surface of th cuboid, occupied by th tendon of
oblique groove called th calcaneal sulcus. This sulcus is filled th peroneus longus muscle.
with th attachments of several ligaments that bind th subta
lar joint. With th subtalar joint articulated, th sulci of th
calcaneus and talus form a tunnel within th subtalar joint,
known as th sinus tarsi (see Fig. 1 4 -7 ). Superior view
The relatively small anterior surface of th calcaneus joins
th cuboid at th calcaneocuboid joint. The sustentaculum
talus projects medially as a horizontal shelf from th dorsal
surface of th calcaneus. (Sustentaculum talus literally means
a shelf for th talus.) The sustentaculum talus lies under
and supports th middle facets of th subtalar joint (see Fig. Tibialis anterior
tendon
1 4 - 6 ). facet
Socket for Middle facet
Ala v i c u la r head of talus
The navicular bone is named for its resemblance to a ship Deltoid ligament ligament
within
(Le., referring to navy). Its concave proximal surface (th Spring ligament
talar sulcus
hull) accepts th head of th talus at th talonavicular joint Tibialis posterior
Deltoid
(see Fig. 1 4 - 4 ). The distai surface of th navicular bone Flexor digitorum longus
ligament (cut)
contains three relatively fiat facets that articulate with th Anterior facet
Posterior facets
three cuneiform bones. Middle
The mediai surface of th navicular has a prominent (u- Interosseous ligament
berosity, easily palpable about 1 inch (2.5 cm) inferior and within calcaneal sulcus
Calcaneal (Achilles)
distai (anterior) to th tip of th mediai malleolus. This Flexor hallucis
tendon
tuberosity serves as one of several distai attachments of th
tibialis posterior muscle. FIGURE 14-8. A superior view of th talus (lipped laterally to reveal
its piantar side as well as th dorsal side of th calcaneus. Observe
M e d ia i, In te rm e d ia te , a n d L a te ra l C u n e ifo rm s
th three articular facets located on th talus and on th calcaneus.
As a set, th cuneiform bones act as a spacer between th (The interosseous and cervical ligaments and multiple tendons have
navicular and three mediai metatarsal bones (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 ). been cut.)
482 Section TV Lower Extremity
Metatarsals
The five metatarsal bones link th distai row of tarsal bones
with th proximal phalanges (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 ). Metatarsals are
numbered 1 through 5, starting on th mediai side. The first
metatarsal is th shortest and thickest, and th second is ARTHROLOGY
usually th longest and th most rigidly attached to th
distai row of tarsal bones. These morphologic characteristics The major joints of th ankle and foot are th talocrural,
reflect th larger forces that pass through th mediai side of subtalar, and transverse tarsal joints. The talus is mechanically
th forefoot during th push-off phase of gait. Each metatar involved with all three of these joints. The multiple articula-
sal has a base at its proximal end, a shaft, and a convex head tions made by th talus help to explain th bones complex
at its distai end (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 , first metatarsal). The bases shape, with nearly 70% of its surface covered with articular
of th metatarsals have small articular Jacets that mark th cartilage. An understanding of th shape of th talus is
site of articulation with th bases of th adjacent metatarsals. cruciai to an understanding of th arthrology of th ankle
and foot.
The articular facet on th first metatarsal is occasionally
lacking. Longitudinally, th shafts of th metatarsals are
slightly concave on their piantar side. This arched shape
Terminology for Motions and Positions
enhances th load-supporting ability of th metatarsals (see
Fig. 1 4 - 6 ). The piantar surface of th first metatarsal head The terminology used to describe th movements of th
has two small facets for articulation with two sesamoid ankle and foot incorporates two sets of definitions: a funda-
bones that are imbedded within th tendon of th flexor mental set and an applied set. The fundamental terminology
hallucis brevis. The fifth metatarsal has a prominent stvloid describes movement of th foot or ankle that occurs at right
process just lateral to its base, marking th attachment of th angles to th three standard axes of rotation (Fig. 1 4-9A ).
peroneus brevis muscle (see Fig. 1 4 - 7 ). Dorsiflexion (exlension) and piantar flexion describe th mo-
tion that is parallel to th sagittal piane, around a medial-
lateral axis of rotation. Eversion and inversion describe th
Osteologie Features of a Metatarsal motion parallel to th frontal piane, around an anterior-
Base (with articular facets for articulation with th bases of posterior axis of rotation. Abduction and adduction describe
adjacent metatarsals) motion in th horizontal (transverse) piane, around a vertical
Shaft (superior-inferior) axis of rotation. At th major joints of th
Head ankle and foot, however, th fundamental definitions are
Styloid process (on th fifth metatarsal only) inadequate because most movements of th ankle and foot
occur about an oblique axis rather than th three standard,
Phalanges orthogonal axes of rotation depicted in Figure 1 4-9A .
A second and more applied terminology or set of defini
As in th hand, th foot has 14 phalanges, named proximal, tions is used to describe movements that occur perpendicu-
middle, and distai (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 ). The first toe com- lar to an oblique axis of rotation (Fig. 1 4 -9 B ). Pronation
monly called th great toe or hallux has two phalanges, describes a motion that has elements of eversion, abduction,
designated as proximal and distai. In generai, each phalanx and dorsiflexion. Supination, in contrast, describes a motion
has a concave base at its proximal end, a shaft, and a convex that has elements of inversion, adduction, and piantar flex
head at its distai end. ion. The orientation of th oblique axis of rotation depicted
TABLE 1 4 - 2 . Terms that Describc Movements and Deformities of th Ankle and Foot
Motion Axis of Rotation Piane of Motion Example of Fixed Deformity or Abnormal Posture
Inversion Varus
Anterior-posterior Frontal
Eversion Valgus
Abduction Abductus
Vertical Horizontal
Adduction Adductus
Supination Varyng ekmems of inversion. Inconsistent terminology usuali'/ implies one or more
adduction, and piantar of th components of supination
Oblique (varies by joint) flexion
Pronation Varying elements of eversion, Inconsistent terminology usually implies one or more
abduction, and dorsflexion of th components of pronation
in Figure 1 4 -9 B varies by major joint but, in generai, has a tibia and fibula also helps to bind th bones together. The
pitch that is similar to that illustrateci. The exact pitch of interosseous membrane provides an attachment for many
each major joints axis of rotation is described in subsequent muscles that affect th foot and ankle.
sections.
Pronation and supination are often called "triplanar mo- Proximal Tibiofibular Joint
tions. Unfortunately, this description is confusing. The temi The proximal tibiofibular joint is a synovial joint located just
triplane implies that th movement cuts through all three lateral to and below th knee. The joint is formed by th
Cardinal planes, not that th joint exhibiting this motion head of th fibula and th posterior-lateral aspect of th
possesses three degrees of freedom. Pronation and supination lateral condyle of th tibia (see Fig. 1 3 - 5 ). The joint sur-
occur in only one piane, about one (oblique) axis of rota- faces are generally fiat or slightly ovai, covered by articular
tion. Table 1 4 - 2 summarizes th terminology used to de- cartilage.
scribe th movements of th ankle and foot, including th The proximal tibiofibular joint is enclosed by a capsule
terminology that describes abnormal posture or deformity. that is strengthened by anterior and posterior ligaments (see
Figs. 1 3 - 7 and 1310). The tendon of th popliteus muscle
provides additional stabilization as it crosses just posterior to
Axes of Rotation
th joint. Firm stabilization is needed ai th proximal tibiofi
Movements at th ankle and foot are assumed to occur bular joint so that forces within th biceps femoris and
about axes of rotation that remain nearly stationary through- lateral collateral ligament of th knee can be transferred
out th range of motion. Although this assumption does not effectively from th fibula to th tibia.
hold for all joints, it does allow a rather complicated System
to be explained in a relatively simple fashion. More compli
cated, and likely more accurate, axes of rotation and kine- Connective Tissues that Stabilize th Proximal
matic models of th ankle and foot are described elsewhere. Tibiofibular Joint
(See references 1 , 1 0 , 45, and 48.) Capsular ligaments
Popliteus tendon
Structure and Function of Joints Associated
with th Ankle Distai Tibiofibular Joint
From an anatomie perspective, th ankle includes one articu-
Articular Structure
The distai tibiofibular joint is formed by th articulation of
lation: th talocrural joint. Movement at th talocrural joint
th convex mediai surface of th distai fibula, with th con
results in slight movement at th proximal and distai tibiofi-
cave fibular notch of th tibia (Fig. 1 4 -1 0 ). Anatomists
bular joints. Because of this functional association, all three
typically classify this joint as a s y n a r th r o s is because it allows
joints are included under th topic of ankle.
very slight movement and is filled with dense irregular con
nective tissue. The synovial membrane lining this joint is
TIBIO FIB U L AR J O I N T S often continuous with th synovial membrane lining th talo
crural joint.
The fibula is bound to th lateral side of th tibia by two
aniculations: th proximal tibiofibular joint and th distai Ligaments
tibiofibular joint (see Fig. 1 3 - 2 ). The interosseous mem The interosseous ligament provides th strongest bond be
brane a sheet of connective tissue that runs between th tween th distai ends of th tibia and fibula.55 This ligament
484 Section IV Lower Extremty
TALOCRURAL JOINT
Articular Structure
The talocrural joint is formed by th articulation of th
trochlear surface and th sides of th talus, with th rectan-
gular cavity formed by th distai end of th tibia and both
malleoli (see Fig. 1 4 - 3 ). The talocrural joint is often re-
ferred to as th "mortise, owing its resemblance to th
wood joint used by carpenters (Fig. 1 4 - 1 2 ). The concave
shape of th proximal side of th ankle mortise is main-
tained by connective tissues that bind th tibia with th
fibula. Interestingly, th total contact area within th talo
crural joint is about 350 mm2, which is relatively small
compared with 1,120 mm2 and 1,100 mm2 for th knee and
hip, respectively.4
Interosseous
ligament
The primary function of th deltoid ligament is to limit
Groove fortendons
Groove for tendons eversion across th talocrural, subtalar, and talonavicular
of tibialis posterior and
of peroneuslongus
flexor digitorum longus
and brevis
Posterior tibiofibular
ligament The shape of th
Inferior transverse talocrural joint
ligament
Deltoid Tibiotalar fibers
ligament- Tibiocalcaneal
fibers
Posterior talofibular
Groove for tendon
ligament
A carpenters
of flexor hallucis longus mortise joint
Calcaneofibular
Mediai talocalcaneal ligament
ligament
Posterior talocalcaneal ligament
Achilles tendon
(cut)
Lateral view
Calcaneofibular
ligam ent'
Lateral talocalcaneal
ligam ent'
Peroneus Peroneus Dorsal
Interior peroneal longus tendon brevis tendon calcaneocuboid
retinaculum ' (cut) (cut) ligament
486 Section IV Lower Extremily
Talocrural joint
FIGURE 14-16. The axis of rotation and osteokinematics at ihe lalocairal joint. The slightly oblique axis of rotation at th talocrural
joint (red) is shown from behind (A) and above (B). C to E show th primary active movement components of dorsiflexion and
piantar flexion. Note that dorsiflexion (D) is combined with slight abduction and eversion, which are th other components of
pronation; piantar flexion (E) is combined with slight adduction and inversion, which are th other components of supination.
imal dorsiflexion elongates th posteror capsule and all tis- stretching th anterior talofibular ligament (Fig. 1 4 -1 7 B ). As
sue capable of transmitting piantar flexion torque, such as a generai rule, any collateral ligament that becomes increas-
th Achilles tendon. ingly taut upon anterior translation of th talus also becomes
During piantar flexion, th superior surface of th talus increasingly taut at full piantar flexion. Although not shown
rolls backward as th bone simultaneously slides anteriorly, in Figure 1 4 -1 7 B , th tibionavicular fbers of th deltoid liga-
Talocrural joint
DORSIFLEXION PLANTAR FLEXION
ment become taut at full piantar llexion (see Table 1 4 - 3 ). just after heel off phase. At this point in th gait cycle, th
Piantar llexion also stretches th dorsillexor muscles and th ankle becomes increasing stable owing to th greater tension
anterior capsule. in many stretched collateral ligaments and piantar flexor
muscles (Fig. 1 4 -1 8 A ). The dorsiflexed ankle becomes fur-
Progressive Stabilization of th Talocrural Joint
ther stabilized as th wider anterior part of th talus wedges
Throughout th Stance Phase of Gait
into th tibiofibular component of th mortise (Fig. 1 4 -
At initial heel contact, th ankle rapidly piantar flexes io 18B). The wedging effect causes th distai tibia and fibula to
lower th foot to th ground (see Fig. 1 5 -1 5 D ). As soon as spread apart slightly. This action is resisted by tension in th
th foot fiat phase of gait is reached, th leg starts to rotate distai tibiofibular ligaments and interosseous membrane. At
forward (dorsiflex) over th foot. Dorsiflexion continues until th initiation of th push-off phase of walking, th talocrural
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
o CO 3=
o 5= Swing phase
-JS O
e CD
o o <13 O
o o
LL_ X 1
o5
a)
X
Percent of G ait C y c le
Chapter 14 Ankle and Fool 489
joint is well stabilized and prepared to accept compression however, occur as th calcaneus is relatively fixed under th
forces that may reach over 4 times body weight (Fig. 14 load of body weight. This situation requires more complex
I
I 19).49 kinematics involving th leg and talus rotating over a more
The slight spreading of th concavity of th mortise at stable calcaneus. Mobility at th subtalar joint allows th foot
maximal dorsiflexion causes slight movement of th fibula. io assume positions that are independent of th orientation
| The line-of-force of th stretched anterior and posterior (dis- of th superimposed ankle and leg. This function is essential
I tal) tibiofbular ligaments and interosseous membrane pro- to activities such as walking across a steep hill, standing
Articular Structure
knee. The prominent posterior articulation of th subtalar joint oc-
cupies about 70% of th total articular surface area (see Fig.
jS
1 4 - 8 ). The concave posterior facet of th talus rests upon
th convex posterior facet of th calcaneus. The articulation
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 4 - 1 is normally held tightly opposed by its interlocking shape,
i
body weight, interosseous ligaments, and activated muscle.
Ankle Injury Resulting from th Extremes of The anterior and middle articulations consist of small, nearly
Dorsiflexion or Piantar Flexion fiat joint surfaces.
Kinematics
inversion and adduction (Fig. 1 4 -2 0 E ). The calcaneus can
Osteokinematics and Arthrokinematics dorsiflex and piantar flex slightly relative to th talus; how-
The arthrokinematics at th subtalar joint involve a sliding ever, this rnotion is small.
between th three sets of facets, yielding a curvilinear are of For simplicity, th osteokinematics of th subtalar joint
movement between th calcaneus and th talus. The axis of are demonstrated by rotating th calcaneus against a fixed
rotation for this rnotion is described by several investigators. and immobile talus. During walking, however, when th
(See references 17, 19, 28, 44, and 56.) Although consider calcaneus is relatively immobile due to th load of body
a l e variation exists from one subject to another, th axis of weight, pronation and supination at th subtalar joint occur
rotation is typically described as a line that pierces th lat- primarily by rotation of th talus and leg.
eral-posterior heel and courses through th subtalar joint in Range o f Motion
anterior, mediai, and superior directions (Fig. 1 4 - 2 0 A to C,
Grimston and colleagues14 reported active range of motion
red). According to Manter,2S th axis of rotation is typically
across th ankle complex (combined talocrural joint and
positioned 42 degrees from th horizontal piane (see Fig.
subtalar joint) in 120 subjects across multiple age groups.
1 4 -2 0 A ) and 16 degrees from th sagittal piane (see Fig
The range of motion for inversion and eversion and for
1 4 -2 0 B ).
abduction and adduction are listed in Table 1 4 - 4 . Averaged
The calcaneus pronates and supinates about th talus (or
across all age groups, total inversion exceeds eversion by
vice versa when th foot is planted) in a path perpendicular
nearly doubl: inversion, 22.6 degrees; eversion, 12.5 de
to th axis of rotation (see th red circular arrows in Fig.
grees. Although these data include slight motion from th
1 4 - 2 0 A to C). Given th generai pitch to th axis, only two
talocrural joint, th ratio of inversion-to-eversion movement
ol th three main components of pronation and supination
is consistent with data reported for th subtalar joint alone.21
are readily evident at th subtalar joint: inversion and ever-
Eversion range of motion is naturally limited by th distai,
sion, and abduction and adduction (see Fig. 1 4 -2 0 A and B).
projecting, lateral malleolus and th thick deltoid ligament.
Pronation, therefore, has main components of eversion and
As shown in Fable 1 4 - 4 , th maximal range of abduction
abduction (Fig. 1 4 -2 0 D ); supination has main components of and adduction is nearly equivalent.
Subtalar joint
ABDUCTION/ADDUCTION
(Vertical axis)
DORSIFL EXION/
PLANTAR FLEXION
(M L axis)
- EVERSION/
INVERSION EVERSION/
(AP axis) INVERSION
(AP axis)
A Mediai view
Superior view
axim f T ati0n ? d osteokine dcs 31 th subtalar joint are shown. The axis of rotation (red) is shown fror
th side (A) and above (B); th axis of rotation is shown again in C. D, The movement of pronation, with th main components c
shown"1 and abdUClIOn 1$ demonstrated- E, The movement of supination, with main components of inversion and adduction i
Chapter 14 Ankie and Foot 491
Close-Packed and Loose-Packed Position of th Subtalar Full pronation of th subtalar joint, in contrast, in
Joint creases th overall flexibility of th midfoot. Again, re-
In addition to controlling th position of th rearfoot, th turning to a loosely articulated skeleton model, maximal
subtalar joint also indirectly Controls th stability of th eversion of th calcaneus untwists th mediai and
more distai joints, especially th transverse tarsal joint. lateral aspects of th midfoot, placing them in a more or
Although th relevance of this concept is discussed later less parallel position. As a result, th talonavicular and
in this chapter, full supination at th subtalar joint re- calcaneocuboid joints untwist longitudinally, thereby in
stricts th overall flexibility of th midfoot. A loosely artic- creasing th flexibility of th midfoot. The loose-packed
ulated skeletal model helps to demonstrate this principle. position of th subtalar joint is often described as maximal
With one hand stabilizing th forefoot, maximally "swing" pronation, implying a reduced stability over th midfoot.
th calcaneus into full inversion and note that th lateral Make th effort to "feel," on a partner, th increased
aspect of th midfoot "drops" relative to th mediai as- flexibility of th midfoot as th calcaneus is gradually
l a k e n riu n i i ia x im a l i i i v e i s i u n lu m a x im a l e v e i s l u n . A s
pect. As a result, th talonavicular and calcaneocuboid
described in subsequent sections, th ability of th mid
joints become twisted longitudinally, thereby increasing
foot to change from greater to lesser flexibility has impor-
th rigidity of th midfoot. For this reason, maximal supi
tant mechanical implications during th stance phase of
nation at th subtalar joint is considered th close-packed
gait.
position. The description does not imply maximal congruity
at th joint, rather a position that increases th stability
through th midfoot.
TABLE 1 4 - 4 . The Mean and Standard Error* for Active Range of Motion in Degrees for Inversion and Eversion
and Abduction and Adduction at th Ankie Jo in t Complext
* in parentheses.
t The subtalar and talocrural joint make up th ankie joint complex. The data were collected from healthy persons across different age groups, and th
Liala were averaged across gender.14
492 Sectkm IV Lower Extremiy
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 4 - 3
Standard Clinical Measurements of Subtalar Joint Range th precise details of foot and ankle kinesiology. For rea-
of Motion sons such as those just described, pronation and supina-
The range of motion at th subtalar joint is typically mea- tion at th subtalar joint are often referred to simply as
sured clinically by th use of a standard goniometer. To "eversion and inversion" of th calcaneus, respectively.
obtain a reliable and valid measurement through this Eversion, for example, is only a component of, rather than
means is difficult and, perhaps, impossible.36 Causes of a synonym for, pronation. Comparisons of range of motion
measurement error are due to th inability of a standard, data between studies are often made difficult, unless th
rigid goniometer to follow th are of pronation and supi- motions are explicitly defined.
nation, compounded by th movement in adjacent soft Clinically, th expression "subtalar joint neutral" is of
tissues and surrounding joints. As a method of improving ten used to establish a "baseline" or reference for evalu-
th validly of this measurement, clinicians often report ating a foot for an orthotic device.9'30 The neutral, or 0
subtalar joint motion as a more simple motion of inversion degree, position of th subtalar joint is attained by placing
and eversion of th rearfoot (calcaneus). th subject's calcaneus in a position that allows both
The rather strict terminology described for subtalar mo lateral and mediai sides of th talus to be equally ex-
tion is not always adhered to in clinical and research posed for palpation within th mortise. In this position, th
settings. "Short-cuts" in terminology have evolved that, joint is typically one-third th distance from full eversion
unfortunately, limit th ability to effectively communicate and two-thirds th distance from full inversion.
face of th piantar calcaneonavicular (spring) ligameni ally, th capsule of th talonavicular joint blends with th
(Figs. 1 4 - 8 and 1 4 -2 2 ). The spring ligament is thick and anterior edge of th deltoid ligament.
wide, spanning th gap between th sustentaculum talus of The ball-and-socket-like articulation of th talonavicular
th calcaneus and th piantar surface of th navicular (Fig. joint provides significant rotation to th mediai side of th
1 4 - 2 3 ). Functioning as th floor of th talonavicular joint, midfoot. The extern ol this mobility becomes readily appar-
th spring ligament supports th head of th talus, ihereby ent by twisting th midfoot relative to th rearfoot.
helping to explain th terminology spring. Support is im-
portant during standing because body weight depresses th Calcaneocuboid Joint
head of th talus toward th floor. The surface of th spring The calcaneocuboid joint is th lateral component of th
ligament that directly contacts th head of th talus is lined transverse tarsal joint, formed by th junction of th anterior
with smooth fibrocartilage.55 (distai) surface of th calcaneus and th proximal surface of
The talonavicular joint is enclosed by a thin, irregularly th cuboid (see Fig. 1 4 - 2 2 ). Each articular surface has a
shaped capsule. Posteriori)', th capsule is thickened by th slight concave and convex curvature that, when articulated,
interosseous ligament of th subtalar joint (see Fig. 1 4 - 8 ). forms an interlocking wedge that resists sliding. The joint is
The capsule is strengthened dorsally by th dorsal talonavicu therefore relatively inflexible, providing an element of rigid-
lar ligament and laterally by th calcaneonavicular fibers of ity to th lateral column of th foot. The limited mobility at
th bijurcated ligament (see Figs. 1 4 - 1 3 and 1 4 - 1 4 ). Medi- th calcaneocuboid joint is in contrast to th ampie move
ment permitted at th talonavicular joint.
The dorsal surface of th capsule of th calcaneocuboid
joint is thickened by th dorsal calcaneocuboid ligament (see
Fig. 1 4 -1 4 ). The joint is further stabilized by three addi-
tional ligaments. The bijurcated ligament is a Y-shaped band
ol tissue with its stem attached to th calcaneus, just dorsal
and lateral to th margin of calcaneocuboid joint. The stem
of th ligament flares into lateral and mediai fiber bundles.
The mediai (calcaneonavicular) fibers reinforce th dorsal-
lateral side of th talonavicular joint. The lateral (calcaneocu
boid) fibers cross dorsal to th calcaneocuboid joint, forming
th primary bond between th two bones. The long and
short piantar ligaments reinforce th piantar side of th cal
caneocuboid joint (see Fig. 1 4 -2 3 ). The long piantar liga
ment, th longest ligament in th foot, arises from th piantar
surface of th calcaneus, just anterior to th calcaneal tuber-
osity. The ligament inserts on th piantar surface of th
bases of th lateral three or four metatarsal bones. The short
FIGURE 14-21. Th e transverse tarsal joints allow for pronation and piantar ligament, also called th piantar calcaneocuboid liga
supination durin g standing on uneven surfaces. ment, arises just anterior and deep to th long piantar liga-
Chapter 14 Ankle and Foot 493
Achilles
Interphalangeal jo in ts -
tendon
Metatarsophalangeal joints
^lyTL'M
joint
Intermetatarsal joints Calcaneocuboid joint Talonavicular joint
.Tarsometatarsal joints
Cuboideonavicular joint
Igalcaneusj ^ fa t a r s a ls
Achilles
A tendon
B
FIGURE 14-22. A, Th e bones and disarticulated joinis o f th right foot are show n from tw o perspectives: superior-postenor (A) and
superior-anterior (B). A highlights th overall organization of th joints o f th foot.
ment and inserts on th piantar surface of th cuboid bone. longitudinal axis is nearly coincident with th straight ante-
By passing perpendicularly to th calcaneocuboid joint, th rior-posterior axis (Fig. 1 4 - 2 5 A to C), with th primary
piantar ligaments provide excellent structural stability to th component motions of eversion and inversion (Fig. 1 4 -2 5 D
lateral side of th foot. and E). The oblique axis, in contrast, has a strong vertical
and medial-lateral pitch (Fig. 1 4 - 2 5 F to H). Motion about
Kinematics
this axis, therefore, occurs freely as a combination of abduc-
The transverse tarsal joint rarely functions without an associ tion and dorsiflexion (Fig. 1 4 -2 5 1 ) and adduction and piantarJex-
ateci movement ai nearby joints, especially th subtalar joint.
To appreciate th component of pronation and supination
that occurs primarily at th transverse tarsal joint, hold th
Plantar view
calcaneus firmly while maximally pronating and supinating
th midfoot (Fig. 1 4 -2 4 A and C). During this motion, th
navicular spins within th talonavicular joint. The combina-
tion of rotations at both subtalar and transverse tarsal joint
accounts for most of th pronation and supination through-
out th foot (Fig. 1 4 -2 4 B and D). As evident in th Figures, First tarsometatarsal joint
? = >
J j Tibialis posterior
x Subtalar joint
FIGURE 1 4 -2 4 . Pronation and supination o f th unloaded tight foot demonstrates th interplay o f th subtalar and transverse tarsal
joints. W ith th calcaneus held fixed, pronation and supination occur prim arily at th m idfoot {A and C). W hen th calcaneus is
free, pronation and supination occur as a sum matton across both th rearfoot and m idfoot (B and D). Rearfoot m ovem ent is
indicated by gray arrows; m idfoot m ovem ent is indicated by red arrows. T h e tibialis posterior is show n in D as it directs attive
supination o ver both th rearfoot and midfoot.
ion (Fig. 14-25/ ). Combining th movements produced transverse tarsal join t makes th midfoot ver)' adaptable in
about both axes produces th true Form of pronation and shape.
supination (i.e., movement that maximally expresses compo- Range of motion at th transverse tarsal joint is diffcult
nents of all three Cardinal planes). Movement at th to measure and isolate from adjacem joints. By visual and
Chapter 14 Ankle and Foot 495
EVERSION/ EVERSION/
INVERSION INVERSION
(AP axis) j (APaxis)
Mediai view Superior view
EVERSION/ EVERSION/
INVERSION INVERSION
(AP axis) (AP axis)
FIGURE 14 25. T h e axes of rotation and osteokinemadcs al th transverse larsal joint. Th e longitudinal axis o f rotation is show n in
red from th side (A and C) and from above (B). M ovem ents that occur about this axis (D) are pronation (w ith th main
com ponent of eversion) and (E) supination (w ith th m ain com ponent o f in v e rs io n i T h e oblique axis o f rotation is show n in red
from th side (F and H ) and from above (C). M ovem ents that occur about this axis are (I) pronation (w ith main components o f
abduction and dorsiflexion) and ( J ) supination (w ith m ain components o f adducton and piantar flexion).
496 Section IV Lower Extremity
manual inspection, however, il is evident that th supinaiion transverse arch exists (see Fig. 1 4 - 2 6 ). This arch is dis-
range of th midfoot region is approximately twice that of cussed in a later section covering th distai intertarsal joints.
th pronation range. The amount of pure inversion and
Anatomie Considerations
eversion of th midfoot occurs in a pattern similar to that
The talonavicular joint and associated connective tissues
observed ai th subtalar joint: about 20 to 25 degrees of
forni th keystone of th mediai longitudinal arch. The
inversion and 10 to 15 degrees of eversion.
height and generai shape of th mediai longitudinal arch are
Arthrokinematics maintained by th thick piantar fascia, spring ligament, sta-
The arthrokinematics at th transverse tarsal joint are best bility of th mediai tarsometatarsal joints, short piantar liga-
described in context with motion of both th rearfoot and ments, and intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of th foot.
midfoot. Consider th movement of active supination of th
unloaded foot (see Fig. 1 4 -2 4 D ). The tibialis posterior mus- Piantar Fascia. The piantar fascia of th foot provides
cle, with its multiple attachments, is th prime supinator of th primary support of th mediai longitudinal arch.16 The
th foot. Because of th relatively rigid calcaneocuboid joint, fascia consists of an extensive series of thick, very strong
an inverting and adducting calcaneus draws th lateral col- longitudinal and transverse bands of collagen-rich tissue.55
umn of th foot under th mediai column of th forefoot. The piantar fascia covers th sole and sides of th foot and
An important pivot point for this motion is th talonavicular is organized into superfcial and deep layers. The superfcial
joint. The pul of th tibialis posterior contributes to th spin fbers are attached primarily to th thick dermis, and they
of th navicular, and to th raising of th mediai arch (in- function to reduce shear forces and provide shock absorp-
step) of th foot. During this motion, th concave proximal tion. The more extensive deep piantar fascia attaches posteri-
surface of th navicular and spring ligament spin around th orly to th mediai process of th calcaneal tuberosity. From
convex head of th talus. this origin, lateral, mediai, and centrai sets of fbers course
Pronation of th unloaded foot occurs by similar but re anteriorly, blending with and covering th frst layer of th
verse kinematics as that described. The pul of th peroneus intrinsic muscles of th foot. The mam, larger, centrai set of
longus contributes to a lowering of th mediai side and a fbers extends anteriorly toward th metatarsal heads
raising of th lateral side of th foot. where they attach to th piantar plates (ligaments) that cover
th metatarsophalangeal joints and fibrous sheaths of th
M ediai Longitudinal Arch of th Foot adjacent flexor tendons of th digits. Active toe extension,
The characteristic concave in-step at th mediai side of th therefore, stretches th centrai band of deep fascia, adding
foot is maintained primarily by th mediai longitudinal arch tension to th mediai longitudinal arch. The functional signif-
(Fig. 1 4 -2 6 ). The keystone of this arch is located near th icance of this point is described later in this chapter.
talonavicular joint. Functional Considerations
The mediai longitudinal arch is th primary load-bearing The mediai longitudinal arch in th healthy foot is supported
and shock-absorbing structure in th foot. The bones that by two primary forces: (1) active muscle force and (2) pas
contribute to th mediai arch are th calcaneus, talus, navic sive force produced by th combined elasticity and tensile
ular, cuneiforms, and three mediai metatarsals. Without th strength of connective tissues and th shape of th bones.
arched confguration, th large and rapidly acting forces pro- When standing at ease, passive forces are generally suffcient
duced during running, for example, may exceed th physio- to support th arch. Active forces are required, however.
logic weight-bearing capacity of th bones. Additional struc- during more dynamic actions, such as standing on tiptoes,
tures that assist with reducing th forces acting on th foot walking, and running. The following discussion is limited to
are piantar fat pads, superfcial piantar fascia, and sesamoid passive forces that support th arch. The role of muscle
bones located at th piantar base of th frst (great) toe. forces are described later in this chapter.
In addition to th mediai longitudinal arch, a secondary
Passive Forces That Support th Mediai Longitudinal
Arch. When standing, body weight crosses th mortise and
is distributed across th mediai longitudinal arch and, ulti-
mately, to fai pads and th thick dermis located primarily at
th heel and ball (metatarsal head region) of th foot. Body
weight forces are distributed therefore, across a wide region
of th foot (see th box).6 The pressure under th forefoot is
usually greatest in th region of th second and third meta
tarsal heads. Substantially greater pressure occurs during
walking and even more so when running and jumping.
sion in stretched connective tissues, especially th deep pian indicated for flexible pes planus. Treatment is usually in th
tar fascia, acts as a semielastic tie rod that yields slightly form of orthoses, specialized footwear, and exercise.
under load, allowing only a marginai drop in th arch (Fig.
Pes Cavus Abnormally Raised Mediai Longiludi-
14-27A , stretched spring). Acting like a truss, th tie rod
nal Arch. In its least complicated form, pes cavus describes
supports and absorbs body weight. Experiments on cadaveric
an abnormally high mediai longitudinal arch.41 The condi-
specimens indicate that th piantar fascia is th major struc-
ture that maintains th height of th mediai longitudinal arch.16
Sectioning of this fascia decreased arch stiffness by 25%.
While th arch is depressed, th rearfoot tends to pronate
slightly. This is most evident from a posterior view as th
calcaneus everts slightly relative to th tibia. As th foot is
unloaded, such as when shifting body weight to th other Normal arch
leg, th naturally elastic and flexible arch retums to its pre-
loaded raised height. The calcaneus inverts slightly back to
its neutral position, allowing th mechanism to repeat its
shock absorption function once again.
Standing at ease on healthy feet requires little or no
activity of th intrinsic or extrinsic muscles of th foot.2 The
height and shape of th mediai longitudinal arch is con-
trolled primarily by passive restraints from th connective
tissues depicted by th spring in Figure 14-27A . Active
muscle support is required when one stands only as a sec
ondar)' line of support, for example, when holding heavy
loads, or when th arch lacks inherent support because of
overstretched connective tissues.51 Basmajian and Stecko2
showed signifcant EMG responses from th tibialis posterior
and th intrinsic muscles, only after th healthy arch was
loaded in excess of 400 pounds (1780 N).
Abnormal Shape of th Mediai Longitudinal Arch
Pes Planus Dropped' Mediai Longitudinal Arch.
Pes planus or flatfooi" describes a chronically dropped or
abnormally low mediai longitudinal arch.24 The piantar fascia
may be overstretched with th subtalar joint excessively pro-
nated, causing a rearfoot valgus posture, where th calcaneus Dropped arch
is everted away from th midiine. The forefoot is usually
abducted, and th talus and navicular bones are depressed,
often causing a callus to develop on th adjacent skin. A
foot with moderate-to-severe pes planus typically has a com-
promised ability io transfer loads throughout th foot. As
depicted in Figure 1 4 -2 7 B , active forces from intrinsic and
extrinsic muscles, such as th tibialis posterior, may be
needed to compensate for th lack of tension produced in
overstretched connective tissues. Increased muscular activity
during standing may contribute to fatigue and various over-
use symptoms, including pain, shin splints, bone spurs, and
fascia and connective tissue inflammation.
Pes planus is often described as being either a rigid or
flexible deformity.41 The foot with rigid pes planus (see Fig.
1 4 -2 7 B ) demonstrates a dropped arch even in non-weight-
bearing. This deformity is often congenital, secondar)' to
bony or joint malformation, such as tarsal coalition (i.e.,
partial fusion of th calcaneus with th talus fixed in ever-
sion). Pes planus may also occur as a result of spastic paral- FIGURE 14-27. Models of th foot show a mechanism of accepting
ysis. Because of th fixed nature and potential for producing body weight while standing. A, With a normal mediai longitudinal
painful symptoms, rigid pes planus may require surgical cor- arch, body weight is accepted and dissipated through elongation of
rection during childhood. th piantar fascia, depicted as a red spring. The footprint illustrates
th concavity of th normal arch. B, With an abnormally dropped
Flexible pes planus is th more common form of dropped
mediai longitudinal arch, th overstretched and weakened piantar
arch. The mediai longitudinal arch appears normal when
fascia, depicted as an overstretched red spring, cannot adequately
unloaded, but drops excessively upon weight hearing. A flex accept or dissipate body weight. As a consequence, various extrinsic
ible pes planus is often associated with other structural and intrinsic muscles are active as a secondary source of support io
momalies and/or compensatory mechanisms that cause ex- th arch. The footprint illustrates th dropped arch and loss of a
essive pronation of th foot. Surgical intervention is rarely characteristie instep.
498 Section IV Lower Exiremity
FIGURE 14-28. A case o f a m ild pes cavus deform ity o f unknow n etiology is show n in A. B to E show signs o r other deform i ties thai
m ay be associated w ith pes cavus: (B) callus form ation under th metatarsal heads; (C) equinus (piantar flexion) deform ity o f th forefoot,
(D) pronated forefoot relative to th rearfoot durin g weight hearing; (E) shortening o f th mediai colum n of th foot. (From Richardson
EG: N eurogenic disorders. In Canale S T (ed): Cam pbells Operative Orthopaedics, voi 4, 9th ed. St. Louis, M osby-Year Book, 1998.)
tion is usually idiopathic and nonprogressive. As shown in Severe cases ol pes cavus may develop secondary to neu-
Figure 1 4 - 2 8 , a high arch tends to place th metatarsal romuscular disorders, such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease,
heads more perpendicular to th ground. Callus formation poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy.41 In these cases, pes cavus
under th metatarsal heads and metatarsalgia may result and is often associated with other progressive problems, like
is often treated with specialized footwear and orthoses. An clawing of th toes, tight piantar fascia, and compensatory
abnormally high mediai longitudinal arch is not as common overpronation of th forefoot. Treatment involves surgery
as an abnormally low arch. and orthotic management.
gait cycle, th subtalar joint pronates or everts, adding an posterior axis of rotation through th calcaneus. The simulta-
element of flexibility to th midfoot (Fig. 1 4 -2 9 B ).8 By late neous impact of heel contaci also pushes th head of th
stance, th arch rises as th supinated subtalar joint renders talus medially in th horizontal piane and inferiorly in th
th midfoot relatively rigid. The foot is now well prepared to sagittal piane. Relative to th calcaneus, this motion of th
accept a large bending moment, created across th foot at talus abducts and dorsiflexes th subtalar joint. These mo-
th push-off phase of gait. The ability of th foot to repeat- tions are consistent with th defnition of pronation. A
edly transform from a flexible and shock absorbent structure loosely articulated skeletal model aids in th visualization of
to a more rigid lever during each gait cycle is one of th this motion. Second, during th early stance phase, th tibia
most important and clinically relevant actions of th foot. As and fibula, and io a lesser extern th femur, internally rotate
subsequently described, th subtalar joint is th principal after initial heel contact.I7't0 Because of th embracing con-
joint that directs th pronation and supination kinematics of figuration of th talocrural joint, th internally rotating lower
th foot. leg steers th subtalar joint into further pronation. The argu-
ment is often raised that with th calcaneus in contact with
Early Stance Phase: Pronation at th Subtalar Joint
th ground, pronation at th subtalar joint causes, rather
Kinematic Mechanisms of Pronation. Immediately fol- than follows, internai rotation of th leg, and either perspec-
lowing th heel contact phase of gait, th dorsiflexed talo- tive is valid.
crural joint and slightly supinated subtalar joint rapidly pian The amplitude of pronation at th subtalar joint during
tar flex and pronate, respectively. The pronation at th early stance is relatively small about 2 to 3 degrees on
subtalar joint during stance is controlled by two mecha average and lasts only about 1/4 of a second during aver-
nisms. First, th calcaneus tips into eversion as a result of age speed walking. The amount and th speed of th prona
th ground reaction force passing just lateral to th anterior- tion influences th kinematics of th more proximal joints of
500 Seciion IV Lower Exlremity
th lower extremity. These effects can be appreciated by not been established conclusively.40 Precise measurements of
exaggerating and dramatically slowing th pronation action these kinematic relationships while a subject is walking are
of th rearfoot during th initial loading phase of gait. Con- technically difficult. The kinematics themselves are highly
sider th demonstration depicted in Figure 1 4 - 3 0 . While variable and poorly defined. Some studies report th kine
standing over a loaded and fixed foot, forcefully but slowly matics as a rotation of a single bone, and others repon
internally rotate th lower leg and note th associated prona relative rotations between bones.40 Additional studies are
tion at th rearfoot (subtalar joint) and simultaneous lower needed in this area before definite cause and effect relation
ing of th mediai longitudinal arch. If forceful enough, this ships are known. These relationships are important for they
action also tends to internally rotate, slightly flex, and ad-
duct th hip and to create a valgus strain on th knee (Table
1 4 - 5 ). These so-called mechanical events are exaggerated
and do not all occur to this degree and precise pattern when TABLE 1 4 - 5 . Associated Movements During an
th limb is loaded and at normal walking speed. Neverthe- Exaggerated Pronation of th Subtalar Join t while
less, because of th linkages throughout th lower limb,
Weight Bearing
excessive or uncontrolled pronation of th rearfoot could
exaggerate one or more of these mechanically related joint Joint Action
actions. Clinically, a person who excessively pronates during Hip Internai rotation, flexion, and adduction
early stance often complains of mediai knee pain, apparently
from a net genu valgus strain and subsequent overstretching Knee Valgus strain
on th mediai collateral ligament. Whether th overpronation Subtalar joint Pronation (and lowering of mediai lon
causes th knee valgus or vice versa is not always obvious. (rearfoot) gitudinal arch)
Although widely accepted, a predictable kinematic rela- Transverse tarsal Inversion (supination)
tionship between th magnitude and timing of excessive pro joint (midfoot)
nation and excessive internai rotation of th lower limb has
Chapter 14 Ankle and Foot 50 1
are th basis for many of th exercises and orthotics em- deformity of th foot is rearfoot varus. (Varus describes a
ployed to reduce painful conditions related to excessive pro- segment of th foot that is inverted toward th midiine.) As
nation. a response to this deformity, th subtalar joint often over-
compensates by excessively pronating, in speed and/or mag
nimele, to ensure that th mediai aspect of th forefoot
contacts th ground during stance phase.30'3852
Similar compensations occur as a result of forefoot varus.
The associated excessive internai rotation of th talus and leg
Example of th Kinematic Versatility of th Foot may, in some cases, create a chain reaction of kinematic
disturbances and compensations throughout th entire limb,
E a r lie r in t h is s e c t io n , t h p o in t w a s m a d e t h a t p r o n a - such as those depicted in Figure 1 4 - 3 0 . The abnormal kine
t io n o f t h u n lo a d e d f o o t o c c u r s p r im a r ily a s a s u m m a - matic sequence between th tibia and femur may cause an
t io n o f t h p r o n a t io n a t b o th t h s u b t a la r a n d t r a n s v e r s e tncreased Q angle at th knee and an increased net lateral
t a r s a l j o in t s ( s e e F ig . 1 4 - 2 4 6 ) . T h is s u m m a t io n o f m o - pul of th quadriceps or iliotibial band on th patella.38
t io n d o e s n o t, h o w e v e r , n e c e s s a r i l y o c c u r w h e n t h These situations may predispose th patient to patellofemoral
f o o t is lo a d e d w h ile w e ig h t h e a r in g . W it h t h f o o t joint dysfunction. For this reason, clinicians often note th
lo a d e d o r o t h e r w is e f ix e d to t h g r o u n d , p r o n a t in g th position of th subtalar joint while th patient stands and
r e a r f o o t m a y c a u s e t h m id f o o t a n d f o r e f o o t r e g io n s , walks in evaluation of th cause of patellofemoral joint pain.
w h i c h a r e r e c e iv in g fir m u p w a r d c o u n t e r f o r c e f r o m t h
f lo o r , t o t w is t in to r e la t iv e s u p in a t io n ( s e e Fig . 1 4 - 3 0 ) .
T h is r e c i p r o c a i k in e m a t ic r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n t h r e a r
f o o t a n d m o r e a n t e r io r r e g io n s o f t h f o o t d e m o n s t r a t e s
t h v e r s a t ilit y o f t h fo o t, a m p lif y in g t h o t h e r 's a c t io n
w h e n t h f o o t is u n lo a d e d ( s e e F ig . 14 - 2 4 6 ) , o r c o u n -
Foot Orthoses
t e r a c t in g e a c h o t h e r s a c t io n w h e n t h f o o t is lo a d e d
( s e e F ig . 1 4 - 3 0 ) . C l i n ic ia n s g e n e r a lly a g r e e t h a t s o m e fo r m o f f o o t o r t h o -
s i s o r s p e c ia liz e d f o o t w e a r C o n t r o ls e x c e s s i v e p r o n a t io n
a t t h s u b t a la r jo in t .3202934 In g e n e r a i, a f o o t o r t h o s is is
a d e v ic e in s e r t e d in t o t h s h o e in o r d e r t o m o d if y t h
f o o t 's m e c h a n ic s . M o s t o fte n , a w e d g e is p l a c e d o n t h
Kincsiologic Benefits o f Controlling Normal Prona m e d ia i a s p e c t o f t h o r t h o s is , w h i c h in t h e o r y C o n t r o ls
tion. From a kincsiologic perspective, controlled pronation t h r a t e , a m o u n t , a n d t e m p o r a l s e q u e n c in g o f p r o n a t io n
of th subtalar joint at early stance has several useful me- a t t h s u b t a la r jo in t. A s a n a d j u n c t t o o r t h o s e s , s o m e
chanical effects. Pronation at th subtalar joint permits inter c l i n i c i a n s a ls o s t r e s s t h n e e d t o im p r o v e t h " e c c e n
nai rotation of th talus, and th entire lower extremity, t r ic c o n t r o l" o f t h m u s c le s t h a t d e c e le r a t e p r o n a t io n
against a firmly planted calcaneus. The strong horizontal a n d o t h e r a s s o c i a t e d m o t io n s m e c h a n i c a l l y lin k e d to
orientation of th facets at th subtalar joint certainly sug- p r o n a t io n ( s e e T a b le 1 4 - 5 ) . T h e s e m u s c le g r o u p s in
gests this action. Without such a joint mechanism, th pian c lu d e t h s u p in a t o r s o f t h f o o t a n d t h m o r e p r o x im a l
tar surface of th calcaneus would otherwise spin like a e x t e r n a l r o t a t o r s a n d a b d u c t o r s o f t h h ip . T h is t h e r a -
childs top against th walking surface, along with th medi- p e u t ic a p p r o a c h s t r iv e s to r e d u c e t h r a t e o f p r o n a t io n
ally rotating leg. Eccentric activation of supinator muscles, a s w e l l a s t h r a t e o f lo a d in g o n t h fo o t.
such as th tibialis posterior, can help to decelerate th
pronation and resisi th lowering of th mediai longitudinal
arch. Controlled pronation of th subtalar joint favors rela
tive flexibility throughout th midfoot, allowtng th foot to
The underlying pathomechanics of an excessively pro-
accommodate to th varied shapes and contours of walking
nated foot are complex and not fully understood. The patho
surfaces.
mechanics can involve many kinematic relationships, both
Consequences of Excessive Pronation. Innumerable within th joints of th foot or between th foot and th rest
examples exist on how malalignment of th foot affects th of th lower limb. Even if th pathomechanics are obviously
kinematics of walking. A common situation results from ex located within th foot, abnormal motion in th forefoot can
cessive or poorly controlled pronation al th subtalar joint be compensated by abnormal motion in th rearfoot and
during stance phase. This disorder has multiple causes, such vice, versa. Furthermore, extrinsic factors, such as footwear,
as (1) laxity or weakness in th mechanisms that normally orthotics, terrain, and speed of walking or running, alter th
support and control th mediai longitudinal arch, (2) abnor- kinematic relationships within th foot and lower extremity.
mal shape or mobility of th tarsal bones, (3) excessive An understanding of th complex kinesiology of th entire
femoral anteversion, and (4) generalized muscle weakness lower extremity is a definite prerequisite for th effective
and/or reduced flexibility. In each case, a structural fault treatment of th painful or malaligned foot.
causes th rearfoot to fall into excessive valgus (eversion)
Mid to Late Stance Phase: Supination at th Subtalar Joint
following heel contact.29 Often, excessive subtalar joint pro
nation is a compensation for either excessive or restricted Kinematic Mechanisms Related to Supination. At
motion throughout th lower extremity, particularly in th about 15 to 20% into th gait cycle, th entire stance limb
untai and horizontal planes. The most common structural dramatically reverses its horizontal piane motion from inter-
502 Section IV Lower Extremily
TARSOMETATARSAL JOINTS A
Anatomie Considerations
Five tarsometatarsal joints are formed by th articulation
between th bases of th metatarsals and th distai surfaces
of th three cuneiforms and cuboid (see Fig. 1 4 - 2 2 ). Specif-
ically, th first metatarsal articulates with th mediai cunei
form, th second with th intermediate cuneiform, and th
third with th lateral cuneiform. The bases of th fourth and
ffth metatarsal both articulate with th distai surface of th
cuboid.
The articular surfaces of th tarsometatarsal joints are
essentially fiat. Dorsal, piantar, and interosseous ligaments
add stability to these articulations. Of th five tarsometatarsal
joints, only th first has a well-developed capsule.55
Kinematic Considerations
The tarsometatarsal joints serve as base joints for each of th
rays of th foot. Mobility is least at th second tarsometatar
sal joint due, in part, to th wedged position of its base FIGURE 14-33. The osteokinematics of th first tarsometatarsal
between th mediai and lateral cuneiforms. Consequently, joint: Dorsiflexion and inversion (A) and piantar flexion and ever
he second ray forms a stable centrai pillar through th foot, sion (B).
504 Section IV Lcwer Extremity
IN T E R M E T A T A R S A L JO IN T S
o u pc i i n i v ie
Structure and Function Interphalangeal Distai attachment of extensor
The bases of th tour lateral metatarsals are interconnected joint digitorum longus and brevis (cut)
by piantar, dorsal, and interosseous ligaments. Three small Extensor hallucis Distai interphalangeal
longus (cut) joint
intermetatarsal synovial joints form at th points of contact
Proximal interphalangeal
between th bases of these metatarsals. Although intercon Extensor digitorum
joint
nected by ligaments, a true joint does not typically form brevis (cut)
Dorsal digitai expansion
between th bases of th frst and second metatarsals. This Piantar piate
lack of articulation increases th relative movement of th
Sesamoid bones Dorsal interassei
frst ray, in a manner similar io th hand.55 Unlike th hand,
however, th distai ends of all five metatarsals are intercon Flexor hallucis brevis
Extensor
nected by th deep transverse metatarsal ligaments. Slight
Abductor hallucis digitorum brevis
motion ai th intermetatarsal joints augments th flexibility
Extensor
at th tarsometatarsal joints.
r
igitorum longus
Peroneus tertius
M E T A T A R S O P H A L A N G E A L JO IN T S
Anatomie Considerations
Five metatarsophalangeal joints are formed between th con-
vex head of each metatarsal and th shallow concavity of th
proximal end of each proximal phalanx (see Fig. 1 4 -2 2 ). FIGURE 14-35. Muscles and joints of th dorsal surface of th righi
These joints can be palpated at about 2.5 cm proximal to forefoot. The distai half of th frst metatarsal is removed to expose
th web of th toes. th concave surface of th first metatarsophalangeal joint. A pair of
A r t ic u la r c a r t ila g e covers th distai end of each metatarsal sesamoid bones is located deep within th first metatarsophalangeal
head (Fig. 1 4 -3 4 ). A pair of c o lla t e r a l lig a m en ts spans each joint. The proximal phalanx of th second toe is removed to expose
metatarsophalangeal joint, blending with and reinforcing th th concave side of th proximal interphalangeal joint
capsule. As in th hand, each collateral ligament courses
obliquely from a dorsal-proximal to plantar-distal direction,
forming a thick cord portion and a fanlike accessory portion.
The accesso^ portion attaches to th thick, dense p ia n t a r deep transverse metacarpal ligament connects only th fin
p ia t e , located on th piantar side of th joint. The piate, or gere, freeing th thumb for opposition.
ligament, is grooved for th passage of llexor tendons. Fibers A fib r o u s c a p s u le encloses each metatarsophalangeal joint
from th deep piantar fascia connect into th piantar plates and biends with th collateral ligaments and piantar plates.
and sheaths of th flexor tendons. Two s e s a m o id b o n e s lo A poorly defined e x t e n s o r m e c h a n is m covere th dorsal side
cated within th tendon of th flexor hallucis brevis rest ol each metatarsophalangeal joint. This structure consists of
against th piantar piate of th frst metatarsophalangeal joint a thin layer of connective tissue that is essentially inseparable
(Fig. 1 4 -3 5 ). Although not depicted in Figure 1 4 - 3 5 , four from th dorsal capsule and extensor tendons.
deep t r a n s v e r s e m e t a t a r s a l lig a m en ts blend with and join th
adjacent piantar plates of all five metatarsophalangeal joints. Kinematic Considerations
By interconnecting all five plates, th transverse metatarsal Movement at th metatarsophalangeal joints occurs in two
ligaments help maintain th first ray in a similar piane as th degrees of freedom. E x ten sio n (dorsiflexion) and j l e x i o n (pian
tesser rays, thereby adapting th foot for propulsion and tar flexion) occur approximately in th sagittal piane about a
weight hearing rather than manipulation. In th hand, th medial-lateral axis; a b d u c tio n and a d d u c tio n occur in th hon-
zontal piane about a vertical axis. Both axes of rotation
ntersect at th center of each metatarsal head.
Mosi people demonstrate limited dexterity in movements
at th metatarsophalangeal joints, especially in abduction and
adduction. Passively, th toes can be hyperextended about
65 degrees and flexed about 30 to 40 degrees. The first toe
typically allows greater hyperextension to near 85 degrees.
this joint can have significant impact on walking. Normally, hearing weight over th first metatarsophalangeal joint, caus-
walking requires about 65 degrees of hyperextension at th ing th lateral metatarsal bones to accept a greater propor-
metatarsophalangeal joints as th heel rises at late stance tion of th load. The pathomechanics of marked hallux val
phase.'5 A person with hallux rigidus typically resorts to gus involve a zigzag-like collapse of th first ray, similar to
walking on th outer surface of th affected foot to avoid th th ulnar drift of th metacarpophalangeal joint in th rheu-
necessity of hyperextending th first metatarsophalangeal matoid hand (see Chapter 8).
joint at late stance. Those affected are advised to wear stiff- Although th etiology of hallux valgus is noi totally clear,
soled shoes for walking and to avoid inclines or declines. genetics, incorrect footwear, pronated feet that cause valgus
Surgery is often recommended in more severe cases.42 strain at th hallux, and asymmetry of th bones and joints
The centrai feature of hallux valgus is a progressive lateral all contribute to th condition. The full spectrum of severe
deviation of th first toe. Although th deformity appears to hallux valgus is often associated with dislocation and osteo-
involve primarily th metatarsophalangeal joint, th patho- arthritis of th metatarsophalangeal joint, metatarsus varus
mechanics of hallux valgus often involve th entire first ray (adductus), valgus of th first toe, bunion formation over th
(Fig. 1 4 -3 6 A and B). As depicted in th x-ray, hallux valgus mediai joint, hammer toe of th second digit, calluses, and
is associated with excessive adduction of th first metatarsal metatarsalgia.42 Surgical intervention is often indicated in
about its tarsometatarsal joint. This is often referred to in th cases of marked deformity and dysfunction.
medicai literature as metatarsus primus varus.11 The ad-
ducted position of th metatarsal bone eventuali)- collapses IN T E R P H A L A N G E A L JO IN T S
th proximal phalanx into excessive abduction, thereby ex-
posing th metatarsal head as a bunion. If th metatarsopha As in th fingers, each toe has a proximal interphalangeal and
langeal joint assumes an abducted position in excess of 30 a disiai interphalangeal joinl. The first toe, being analogous io
degrees, th proximal phalanx often begins to evert, or to th thumb, has only one interphalangeal joint (Fig. 1 4 -2 2 A ).
rotate about its long axis.42 The bunion deformity is also All interphalangeal joints of th foot possess similar ana
referred to as hallux abducto-valgus in order to account for tomie features. The joint consists of th convex head of th
th deviations in both horizontal and frontal planes. more proximal phalanx articulating with th concave base of
The progressive axial rotation of th abducted proximal th more distai phalanx. The proximal phalanx of th second
phalanx creates a muscular imbalance in th forces that toe is removed in Figure 1 4 - 3 5 to expose th concave side
normally align th metatarsophalangeal joint. The abductor of th proximal interphalangeal joint. The structure and
hallucis muscle shifts toward th piantar aspect of th first function of th connective lissues at th interphalangeal
metatarsophalangeal joint. The unopposed pul of th adduc- joints are generally similar to those described for th meta
tor hallucis and lateral head of th flexor hallucis brevis tarsophalangeal joints. Collateral ligaments, piantar plates,
progressively increases th lateral deviation posture of th and capsules are present, but smaller and less defined.
proximal phalanx. In time, th overstretched mediai collat- Mobility at th interphalangeal joints is limited primarily
eral ligament and capsule may weaken or rupture, removing to flexion and extension. The amplitude of flexion generally
an important source of reinforcement to th mediai side of exceeds extension, and motion tends to be greater at th
th join t.26 Persons with marked hallux valgus often avoid proximal than th distai joints. Extension is limited primarily
TABLE 1 4 - 6 . Major Actions at Regions o f th Ankle and Foot During th Stance Phase of Walking*
Ankle Talocrural Piantar flexion Allows rapid foot con Dorsiflexion followed Produces a stable joint to
tact by rapid piantar accept body weight,
flexion followed by thrust
needed for push off
Rearfoot Subtalar Pronation and lowering Permits internai rotation Continued pronation Permits extemal rotation
of th mediai longi- of lower limb changing to supi- of lower limb
tudinal arch Allows th foot to func nation, followed Converts th midfoot to
tion as a shock ab- by a raising of th a rigid lever for push
sorber mediai longitudi- off
Produces a pliable mid nal arch
foot
Midfoot Transverse tarsal Relative inversion as a Allows full extent of Relative everson Allows th midfoot and
joint response to counter- subtalar joint prona forefoot to maintain
force from th tion finn contact with th
ground ground
Forefoot Metatarsophalangeal Insignificant Hyperextension Increases tension in th
piantar fascia
Through th windlass ef-
fect, raises th mediai
longitudinal arch and
stabilizes th midfoot
and forefoot for push
off
rior, extensor digtorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, nerve. Tables 1 4 - 7 and 1 4 - 8 summarize th motor inner
and peroneus tertius. The deep branch continues distally to vation of th extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of th ankle and
innervate th extensor digitorum brevis (i.e., an intrinsic foot.23-55 As an additional reference, th motor nerve roots
muscle located on th dorsum of th foot). It also supplies that supply all th muscles of th lower extremity are listed
sensory innervation to a triangular area of skin in th web in Appendix IVA. Appendix IVB shows key muscles typically
space between th first and second toes. The s u p e r fic ia l used to test th functional status of th L2-S3 ventral nerve
b r a n c h o f th p e r o n e a l n e rv e innervates th peroneus longus roots.
and peroneus brevis within th lateral compartment. It then
continues distally as a sensory nerve io much of th skin on
S E N S O R Y IN N E R V A T IO N TO T H E JO IN T S
th dorsal and lateral aspects of th leg and foot.
The tib ia l n e r v e (L4-S 3) and its terminal branches innervate The ta lo c r u r a l jo i n t receives sensory innervation from th
th remainder of th extrinsic and intrinsic muscle of th deep branch of th peroneal nerve. Detailed information on
foot and ankle (Fig. 1 4 - 3 9 ). The muscles within th poste- th sensory inneivation to th more distai joints of th ankle
rior compartment are divided into a superficial and deep set. however, is limited. In generai, sensory innervation to th
The superficial set includes th calf muscles: th gastrocne- joints of th foot is supplied primarily through nerve
mius and soleus, together known as th triceps surae, and branches that cross th region. Each major joint usually
th small plantaris. The deep set includes th tibialis poste- receives multiple sources of sensory innervation, traveling to
rior, flexor hallucis longus, and flexor digitorum longus. As th spinai cord primarily through S 1 and S2 nerve roots.18
th tibial nerve approaches th mediai side of th ankle, it
sends a sensory branch to th skin over th heel.
Just posterior to th mediai malleolus, th tibial nerve Anatomy and Function of th Muscles
bifurcates into th m e d ia i p i a n t a r n e r v e (L4-S2) and la t e r a l
E X T R IN S IC M U S C L E S
p ia n t a r n e r v e (L4-S3). The piantar nerves supply sensation to
th skin of most of th piantar side on th foot and motor The primary functions of th muscles of th ankle and foot
innervation to all intrinsic muscles, except th extensor digi are to provide static control, dynamic thrust, and shock
torum brevis. The organization of th innervation of th absorption to th distai lower extremity. These functions are
intrinsic muscles of th foot is similar to that in th hand. performed by both intrinsic and extrinsic muscles. Addi
The mediai piantar nerve is analogous to th median nerve, tional discussion of th muscular interaction during th gait
whereas th lateral piantar nerve is analogous to th ulnar process follows in Chapter 15.
508 Section IV Lower Exiremity
Antcrior view
Because all th extrinsic muscles cross multiple joints, toe. Progressing laterally across th dorsum of th ankle are
they possess multiple actions. Many actions can be appreci- th tendons of th extensor digitorum longus and th pero-
ated by noting th point where th tendons cross th axes of neus tertius (or third peronei). The four tendons of th
rotation at th talocrural and subtalar joints (Fig. 1 4 -4 0 ). extensor digitorum longus attach to th dorsal surface of th
Although Figure 1 4 - 4 0 is oversimplifed (by lacking th middle and distai phalanges via th dorsal digitai expansion.
transverse tarsal joint as well as other components of prona- (This tissue is structurally analogous to th extensor mecha-
tion and supination at th ankle and foot), it is useful for nism in th fingers.) The peroneus tertius is part of th
helping to understand th actions of th extrinsic muscles. extensor digitorum longus muscle and may be considered as
Anterior Compartment Muscles th toe-extensor s fifth tendon.5 The peroneus tertius at-
taches to th base of th fifth metatarsal bone.
Muscular Anatomy
The four muscles of th anterior compartment are listed in
th box. As a group, these pretibial muscles have their prox-
imal attachments on th anterior and lateral aspects of th Muscles of th Anterior Compartment of th Leg
proximal half of th tibia, th adjacent fibula, and th inter- (Pretibial Dorsiflexors)
osseous membrane (Fig. 1 4 - 4 1 ). The tendons of these mus
M u scles
cles cross th dorsal side of th ankle, restrained by a syno- Tibialis anterior
vial-lined superior and injeror extensor retinaculum. Locateci Extensor digitorum longus
most medially is th prominent tendon of th tibialis ante Extensor hallucis longus
rior that courses distally to th medial-plantar surface of th Peroneus tertius
ftrst tarsometatarsal joint. The tendon of th extensor hallu- In n er v a tio n
cis longus passes just lateral to th tendon of th tibialis Deep portion of th peroneal nerve
anterior, as it courses toward th dorsal surface of th first
Chapter 14 Ankle and Foot 509
Posterior vievv
-Sural nerve
Tibial nerve
m Lateral piantar
nerve
SENSORY DISTRIBUTION
* The muscles are listed in a generai descending order of nerve root * The muscles are listed in generai descending order of nerve root
innervation. innervation.
510 Section IV Lower Extremity
Achilles tendon'
m
PLANTAR FLEXION PLANTAR FLEXION A nterior view
INVERSION t r \) EVERSION
FIGURE 14-40. The multiple actions of muscles that cross th taio-
crural and subtalar joints, as viewed from above. The actions of
each muscle are based on its position relative to th axes of rotation
at th joints. Note that th muscles have multiple actions.
Joint Action
All four pretibial muscles are dorsiflexors because they cross - Tibialis anterior
anterior to th axis of rotation at th talocrural joint. The
Peroneus longus-
tibialis anterior also inverts th subtalar joint by passing just
mediai to th axis of rotation (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 0 ). The tibialis
anterior inverts and adducts th talonavicular joint, as well
as supports th mediai longitudinal arch.
The primary actions of th extensor hallucis longus are
dorsiflexion at th talocrural joint and extension of th first
toe. Inversion ai th subtalar joint is negligible due its small
moment arm, at least when analyzed from th anatomie Extensor digitorum longus
position. In addition to dorsiflexion of th ankle, th extensor and peroneus tertius-
digitorum longus and peroneus tertius evert th foot.
The pretibial muscles are most active during th early
-Extensor hallucis longus
stance phase and again throughout th swing phase of gait Superior extensor
(see Fig. 1 5 - 2 9 , tibialis anterior). During early stance, th retinaculum -
muscles are eccentrically active to control th rate of piantar
flexion (i.e., th period between heel contact and foot-flat). Interior extensor
Controlled piantar flexion is necessary for a soft landing of retinaculum-
th foot. Through similar eccentric activation, th tibialis
anterior decelerates th lowering of th mediai longitudinal
Extensor digitorum
arch, including th pronation of th rearfoot. During th brevis -
swing phase, th pretibial muscles actively dorsiflex th an
kle and extend th toes to ensure that th entire foot clears
th ground. m
The ability to actively dorsiflex th entire foot in th near
sagittal piane requires a rather exacting balance of forces
from th pretibial muscles. The eversion and/or abduction
influence of th extensor digitorum longus and peroneus
FIGURE 14-41. The pretibial muscles of th leg: tibialis anterior,
tertius must counterbalance th inversion and adduction in extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, and peroneus
fluence of th tibialis anterior. With isolated paralysis of th tertius. All four muscles dorsiflex th ankle.
Chapter 14 Ankle and Foot 511
supination, causing th persoti to walk on th lateral border arches. The net effect of this muscle action slightly supinates
of th foot.22 th unloaded rearfoot, which provides further stability to th
At th push-off phase of walking, th peroneal muscles foot. This stability is necessary so that th piantar flexion
assist other muscles with piantar flexion at th talocrural torque required to stand on tiptoes can be effectively trans-
joint. The lateral position of th peroneal muscles helps ferred forward over th metatarsal heads.
neulralize th strong inversion (supination) bias of th re-
maining piantar flexors, including th tibialis posterior, th Posterior Compartment Muscles
extrinsic toe flexors, and, to a limited degree, th gastrocne- Anatomy
mius. Furthermore, as th heel is raised, contraction of th The muscles of th posterior compartment are divided into
peroneal muscles, especially th peroneus longus, helps two groups. The superftcial calf group includes th gas
transfer body weight from th lateral to th mediai side of trocnemius, soleus (together known as triceps surae), and
th forefoot. This shifts th bodys center-of-mass toward th plantaris (Fig. 1 4 -4 5 A and B). The deep group includes th
opposite foot, which is entering th early stance phase of tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis
gail. longus (Fig. 1 4 -4 6 ).
The eversion force of th peroneus longus stabilizes th
foot by counteracting th potent mediai pul of th many
invertor-plantar flexor muscles. This is especially evident as Muscles of th Posterior Compartment of th Leg
th heel rises when standing on tiptoes (Figure 1 4 - 4 4 ). The
Superficial group (piantar flexors")
strongly activated peroneus longus and tibialis posterior
Gastrocnemius
muscles neutralize one another as they form a functional Soleus
sling that supports th transverse and mediai longitudinal Plantaris
Deep group (invenors)
Tibialis posterior
Flexor digitorum longus
Flexor hallucis longus
Innervation
Tibial nerve
FIGURE 14-45. The superficial muscles of th postevior compartment of th righi leg are shown: A, th gastrocne-
mius; B, th soleus and plantaris.
these muscles (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 0 ). The libialis posterior, flexor langeal joint, fnally attaching to th piantar side of th base
digitorum longus, and aforementioned neurovascular bundle of th distai phalanx of th first toe (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 3 ).
course through th tarsal tunnel, located just deep to th The tendon of th flex or digitorum longus courses distally
flexor retinaculum (Fig. 1 4 -4 7 ). The tarsal tunnel is analo- across th ankle posterior to th mediai malleolus. At about
gous to th carpai tunnel in th wrist. Tarsal tunnel syn- th level of th base of th metatarsals, th main tendon of
drome (analogous to carpai tunnel syndrome) is character- th flexor digitorum longus divides into four smaller ten-
ized by entrapment of th tibial nerve beneath th flexor dons, each attaching to th base of th distai phalanx of th
retinaculum and subsequent paresthesia over th piantar as- lesser toes (see Fig. 1 4 -4 3 ).
pect of th foot.43 The tendon of th tibialis posterior muscle lies just anterior
The tendon of th flexor hallucis longus courses distally to th tendon of th flexor digitorum longus in a shared
through th ankle in a groove formed between th tubercles groove on th posterior side of th mediai malleolus (see
of th talus and th inferior edge of th sustentaculum talus Fig. 1 4 -4 7 ). Once in th piantar aspect of th foot, th
(see Fig. 1 4 - 1 1 ). Fibrous bands convert this groove into a tendon of th tibialis posterior passes deep to th flexor
synovial-lined canal, anchoring th position of th tendon.55 retinaculum and superficial to th deltoid ligament. At this
The somewhat deep fiaterai) position of th tendon relative point, th tendon divides into superficial and deep parts,
to th tibialis posterior and flexor digitorum longus explains establishing attachments to every tarsal bone, except th ta
why th flexor hallucis longus is not considered as a struc- lus, and to th bases of several of th more centrai metatar
ture within th tarsal tunnel. Once in th piantar aspect of sals (see Fig. 1 4 - 4 3 ). The extensive attachments support th
th foot, th tendon of th flexor hallucis longus courses mediai longitudinal arch. A ruptured tendon may cause a
between th two sesamoid bones of th first metatarsopha- collapse of th mediai longitudinal arch and a drop in th
514 Section IV Lower Extremily
FIGURE 14-47. A mediai view of ihe flexor retinaculum that covers th tendons of th tibialis posterior,
flexor digitorum longus, and posterior tibial neurovascular bundle. (Front Richardson EG: Neurogenic
disorders. In Canale ST (ed): Campbell's Operative Orthopaedics, voi 4, 9th ed. St. Louis, Mosby-Year
Book, 1998.)
b o d y w e ig h t o v e r o r ju s t a n t e r io r t o t h k n e e 's m e d ia l-
la t e r a l a x is o f r o t a t io n . W it h t h f o o t f ix e d t o t h g r o u n d ,
a c t iv e p ia n t a r f le x io n a t t h a n k le c a n e x t e n d t h k n e e
(F ig . 1 4 - 4 8 B ) . 50 T h e s o le u s m u s c le is p a r t ic u la r ly w e ll
s u it e d t o s t a b iliz e t h k n e e in e x t e n s io n . A s a p r e d o m i-
n a t e ly s lo w - t w it c h m u s c le , t h s o le u s c a n p r o d u c e r e la -
Body weight Body weight
t iv e ly lo w f o r c e s o v e r a r e la t iv e ly lo n g d u r a t io n b e f o r e
f a t ig u in g . M a r k e d s p a s t ic it y in t h s o le u s m u s c le e x e r t s a FIGURE 14-48. Two examples of how th ankle affects th position
p o t e n t a n d c h r o n ic k n e e e x t e n s io n b ia s th a t , o v e r t im e , and stability of th knee while standing. A, Weakened soleus mus
c a n c o n t r ib u t e t o g e n u r e c u r v a t u m d e f o r m it y . cle is unable to decelerale ankle dorsiflexion (DF). With th foot
fixed to th ground, ankle dorsiflexion occurs as a forward rotation
of th leg over th talus. The forward position of th leg shifts th
force of body weight posterior to th knee, causing tt to buckle
into flexion. B, A normal strength soleus muscle causes th ankle to
piantar flex (PF). With th foot fixed to th ground, piantar flexion
rotates th leg posteriorly, bringing th knee toward extension.
516 Section IV Lower Extremity
Muscle Estimated Maximal Force Potential (kg) Internai Moment Arm (cm) Torque Potential* (kg-cm)
Gastrocnemius 89.7 4.8 430.6
Soleus 78.0 4.8 374.4
Tibialis posterior 22.6 2.3 52.0
Peroneus longus 16.8 2.6 43.7
Flexor hallucis longus 17.6 2.3 40.5
Peroneus brevis 14.8 2.6 38.5
Flexor digitorum longus 10.9 2.3 25.1
Total 250.4 1004.8
B i o m e c h a n i c s o f R a is in g u p o n T ip t o e s h e lp s t h in t r in s ic m u s c le s s u p p o r t t h m e d ia i lo n g it u d in a l
a r c h a n d m a in t a in a r ig id f o r e f o o t , t h e r e b y a llo w in g t h
T h e f u n c t io n a l s t r e n g t h o f t h p ia n t a r f le x o r m u s c le s is
f o o t t o a c c e p t t h lo a d im p o s e d b y b o d y w e ig h t .
o f t e n e v a lu a t e d b y r e q u ir in g a s u b j e c t t o r e p e a t e d ly s t a n d
o n t ip t o e s . A s s h o w n in F ig u r e 1 4 - 5 0 , m a x im a lly r a is in g
t h b o d y r e q u ir e s a n in t e r a c t io n o f t w o c o n c u r r e n t
t o r q u e s , o n e a t t h t a lo c r u r a l jo in t a n d o n e a t t h m e t a -
t a r s o p h a la n g e a l jo in t s . T h e p ia n t a r f le x o r m u s c le s , r e p r e -
s e n t e d b y t h g a s t r o c n e m iu s , p ia n t a r f le x t h talocrural
jo in t b y r o t a t in g t h c a l c a n e u s a n d t a lu s w it h in t h m o r -
t is e . T h e p r im a r y t o r q u e u s e d t o r a is e t h b o d y , h o w e v e r ,
is p r o d u c e d b y e x t e n s io n a c r o s s t h metatarsophalangeal
joints. A c t in g a b o u t t h e s e a x e s , t h g a s t r o c n e m iu s h a s a n
in t e r n a i m o m e n t a r m t h a t g r e a t ly e x c e e d s t h e x t e r n a l
m o m e n t a r m o w in g t o b o d y w e ig h t ( c o m p a r e B and C in
F ig . 1 4 - 5 0 ) . S u c h a la r g e m e c h a n ic a l a d v a n t a g e is r a r e in
t h m u s c u lo s k e le t a l S y s t e m . A c t in g a s a s e c o n d - c l a s s
le v e r w it h t h p iv o t p o in t a t t h m e t a t a r s o p h a la n g e a l
jo in t s , t h g a s t r o c n e m iu s lif t s t h b o d y u s in g m e c h a n ic s
s im ila r t o t h o s e o f a p e r s o n lif tin g a la r g e lo a d w it h a
w h e e lb a r r o w . If, f o r in s t a n c e , t h g a s t r o c n e m iu s f u n c t io n s
w it h a m e c h a n ic a l a d v a n t a g e o f 3:1 (i.e ., t h r a t io o f t h
in t e r n a l- t o - e x t e r n a l m o m e n t a r m , o r B/C in t h F ig u r e ) , t h
m u s c le n e e d s t o p r o d u c e a lif t in g f o r c e o f o n ly o n e t h ir d ,
o r 33 % , o f b o d y w e ig h t t o s u p p o r t t h p ia n t a r f le x e d
p o s it io n . R a r e ly in t h b o d y d o e s a m u s c le p r o d u c e a
f o r c e le s s t h a n t h lo a d it is s u p p o r t in g . A s a m e c h a n ic a l
t r a d e - o f f , h o w e v e r , t h g a s t r o c n e m iu s , in t h e o r y , n e e d s to
s h o r t e n a d is t a n c e t h r e e t im e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h v e r t ic a l
d is p la c e m e n t o f t h b o d y 's c e n t e r o f m a s s ( s e e C h a p t e r
1). M a x im a l c o n t r a c t io n o f t h g a s t r o c n e m iu s w o u ld p r o
d u c e a v e r t ic a l d is p la c e m e n t o f t h b o d y o n ly o n e - t h ir d
t h le n g t h o f t h m u s c le c o n t r a c t io n . N e v e r t h e le s s , t h
FIGURE 14-50. A mechanical model shows th biomechanics of
n a t u r e o f t h is t r a d e - o f f a l l o w s o n e t o s t a n d u p o n t ip t o e s
standing on tiptoes. The force of a contracting gastrocnemius mus
w it h r e la t iv e e a s e .
cle acts with a relatively short internai moment arm from th
F ig u r e 1 4 - 5 0 s h o w s t h im p o r t a n c e o f a m p ie h y p e r e x -
talocrural joint (A), and a relatively long internai moment ann from
t e n s io n r a n g e o f m o tio n a t t h m e t a t a r s o p h a la n g e a l th metatarsophalangeal joints (B). Once on tiptoes, th line-of-
jo in t s . N o t o n ly d o t h p ia n t a r f le x io n m u s c le s u s e t h e s e gravity due to body weight falls just posterior to th axis of rotation
jo in t s t o a u g m e n t t h e ir in t e r n a i m o m e n t a r m , b u t, a s d e - at th metatarsophalangeal joints. As a result, body weight acts with
s c r ib e d e a r lie r , h y p e r e x t e n s io n o f t h e s e j o in t s p u lls t h a relatively small external moment arm (C) from th metatarsopha
p ia n t a r f a s c i a t a u t v ia t h w i n d l a s s e f f e c t . T h is a c t io n langeal joints.
piantar flexed posture may lead lo an adaptive shortening resulting paralysis of th dorsiflexor and peroneal muscles
and tightening of th Achilles tendon. The relentless pul of predisposes a person to a fixed deformity of combined pian
gravity often contributes to a plantar-flexed posture, often tar flexion of th talocrural joint and supination of th foot,
requiring an orthosis to maintain adequate dorsiflexion while a condition referred to as pes equinovarus.
walking.
An injury to th supcrficial branch of th peroneal nerve In ju ry to th T ib ia l N e rve
may result in paralysis of th peroneus longus and peroneus Injury to th tibial nerve may cause varying levels of weak-
brevis (see Fig. 1 4 -3 8 ). Over time, paralysis may lead to a ness or paralysis in th muscles of th posterior compart-
fixed supinated or inverted posture of th foot, a condition ment (see Fig. 1 4 -3 9 ). Paralysis of th gastrocnemius and
called pes vams. An injury to th common peroneal nerve soleus results in profound diminution in piantar flexion
may involve both deep and superficial nerve branches. The torque. Over time, a fixed dorsiflexion posture may result at
518 Section /V Lower Exlremity
TABLE 1 4 - 1 0 . Common Fixed Deformities or Abnormal Postures of th Ankle and Foot from Muscle
Paralysis*
Fixed Deformity or Abnormal Common Muscle Paralysis and Associated Examples of Subsequent
Posture Clinical Name Nerve Injury Musculotendinous Shortening
Piantar llexion of th talocrural Drop-foot or pes Paralysis of pretibial muscles from in Gastrocnemius, soleus
joint equinus jury to th deep branch of peroneal
nerve
Inversion (supination) of th Pes varus Paralysis of th peroneus longus and Tibialis posterior
foot brevis from injury io th superficial
branch of th peroneal nerve
Piantar flexion of th talocrural Pes equinovarus Paralysis of th dorsiflexor and pero Gastrocnemius, soleus and tibi
joint and supination of th neal muscles from injury to th alis posterior
foot common peroneal nerve
Dorsi flexion of th talocrural Pes calcaneus Paralysis of th piantar flexor muscles Pretibial muscles
joint from injury to th tibial nerve
Eversion (pronation) of th foot Pes valgus Paralysis of th supinator muscles from Peroneal muscles
injury to th tibial nerve
Dorsiflexion of th talocrural Pes calcaneovalgus Paralysis of all th muscles in th pos Pretibial and peroneal muscles
joint and eversion of th foot terior compartment of th leg from
a severance of th tibial nerve just
proximal to th popliteal fossa
th talocrural joint, a condition krtown as pes calcaneus. The sor hallucis brevis, and three that join th tendons of th
name calcaneus reflects th prominent heel pad that forms extensor digitorum longus of th second through th fourth
as a response to th heel of th dorsiflexed foot repeatedly toes.5'5 The extensor digitorum brevis assists th extensor
striking th ground. hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus muscles in
Paralysis involving primarily th supinator muscles may extension of th toes.
result in a fixed pronated deformity of th foot, primarily th The remaining intrinsic muscles of th foot originate and
result of th unopposed pul of th peroneus longus and insert within th piantar aspect of th foot. Anatomically
brevis. The terni pes valgus describes both eversion and ab- these muscles are organized in a fashion similar to th in
duction components of th pronation deformity. Paralysis trinsic muscles of th hand. One major difference, however,
involving all th muscles of th posterior compartment in- is that th foot does not contain muscles that oppose th
creases th potential for a fixed deformity called pes calcaneo- first and fifth digits. The intrinsic muscles of th piantar
valgus. aspect of th foot can be organized into four layers (Fig. 1 4 -
The common fixed deformities or abnormal postures of 51A to C). The piantar fascia is located just superficial to th
th ankle and foot are summarized in Table 1 4 -1 0 . first layer of muscles.
l. a y e r 1
INTRINSIC M U S C L E S The intrinsic muscles in th first layer are th (lexor
digitorum brevis, abductor hallucis, and abductor digiti min
A n a to m ie a n d F u n c tio n a l C o n s id e ra tio n s
imi (Fig. 145 1A). As a group, they originate on th lateral
Intrinsic muscles are those that originate and insen within and mediai processes ol th calcaneal tuberosity and nearby
th foot. The following discussion highlights th primary connective tissues. The flexor digitorum brevis attaches distally
attachments and actions of th intrinsic muscles. More de- to both sides of th middle phalanges of th four lesser toes.
tailed material is presented in Appendix IVC. Proximal lo this distai attachment, each tendon divides to
1 he dorsum of th (oot has one intrinsic muscle, th allow passage of th tendons of th flexor digitorum longus.
extensor digitorum brevis, which is innervated by th deep Note th similar relationship between th flexor digitorum
branch of th peroneal nerve (see Figs. 1 4 - 3 5 and 1 4 -4 1 ). superficialis and profundus of th hand. The flexor digito
The extensor digitorum brevis originates on th dorsal-lateral rum brevis assists th flexor digitorum longus in flexing th
surface of th calcaneus, just proximal to th caicaneocuboid toes. The abductor hallucis forms th mediai border of th
articulation. l'he muscle belly sends four tendons: one to th foot, providmg a covered passage for th piantar nerves that
dorsal surface of th first toe, often designated as th exten enter th piantar aspect of th foot. The abductor muscle
Chapter 14 Ankle and Foot 519
Flexor digitorum
Abductor
brevis (cut)
hallucis Adductor hallucis
(cut) (transverse head) Abductor hallucis
Sesamoids
(cut)
Abductor digiti Lumbricals
minimi (cut) Piantar interassei Adductor hallucis
Flexor (oblique head)
Abductor hallucis
Abductor Flexor digiti minimi Flexor hallucis
hallucis longus
digiti brevis
minimi Flexor Flexor Peroneus brevis
digitorum Quadratus digitorum
brevis plantae longus Tibialis posterior
Peroneus longus
Long piantar
Piantar fascia ligament
(cut)
P ia n t a r a s p e c t
FIGURE 14-51. The intrinsic muscles of th piantar aspect of th foot are organized into four layers.
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bells Operative Orthopaedics, voi 4, 8lh ed. St. Louis, Mosby-Year 4130, 1983.
Book, 1992. 54 Weinfeld SB, Schon LC: Hallux metatarsophalangeal arthritts. Clin Or
43 Richardson EG, Neurogenic disorders. In Crenshaw AH (ed): Camp thop Rei Res .349:9-19, 1998
bells' Operative Orthopaedics, voi 4, 8th ed. St. Louis, Mosby-Year 55 Williams PL, Bannister LH, Berry M, et al: Grays Anatomy, 4th ed.
Book, 1992. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1995.
44. Root ML, Weed JH, Sgarlato TE, et al: Axis of rotation of th subtalar 56. Wright DG, Desai SM, Henderson WH: Action of th subtalar and
joint. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 56:149-155, 1966. ankle joint complex during th stance phase of walking. J Bone Joint
45. Scott SH, Winter DA: Biomechamcal model of th human fool: Kine- Surg 46A:361-382, 1964.
matics and kinetics during th siance phase of walking. J Biomechan 57. Yoshtoka Y, Sui DW, Scudamore RA, et al: Tibial anatomy and func-
26:1091-1104, 1993. tional axes. J Orthop Res 7:132-137, 1989.
46. Self BP, Harris S, Greenwald RM: Ankle biomechanics during impact
landings on uneven surfaces. Foot Ankle Ini 21:138-144, 2000.
47. Sepie SB, Murray MP, Molltnger LA, et al: Strength and range of motion ADDITIONAL READINGS
in th ankle in two age groups of men and women. Am J Phys Med 65:
75 -8 4 , 1986. Basmajian JV, Bentzon JW: An electromyographic study of certain muscles
48. Siegler S, Chen J, Schneck CD: The three-dtmensional kinematics and of th leg and foot in th standing posilion. Surg Gynecol Obstet 98:
flexibility characteristics of th human ankle and subtalar joints. Pari 1: 662-666. 1954.
Kinematics. Transactions of th ASME. J Biomech Eng 110:364-373, Chan CW, Rudins A: Foot Biomechanics dunng walking and running Mayo
1988. Clin Proc 69:448-461, 1994.
49. Stauffer RN, Chao EYS, Brewster RC: Force and motion analysis of th Comwall MW, McPoil TG: Relative movement of th navicular bone during
norma!, diseased, and prosthetic ankle joint. Clin Orthop Rei Res 127: normal walking. Foot Ankle Int 20:507-512, 1999.
189-196, 1977. Eng JJ, Pierrynowski MR: The effect of soft foot orthotics on th three-
50. Sutherland DH: An electromyographic study of th plantarflexors of th dimensional lower limb kinematics during walking and running. Phys
ankle in normal walking on th level. J Bone Joint Surg 48A:66-71, Ther 74:836-844, 1994.
1966. Oatis CA: Biomechanics of th foot and ankle under static conditions. Phys
51. Thordarson DB, Schmotzer H, Chon J, et al: Dynamic support of th Ther 68:1815-1821, 1988.
C h a p t e r 15
Kinesiology of Walking
Guy G. Sim o n ea u , PT, P h D, ATC
TOPICS AT A GLANCE
inputs. Although this chapter covers th intricacy of lim novel methods of measurements are shoes that had air
and muscular actions performed during walking, it does noi chambers attached to a recorder to indicate th swing and
cover th concept of motor control. To gain a greater under- stance phase of gait (Fig. 15 2).47-48 Another clever idea was
standing of th complexity of th motor control of gait, th th use of ink in small spray nozzles attached to th shoes
reader is advised to examine other sources on th topic, and limbs.87 The ink sprayed on th floor and wall as th
such as Shumway-Cook and Woollacott, 1995,76 and Mas-
deu et a l, 1997.49
b
individuai walked and provided a permanent record of piane and less frequently in th frontal piane. Braune and
movement. Fisher67 are credited as being th first researchers, from
Concurrently, advances in th field of cinematography 1895 to 1904, to perform a comprehensive three-dimen-
created a powerful medium to study and record th kine- sional analysis of a walking individuai. By using four cam-
matic patterns of humans and animals walking. Muybridge eras (two pairs of cameras recording motion for each side of
may be th most recognized individuai of his time to use th body) and a number of light tubes attached to various
cinematography to document sequence ol movements. Muy body segments, they documented joint kinematics in three
bridge is most famous for settling an old controversy regard- dimensions. They were also th first to use th principles of
ing a trotting horse. In 1872, using sequence photography, mechanics to measure dynamic quantities such as segmentai
he showed that all four feet of a trotting horse are indeed acceleration, segmentai inertial properties, and intersegmental
simultaneously off th ground for very brief periods of lime. loads (e.g., joint torques and forces). Their analysis of joint
Muybridge created an impressive collection of photographs torques, limited to th swing phase of gait, dispelled th
on human and animai gait, which was initially published in earlier concept, suggested by Weber and Weber in 1836,
1887 and assembled and reproduced in 1979.60-6' that lower extremity motion during th swing phase of gait
Initially, th description of gait was limited to planar was explained by a passive pendulum theory.
analyses; th motion was typically recorded in th sagittal Throughout th 20th century, th understanding of walk-
1i \ ncww www*////,,
young boy (B) wear reflective targets while
walking in a semidark hallway. Using a
camera with th shutter opened, light was 'muti, 1
flashed 20 times per second to track th
location of th markers. An additional
.................. ' ' 7 ! V. 7 7 tat
brighter flash of light was used to photo- \\ j .
graph th man or boy while they were
walking. This early technique allowed th v :
visualization of an entire gait cycle with a
single photograph. A ceiling-mounted mir
rar was also employed to observe horizon-
tal piane motion. (A, From Murray MP,
Gore DR: Gait of patients with hip pain or
loss of hip joint motion. In Black J , Dum-
bleton JH (eds): Clinical Biomechanics: A
Case llistory Approach. New York,
Churchill Livingstone, 1981; B, from Stra-
tham L, Murray MP. Early walking pat
terns of normal children. Clin Orthop 79:
8, 1971.)
526 Section /V Lower Extremity
FIGURE 15-6. The gaie cycle from righi heel contact to th subsequent right heel contact.
more dynamic experience if th reading and studying of this tion of th gait cycle occurs as soon as th same foot once
chapter are combined with th observing of th gait pattems again makes contact with th ground. A stride (synonymous
of relatives, friends, and neighbors. with a gait cycle) is th sequence of events taking place
between successive heel contacts of th same foot. In com-
parison, a step is th sequence of events that occurs within
SPAT1AL AND TEMPORAL DESCRIPTORS ______ successive heel contacts of opposite feet, for example, be
tween right and left heel contacts. A gait cycle, therefore, has
This section describes measurements of distance and Urne as two steps a left step and a right step.
related to walking. The most basic spatial descriptors of gait include th
length of a stride and th length of a step (Fig. 1 5 - 7 ). Stride
length is th distance between two successive heel contacts of
Gait Cycle th same foot. Step length, in contrast, is th distance be
Walking is th result of a cyclic series of movements. As tween successive heel contacts of th two different feet.
such, it can be convenienti) characterized by a detailed de- Comparing righi with left step lengths can help to evaluate
scription of its most fundamental unii: a gait cycle (Fig. th symmetry of gait between th lower extremities (Fig.
1 5 - 6 ) . The gait cycle is initiated as soon as th foot contacts 1 5 - 8 ). Step width is th lateral distance between th heel
th ground. Because foot contact is normally made with th centers of two consecutive foot contacts and normally ranges
heel, th 0% point or beginning of th gait cycle is referred from 7 to 9 cm (Fig. 1 5 - 7 ) . Foot angle, th degree of toe-
to as heel contact, or heel strike. The 100% point or comple- out, is th angle between th line of progression of th
Right
heel
contact
FIGURE 15-7. Spatial descriptors of gait and their normal values for a right gait cycle.
528 Section /V Lower Exlremity
A. NORMAL G A IT B. P A I N F U L H IP G A IT
/V /
|- ------------ 78 c . --- H
RIGHI LEfT
t
H----- 78 -------- -J
LEFT RIGHI
z_u
I- R itaH | 31 ca|
thology on siep lengih. A illustraies ihe symmetri-
cal siep length expected in a healthy individuai. B
and C are examples of siep length asymmetry
often seen in those wiih an impairment or a pa-
SOUND I M P A I R E D I M P A I R E D SOUND
UMB UMB LIMB LIMB LIMB UMB UMB UMB thology thai affects a single lower extremity. Noie
thai th unilaieral paihology in C resulted in bi-
lateral shortening of th normal step length, dem-
C . H E M IP A R E S IS G A IT
D. PARKINSON'S DISEASE onstrating th interdependence of th lower ex-
GAIT iremities during gaii. D illusirates a relatively
symmetrical bilateral reduction in step length sec-
ondary to Parkinsons disease, a pathology ihat
often affects both lower exiremities. (From Mur
ray MP: Gait as a total pattern of movement. Am
J Phys Med 46:290, 1967.)
body and th long axis of th foot. About 7 degrees is typically meters per second (m/s) or miles per hour (mph).
considered normal.53 Speed can be calculated by measuring th time it takes to
cover a given distance, or th distance covered in a given
amount of time, or by multiplying th step rate by th step
length. Walking speed varies considerably between persons
based on factors such as age and physical characteristics,
such as height and weight.15 Of all spatial and temporal
measurements of gait, speed may be th best and most
lunctional measure of an individuala walking ability.
Among normal adults, a gait cycle (i.e., two consecutive
steps) takes slightly more than 1 second and covers approxi-
The most basic lemporal descriptor of gait is cadence, th mately 1.44 meters (4.5 feet), representing a speed of 1.37
number of steps per minute, which is also called step rate. m/s. Data in Table 1 5 - 1 indicate that, at a freely chosen
Other temporal descriptors of gait are strde lime (th lime walking speed, women exhibit a slower walking speed,
for a full gait cycle) and step lime (th time for th comple- shorter step length, and faster cadence than men. These
tion of a right or a left step). Note thai in normal symmetri
differences are likely in part reflective of anthropometric dis-
cal gait, step time can be derived from cadence (i.e., step parities between genders. Interestingly, even when anthropo-
time is th reciprocai of cadence).
metrically matched with men, women demonstrate a htgher
cadence and shorter step length than men when walking at a
standard speed.2l 5fi
J T A B L E 1 5 - 1 . Normative Data for W alking Speed, Step Rate, and Step Length f
Drillis (1961) Molen (1973) Finley and Cody (1970) Average Over
(New York City) (Amsterdam) (Philadelphia) Gender and City
1 5 - 9 ). Typically, an individuai combines both sirategies un- using th right lower extremity as a reference. A full gait
til th longest comfortable step length is reached. From that cycle for th right lower extremity can be divided into two
point on, a further increase in speed is solely related to major phases stance and swing (Fig. 1 5 - 1 0 ). Stance phase
increased cadence. All measurements o f gait (spadai, temporal, (from right heel contact to righi toe off) occurs as th righi
kinematic, and kinetic) depend on walking speed. For proper foot is on th ground, supporting th bodys weight. Swing
referente and interpretation, therefore, reports of gait charac- phase (from right toe off to th next right heel contact)
teristics should include th walking speed at which th data occurs as th right foot is in th air, being advanced forward
were collected. for th next contact with th ground. At normal walking
speed, th stance phase occupies approximately 60% of th
gait cycle, and th swing phase occupies th remaining 40%.
Stance and Swing Phase
To help describe events taking place during th gait cycle, it
is customary to subdivide th gait cycle from 0 to 100%. As
stated earlier, heel or foot contact with th ground is consid-
ered th start of th gait cycle (0% ) and th next ground
contaci made by th same foot is considered th end of th
gait cycle (100% ). Throughout this chapter, gait is described
FREE SPEED W A L K IN G
FIGURE 15-9. Methods to increase walking speed. A illustrates th longer step length used to increase walking speed;
B illustrates th walking cadence used at a faster walking speed. The duration of th gait cycle is reduced from 1.08
seconds to 0.91 second. B also illustrates that at th faster walking speed, a smaller percemage of th gait cycle is
spent in double-limb support (i.e., 16% at fast speed compared with 24% at free speed walking). (A from Murray MP,
Kory RC, Clarkson BH, Sepie SB: Comparison of free and fast speed walking patterns of normal men. Am J Phys Med
45:8, 1966; B Modified from Murray MP, Gore DR, Clarkson BH: Walking patterns of patients with unilateral hip
pain due to osteoarthritis and avascular necrosis. J Bone Joint Surg 53A:259, 1971.)
530 Section IV Lower Extremity
180 steps/minute or at a speed of approximately 2.0 m/s This event occurs at approximately 8% of th gait cycle. Mid
(4.5 mph). Above 2.0 m/s it is more energy effcieru to run stance is most often defined as th point where th bodys
than walk. weight passes directly over th supporting lower extremity. It
Conversely, at a slow walking speed, th periods of dou- is also defined as th time when th foot of th lower
ble-limb support occupy an increasingly greater percentage extremity in th swing phase passes th lower extremity in
of th gait cycle. A slower gait provides greater stability th stance phase (i.e., th feet are side by side). A third
because both feet are on th ground simultaneously for a definition of mid stance is th lime when th greater tro-
greater percentage of th cycle. In fact, th reduced speed, chanter of th femur is vertically above th midpoint of th
shorter step length, and slower cadence commonly seen in supporting foot in th sagittal piane. In reality, these three
th elderly serve to improve gait stability and prevent falls. definitions all correspond to about 30% of th gait cycle or
Subdivisions o f stance and swing phases: Traditionally, five 50% of th stance phase. Heel off, which occurs at approxi
events are defined to occur during stance phase: heel con mately 40% of th gait cycle, is th instant th heel comes
tact, foot fiat, mid stance, heel off (or heel rise), and toe off off th ground. Toe o ff occurs at 60% of th gait cycle. It is
(Fig. 1 5 - 1 1 and Table 1 5 - 2 ). Heel contact is defined as th defined as th instant th toes come off th ground.
instant th heel comes in contact with th ground, at 0% of A period referred to as push o ff is also often used. This
th gait cycle. Foot fiat corresponds to th instant th entire period roughly corresponds to th movement of ankle pian
piantar surface of th foot comes in contaci with th ground. tar flexion from 40 to 60% of th gait cycle.
Heel contact 0
Foot fiat 8
10 Toe off
Stance Mid stance 30 Mid swing (2 5 -3 5 % )
Heel off 40
50 Heel contact
Toe off 60
Early swing 6 0 -7 5
Swing Mid swing 7 5 -8 5 Mid stance (80% )
Late swing 8 5 -1 0 0
90 Heel off
Heel contact 100
532 Section IV Lower Exlremity
FIGURE 15 12. Terminology lo describe th events of th gait cycle. Inaiai contact corresponds to th beginning of stante when th
loot first contacts th ground ai 0% of gait cycle. Opposite toc off occurs when th contrasterai foot leaves th ground ai 10% of
gait cycle. Heel rise corresponds to th heel lifting from th ground and occurs at approximately 30% of gait cycle Opposite initial
contact corresponds to th foot contact of th opposite limb, typically at 50% of gait cycle. Toe off occurs when th foot leaves th
ground at 60% of gait cycle. Feet adjacent takes place when th foot of th swing leg is next to th foot of th stance lee at 73% of
gait cycle. Tibia vertical corresponds to th tibia of th swing leg being oriented in th vertical direction at 87% of gait cycle The
linai event is, again, initial contact, which in fact is th start of th next gait cycle.
Ihese eight events divide ihe gait cycle into seven periods. Loading response, between initial contact and opposite toe off
corresponds to th urne when th weight is accepted by th lower extremity, initiating contact with th ground. Mid stance is from
opposite toe off to heel rise (10 to 30% of gait cycle). Terminal stance begins when th heel rises and ends when th contrasterai
ower extremity touches th ground, from 30 to 50% of gait cycle. Pre swing takes place from foot contact of th contrasterai limb
nt e r , 1Ps'later?1 lootl wt,ch 1S lhe llme corresponding lo th second double-limb supporr period of th gau cycle (50 to
60% of gau cycle). Inaiai swing is from toe off lo feet adjacent, when th foot of th swing leg is next to th foot of th stance leg
(60 to 73% ol gau cycle). Mici swing is from leet adjacent to when th tibia of th swing leg is vertical (73 to 87% of gait cycle)
i acT r l mng 'S fr m 3 vemcal Posltlon of the tibia to immediately prior to heel contaci (87 to 100% of th gait cycle) The first
10% of th gait cycle corresponds to a task of weight acceptance-when body mass is tra n sfe rt from one lower extremity to th
other. Single-hmb supporr, from 10 to 50% of th gait cycle. serves to support th weight of th body as th opposite limb swings
lorward. The Sst 10% of stance phase and th entire swing phase serve to advance th limb forward to a new location.
Although there is a significant amount of variation in th contact, opposite toe off, heel rise, opposite initial contact, toe off,
descnption of th swing phase of gait, this phase is iradi- feet adjacent, tibia vertical, and initial contact for th next
tionally subdivided into three sections: early, mid, and late stride. The four time periods durmg stance are loading re
swing (see Fig. 1 5 -1 1 ). Early swing is th period from th sponse, mid stance, terminal stance, and pre swing. Swing
tinte of toe off to mid swang (60 to 75% of th gait cycle). phase has three lime periods: initial swing, mid swing, and
Mid swing corresponds to th mid stance event of th terminal swing. With a few exceptions, this terminology is in
opposite lower extremity when th foot of th swing generai agreement with th more traditional description of
leg passes next lo th foot of th stance leg (75 to 85% of gait.
th gait cycle). Late swing is th period from mid swing The existence of two dtfferent terminologies can be con-
to foot contact with th ground (85 io 100% of th gait fusing, especially w'hen many use them interchangeably. In
cycle).
this chapter, we predominantly use th terminology pro-
An alternate and relatively more recent terminology, pro- posed by Perry in 1992.67 And to eliminate any confusion,
posed by Perry,67 consists of eight events to divide th gait we describe th timing of th events during gait as a per-
cycle into seven periods (Fig. 1 5 - 1 2 ). The events are initial centage of th gait cycle.
Chapter 15 Kinesiology oj Walking 533
T h e e v e n t s o f g a it c y c l e d e s c r ib e d in t h is s e c t io n c a n
b e o b s e r v e d b y w a t c h in g p e o p le w a lk in g in n o r m a l s u r - Side-to-side (medial-lateral) movement of th CoM also
r o u n d in g s ( s t r e e t s , m a lls , a ir p o r t s ) . L ik e a n y c l i n i c a l s k ill, occurs during ambulation, creating a single sinusoidal pat
o b s e r v a t io n a l g a it a n a ly s is im p r o v e s w it h p r a c t ic e . R e - tern in th horizontal piane. This movement can be viewed
p e a t e d o b s e r v a t io n o f in d iv id u a ls w it h n o r m a l g a it p a t- from above th individuai but is typically viewed from th
t e m s s h a r p e n s t h a b ilit y t o r e c o g n iz e n o r m a l g a it v a r i- rear or front (Fig. 1 5 -1 3 B ). In this piane of movement, th
a t io n s a n d id e n t if y a b n o r m a l g a it d e v ia t io n s . CoM is alternately shifted from th right lo th left lower
O p p o r t u n it ie s t o p r a c t ic e t h is s k ill w it h a p e r s o n a lr e a d y extremity. Maximum position of th CoM to th right occurs
t r a in e d in o b s e r v a t io n a l g a it a n a ly s is f u r t h e r s h a r p e n at th midpoint of th stance phase on th right lower
t h e s e s k ills . extremity (30% of th gait cycle), and maximum position of
th CoM to th left occurs at th midpoint of th stance
phase on th left lower extremity (80% of th gait cycle). A
total medial-lateral displacement of approximately 4 cm oc
curs during normal ambulation.34 The amount of displace
ment increases when th individuai has a wider base of
DISPLACEMENT AND CONTROL OF THE suppon during gait (i.e., walking with th feet wider apart)
BODY'S CENTER OF MASS and decreases with a narrower base of support (i.e., walking
with th feet closer together).
Walking can be defined as a series of losses and recoveries To summarize, consider th total pattern of motion of th
of balance. Ambulation is initiated by allowing th body to CoM during a full gait cycle (see Fig. 1 5 - 1 3 ). Starting
lean forward. To prevent a fall, momentary recovery of bai- shortly after right heel contact, th CoM is moving forward,
ance is achieved by moving either foot forward to a new upward, and toward th right foot. This generai direction of
location. Once gait is initiated, th bodys forward momen- movement continues for th first 30% of th gait cycle th
tum carries th center of mass (CoM) of th body beyond body is essentially climbing and shifting its mass over th
th foots new location, necessitating a step forward with th supporting lower extremity. At right mid stance, th CoM
other foot. Forward progression is then achieved by th reaches its highest and most lateral position toward th
successive and alternate relocations of th feet. The smooth, right. Just after right mid stance, th CoM continues forward
controlled transition between loss and recovery of balance but starts moving in a downward direction and toward th
continues as long as forward displacement of th body is left side of th body th body is essentially falling away
desired. Ambulation stops when foot placement stops th from th supporting lower extremity. This is a criticai mo
forward momentum of th body and balance is regained ment in th gait cycle. With th left limb in its swing phase,
over th static base of support. Although this description th body depends on th left lower extremity to make
provides a useful and relatively accurate explanation of gait, proper contact with th ground in order to accept th
il must be pointed out that walking also requires active weight transfer and to prevent a fall. Shortly after left heel
participation of th musculature of th lower extremities. contact, during th double-limb support phase, th CoM is
located midway between th feet and reaches its lowest posi
tion as it continues to move forward and toward th left
Displacement of th Center of Mass lower extremity. From right toe off to mid stance on th left
The bodys CoM is located just anterior to th second sacrai lower extremity (80% of th gait cycle), th CoM moves
vertebra, bui th best visualization of th movement of th forward, upward, and toward th left lower extremity, which
CoM is by tracking th displacement of th head or torso. is now providing support. At 80% of th gait cycle, th CoM
Clearly, th most notable displacement of th body during is again at its highest point, but in its most lateral position
gait is in th forward direction (Fig. 1 5 - 1 3 ). Superimposed to th left. Shortly after left mid stance, th movement of th
on this forward displacement, however, are two sinusoidal CoM shifts downward and toward th right side of th body.
pattems of movement that correspond to th movement of The gait cycle is completed when th right heel contacts th
th CoM in th vertical and medial-lateral directions. ground.
In th vertical direction, th CoM describes two full sine The bodys CoM never direcily falls over th bodys base
waves per gait cycle (Fig. 15-1 3 A ). This movement of th of support during single-limb support (Fig. 15 13B). This
CoM is best understood by looking at th individuai from fact speaks to th relative imbalance of th body during gait.
th side. Minimum height of th CoM occurs at th mid- In th frontal piane, to avoid a loss of balance, th foot must
point of both periods of double-limb support (5% and 55% be positioned just slightly lateral to th path of th bodys
of th gait cycle). Maximum height of th CoM occurs at th CoM to control its medial-lateral movement. Proper location
midpoint of both periods of single-limb support (30% and of th foot by hip frontal piane motion (i.e., hip abduction/
80% of th gait cycle). A total vertical displacement of ap- adduction) is cruciai considering th view of th limited
proximately 5 cm is noted at th average walking speed in ability of th subtalar joint musculature to generate a stabi-
th aduli male. lizing torque in th frontal plane.gg
534 Section IV Lower Extremity
Kinetic and Potential Energy Considerations Fig. 1 5 - 1 4 ). Potential energy is a function of th mass of
th body, th gravitational field acting on th body, and th
Although ambulaiion appears to take place at a steady for-
height of th bodys CoM (equation 15 2). During gait,
ward speed, th body actually speeds up and slows down
maximum potential energy is achieved when th CoM
slightly with each step. When th supporting lower extrem
reaches its highest points (30% and 80% of th gait cycle).
ity is in front of th bodys CoM, th body slows down.
Minimum potential energy of th body occurs at double-
Conversely, when th supporting lower extremity is behind
limb support (5% and 55% of th gait cycle), when th
th bodys CoM, th body speeds up. The body reaches its
bodys CoM is at its lowest points.
lowest velocity, therefore, at mid stance, once it has
climbed on th supporting lower extremity, and its highest
velocity during double-limb support, once it has fallen Potential energy = mgh 1 5 -2
away from th supporting lower extremity and before
climbing on th oppostte limb. Because kinetic energy of Where m is th mass of th body, g is th acceleration of
th body during ambulation is a direct function of its veoc- th body due io th gravitational field, and h is th height of
ity (equation 1 5 - 1 ) , minimum kinetic energy is reached at th bodys CoM.
mid stance (30% and 80% of th gait cycle) and maximum In a graphic representation of th changes in kinetic and
kinetic energy is reached at double-limb support (5% and potential energy during gait, a relationship between th
55% of th gait cycle) (big. 1 5 -1 4 ). curves is readily observed (see Fig. 1 5 -1 4 ). The times of
maximum potential energy correspond to th times of mini
Kinetic energy = 0.5 mv2 15-1 mum kinetic energy and vice versa. As potential energy is
lost from mid stance to double-limb support (th CoM o(
Where m is th mass of th body, and v th velocity of th th body going from its highest to its lowest location), ki
CoM of th body.
netic energy is gained (th CoM of th body going from its
Kinetic energy is complemented by potential energy (see minimum to maximum speed). Conversely, as kinetic energy
Chapier 15 Kinesiology o f Walking 535
Potential Energy
FIGURE 15-14. Transfer between potential and kinettc energy during gait. The minimum potential energy exists
when th center of mass (CoM) is at its lowest points (5% and 55% of th gait cycle). The maximum potential
energy occurs when th CoM is at its highest points (30% and 80% of th gait cycle). The reverse occurs for
kinetic energy. For example, a bicycle that gains speed while going down a hill and loses speed while it climbs
up th next hill illustrates th transfer between potential and kinetic energy.
is lost from double-limb support to mid stance, potential Most often, th angular rotation that takes place at th
energy is gained. This cyclic transfer between kinetic and joint itself is described (i.e., th relative motion of one bone
potential energy minimizes th metabolic cost of walking. compared with another). In some instances (e.g., for th
Despite th ability of th body to efficiently transfer and sagittal piane motion of th pelvis), th movement of th
thereby conserve energy while walking, a net energy cost bones in space is described without regard to th other
stili occurs. This cost is proportional to th amount of me- bones that make up th adjacent joints. The reader must
dial-lateral and vertical displacement of th CoM. therefore be careful to recognize when a discussion pertains
to joint kinematics and when it pertains to bone kinematics.
JOINT KINEMATICS
Sagittal Piane Kinematics
During gait, th bodys CoM is displaced linearly as a result Sagittal piane movement of th pelvis is small and is de
of th summation of th angular rotation of th joints of th scribed here as movement of th bony structure itself. Con-
lower extremities, which is not unlike a car moving forward versely, th sagittal piane kinematics of th hip, knee, ankle,
owing to th rotation of its tires. Movements at th joints of and first metatarsophalangeal joints are of larger magnitude
th lower extremities, therefore, are described as a function and are described as joint motion. In this section, as in th
of angular rotation. Although joint angular rotation occurs entire chapter, th gait cycle is described from right heel
primarily in th sagittal piane, important motion, although of contact to th subsequent right heel contact.
smaller magnitude, occurs in th frontal and horizontal
planes. Pelvis. Movement of th pelvis in th sagittal piane is
described in terms of anterior and posterior pelvic tilt about
a medial-lateral axis (see Chapter 12). Neutral pelvis position
Gait Kinemalics are Described for th is used as a reference. This neutral position (0 degrees) is
defined as th orientation of th pelvis in relaxed stance.
Sagittal piane
Frontal piane
Because th pelvis is a relatively rigid structure, both iliac
Horizontal piane crests are considered as moving together. During gait at
normal speed, th amount of anterior and posterior pelvic
536 Section IV Lower Extremity
tilt is small (i.e., a total of approximately 2 to 4 degrees). right heel contact, th pelvis is near neutral. From 0 to 10%
Although th movement of th pelvis is described as an of th gait cycle, a period of double-limb support, a small
independent detached structure, this small movement takes amount of posterior pelvic rotation (tilt) occurs. Then th
place both at th hips (pelvic-on-femoral flexion/extension) pelvis starts tilting anteriorly during th period of single-limb
and at th lumbosacral joint (pelvic-on-lumbar flexion/exten support, reaching a slight anterior pelvic tilted position just
sion). after mid stance (30% of th gait cycle). In th second half
The pattern of motion of th pelvis over th full gait cycle of th stance phase, th pelvis tilts posteriorly until just after
resembles a sine wave with two full cycles (Fig. 15-1 5 A ). At toe off. During initial and mid swing (60 to 87% of gait),
th pelvis agairt tilts anteriorly before starting to tilt in th during pre swing, and th hip is at about 0 degrees of
posterior direction in terminal swing. flexion/extension by toe off (60% of gait). During th swing
In generai, pelvic motion increases when speed of ambu- phase, th hip further flexes to bring th lower extremity
lation increases.34 Variability in th amount, timing, and di forward for th next foot placement. Maximum flexion
rection of tilt, however, has been noted across walking (slightly more than 30 degrees) is achieved just prior to heel
speed. The greater magnitude of pelvic tilt with faster walk contact. Note that at heel contact, th hip has already started
ing speed serves to increase functional leg length, which in to extend in preparation for weight acceptance. Overall, ap
tum serves to increase step length. proximately 30 degrees of flexion and 10 degrees of exten
The sagittal piane tilt of th pelvis while walking is sion, from anatomie neutral position, are needed at th hip
caused by th sum of th passive and active forces produced for normal walking. As for all of th joints of th lower
by th hip joint capsule and th hip flexor and extensor extremities, th magnitude of hip movement is proportional
muscles. In pathologic situations, persons with marked hip to walking speed.
flexion contractures show an exaggerated anterior tilt of th Individuai with limited hip mobility may appear to walk
pelvis in th second half of th stance phase (i.e., between without gait deviations. The movement of th pelvis and
30 and 60% of th gait cycle). The large passive tension in lumbar spine, compensating for reduced hip motion, may
th shortened anterior hip structures creates a potent ante remain unnoticed. Apparent hip extension can be achieved
rior tilting tendency often associated with an increased lum- through an anterior pelvic tilt and associated increase in
bar lordosis. lumbar lordosis. Conversely, a posterior pelvic tilt accompa-
nied by a flattening of th lumbar spine provides apparent
H ip . At a typical walking speed, th hip is flexed approx- hip flexion. To ambulate, individuai with a fused (i.e., an-
imately 30 degrees at heel contact (Fig. 1 5 -1 5 B ). As th kylosed) hip use an exaggerated posterior and anterior pelvic
body moves forward over th fixed foot, th hip extends. tilt io compensate for th absence of hip mobility (Fig. 15
Maximum hip extension of approximately 10 degrees is 16). Because th pelvis and lumbar spine motions are me-
achieved prior to toe off. Flexion of th hip is initiated chanically linked at th sacroiliac joint, exaggerated pelvic
0% 100% 0% 100%
B Gait Cycle Gait Cycle
538 Sectioti IV Lower Extremity
Conversely, a lack of adequate dorsiflexion mobility dur- tended. From shortly after heel contact to heel off, th MTP
ing stance, due to a tight heel cord, for example, may cause joint is in a relatively neutral position. Between heel off to
a premature heel off, resulting in a bouncing-type gait. just prior to toe off, th MTP joint hyperextends approxi-
Interestingly, limited dorsiflexion may also lead to a shorter mately 45 to 55 degrees. (This is th angle measured be
step length because th body is bouncing excessively up tween th long axis of th first metatarsal and th proximal
and down instead of moving forward. A toeing-out gait phalanx of th hallux.14) During th late part of stance phase
pattern can somewhat compensate for limited ankle dorsi- and initial swing, th joint flexes and retums to th neutral
flexion. With excessive toeing-out of th foot, th individuai position.
rolls off th mediai aspect of th foot in th second half of Limited MTP joint hyperextension due to a soft tissue
stance phase. Although toeing-out reduces th need for ankle injury, such as a joint sprain (turf-toe) or degeneration of
dorsiflexion, it increases th stress applied to th mediai th joint (hallux rigidus), typically results in an exaggerated
structures of th foot and th knee. toeing-out gait. One consequence of this abnormal gait pat
In extreme cases where there is a pes equinus deformity tern is a less effcient push off. Toeing-out also creates in
(i.e., fixed piantar flexion of th ankle), th individuai may creased stress to th mediai structures of th knee and foot,
walk on hyperextended toes and th heel never Comes in including th hallux, as mentioned earlier.
contact with th ground. This condition is most often ob-
served in individuals with cerebral palsy. Frontal Piane Kinematics
Limited ankle dorsiflexion also intereferes with clearing
th toes during swing phase. To compensate, increased knee Joint rotations within th frontal piane are of smaller ampli-
and/or hip flexion may be needed. Limited dorsiflexion in tude compared with those in th sagittal piane. Yet, these
swing may be due to piantar flexor tightness, calf spasticity, rotations are important, especially at th hip and subtalar
or ankle dorsiflexor weakness. joints.
First Tarsom etatarsal Joint. The frst tarsometatarsal Pelvis. Frontal piane motion of th pelvis during walking
joint, th function of which is described in Chapter 14, has is best observed from in front of or behind th individuai,
a slight amount of piantar and dorsiflexion that contributes watching th iliac crests rise and fall. The pelvis rotates
through a total excursion of about 10 to 15 degrees as a
to th overall flexibility of th foots mediai longitudinal arch
result of pelvic-on-femoral (hip) adduction and abduction on
during gait.28
th stance limb. During weight acceptance on th right lower
First Metatarsophalangcal Joint. The metatarsophalan- extremity (i.e., th first 15 to 20% of th gait cycle), th
geal (MTP) joint of th hallux (great toe) is cruciai to normal pelvis drops on th swing (left) side owing to pelvic-on-
gait. At heel contact, th MTP joint is slightly hyperex femoral adduction of th right stance hip (Fig. 1 5 -1 7 A ).
FIGURE 15-17. Frontal piane pelvis and hip motion for a full
gait cycle starting with righi heel contact. A illustrates that
during right stance phase, th left iliac crest initially drops
before progressively moving upward in late stance. The rela
tively higher left iliac crest during right swing phase rellects
th drop of th right iliac crest when th right foot is off th
ground. B illustrates frontal piane hip motion, accounting for
th frontal piane motion of th pelvis and th femur. (Data
from Ounpuu S: Clinical gait analysis. In Spivack BS (ed):
Evaluation and Management of Gait Disorders. New York,
Marcel Dekker, 1995.)
Possible Causes For Excessive Hip Frontal Piane Motion borum of th swing leg, and possibly th abdominals and
Excessive frontal piane movement of th stance hip is back extensors on th side of th swing leg.
quite common, causing exaggerated medial-lateral shifts A significant leg length difference also affects move
in th CoM. There are at least three reasons why exces ment of th pelvis in th frontal piane. Leg length discrep
sive movement of th pelvis and hip in th frontal piane ancy can be severe, secondary to a fracture of th femur
may be observed: weakness of th hip abductors, reduced or a unilateral coxa valga, or it can be slight (<0.5 cm)
shortening" of th swing leg, and a discrepancy in leg owing to naturai variability. During periods of double-limb
length. support, th iliac crest of th longer leg is positioned
The drop of th contralateral iliac crest (i.e., hip adduc- higher than th iliac crest of th shorter leg. This pelvic
tion) during early to mid stance is normally controlled by obliquity, which is occurring for every gait cycle, results
an eccentric activation of th hip abductor muscles of th in increased side bending of th lumbar spine.
stance leg. Inadequate abduction torque from these mus
cles often leads to excessive frontal piane motion during
stance.62 While standing on one limb, a person with mod
erate hip abductor weakness demonstrates an excessive
drop of th pelvis to th side of th lifted leg (Fig. 15-18).
This action is referred to as a positive Trendelenburg sign.
Typically, however, a person with weakened hip abduc
tors, especially if severe, compensates by leaning th
trunk to th side of th weakened muscle during any
single-limb support activities, whether standing or walking.
While walking, this is called a "compensated" Trendelen
burg gait or gluteus medius limp. Leaning of th trunk to
th side of weakness minimizes th external torque de-
mands, due to body weight, on th abductor muscles of
th stance leg.
Another deviation that is observed by looking at th
movement of th pelvis in th frontal piane is called hip
hiking. Hip hiking on th side of th swing leg compen
sates for th inability of th knee and/or ankle of th
lower extremity to sufficienti shorten th limb for clear-
ance of th foot. The classic example is walking with a
knee orthosis, keeping th knee in full extension. Hip hik
ing is more accurately described as th excessive eleva-
tion of th iliac crest on th side of th swing leg. Eleva- FIGURE 15-18. Excessive drop of th nght iliac crest and lean of
tion results from pelvic-on-femoral abduction of th th trunk toward th left stance leg are characteristic of weakness
of th left gluteus medius. (From Calve J, Galland M, De Cagny
stance leg. Muscles involved in this movement include th
R: Pathogenesis of th limp due to coxalgia: The antalgic gait. J
primary abductors of th stance leg, th quadratus lum- Bone Joint Surg 21A :12, 1939.)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
W5
8 = Frontal Piane
Percent of Gait Cycle Subtalar Joint Angle
FIGURE 15-19. Frontal piane angular motion of th knee is illus
FIGURE 15-20. Method to measure rear foot (subtalar joint) mo
trateci. The red line is th average of four of th five subjects. The
tion. The inversion/everston angle, made by th lines bisecting th
gray lines are each subjects individuai data. (Data from Lafortune
lower leg and th calcaneus, is measured as a simpliled indicator of
MA, Cavanagh PR, Sommer 111 HJ, Kalenak A: Three-dimensional
th amount of foot pronation/supination. This measurement can be
kinematics of th human knee during walking. J Biomech 2 5:347,
made using a video System. (Modified from McClay IS: The use of
1992.)
gait analysis to enhance th understanding of running injuries. In
Craik RL, Oatis CA (eds): Gait Analysis: Theory and Application. Si.
Louis, Mosby, 1995.)
slightly with dorsiflexion and inverts and adducts slightly
with piantar flexion, these secondary frontal and horizontal
piane motions are very small and are ignored here.
Fool/Subtalar Joint. The triplanar motions of pronation three-dimensional model of th foot, report a mean peak
and supination occur through interaction of th subtalar and pronation of 10.5 3.4 degrees, occurring at 26.8 8.7%
transverse tarsal joints. Pronation combines components of of th gait cycle, on their sample of 30 subjects.
eversion, abduction, and dorsiflexion; supination combines The movement of foot pronation/supination during walk
inversion, adduction, and piantar flexion. This chapter con- ing is accompanied by changes in height of th foots mediai
siders th frontal piane motions of subtalar joint eversion longitudinal arch. A detailed review of foot kinesiology and
and inversion io represent th more global motions of foot function, including th fall and rise of th mediai longitudi
pronation and supination, respectively. Subtalar motions are nal arch during gait, is provided in Chapter 14.
typically measured as th angle made between th posterior
aspect of th calcaneus and th posterior aspect of th lower
leg (Fig. 1 5 -2 0 ).
The subtalar joint is inverted approximately 2 to 3 de-
grees at th time of heel contact (Fig. 1 5 - 2 1 ). Immediately
after heel contact, rapid eversion of th calcaneus begins and Summary of Frontal Piane Kinematics
continues until mid stance (30 to 35% of th gait cycle),
where a maximally everted position of approximately 2 de- The best location to observe frontal piane kinematics of
grees is reached. Al that time, th subtalar joint reverses its th joints of th lower extremities is from behind th
direction of movement and starts toward inversion. Nor- individuai. Hip motion plays an important role in minimiz-
mally, a relatively neutral position of th calcaneus is ing th vertical displacement of th body's CoM. The
reached at about 40 to 45% of th gait cycle, at approxi rapid pronation (eversion) of th foot after heel contact
mately heel off. Between heel off and toe off, calcaneal inver participates in th process of weight acceptance and
sion continues until it reaches a value of approximately 6 provides a flexible and adaptable structure for making
degrees of inversion.14 During swing, th calcaneus retums contact with th ground. Later in th stance phase,
to a slightly inverted position in preparation for th next between heel off and toe off, th inversion of th calca
heel contact. This pattern of motion is generally agreed upon neus associated with supination of th foot provides a
in th literature; however, th reported amount of foot pro more rigid foot structure, which helps propel th body
nation during gait varies based on th techniques and prefer- forward.
ences for measurement. Reischl and coworkers,70 using a
542 Seciion IV Lower Extremity
Subtalar Joint Kineniatics (Frontal Piane) tigatore have on some occasions fixed rigid metal pins in th
pelvis, lemur, and tibia of their subjects. Attached to these
metal pins were markers that allowed video cameras to track
bone movement. In some studies only th movement of th
bony structures in space was observed; other researchere
its e lf^ lhC relatVe motion thal took P^ce at th joint
Tibia. The pattern of movement of th tibia is very simi- Knee Kinematics (Horizontal Piane)
lar to th movement described for th femur (see Fig. 1 5 -
22). The magnitude of th rotation is about 8 to 9 degrees
in each direction.
S P E C I A L F O C U S 1 5 - 7
w
S u m m a r y o f H o r iz o n t a l P i a n e K i n e m a t i c s cycle, th pelvis, femur, and tibia all begin to externally
F ig u r e 1 5 - 2 5 s u m m a r iz e s t h d ir e c t io n o f h o r iz o n t a l rotate until toe off. Simultaneously, after a slight delay,
p ia n e r o t a t io n o f t h m a j o r b o n e s o f t h lo w e r e x t r e m it y th subtalar joint starts moving toward inversion, which
a n d s u b t a la r j o in t d u r in g w a lk in g , u s in g d if f e r e n t s e t s o f tends to increase th stability of th midfoot region.
d a t a . 14'30-46 T h e p e lv is , fe m u r , a n d t ib ia r o t a t e in t e r n a lly , T h is s t a b ilit y e n a b le s t h m id f o o t to s e r v e a s a r ig id
t h g a it c y c le ) . T h is m a s s in t e r n a i r o t a t io n is a c c o m p a - p ia n t a r f le x o r s to lif t t h c a l c a n e u s w it h o u t t h m id f o o t
n ie d b y s u b t a la r jo in t e v e r s io n . A s d e s c r ib e d in C h a p t e r c o lla p s in g u n d e r t h b o d y 's w e ig h t . F u r t h e r in v e s t ig a -
14, a n e v e r t in g s u b t a la r jo in t t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e t h p lia - t io n , s u c h a s t h a t p e r f o r m e d b y R e is c h l a n d c o ll e a g u e s , 70
b ilit y o f t h m id f o o t r e g io n , in c lu d in g t h t r a n s v e r s e is n e e d e d to c l e a r l y e lu c id a t e t h e x a c t r e la t io n s h ip
t a r s a l jo in t. A p lia b le m id f o o t s e r v e s t o c u s h io n t h t h a t e x is t s b e t w e e n t h t im in g a n d m a g n it u d e o f p r o n a -
im p a c t o f lim b lo a d in g . A f t e r a b o u t 15 t o 20 % o f t h g a it t io n o f t h f o o t a n d r o t a t io n o f t h f e m u r a n d t ib ia .
FIGURE 15 25. Honzonial piane rotation of th major bones of th lower extremity and subtalar joint during walking. The graph
shows th direction of rotation, which is not necessarily th same as th absolute joint position.
toward flexion, th shoulder extends to return to 25 degrees rather than fully passive, especially for th movement of
of extension by th next heel contact. extension that requires activation of th posterior deltoid
The pattern of movement of th shoulder is consistent muscle 9- The major function of arm swing is io balance th
across individuals, although th magnitude of movement var- rotational forces in th trunk.19 Restriction of arm motion
ies greatly. In generai, th amplitude of shoulder movement has not been shown to have a significant effect on th
increases with greater speed. Arm swing is partly active, energy cost of ambulation.68
Chapter 15 Kinesiology o f Walking 545
Elbow. The elbow is in approximately 20 degrees of flex- alignment of th ankle places th large protruding calcaneus
ion at heel contact. As th shoulder moves into flexion in in contact with th ground, functionally elongating th lower
th first 50% of th gait cycle, th elbow flexes to a maxi extremity. Near th end of stance, as th hip extends and
mum of approximately 45 degrees. In th second half of th th knee starts to flex, th lower extremity is elongated by
gait cycle, as th shoulder extends, th elbow extends to piantar flexion of th ankle (i.e., heel rise). This functional
return to 20 degrees of flexion.54 elongation of th lower extremity at both ends of stance
phase further reduces th downward displacement of th
CoM (compare Fig. 1 5 -2 6 B with Fig. 1 5 -2 6 C ).39
Kinematic Strategies to Minimize Limiting th upward displacement of th CoM is partially
Energy Expenditure achieved by stance phase knee flexion, when th lower ex
During gait, five kinematic strategies are used to minimize tremity is in its most vertical orientation (Fig. 1 5 -2 6 D ).
th displacement of th CoM. In tum, they optimize energy Frontal piane pelvic rotation further assists in minimizing
efficiency. Vertical displacement of th CoM is reduced by upward displacement of th CoM (Fig. 1 5 -2 6 E ). During
th combined actions of th first four strategies. The fifth stance phase, th contralateral iliac crest falls as th ipsilat-
strategy serves to minimize th medial-lateral displacement eral iliac crest rises. Throughout a complete gait cycle, there-
of th CoM (Table 1 5 - 3 ). The strategies detailed in this fore, th iliac crests altemately rise and fall like th ends of a
chapter are based on th six determinants of gait originally see saw, but th point just anterior to S2 (i.e., th point
described by Saunders and colleagues in 1953.73 A detailed representing th bodys CoM) remains relatively stationary,
account of th determinants is found in Inman and col as would th pivot point of a seesaw. This frontal piane
leagues.34'35 seesaw action of th iliac crests minimizes th vertical oscil
lation of th bodys CoM.
To appreciate th usefulness of these five strategies, envi-
sion gait without such mechanisms. This can be duplicated As shown in Figure 1 5 - 2 7 , th combination of th four
by using two pencils connected at th eraser ends (Fig. 1 5 - strategies minimizes th total net vertical displacement of th
26A). When walking, a large vertical oscillation of th eraser CoM. The downward displacement of th CoM is reduced
end of th pencils (th bodys CoM) is readily observed. The by horizontal piane pelvic rotation and sagittal piane ankle
eraser end is highest when th pencils are side by side in a rotation. The upward displacement of th CoM is reduced
vertically oriented position (i.e., mid stance). Conversely, th by stance phase knee flexion and frontal piane pelvic rota
tion.
eraser end is lowest when th pencils are maximally angled
(i.e., double-limb support). This gait pattern results in a
large displacement of th CoM. M I N I M I Z I N G M E D I A L - L A T E R A L D I S P L A C E M E N T OF
THE C EN T ER OF M A S S
M I N I M I Z I N G V E R T I C A L D I S P L A C E M E N T OF THE While a person walks, his or her CoM shifts side to side and
C EN T ER OF M A S S remains within th dynamic base of support provided by th
feet (see Fig. 1 5 - 1 3 ). A person strives to minimize th
Limiting th downward displacement of th CoMs is amplitude of this medial-lateral displacement by reducing
achieved by horizontal piane pelvic rotation and sagittal step width, which is a function of frontal piane hip motion
piane ankle rotation. Horizontal piane rotation of th pelvis (i.e., hip abduction/adduction).
advances th entire swing leg forward, thereby minimizing Although reduced step width minimizes side-to-side dis
th amount of hip flexion and extension needed for a given placement and therefore energy expenditure, it also decreases
step length (compare Fig. 1 5 -2 6 A with Fig. 1 5 -2 6 B ). As a th size of th dynamic base of support. The average step
consequence of th lower extremities remaining closer to a width of 7 to 9 cm represents a mechanical compromise of
vertical orientation throughout th gait cycle, th lowest being narrow enough to reduce side-to-side shifts of th
points of th CoM trajectory are raised, which reduces th CoM, but wide enough to provide an adequate base of
downward displacement of th CoM. Sagittal piane ankle support. A greater or lesser step width is associated with a
rotation makes use of th inverted T-shaped configuration of trade-off in either energy expenditure or stability. Persons
th ankle/foot complex (Fig. 1 5 -2 6 C ). At heel contact, th with balance disorders, for example, may choose a wider
A. VV'alking vvithout
reduction of B. Addin horizontal C. Adding sagittal I). Adding stance E. Adding l'rontal
CoM displacement piane pelvic rotation piane ankle rotation phase knee flexioii piane pelvic rotation
F GURE 5 a . TIls series illustrates th individuai and additive effects ol tour kinematic strategies to reduce vertical CoM excursion. A illustrates th large vertical oscillation
S e, W nln8 wtthout th strategies B illustrates that rotation of th petvis in th horizontal piane functionally lengthens th lower extremities and reduces th
|Hf h iP fex- n- on angle required for a given step length, thereby reducing th downward displacement of th CoM. C illustrates that further reduction of
, 4, . dlSp aC,e?lentu * * . 'C M 15 achieved b>' rolalion of lhe ankle ln lhc sagittal piane. D illustrates that th small amount of knee flexion present during stance
reduces th funzionai ength of th lower extremity and, therefore, th upward displacement of th CoM. shows that th contrasterai pelvic drop during stance also
minimizes th net overall elevation of th CoM. The angle values in A and fi are for illustrative purposes only and do not represent th actual hip angles during walking.
Chapter 15 Kinesiology o j Walking 547
FIGURE 15-27. Combined action of th four kinematic strategies to reduce vertical CoM excursion. Without these strategies, a large
vertical displacement of th bodys CoM (red) would occur when walking (A). B illustrates th combined action of horizontal piane
pel vie rotation (HPPR) and sagittal piane ankle rotation (SPAR) to minimize th downward displacement of th CoM dunng doubl-
limb support. It also shows th action of stance phase knee llexion (SPKF) and frontal piane pelvic rotation (FPPR) to minimize th
upward displacement of th CoM at mid stance.
base of support. They must pay for this benefit, however, by Not surprisingly, th speed at which th body is most en
th associateci increased energy cost of walking. ergy' efficient roughly corresponds to th walking speed
freely adopted by individuals ambulating on th Street (see
Table 1 5 - 1 ). Walking faster or slower than that optimal
ENERGY EXPENDITURE speed increases th energy cost of ambulaiion (Fig. 1 5 -2 8 ).
Walking speed is equal to th product of step length and
Energy expenditure during gait is measured by th amount cadence (step rate). Maximum energy efficiency at th opti
of energy used in kilocalories per meter walked per kilogram mal walking speed is achieved by th bodys innate ability to
of body weight (kcal/m/kg). Typically, energy expenditure is adopt th ultimate combination of step length and step rate.
measured indirectly by quantifying oxygen consumption.72 Amazingly, this ability is demonstrated across all walking
When walking, th body strives to minimize energy cost. speeds. While th energy cost of ambulaiion changes across
Conservation of energy is achieved by minimizing th excur walking speeds, a standard and optimal ratio of step length
sion of th CoM, controlling th body momentum, and tak- to step rate of 0.0072 m/sieps/min for men and 0.0 0 6 4
ing advantage of th intersegmental transfers of energy. m/steps/min for women is maintained.102 At any given walk
The gait speed at which optimal energy conservation oc- ing speed, imposilion of a different step length or step rate
curs is approximately 1.33 m/s, or 80 mAnin or 3 mph.72 increases energy expenditure.
With abnormal gait th energy cost of ambulation in
creases (Table 1 5 - 4 ) . As a consequence of increased energy
cost per distance walked, individuals whth disability tend to
Energy Expenditure During Walking walk slower so as to keep th rate of energy consumption
per minute at a comfortable aerobic level. They naturally
adopt a walking speed that is most efficient and comfortable
for them. Further discussion of th energetics of walking in
individuals with pathologic gaits can be found in Perrys
textbook67 and revtews of th literature by Gonzalez and
Corcoran29 and Waters and Mulroy.92
MUSCLE ACTIVITY
muscle is simply considered ON or O FF. The muscle is Hip Flexors. The iliacus and psoas become active prior to
said to be ON when its EMG activity level reaches a prede- toe off to decelerate hip extension. Eccentric muscle activation
termined value above th resting level. Otherwise, th mus is followed by concentric muscle activation to bring th hip
cle is considered to be OFF. The red horizontal bars used in into flexion just prior to toe off and into initial swing. Despite
Figure 1 5 - 2 9 illustrate when selected muscles are ON dur- th movement of hip flexion continuing into terminal swing,
ing th gait cycle. Another method io report muscular activ th hip flexors are considered active only in th first 50% of
ity (th lighter shaded areas in Fig. 1 5 - 2 9 ) is to express th swing. Hip flexion in th second half of th swing phase is a
intensity of th EMG signal during gait as a percentage of result of th forward momentum that th thigh gains in initial
th amount of EMG recorded during maximum voluntary swing. The rectus femoris also acts as a hip flexor and there-
contraction of th same muscle.98 This type of analysis pro- fore assists with th aforementioned actions. The key roles of
vides insight into th relative level of activation of th mus th hip flexors are to advance th leg forward during swing in
cle (i.e., an index of muscular effort) throughout th gait preparation for th next step and to lift th leg to allow for
cycle. toe clearance during swing. The action of th sartorius is
similar to that of th iliacus and psoas.
Hip Hip A bductors. While hip flexors and extensors have
Three muscle groups at th hip play a criticai role during their primary role in th sagittal piane, th hip abductors
normal ambulation: th hip extensors, such as th gluteus gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fascia lata
maximus and th hamstrings; th hip flexors, such as th stabilize th pelvis in th frontal piane. The gluteus medius
iliacus and th psoas; and th hip abductors, such as th is active toward th very end of th swing phase in prepara
gluteus medius and minimus. Less well documented is th tion for heel contact. The gluteus medius and minimus, th
role of th hip adductors and rotators. two primary hip abductors, are most active during th first
40% of th gait cycle, especially during single-limb support.
Hip Extensors. Activation of th gluteus maximus starts The primary function of th abductors is to control th
in an eccentric manner at terminal swing. This mild muscu slight dropping of th pelvis to th side of th swing leg (see
lar activation serves two purposes decelerating hip flexion Fig. 1 5 -1 7 ). Following this eccentric activation, these mus
and preparing th muscolature for weight acceptance at th cles act concentrically to initiate th relative abduction of th
beginning of stance. At heel contact, th gluteus maximus is hip that occurs in later stance. As described earlier in this
strongly activated in order to extend th hip and prevent chapter, adequate frontal piane torque from th hip abductor
forward jackknifng, or uncontrolled trunk flexion over th muscles is cruciai for frontal piane stability during gait (see
femur. This abnormal jackknifng occurs if pelvic motion Fig. 1 5 -1 8 ). A cane used in th hand contralateral to th
were slowed following heel contact while th trunk contin- weak hip abductors is an effective way to reduce th de-
ues its forward displacement. The gluteus maximus remains mands placed on th weakened abductors, thereby reducing
active from heel contact to mid stance (i.e., first 30% of th frontal piane instability of th pelvis due to body weight (see
gait cycle) to support th weight of th body and produce Chapter 12).
hip extension. Strong activation of th gluteus maximus The hip abductors also control th alignment of th fe
when th foot is frmly planted on th ground also assists mur in th frontal piane. Inadequate muscular activation
indirectly with knee extension. may result in excessive adduction of th femur, producing
The hamstrings assist th gluteus maximus durtng th an excessive valgus torque at th knee during th stance
first 10% ol th gait cycle. Similar to th gluteus maximus, phase. Other accessory roles of th gluteus medius include
th hamstrings serve to generate hip extension and to sup assisting with hip flexion and internai rotation, using ante-
port th weight of th body to prevent th collapse of th rior fibers, and assisting with hip extension and extema:
lower extremity during early stance. rotation, using posterior fibers.
Chapter 15 Kinesiology o f Walking 549
Percent of G a it C y cle
550 Section IV Lower Extremity
H ip Adduclors and H ip Rolalors. The hip adductors phase of gait results from passive intersegmental dynamics of
show two bursts of activity during gait.98 The first burst th limb and a small gastrocnemius activation.75'98
occurs at heel contact and th second just after toe off. The
initial burst of activity serves to stabilize th hip through co-
activation with th hip extensors and hip abductors. It is Ankle and Foot
also likely that th adductor magnus and other adductors
assist with hip extension at that time. The second burst of At th ankle, several muscles play a cruciai role in normal
activity, after toe off, assists th hip flexors with initiating gait: th tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum, extensor hallu-
hip flexion. As illustrated in Figure 1 2 - 3 6 , th adductors cis longus, gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis posterior, and per-
have a moment arm to extend th hip when it is flexed (i.e., oneals.
th hip position at heel contact) and a moment arm to flex
th hip when it is in extension (i.e., th hip position at toe
T ib ia lis Anterior. The tibialis anterior has two periods
off). of activity. At heel contact, a strong eccentric activation is
present to decelerate th passive piantar flexion of th ankle
The hip internai rotators (tensor fascia lata, gluteus mini-
caused by th weight of th body being applied on th most
mus, and anterior fibers of th gluteus medius) are active
posterior section of th calcaneus. Unopposed by th eccen
throughout much of th stance phase. During this time,
tric activation of th tibialis anterior and other ankle dorsi-
these internai rotators move th contralateral side of th
flexors, this large, passive piantar flexion torque results in
pelvis forward, thereby assisting with advancement of th
swing leg (see Fig. 1 2 -3 9 ). th gait deviation referred to as foot slap. This term is
derived from th characteristic sound made by th foot slap-
The hip external rotators, consisting of th six short ex-
ping th ground just after heel contact. From heel contact to
ternal rotators, th posterior fibers of th gluteus medius,
foot fiat, th tibialis anterior may also assist with decelerating
and th gluteus maximus, are most active during early
foot pronation, also an eccentric muscle activation. The poor
stance. These muscles, in conjunction with th hip internai
mechanical advantage of th muscle to inveri th foot, how
rotators, control th alignment of th hip in th horizontal
ever, raises some doubt with regard io th effectiveness of
piane. In particular, they control pelvic rotation while th
th tibialis anterior in strongly controlling foot pronation.
lower limb is fixed to th ground. Consider th important
The second action of th tibialis anterior is th dorsiflex-
action of these rotators in th rapid change of direction
while walking or running. ion of th ankle dunng swing. The purpose of this muscle
action is to clear th toes from th ground. Extreme weak-
Eccentric activation of th external rotators may be espe-
ness of th tibialis anterior and th other ankle dorsiflexors
cially important to th control of th internai rotation of th
is expressed by th inability to dorsiflex th ankle during
lower limb in early stance (see Fig. 1 5 -2 5 ). Inadequate
swing. This problem, known as drop foot, causes an indi
strength or control of th external rotators may result in
viduai to excessively flex th knee and hip during swing.
excessive internai rotation of th femur, especially in individ-
uals with excessive foot pronation. Other compensatory maneuvers, such as vaulting, hip cir-
cumduction, and hip hiking, may also be adopted to clear
th toes. A drop foot causes th forefoot to contact th
Knee ground first. A common remedy for a drop foot is a poste
rior ankle-foot orthosis that passively maintains ankle dorsi-
Two rnuscle groups play a criticai role at th knee during
flexion during swing.
ambulation: th knee extensors and knee flexors.
Knee Extensors. As a group, th quadriceps become ac Extensor Digitorum and Extensor H allu cis Lon
tive in th very late stage of swing in preparation for heel gus. Similar to th tibialis anterior, th extensor digitorum
contact. The major burst of activity, however, occurs shortly longus and extensor hallucis longus decelerate piantar flex
after heel contact. The function of th quadriceps at this ion of th ankle at heel contact. These muscles, however,
time is to control th knee flexion that takes place in th lack th line-of-force to decelerate foot pronation during
first 10% of th gait cycle. Eccentric activation serves to loading response and mid stance. During th swing phase.
cushion th rate of weight acceptance on th lower extremity th toe extensors assist with dorsiflexion of th ankle and
(i.e., shock absorption) and to prevent excessive knee flex extend th toes to ensure that th toes clear th ground.
ion. The quadriceps then act concentrically to extend th Minor activity of th extensor digitorum longus and extensor
knee and support th weight of th body during mid stance. hallucis longus during push off may provide stability to th
Some individuals show increased activity of th rectus fem- ankle through co-activation with th ankle piantar flexors.98
oris immediately following toe off. This action reflects th
role of this biarticular muscle as a hip flexor. .Ankle Piantar Flexors. The soleus and gastrocnemius
are active throughout most of th stance phase. From about
Knee Flexors. The hamstnngs are most active from a 10 through 40% of th gait cycle (i.e., opposite toe off to
period just before to just after heel contact. Before heel heel off), th ankle piantar flexors eccentrically control th
contact, th hamstrings decelerate knee extension in prepara forward movement of th tibia on th foot (i.e., ankle dorsi
tion for th placement of th foot on th ground. During th flexion). Excessive or uncontrolled forward movement of th
initial 10% of stance, th hamstrings are active in order to tibia results in exaggerated ankle dorsiflexion and possibly
assist with hip extension and to provide stability to th knee uncontrolled knee flexion. The major burst of activity of th
through co-activation. The short head of th biceps femoris ankle piantar flexors occurs near heel off and decreases rap-
may also assist with knee flexion during th swing phase. idly to near zero at toe off. During that brief period, short-
Most of th knee flexion during pre swing and th swing ening of th muscles creates an ankle piantar flexion torque
Chapter 15 Kinesiology o f Walking 551
that participaies in ihe forward propulsion of th body. This These two bursts of activity control th forward momentum
action is referred to as push off. of th trunk shortly after heel contact for each step.
The gastrocnemius also generates low-level muscular ac-
tivity in initial swing, presumably to help with knee flexion. Rectus Abdominis. This muscle has very low activity
Note that since th rectus femoris is also active during initial throughout th gait cycle. Nevertheless, increased activity
swing, a small amount of co-activation of th knee flexors occurs at 20% and again at 70% of th gait cycle. This
and extensors is taking place.98 activity may reflect a period of co-activation with th erector
The other piantar flexors of th ankle (tibialis postenor, spinae for th purpose of trunk stability in th sagittal piane.
flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, and pero- The activity of th trunk flexors ateo coincides with th time
neals) assist th gastrocnemius-soleus group in th previ- when th hip flexors actively flex th hip. Increased activity
ously described actions. Some additional actions of these of th rectus abdominis, therefore, may be used to stabilize
muscles are noteworthy. th pelvis and lumbar spine and to provide a stable fxation
for th hip flexor muscles, principally th iliopsoas and rec
Tibialis Posterior. The tibialis posterior, a potent supi- tus femoris.
nator muscle of th foot, is active between 5 and 55% of th The role of th trunk musculature during gait may in fact
gait cycle. Tibialis posterior decelerates pronation of th foot be underestimated. Based on th evolution of th vertebrate
between 5 and about 35% of th cycle and supinates th spine, Gracovetsky31-32 proposed his theory of th spinai
foot between 35% and 55% (mid stance to toe off) of th engine, in which walking was first achieved by motion of
cycle.37 th spine. The hypothesis that th lumbar spine actually
The tibialis posterior receives special attention in th plays an important role to move th pelvis during walking
treatment of people with cerebral palsy. The often hyperac- may deserve consideration in future research.
tive tibialis posterior along with th soleus muscle may cause
an equinovarus deformity of th foot and ankle, resulting in
th individuals walking on a foot that is piantar flexed and
supinated.
GAIT KINETICS
Active individuate with fiat, overly pronated feet may de-
Understanding th forces that are responsible for movement
velop a syndrome known as shin splints. This syndrome is
during gait plays a criticai role in understanding normal and
due to overuse and subsequent strain of th tibialis posterior
pathologic movement. Although th kinetics (study of forces)
and/or anterior ankle muscles. The overuse is secondary to
of walking are not visually observable, they are responsible
th increased work demands placed on th supinator mus
for th observed kinematics.
cles as they attempt to control th excessive pronation bias
of th foot during early stance.
Peronei. The peroneus brevis and longus are active from Ground Reaction Forces
about 20 to 30% of th gait cycle to just after heel off. In During ambulation, forces are applied under th surface of
addition to their function as piantar flexors, these pronator th foot every lime a person takes a step (Fig. 1 5 -3 0 A and
(everter) muscles help counteract th inversion of th foot B). The forces applied to th ground by th foot are called
caused by activation of th tibialis anterior and posterior leg foot forces. The forces applied to th foot by th ground are
muscles. The peronei help with th alignment and stabiliza- called ground (or floor) reaction forces. These forces are of
tion of th subtalar joint. The peroneus longus assists in th equal magnitude but opposite direction. (Newtons Third
overall kinematics of th foot by placing th first ray rigidly Law th law of action and reaction States that forces are
on th ground, which provides a frm base of support for always present in pairs that are equal in magnitude and
th action of th foot as a rigid lever during th terminal opposite in direction.) In this chapter, ground reaction forces
stance and pre swing phases of gait. are consistently referred to because in most instances th
In trinsic Muscles o f th Foot. The intrinsic muscles of interest is in th forces applied to th body, as opposed to
th foot are typically active from mid stance to toe off (30 to those applied to th ground.
60% of th gait cycle), particularly if th foot is not sup- The description of th ground reaction forces follows a
ported by well-fitting shoes. These muscles stabilize th fore- Cartesian coordinate System, with th forces being expressed
foot and raise th mediai longitudinal arch, thereby provid- along three orthogonal axes: vertical, anterior-posterior, and
ing a rigid lever for ankle piantar flexion in terminal stance medial-lateral. The vector summation of th three forces
and pre swing. gives a single resultant force vector between th foot and th
ground. Such vector summation performed for th vertical
and anterior-posterior components of th ground reaction
Trunk forces leads to th classic butterfly representation of th
ground reaction forces for a single step (Fig. 1 5 -3 1 ).
Only th actions of th erector spinae and th rectus abdom-
inis are discussed here.
GROUND
REACTION
FORCES
FOOT
FORCES
*Toe Off is at 57%
V ertical Forces. The vertical forces are those directed and th need to reverse th downward movement of th
perpendicular to th supporting surface. In th vertical direc body that occurs in terminal stance through pre swing.
tion, th ground reaction forces peak twice in a given gait
cycle. Forces are slightly greater than body weight ai th Anterior-Posterior Forces. In th anterior-posterior di
time of th loading response and again at th tinte of termi rection, shear forces are applied parallel to th supporting
nal stance (Fig. 1 5 - 3 0 0 . During mid stance, th ground surface. Al heel contact, th ground reaction force is in th
reaction forces are slightly lower than body weight. This postenor direction (i.e., th foot applies an anteriorly di
slight fluctuation in force is due to th vertical acceleration rected force to th ground) (Fig. 1 5 -3 0 D ). At that time.
of th bodys CoM. (Force is a function of mass as well as sufficient friction is required between th foot and th
acceleration: F = ma.) Al th time of loading response, th ground to prevent th foot front slipping forward (picture
bodys CoM is moving downward (see Fig. 1 5 -1 3 ). A verti th classic cartoon of a person fading to th ground after
cal ground reaction force greater than ones body weight, slipping on a banana peel). The magnitudo of th ground
therefore, is needed to initially decelerate th downward reaction lorces increases with longer steps. This is th reason
movement of th body and then accelerate it upward. This is people often take shorter steps when walking on an icv
similar to jumping on a bathroom scale and briefly readtng a surface they are decreasing th demand for friction.
weight that is higher than static body weight. At mid stance, During terminal stance and pre swing, th ground reac
th vertical ground reaction forces are less than body weight tion force is directed anteriorly, with th foot applying a
as a result of a relative unweighting, caused by th upward posteriorly directed force to th ground in order to prope.
momentum of th body gained during th early pari of th body forward. The magnitude of th propulsive force
stance. The higher ground reaction force ai terminal slance depends on walking speed and, especially, attempts to accel
reflects th combined push provided by th piantar flexors erate. Inadequate friction between th foot and th ground a:
Chapter 15 Kinesiology o f Walking 553
Joint Torques
Hip Kinetics (Sagittal Piane)
Internai joint torques: produced by th body
Extemal joint torques: applied to th body
Hip Kinetics (Frontal Piane) among joint motion, torque, power, and muscle activation
during gait.
To complete th description of sagittal piane hip move- Knee Kinetics (Sagittal Piane)
ment during gail, Figure 1 5 -3 5 D illustrates th relative in-
tensity of activity of two primary antagonistic muscles of th
hip. The areas of th EMG curve that are shaded indicate an
eccentric muscle activation. The hatched areas indicate a
concentric muscle activation. In generai, th muscular activa-
tions correlate with power absorption and power generation.
In th frontal piane, a large abduction torque occurs dur 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ing stance to support th mass of th body that is located
mediai to th hip joint (Fig. 1 5 -3 6 A and 6). Power absorp
tion during th initial lowering of th opposite side of th
pelvis (Fig. 1 5 -3 6 C ) reflects th eccentric activation of th
hip abductors (Fig. 1 5 -3 6 D ). Power generation is seen at 20
and 60% of th gait cycle, as th contralateral pelvis is raised
(Fig. 1 5 -3 6 C ).
In th horizontal piane, an extemal rotation torque is used
to decelerate th internai rotation of th femur in th frst
20% of th gait cycle (Fig. 15-3 7 A ). This torque is followed
by an internai rotation torque that advances th contralateral
side of th pelvis forward during th remainder of stance.
Notice th small magnitude of these torques, approximately
15% of those in th sagittal and frontal planes. The eccentric
activation of th hip external rotators in th initial 20% of
th gait cycle accounts for th power absorption noted at
that time (Fig. 1 5 -3 7 6 ).
Knee Kinetics (Frontal Piane) In th horizontal piane that describes tibial on femoral
motion, th joint torques are similar to those at th hip,
with an extemal rotation torque in th frst hall' of
stance and an internai rotation torque in th second half
(Fig. 1 5 -4 1 A ). These torques are generated by knee liga-
ments in response to th attive hip torques in th horizontal
piane.20 During loading response, a small amount of power
is absorbed as th knees capsular and ligamentous struc
tures resist th internai rotation motion of th tibia (Fig. 1 5 -
4 1 B).
Ankle Kinctics (Sagittal Piane) In th sagittal piane, power is absorbed prior to push off
(Fig. 1 5 -4 2 C ), reflecting th eccentric nature of th action
of th piantar flexors (Fig. 1 5 -4 2 D ). This is followed by a
large generation of energy from th piantar flexors at push
off. This power generation is responsible for a large portion
of th propulsive forces pushing th body forward during
gait.38
The torques and especially th power values in th jrontal
and horizontal planes are very smal] and exhibit large varia-
don among people (Figs. 1 5 - 4 3 and 1 5 -4 4 ). In th frontal
piane, stance phase is characterized by a small initial ever-
sion torque (from 0 to 20% of gait) followed by an inversion
torque (from 20 to 45% of gait) and a smaller eversion
torque just prior to toe off.101 In th horizontal piane, an
extemal rotation torque is present during th stance phase.
This extemal rotation torque should in fact be called an
abduction torque based on th description of ankle move-
ment provided in Chapter 14.
- 2.00 - 1
C 5.0-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of Gait Cycle
FIGURE 15-42. Sagittal piane ankle motion (A), net internai torques
(B), powers (C), and electromyographic (EMG) activity (D) for a gait
cycle. The EMG curves represent th relative intensity of th muscle
activation during th gait cycle, with th shaded and hatched areas
indicating eccentric and concentric muscle activation, respectively. Percent of Gait Cycle
(Torque and power data normalized to body mass from Winter et
al, 1996, and EMG data from Winter, 1991.) FIGURE 15-43. Frontal piane net internai torques (A) and powers
(B) for th ankle. (Data normalized to body mass from Winter et al,
1996.)
560 Section IV Lower Extremity
Ankle
Talocrural joint (peak compression) 1.4 m/s Simonsen et al. (1995) 4.2
Talocrural joint (peak compression) 114 s/min Collins (1995) 4.8
Talocrural joint (peak compression) 4.2 m/s (r) Scott and Winter (1990) 12.0
Talocrural joint (peak anterior shear*) 116 s/min Stauffer et al. (1977) 0.6
Talocrural joint (peak posterior shear*) 116 s/min Stauffer et al. (1977) 0.3
Achilles tendon (peak tension) 1.5 m/s Finni et al. (1998) 2.0
Achilles tendon (peak tension) 1.7 m/s Finni et al. (1999) 4.0
Achilles tendon (peak tension) 4.2 m/s (r) Scott and Winter (1990) 7.0
Ankle dorsiflexors (peak tension) 114 s/min Collins (1995) 1.0
K
nee
Piantar fascia (peak tension) 4.2 m/s (r) Scott and Winter (1990) 2.1
Tibiofemoral joint (peak compression) 1.4 m/s Simonsen et al. (1995) 4.6
Tibiofemoral joint (peak compression) 114 s/min Collins (1995) 5.0
Patellofemoral joint (peak compression) 1.0 m/s Komistek et al. (1998) 0.3
Patellofemoral joint (peak compression) 1.5 m/s Kuster et al. (1993) 1.5
Patellofemoral joint (peak compression) 1.0 m/s Taylor et al. (1998) 0.8
Patellofemoral joint (peak compression) 4.2 m/s (r) Scott and Winter (1990) 9.0
Anterior cruciate ligament (peak tension) 114 s/min Collins (1995) 1.5
Posterior cruciate ligament (peak tension) 114 s/min Collins (1995) 0.4
Patellar tendon (peak tension) 1.7 m/s Finni et al. (1999) 3.0
Patellar tendon (peak tension) 4.2 m/s (r) Scott and Winter (1990) 5.8
Hamstrings (peak tension) 114 s/min Collins (1995) 1.1
Hip
BW, units in number of body weights; s/min, steps per minute; m/s, meters per second; * direction of shear of tibia on talus; (r), runntng speed.
ing gait. Apraxia, defined as a disorder of voluntary move- can cause gait deviations. Abnormal joint range of motion
ment, occurs in some disease processes affecting th elderly. may occur secondary to injuries, tightness or contracture of
Gait apraxia may result in an ambulation pattern character- connective tissues and muscles, abnormal joint structure,
ized by a wide base of support, short stride, and shuffling. joint instability, or congenital connective tissue laxity. In
Individuai with impaired sensory function and balance may most cases, abnormal range of motion in one joint leads to
show an unstable gait pattern.76 With neurologie disorders, some form of compensation in one or more surrounding
th primary cause of gait dysfunction is an inability to gener joints. Muscular weakness may be due to disuse atrophy
ate and control an appropriate level of muscle force. Eventu- following an injury or a limited neural drive secondary to a
ally, muscle weakness and joint contracture may compound peripheral neural injury. Whatever th cause, weakness ulti-
th primary neuromotor deficit. mately leads to modification of th gait pattern. Tables 1 5 - 6
Deficits in th musculoskeletal System also result in a through 1 5 - 1 1 and Figures 1 5 - 4 5 through 1 5 - 5 1 present
wide variety of gait deviations. Abnormal (excessive or lim- some of th most common gait deviations observed in th
ited) joint range of motion and/or limited muscle strength generai population.
562 Sedioli IV Lowcr Extremily
Excessive inversion and pian Pes equinovarus defor- Upper motor neuron le- Contact with th ground is made with
tar flexion of th foot and mity due to spastic- sion (cerebral palsy, th lateral border of th forefoot.
ankle occur during swing ity of th piantar CVA) Weight hearing on th laterai border
and at initial contact. flexors and invertors of th foot during stanee.
Ankle remains piantar flexed Weakness of dorsiflex- Common peroneal nerve Flip htking, hip circumduction, or ex
during swing and can be ors and/or pes palsy cessive hip and knee flexion of th
associated with dragging of equinus deformity swing leg or vauliing of th stanee
th toes, typically called leg may be noted to lift th toes off
drop foot (Fig. 15-46). th ground and prevent th toes
from dragging during swing.
TABLE 15-7. Gait Deviations Seen at th Ankle/Foot as a Compensation for an Impairment of th Ipsilateral
Knee, Ipsilateral Hip, or Contralateral Lower Extremity
Observed Gait Deviation at th
Ankle/Foot Likely Impairment Mechanical Rationale
Vaulting: compensatory mechanism Any impairment of th contralateral Strategy used to allow th foot of a
demonstrated by exaggerated ankle lower extremity that reduces hip llex- functionally long, contralateral lower
piantar flexion during mid stanee; ion, knee flexion, or ankle dorsiflex- extremity to clear th ground during
leads to excessive vertical movement ion during swing. swing.
of th body (Fig. 15-47).
Excessive foot angle during stanee that Retroversion of th neck of th femur Foot is in excessive toeing-out due to
is called toeing-out. or tight hip extemal rotators excessive extemal rotation of th
lower extremity.
Reduction of th normal foot angle Excessive femoral anteversion or spastic- General internai rotation of th lower
during stanee that is called toeing- ity of th hip adductors and/or hip extremity
in. internai rotators
The terms in bold indicate th time in th gait cycle when th gait deviation is expressed.
FIGURE 15-45. Knee hyperextension and forward trunk lean with FIGURE 15-46. Drop foot during swing phase, reflective of weak
an ankle piantar flexion contracture. (From Perry J. Contractures: A dorsillexors. (From Shumway-Cook A: Motor Control: Theory and
historical perspective. Clin Orthop 219:8, 1987.) Practical Applications. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1995.)
563
564 Section IV Lower Extremity
The lerms in bold indicate th time in th gait cycle when th gait deviation is expressed
Chapter 15 Kmesiology o f Walking 565
TABLE 15-9. Gait Deviations Seen at th Knee as a Compensation for an lmpairment of th Ipsilateral Anklc,
Ipsilateral Hip, or Contralateral Lower Extremity
Observed Gait Deviation at th Knee Likely lmpairment Mechanical Rationale
Knee is kept in flexion during stance Impairments at th ankle or th hip Exaggerated ankle dorsiflexion or hip flexion
despile th knee having normal range including a pes calcaneus deformity, during stance forces th knee in a flexed
of motion on examination. piantar flexor weakness, and hip position. The contralateral (healthy) swing
flexion contracture. leg shows exaggerated hip and knee flex
ion to clear th toes owing to th func-
tionally shorter stance leg.
Hyperextension of th knee (genu recur- Ankle piantar flexion contracture (pes Knee must hyperextend to compensate for
vatum) from initial contact to pre equinus deformity) or spasticity of th lack of forward displacement of th
swing ankle piantar flexors tibia during stance (see Fig. 15-45).
Antalgic gait Painful stance leg This is characterized by a shorter step length
and stance time on th side of th painful
lower extremity; it may be accompanied
by ipsilateral trunk lean, if hip pain, con
tralateral trunk lean occurs wth knee and
foot pain.
Excessive knee Qexion in swing Lack of ankle dorsiflexion of th swing Strategy to increase toe clearance of th
leg or a short stance leg swing leg and is typically accompanied by
increased hip flexion.
The terms in bold indicate th time in th gait cycle when th gait deviation ts expressed.
Anterior trunk
Normal
bending
Backward irunk lean during load- Weak hip extensors Paralysis or poliomyelitis This action moves th line of
ing response gravity of th trunk behind
th hip and reduces th need
for hip extension torque.
Lateral trunk lean toward th Marked weakness of Guillain-Barr or poliomyelitis Shifting th trunk over th sup-
stance leg; since this movement th hip abductors porting limb reduces th de-
compensates for a weakness, it is mand on th hip abductors.
often called compensated Tren- Hip pain Arthritis Shifting th trunk over th sup-
delenburg gait and is referred to porting lower extremity re
as a waddling gait if bilaieral. duces compressive joint forces
associated with th action of
hip abductors (see Fig. 1 5 -
18).
Excessive downward drop of th Mild weakness of th Guillain-Barr or poliomyelitis While th Trendelenburg sign
contralateral pelvis during gluteus medius of may be seen in single-limb
stance. (Referred to as positive th stance leg standing, a compensated Tren
Trendelenburg sign if present delenburg gait is often seen in
during single-limb standing.) severe weakness of th hip ab
ductors.
Forward bending of th trunk dur Hip flexion contracture Hip osteoarthritis Forward trunk lean is used to
ing mid and term inal stance, as compensate for lack of hip ex
th hip is moved over th foot. tension. An alternative adapta-
tion could be excessive lum
bar lordosis.
Hip pain Hip osteoarthritis Keeping th hip at 30 degrees of
flexion mintmizes intraarticu-
lar pressure.
Excessive lumbar lordosis in term i Hip flexion contracture Arthritis Lack of hip extension in termi
nal stance nal stance is compensated for
by increased lordosis.
Trunk lurches backward and Hip flexor weakness l.2-L ! nerve compression Hip flexion is passively gener-
toward th unaffected stance leg ated by a backward movement
from heel o ff to mid swing. of th trunk.
Posterior tilt of th pelvis during Hip flexor weakness L2-L3 nerve compression Abdominals are used during ini
initial swing tial swing to advance th
swing leg.
Hip circumduction: semicircle Hip flexor weakness L2-L ! nerve compression Hip abductors are used as flex-
movement of th hip during ors.
sw ing combining hip flexion,
hip abduction, and forward rota-
tion of th pelvis (Fig. 1 5 -5 0 ).
* The terms in bold indicate th tinte in th gatt cycle when th gait deviation is expressed.
Chapter 15 Kinesiology of Walking 567
Forward bending of th trunk dur Weak quadriceps Trunk is brought forward to move th line of
ing th loading response gravity anterior to th axis of rotation of th
knee, thereby reducing th need for knee
extensors (see Fig. 1 5 -4 8 ).
Forward bending of th trunk dur Pes equinus deformity Lack of ankle dorsiflexion during stance results
ing mid and term inal stance in knee hyperextension and forward trunk
lean io move th weight of th body over
th stance foot (see Fig. 1 5 -4 5 ).
Excessive hip and knee flexion dur Often due io lack of ankle dorsiflexion Used to clear th toes of th swing leg
ing swing (Fig. 1 5 -5 1 ) of th swing leg; may also be due to
a functionally or anatomically short
contralateral stance leg.
Hip circumduction during swing Lack of shortening of th swing leg Used to lift th foot of th swing leg off th
(Fig. 1 5 -5 0 ) secondary to reduced hip (lexion, re- ground and provide toe clearance
duced knee flexion, and/or lack of
ankle dorsiflexion
Hip hiking (elevation of th ipsilat- Lack of shortening of th swing leg Used to lift th foot of th swing leg off th
eral pelvis during swing) secondary to reduced hip flexion, re ground and provide toe clearance
duced knee flexion, and/or lack of
ankle dorsiflexion
Functionally or anatomically short
stance leg
Excessive backward horizontal rota- Ankle piantar flexor weakness Ankle piantar flexor weakness leads to pro-
tion of th pelvis on th side of longed heel contact and lack of push off. An
th stance leg in terminal stance increased pelvic horizontal rotation is used
to lengthen th limb and maintain adequate
step length.
* The terms in bold indicate th lime in th gait cycle when th gait deviation is expressed.
FIGURE 15-49. Knee (lexion contratture causing a crouched gait of FIGURE 15-50. Hip circumduction during swing. (From Whittle M:
th stance leg. (From Perry J: Contractures: A historical perspective. Gait Analysis: An Introduction, 2nd ed. Oxford, Butterworth-Heine-
Clin Orthop 219:8, 1987.) mann Ltd., 1996.)
568 Section IV Lower Extremity
paedic Surgeons (ed): Alias of Orthotics: Biomechanical Principles and 76. Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott M: Motor control Theory and practical
Application. St. Louis, Mosby, 1975. applications. Philadelphia, Williams & Wilkins, 1995.
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A p p e n d i x IV
Nerve Root
Lumbar Sacrai
Muscle L1 L2 V L4 L5 S* s2 S3
Psoas minor X X
Psoas major X X X X
Hiatus 00 X X X
Pectineus X X X
Sartorius X X (x)
Quadriceps X X X
Adductor brevis X X X
Adductor longus X X X
Gracilis X X X
Obturator externus X X
Adductor magnus X X X X X
Gluteus medius
X X X
Gluteus minimus
X X X
Tensor fascia lata
X X X
Gluteus maximus
X X X
Piriformis
(x) X X
Gemellus superior
X X X
Obturator intemus
X X X
Gemellus inferior
X X X (x)
Quadratus femoris
X X X (x)
Biceps (long head)
X X X X
Semitendinosus
X X X X
Semimembranosus
X X X X
Biceps (short head)
X X X
Tibialis anterior
X X X
Extensor hallucis longus
X X X
Extensor digitorum longus
X X X
Peroneus tertius
X X X
Extensor digitorum brevis
X X X
Peroneus longus
X X X
Peroneus brevis
X X X
Plantaris
X X X (x)
Gastrocnemius
X X
Popliteus
1 X x r X
570
Appendix IV 571
Nerve Root
Lumbar Sacrai
Muscle V L2 L3 L4 L5 S> s2 S3
Soleus X X X
Lumbrical 1 X X X
Quadratus plantae X X
Adductor hallucis X X
Piantar interossei X X
Dorsal interossei X X
(x), mirumal literature support; X, moderate literature support; X, strong literature support.
Modified from Rendali FP, McCreary AK, and Provante PG: Muscles: Testing and Function, ed. 4. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1993. Data based on a
compilation from several anatomical sources.
Part B: Key Muscles for Testing th Function Part C: Attachments and Innervations of th
of Ventral Nerve Roots (L2-S3) Lower Extremity Muscles
T h e ta b le s h o w s th k e y m u s c le s t y p ic a lly u s e d to test th H IP A N D KNEE M USCULATURE
f u n c t io n o f in d iv id u a i v e n tr a l n e rv e r o o t s o f th lu m b o s a c r a l
Adductor Brevis
p le x u s ( L 2-S 3) i n th c lin ic . R e d u c e d s tr e n g th in a k e y tn u s -
P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t : a n te r io r s u rfa c e o f th in f e r io r p u b ic
c le m a y in d ic a te a n in j u r y to th a s s o c ia te d n e rv e ro o t.
ra m u s
D istai a t ta c h m e n t : p r o x im a l o n e t h ir d o f th lin e a a sp e ra
Ventral
o f th fe m u r
Nerve
In n e r v a tio n : o b t u r a t o r n e rv e
Key Muscles Root Sample Test Movements
Iliopsoas L2 Hip flexion Adductor Longus
Adductor longus L2 Hip adduction P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t : a n te r io r s u rfa c e o f th b o d y o f th
Quadriceps femoris L3 Knee extension p u b is
D istai a t ta c h m e n t : m id d le o n e t h ir d o f th lin e a a s p e ra o f
Tibialis anterior L4 Ankle dorsiflexion
th fe m u r
Extensor digitorum L5 Toe extension In n e r v a tio n : o b t u r a t o r n e rv e
longus
Gluteus medius L5 Hip abduction
Adductor Magnus
Gluteus maximus S> Hip extension with knee A n te r io r (A d d u cto r H e a d )
flexed P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t : is c h ia l ra m u s
Semitendinosus S1 Knee flexion and internai D istai a t ta c h m e n t : e n tire lin e a a s p e ra o f th fe m u r
rotation
In n e r v a tio n : o b t u r a t o r n e rv e
Gastrocnemius/soleus S2 Ankle piantar flexion
Flexor hallucis longus s2 Flexion of th hallux P o s te r io r (E x te n s o r H ea d )
Articularis Genu
ie s o f th la st t h o r a c ic a n d a ll lu m b a r v e rte b ra e in c lu d -
P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t : a n te r io r s u rfa c e o f th d is ta i fe m o ra l
in g th in t e r v e r t e b r a l d is c s
sh a ft
D istai a t ta c h m e n t : le s s e r t ro c h a n te r o f th fe m u r
D istai a t ta c h m e n t : p r o x im a l c a p s u le o f th k n e e
In n e r v a tio n : fe m o ra l n e rv e llia c u s
P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t s : s u p e r io r tw o t h ir d s o f th ilia c fossa,
Biceps Femoris
in n e r lip o f th ilia c c re s i, a n d s m a ll re g io n o f th
L on g H ead
s a c ru m a c ro s s th s a c r o ilia c jo in t
P r o x im a l a tta c h m e n ts : fro m a com m on te n d o n w it h th
D is ta i a t ta c h m e n t : le ss e r t ro c h a n te r o f th fe m u r v ia th
s e m ite n d in o s u s ; o r ig in a t in g fro m a m e d ia i im p r e s s io n
la te ra l s id e o f p s o a s m a jo r te n d o n
o n th p o s t e r io r s u rfa c e o f th is c h ia l t u b e ro s it y a n d
in n e r v a t io n : fe m o ra l n e rv e
p a rt o f th s a c ro tu b e ro u s lig a m e n t.
D istai a t ta c h m e n t : h e a d o f th fib u la Obturator Externus
In n e r v a tio n : t ib ia l p o r t io n o f th s c ia tic n e rv e P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t s : e x te rn a l s u rfa c e of th o b tu ra to r
S hort H ead m e m b ra n e a n d s u r r o u n d in g e x te rn a l s u rfa c e s o f th
in f e r io r p u b ic ra m u s a n d is c h ia l ra m u s
P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t : la te ra l lip o f th lin e a a sp e ra b e lo w
D istai a t ta c h m e n t : m e d ia i s u rfa c e o f th g re a te r t ro c h a n te r
th g lu te a l tu b e ro s ity
at th t r o c h a n te r ic fossa
D is ta i a t ta c h m e n t : h e a d o f th f ib u la
In n e r v a tio n : o b t u r a t o r n e rv e
In n e r v a tio n : c o m m o n p e r o n e a l p o r t io n o f th s c ia tic n e rv e
D istai a t ta c h m e n t : quad rate tu bercle (m id dle o f in tertro - D is ta i a t ta c h m e n t : m ediai cap su le, base o f th patella and
ch an teric cre si) via ligam entu m patella, io th tibial tuberosity
ln n e r v a tio n : nerve to th quad ratus fem oris ln n e r v a tio n : fem oral nerve
Rectus Femoris
P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t : straight tend on: an terio r-in ferio r iliac ANKLE AND FOOT M U S C U L A T U R E
Extensor Digitorum Brevis T ran sverse head: piantar aspect o f th ligam ents that
P r o x im a l a t ta c h m e n t : lateral-d istal asp ect o f th calcaneu s su p p o rt th m etatarsophalangeal jo in ts o f th third
ju s t proxim al to th calcan eo cu b o id jo in t th ro u g h fifth toes
D is ta i a tta c h m e n ts : by three ten d o n s that blen d w ith th D is ta i a t ta c h m e n t s : bo th heads converge to insert on th
tend ons o f th exte n so r d igitoru m longu s o f th s e c lateral base o f th p roxim al p halanx o f th great toe
ond throu gh fifth toes. A fourth tend o n inserts on th along w ith th lateral tend on o f th Ilexor hallucis
dorsal base o f th p roxim al p h alan x o f th great toe. brevis
in n e r v a tio n : deep b ran ch o f th peroneal nerve In n e r v a tio n : lateral p iantar nerve
Note: Page numbers followed by th letter f refer to figures; those followed by th letter t refer to
lables, and those followed by th letter b refer to boxed material.
Craniocervical region (Commue.d) Dot sai hood, ol digitai extensor mechantsm, 220 Energy (Conlinued)
innervation of, 312-314, 382l-383l 2211-2231, 222l potential and kinetic, 534-535, 535f
posterior, 315i, 337-338, 338t Dorsal interossei. See aho Interassei, walktng speed and, 547, 547f
attachmems of, 383l of foot in work-energy relationship, 600-602
protraction of, muscuiar imbalance wiih anaiomy and function of, 519f, 520 Epicondyle(s)
341b. 3411' attachmems and innervation of, 574t-575t lateral
Cranium. See also Head of hand, attachmems and innervation of of distai femur, 435, 436f, 437f
osteologie features of, 253, 253f 246t of humcrus, 135, 135f
Creep, in ttssues, 13, 15f Dorsillexion mediai
Cross-bridges ankle injury and, 489b of distai femur, 435, 436f, 437f
in active force generation, 46 definition of, 482, 4821, 483t of humerus, 134, 134f, 135f
of myofilaments, 45, 46f, 47f of talocrural joint, 486-487, 487f Epicondylitis, lateral, 189
Crown, of teeth, 355, 356f of transverse tarsal joint, 493, 4951 Epimysium, in muscle, 42, 43f
Crus, of diaphragm, 372 Drop foot Equilibrium, static and dynamic, in Newtons
Cubitus valgus, of elbow, 138, 138f abnormal gail pattern with, 5491, 550, 5631 law of inerita, 57
Cubitus varus, of elbow, 138, 138f common peroneal nerve in|ury and, 516-517 Erector sptnae
Cuboid bone, 4801-48 lf, 481 518t actions of, 319f, 320-321
Cuboideonavicular joint, 4931, 502b, 502-503 Dupuytren's contracture, oblique retinacular liga- as extrinsic trunk stabilizers, 316, 330f 330-
5031 ment in, 232 331, 33 Ib
Cuneiform bones, 479b, 4801-4811, 481 Dynamometry attachmems and innervation of, 381t
Cuneocuboid joint complex, 4931, 502b, 50 2 - for collectioti of kinematic data, 51, 84 841 common lendon of, attachmems of, 319t
503, 503f 85, 85f eross-seclional anatomy of, 318f
Cuneonavicular joint, 4931, 502b, 502-503 for measurement of torque angle curve, 48 in gait, 549f, 551
503f Dysplasia, developmental. of hip, 401b lumbar, in lifting heavy loads, 320, 320f 347
Cusp, of teeth, 355, 356f
3481
of deep layer of back, 318f-320f, 318t-319t
E 318-321, 320b
D Elastic deformation energy, in ligament, 12, 13f Eversion
Degrees of freedom, 6f, 6 -7 Elastic zone, in ligament, 12, 131 definition of, 482, 4821, 483t
Deltoid Elastin tiber, 32 of subtalar joini, 49 lt, 492b
anlerior Elbow
of talocrural joint, 4 9 lt
in arm elevation al glenohumeral joint, activities of daily living and. 140, 142f of transverse tarsal joint, 493, 4951'
123-124, 1241, 125t flexion contracture of, 140, 141b, 141 f Evolute, 31
in internai rotation of shoulder, 131-132, tnjury of, 144-145, 1451 of knee, 443, 445f
1321 intracapsular air pressure in, 140 Exercise(s)
attachmems and innervation of, 243t isometric exercise at, biomechanical problem closed kinetic chatn, 453b
middle, in arm elevation at glenohumeral solving with, 77-79, 781 extemal torque in. manual application of 75-
joint, 123-124, 124f, 125t joints of, 137-145. See also Humeroradial 76, 76f
posterior joint; Humeroulnar joint. fiexion and extension, for treatment of low-
actions of at glenohumeral joint, 17-18, generai features of, 137-138 back pain, 302b
18f, 111, 129-130, 1301, 131 b. 1311 instability of, 144-145, 145f isometric, at elbow, biomechanical problem
as synergist to elbow flexors, 161 kinematics of, 140-144, 141b, 1411-1441 solving with, 77 -8 1 , 78f, 791
in extemal rotation of shoulder, 132 motion of, in gait, 545 resistive, design of, 72b, 72f, 74b, 74f
paralysis of, 131b, 1311 muscle interaction with, 151-170 sit-up
Deltoid luberosity, 98 periarticular connective tissue of, 138-140
Dens, 2791 abdominal muscle action in, 331-333,
range of motion of, 140, 142f 332f, 3331
in axial rotation, 282, 2851 muscles of. See Musclefs), elbow and forearm. diagonal, 326f
of axis, 264, 2671 normal valgus angle of, 137-138, 138f hip flexor muscles in, 332f, 333
Developmental dysplasia, of hip, acetabular mal- Elbow and lorearm complex, 133b, 133-171. Expiration
alignment and, 401b See also Humeroradial joint; Humeroulnar forced, iniercostales in, 3761, 377, 3771, 377t
Diaphragm joint; Radioulnar joint lowering of ribs during, 371, 37 lf
abnormalities of arthrology of, 137-151 of lungs, 369
in cervical spinai cord tnjury, 374b composition ol, 133, 1341 Extension
in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, innervation of, 152, 153f-156f, 155-157,
375 of craniocervical spine, 279-282, 280f-282f
157t, 244t-245t of elbow, 140-144, 161-162, 163f, 163t
action and innervation of, 372t, 373, 384t muscles of 164, 164f
attachmems of, 372, 3721, 384t attachmems of, 244t-245t of fingers, 201f
in inspiration, 372-373, 3721 interaction with joints at, 151-170
parts of. 372, 3721 of glenohumeral joint, 112f, 114, 116t
osteologie features of, 133-137 of head, 3191 320
variable position of, 37.3b Electrogoniometer, 82, 82f
of hip, 405f, 406, 407f, 408f, 408-409, 466,
Diarthrosis, definitton and function of, 26f, 2 6 - Electromagnetic tracking device, for collection of
27 468f-469f, 468-470, 469t
kinematic data, 83 of knee. See Knee, extension of.
Digastric muscle, attachmems and innervation of, Electromyography
383t of lumbar spine, for low back pain, conse-
extraneous electrical noise with, 54 quences of, 302b
Digit(s) for study of muscle activity in gait, 547-548
of foot, 480f-4811, 482. See also Metatarso- 549f
of metacarpophalangeal joints, 209, 2101
of shoulder, 129-130, 130f, 131 b
phalangeal joint(s). normalization of signal of, 55
of hand, 194-195, 1991. See also Carpometa- uses and processing of, 5 4 -5 5 , 526
of thoracic spine, 286t, 286-287, 2881 289f
of thumb, 201f, 204f, 204-205, 206f, 206l
carpal jointfs); Finger(s). Endomysium, in muscle, 42, 43f
ofwrist, 179-180, 180f, 181f-182f, 181-
extensors of, 219f-222f, 219-220, 222t Energy
llexors of, 214219 182, 187, 187f
elastic deformation, in ligaments, 12, 13f Extensor carpi radialis brevis
second and third, as complex saddle joints, in gail
198, 203f attachmems and innervation of, 245t
disability and, 547, 548t function of, 187f1891 187-189
Distraction force, at apophyseal joints, 272t kinematic methods of minimizing, 545t in making a fisi, 189
Dorsal digitai expansion, 508 545-547, 546f, 547f radiai deviation by, 191, 1911
Index 581
Extensor carpi radialis longus Fascia lata of thigh, 413 Finger(s) (Commutiti)
attachmenis and innervation of, 245t Fat pads rote of proximal stabihzer muscles in, 218,
function of, 187f-189f, 187-189 of knee, 439, 442t 218f
radiai deviation by, 191 of synovial joints. 27 interphalangeal joints of, 211-213
Extensor carpi ulnaris Femoral head movements of, terminolog)' of, 197, 201f
attachments and innervation of, 245t acetabular malalignment and, 397-398, 400f muscles of
function of, 187f-189f, 187-189 osteologie features of, 396b, 396-397, 399f extensors, 219-220, 221f-223f, 222t,
in wrist flexion, 190 Femoral neck, angle of inclination of. See Coxa 230-232, 231f-232f
ulnar deviation by, 191-192, 192f valga; Coxa vara. extrinstc and intrinsic, interaction of, 2 30-
Extensor digiti minimi, 219-220, 220f-221f Femoral nerve 234
attachments and innervation of, 245t muscles innervated by, at hip, 409f, 409-411 flexors, 214-219, 233f, 233-234
Extensor digitorum brevis lo quadriceps, 453-454, 454t in makmg a fisi, 188f-189f, 188-189
anatomy and function of, 504f, 510f, 518, Femoral-on-pelvic hip motion, 403 position of function of, 213, 213f
519f hip extensor muscles active in, 422, 423f ulnar drift of, in rheumatoid arthritis, 2 37-
attachmenis of, 574t hip flexor function in, 414, 415f 238, 239f
innervation of, 507, 508f, 574t in rotation, 404f-405f, 404-406 Fist, muscle mechanics of, 188f-189f, 188-189,
Extensor digitorum communis, 187f, 2 lOf, 21 9 - Femoral-on-tibial knee motion, 4441, 445f 233f, 233-234
220, 220f22lf flexor-rotator muscle interaction in, 465, Flabella, 439
action of, 220, 223f 466f Flatfoot, 497, 497f
attachmenis and innervation of, 245t in knee extension, 445, 446f decreased windlass effect in, 506, 506f
in openinghand, 230-232, 231f-232f extemal torque in, 456, 458f Flexion
wrist extension with, 187, 187f in anterior cruciale ligamenl reconstruction, lateral
Extensor digitorum longus 45 3b of craniocervical spine. 283-284, 286f
anatomy and function of, 508, 510, 510f vs. tibial-on-femoral motion, 7f in coupling with axial rotation, 339b
attachments and innervation of, 573i Femur, 393f-399f, 393-396 of thoracic spine, 287, 291 f
in gait, 549f, 550 anatomy of, 393f-394f, 393-394 of craniocervical spine, 279-282, 280f-282f
innervation of, 507, 508f angle of inclination of, 394, 396f. See also of elbow. 157t, 157-161, 158f-162f, 159t,
Extensor digitorum muscles, in finger flexion, Coxa valga; Coxa vara, 162b
234 anteversion of of fingers, 201 f
Extensor hallucis longus excessive, 395, 397f-398f of glenohumeral joint, 112f, 114, 115f, 116l
anatomy and function of, 508, 510, 510f naturai, 398, 398f of hip, 406, 407f, 408f, 408-409
attachments of, 573t attachments to, 393f-395f of knee.See Knee, flexion of.
in gau, 549f, 550 distai, osteologie features of, 435, 435b, 436f- of lumbar spine, for low back pain, conse-
innervation of, 507, 508f, 573t 437f quences of, 302b
Extensor indicis, 219-220, 220f221f motion of, in gait. 542, 542f, 544b of metacarpophalangeal joints, 209, 210f
attachments and innervation of, 245t patellar contact with, 446-447, 4481 of thoracic spine, 286t, 286-287, 288f, 289f
Extensor lag," at knee, 460b proximal, 396 of thumb, 201 f, 204f, 204-205, 206f, 206t
Extensor pollici? brevis, 221, 223, 223f retroversion of, 395, 397f of wrist, 179-180, 180f, 181f-182f, 181-
attachments and innervation of, 246t rotational range of, in hip motion, 404, 405f, 182, 190-191, 191t
radiai deviation of wrist by, 191, 191 f 406 Flexion contracture
Extensor pollicis longus, 221, 223, 223f lorsion angle of, 394-396, 397f, 398f elbow, loss of forsvard reach with, 140, 141b,
attachmenis and innervation of, 246t Fiberfs) 141 f
radiai deviation of wrist by, 191, 191f collagen hip
Extensor retinaculum in articular carlilage, 34, 35f effect on standing, 416, 416f
of ankle and foot, 508, 510f tn nucleus pulposus and annuiti? fibrosus, lumbar lordosis with, 300, 301f
of wrist, 188, 188f 273, 276b Flexor carpi radialis
Eyes, in axial rotation in craniocervical region,
types of, 31-32, 32b anatomy and function of, 189-190, 190f
340 elastin, 32 attachments and innervation of, 245t
in connective tissues, 3 1 -3 2 , 32b, 33t radiai deviation by, 191, 191 f
muscle, 42, 43, 43f Flexor carpi ulnaris
F of digitai exiensor mechanism, 220, 221 f- anatomy and function of, 189-190, 190f
Facet(s)
223f, 222t attachments and innervation of, 245t
articular
of hip capsule, 402, 402t ulnar deviation by, 191-192, 192f
of atlas, 264, 266f
of lateral ligament of temporomandibular Flexor digiti mimmi
of lumbar vertebrae, 268f, 268-269, 269f
joint, 358, 358f of foot
clavicular
of manubrium, 93, 94f of mediai collateral ligament of elbow, 138, anatomy and function of, 519, 519f
of sternum, 254, 257f 140f attachments and innervation of, 574t
costai, 256, 257f patellar retinacular, 438, 438f of hand, 225h 225-226
of manubrium, 93, 94f Fibrocartilage attachments and innervation of, 246t
of ihoracic vertebrae, 265, 267f in connective tissues, 33t Flexor digitorum brevis, attachments and nner-
of calcaneus, 480f-481f, 481 nourishment and blood supply of, 35 vation of, 574t
of femoral condyie. 435, 437f organization and function of, 35, 36f Flexor digitorum longus
of patella, 437, 437f, 447, 448f peripheral labrum of, 27 anatomy and function of, 512-514, 514f, 516
of talus, 480, 4 8 lf triangular, 146, 148f attachments and innervation of, 5731
Facet surfaces, of apophyseal joints, 273, 273f. Fibrous capsule maximal torque potential of at ankle, 514,
292, 293f of glenohumeral joint, 107f, 107110, 109f 516t
Falls, hip fracture following, 428t of melalarsophalangeal joints, 504 supinatton potential of, 514, 516
Fascia of temporomandibular joint, 357f, 357-358 Flexor digitorum profundus, 2 14f215f, 215
cervical, components of, 334, 334f, 334t Fibula, 435, 436f, 478-479, 479f 216
piantar Finger(s). Seealso Carpomeiacarpal joint(s); attachments and innervation of, 246t
forces applied to in gait, 561t Metacarpophalangeal joint(s). in finger flexion. 233f, 233-234
of mediai longitudinal arch, 496, 497 clawing of, 231, 232f in wrist flexion, 190-191
windlass effect on, 506, 506f flexion of Flexor digitorum superficialis, 190, 190f, 214f
thoracolumbar, in lifting heavy loads, 346t, passive, via tenodesis action of digitai flex- 2151, 214-215, 218, 218f
347 ors, 2 18f219f, 218-219 attachments and innervation of, 246l
582 Index
Flexor digitorum superficialis (Conlinued) Foramen magnum, 253, 253f Forefoot varus, 501
in Finger flexion, 233f, 233-234 Force(s). See also Torque. gait deviations with, 562t
in wrist flexion, 190-191 and dtstancc, 21, 22, 22f Forward lean
Flexor hallucis brevis compression. See Compression force, abnormal gait pattem with, 563f
anatomy and function of, 519, 519f distraction, at apophyseal joints, 272t hip extensors conirolling, 420-421 4 2 lf
attachments and innervaiion of, 574l dynamic analysis of, 82b, 82f85f, 8 2 -8 5 422f
Flexor hallucis longus in Newtons laws of motion, 57 Fossa
anatomy and function of, 512-514, 514f, 516 isometric, development of torque-joint angle acetabular, 397
attachments and mnervation of, 573t curve and, 4 7 -5 0 coracoid, 134, 134f
maximal torque potenttal of at ankle, 514, joint reaction. See Joint reaction force, glenoid, 96, 96f
516t moduauon of iliac, 391, 3911
supination potential of, 514, 516 by rate coding, 52, 53f infraspmatus, 96, 96f
Flexor pollicis brevis, 224, 225f in force-velocity relationship, 50f51 f, 5 0 - mtercondylar, 437
attachments and mnervation of, 246t 51, 5 lb
Flexor pollicis longus, 214f-215f, 216-217 mandibular, 354f, 354l, 354-355, 356, 3571
muscle faiigue and, 52-53, 54f olecranon, 135
attachments and innervation of, 246t musculoskeletal radiai, 134, 134f
radiai deviation of wrist by, 191, 191f generation and transmission of, 4 1 -5 5
Flexor pulley, 215f. 217 supraspinatus, 96, 96f
active, 45t, 4 5 -4 7 , 46f, 47f temporal, 352, 353f
anatomy and function of, 217-218 guidelines for solving problems in, 77t trochanteric, 393f, 394, 395f
ruptured, btomechanics of, 217, 217f in gait, 558-559, 561t
Foot (feet). See also Ankle. in skeletal movemeni, 50-55
Fovea
in pronation of forearm, 150, 150f
deformities or abnormal postures of, 5 16- in skeletal stabilization, 4 1 -5 0 , 42t of femoral head, 394f, 396
518, 518l sliding filament hypothesis of, 4 6 -4 7 of radius, 137
gali deviations with, 501, 562t 47f Fracture
function of, 477-478 in joint protecuon, clinical issues in, 7 4 - ofscaphoid. 174
joints of 76, 75f, 76f stress, and high mediai longitudinal arch,
distai mtertarsal, 502-503 in kinetics, 11-15, 12f-15f 498b
intermetatarsal, 504 internai and external, 13, 15, 15f
interphalangeal, 505-506. See also Inter- representation of
Free body diagram, 6 3 -6 4 , 64f
reference frames for, 6 5 -6 7 , 66f
phalangeal joint(s). analytic methods of, 70, 7 2 -7 6 steps in setting up, 64 -6 5 , 65b, 65f
kinematic relationshtp with other parts of graphic methods of, 6 7 -7 0 Fronial piane, 5, 6f, 6t
foot, 501b in contrasting internai vs. external forces, Fused tetanus, of muscle fibers, 52, 53f
malalignment of, walking and, 501 69, 69f-70f. 69t
metatarsophalangeal, 504f-505f, 504-505. result of changed joint angle in, 6 9 -7 0
also
5ee Metatarsophalangeal joim(s). 71 f, 72b, 72f G
motions of, in gatt, 541, 541f-542f vector composilion in, 67f-68f, 67-68, 69b Gagging, abdominal muscle function in, 377b
abnormalities in, 501, 561t-562t
in horizontal piane, 543, 544b, 544f
parallelogram method of, 68, 68f, 69f Gait, 523-568. See also Walking.
polygon method of, 67f, 68 analysis of, histoncal aspeets of, 524-527
in late stance phase, 506 vector resoluuon in, 69f71 f, 69t, 6 9 -7 0
in stance phase, 507t 525f-526f
Force piate, for collection of kinematic data, 84f antalgic, 560
subtalar, 48 lf, 484f-485f, 489-490, 490f, 8 4 -8 5
See also
491t. Subtalar joint. Force-accelerauon relationship, 58b, 5 8 -62 61f
at different ages, 523, 524f
tarsometatarsal, 503. See also Tarsometatar- 62b, 621
bodys center of mass in, 533-535, 534f, 535f
cadence of, 528
sal joint Force-couple, of muscles, 18f, 19
See also
transverse tarsal. Tarsal joint, trans Force-time curve, 61b, 61f
clinical measurements of, 530b
compensated Trendelenburg, 425b
verse. Force-velocity relationship, 50f, 50 -5 1 , 51b, 51f energy used in, kinetic and potential, 5 34-
combined action with subtalar joint, Forearm. See also Elbow and forearm complex. 535, 535f, 547, 547f, 548t
498-502, 499f-500f, 500t attachments and innervation of, 244t-245t kinematic methods of minimizing, 545t,
structure and function of, 491-498, distai, bones and joints of, 172b 172-173
492f-498f 545-547, 546f-547f
173f festinating, 563
muscles of. See Muscle(s), ankle and foot. in activities of daily living, 148, 148f hip abductor use in, 424f, 424-425
osteologie features of, 478-482 interosseous membrane of, force transmission
prenatal development of, 398, 398f hip internai rotator muscle use in, 417, 420f
through, 142-144, 143f. 144f impaired, 559-560. 561t-567t, 563, 563f
rays of, 480f481 f, 482 joints of, 145-151 See also Radiocarpal joini; 565f, 567f, 568f
sensory innervation of, 507, 509f Radioulnar joint. adaptation to, 560
structure and function of, 478t, 479f 4 8 9 - kinematics of, 147-151
506 anterior cruciate ligament injur>' and, 453b
pronation of, 145f, 145-149 causes of, 560, 560b
terminology of, 478, 478f as spin movement, lOf in cerebral palsy, 417
for motions and positions, 482f, 482-483 innervation of, 152, 157t
483l "in-toeing" as sign of, 395-396, 398f
muscles active in, 166f, 169-170 secondar)^ to ankle/foot impairment, 561t
Foot angle, 527 law of parsimony in, 169b 562t
Foot drop, gait abnormality with, 568f line of force of, 165, 166f, 170f
Foot fiat, 531, 53lf, 531t step length in, 528f
torque generated by, 168b, 168-170 with hemiparesis, 528f
Foot forces, 63, 63f, 551, 552f range of motion of, 148, 148f
Foot slap, 561t with painful hip, 528f
supination of, 145f, 145-149 with Parkinsons disease, 528f
in gait, 549f. 550 at radioulnar joint, 149, 1491
Foramen (foramina) joint kinematics in
restriction of, 149-150, 150f, 150t in frontal piane, 539f-542f, 539-541
intervertebral
with weight-bearing, 150-151, 151f 541b
effeets of flexion and extension on, 283b 152t
283f in horizontal piane, 542f-543f, 542-543
innervation of, 152, 155, 157t 544b, 544f
in lumbar extension, 297 law of parsimony in, 166
in lumbar flexion, 295-296 in sagittal piane, 535-539, 536f-537f,
Forefoot 538b
sacrai, 269, 2711 action of, in stance phase of gait, 506, 506f
sctatic, greater, 391, 392f to minimize energy expenditure, 545t 545-
5071
transverse, 262, 262f 547, 5461-547f
definition of, 478 kinetics of, 551-559
Index 583
M
Malleolus
Meningea! nerve, recurrent, axial skeletal ttssues Motion (Contmued)
innervated by, 313, 313f linear or rotational, in Newtons law of inertia
lateral, 479f Mentscoids, 262b, 262f 57, 57t
mediai, 479f Meniscus(i) planes of, 5, 6f, 6t, 7
and tendons of tlbialis posterior and flexor hbrocartilage organization in, 35, 36f types of, 3
digilorum longus, 514 of synovial joints, 26f, 27, 27b Motoneuron
Mamillary processes, of lumbar vertebrae, 268, of tibiofemoral joint (knee), 440, 443f alpha, 51
269f attachment of, 440, 442, 444f classification of, 52, 531
Mandible, 352-353, 353f, 354f blood supply of, 440 rate coding of, 52, 53f
angle of, 352, 353, 353f function of, 442 recruitment of, 51 -5 2 , 52t, 53f
body and rami of, 353, 353f injury of, 38, 444b Motor unit(s), of muscle, 51-52, 53f
condyle of, 353, 353f, 354f, 356 ligaments associated with, 442b Motor unit action potential, 51, 54
in disc-condyle complex mediai, tnjury of, 444b Mouth
derangemeni of, 361b, 361 f Metacarpal bones closing of, 362, 365
lateral pterygold action and, 367b, 367f ftrst, 199f muscular control of, 366, 367f
translational movement of, 359f, 360, morphology of, 195-197, 198f-200f opening of, .365
362 third. 199f
motion of muscular control of, 366, 367f
Metacarpophalangeal joint(s), 195, 197f, 2 0 7 - phases in, 359360, 360f, 362, Seealso
in contralateral excursion, 363f, 365 211, 208f-212f, See alsa Finger(s). Mandible, motion of.
in depression and elevaiion, 359-360,
360f, 362
arthritis of, 236-238, 237f239f Movement(s). See also Motion.
close-packed position of, 209, 211, 211 f active and passive, 5
in lateral excursion, 358-359, 359f, 362 generai features of, 207f, 207-208 analysis of
in protrusion and retrusion, 358, 359f, 360 interossei muscle function and, 228, 230t anthropometry in, 63, 87t
362 kinematics of, 208-211, 209b, 209f2 lOf concepts in, 6 3 -7 6
in rotation, 360, 360f, 362 ligaments of, 207-208, 208f dynamic, 82f-85f, 8 2 -8 5
in translation, 360, 360f, 362 lumbrical muscle function and, 228 free body diagram in, construction of, 6 3 -
osteokinematics of, 358-360, 359f, 360f of thumb 67, 64f, 65b, 65f
osteologie features of, 353b arthrokinematics of, 211, 21 lf212f
positton of, 355-356 guidelines for solving biomechanics prob-
muscles attached to, 224t lems in, 77l
and head position, 366b, 366f palmar dislocation of, 237, 238f quantitative methods of, 76 -8 5
Mandibular fossa, 354f, 354-355 passive accessory motions at, 208, 209 static, 77b, 77-81
articular and nonarticular surfaces of, 354f 209f arthrokinemalc principles of
354t, 356, 357f periarticular connective tissues of, 208 concave-on-convex, 10-11, llb , 1 lf
Mandibular nerve, muscles of mastication inner- 208f
vated by, 362t convex-on-concave, 10-11, llb , 1lf
position of function of, 213, 213f of joints, 8t, 8 -1 0 , 9f, lOf
Mandibular notch, 353, 353f ulnar drift al, 237-238, 239f Multifidi
Manubriosternal joint, 254, 257f, 370, 370f Metatarsal bones, osteologie features of, 480f-
Manubrium. 93, 94f, 254, 257( anatomy and action of, 32lf, 321t, 321-323
4 8 lf, 482 as secondary axial rotators, 327b
Marey, in gait analysis, 524, 524f Metatarsophalangeal joint(s)
Mass attachments of, 38 lt
extensor mechanism of, 504 in lumbosacral region, 322t
center of, 5, 57 tirsi in trunk movement, 329t
dsplacement of, in gait, 535-537, 540b, deformities of, 504-505, 505f innervation of, 3 8 lt
540f, 545t, 546f-547f in gait, 539
vs. body weight, 12b Murray MP, in gait analysis, 525f, 526
structure and function of, 504, 504f Muscle(s)
Mass moment of inertia
calculation of, 59b, 59f
in hallux rigidus and hallux valgus, 504-505
505f
abdominal. See Abdominal muscles
actions of
in Newton's law of inertia, 57b, 57-58, 58b in standing on tiptoe, 517b, 517f at joints
60f structure and function of, 504f, 504-505 analysis of, 17-19, 18f
prosthetic design and, 60b 505f
Masseter types of, 16-17, 17f
windlass effect on, 506, 506f force couple of, 18f, 19
anatomy and function of, 363, 363f, 365t Metatarsus primus varus, 505 terminology of, 18
attachments and innervation of, 383t Mid stance activation of
in closing of mouth, 366, 367f action of muscles and joints in, 501-502 by nervous System, 51-52, 52t, 53f
mediai pterygoid interaction with, 363f, 364b 502f, 511 concentric, 50f, 5 0 -5 1 , 51f
Mastication, 352-367 defimiion of, 531, 531f, 531t eccentric, 50f, 5 0 -5 1 , 5 lf
by temporomandibular joint, 356 Midcarpal joint, 173f, 176-177, 177f nonisometric, 54
disc-condyle complex derangement and, 361, flexion and extension of, 181f-182f, 181-182 ankle and foot
361f ulnar and radiai deviation of, 182-184 183f-
muscles of, 362t dorsiflexor, paralysis of, 516-517, 518t
184f, 184b extrinsic
actions of, 365t Midfoot
attachments and innervation of, 383t anatomy and function of, 507, 5 lOf
actions of during stance phase of gait, 507t 51 lf, 512t, 513f-515f, 516
function of, 363(-365f, 363-365, 365t definition of, 478 attachments of, 573t-574t
secondary, 365, 365f, 365t
osteokinematics of. 358-360, 359f, 360f
Mid-tarsal joint, 491 See also Tarsal joint, trans- motor innervation of, 509t, 573t574t
verse.
Mastoid process, 253, 253f of anterior compartment of leg, 508 510
Moment arm 510f
Maxillae, 353f, 353-354 in lifting heavy loads, 320, 344f-345f 3 4 4 -
Measurement Systems of lateral compartment of leg, 510-512
345 5 1 lb, 51 lf, 512r
for motion of vertebral column, 277b internai and extemal, 16, 16f
kinemattc, 82f-85f, 8 2 -8 5 of posterior compartment of leg, 512
of muscle, and torque-joint angle curve 4 8 - 514, 513f515f, 515b, 516
units of, 5l 49, 49f, 49t in gait, 549f, 550-551
Mechanoreceptors, of elbow ligaments, 139 Moment of force, 59
Medtan nerve innervation of, 506-507, 509t, 573t-575t
Momentum, 60 intrinsic
in thumb opposition, 224-225 Motion. See alsa Movement. anatomy and function of, 518-520 5191
of elbow and forearm, 152, 155f distal-on-proximal and proximal-on-distal kin
of hand, 213, 216 549f, 551
ematics in, 7 attachments of, 574t-575t
of wrist, muscles irmervated by, 186 laws of, 5663, 57t. See also Newton's laws. motor innervation of, 509t, 574t-575t
Index 589
Pelvic ring, 303-304, 304f Phalanges. 5ee also Melacarpophalangeal joint(s); Preciston grip, 234235, 235f-236f
stress relief at, 307 Metatarsophalangeal joint(s). Precision pinch, 234-235, 235f-236f
Pelvic tilt of foot, osteologie features of, 4801, 4811, 482 Prestyloid recess, 175f, 178
anterior of hand Process
hip flexor funclion in, 413-414, 4141 morphology of, 196, 1981- 199f coracoid, 97, 971
muscular force couple in, 181 osteologie features of, 196, 196b, 198f- coronoid, 135, 1361', 137f, 353, 353f
axis of rotation for, 299 1991 mamillary, of lumbar vertebrae, 268, 269f
effect of on lumbar spine, 299-301, 3001, 4151 Photography, for colleciion of kinematic data, 83 mastoid, 253, 2531, 352, 3531
in gait, 535-537, 5361 Physiology, defrrition of, 3 odontoid, of axis, 264, 267f
vvith limited hip motion, 537, 5371, 538b Pinch olecranon, 135, 136f, I37f
in hip rotation, 406, 407f, 408 muscular biomechanics in, 229, 2291 sacrai articular, 269, 2 7 lf
lumbar extensor muscte action in, 320-321 types of, 234-235, 2351-2361 spinous, 269, 272f
posterior Piriformis stylotd
hip extensor function in, 419-420, 42 lf anatomy and action of, 4131, 423f, 425-426 ofradius, 136f, 137, 137f
hip flexor function in, 414, 4151 attachments of, 572t of temporal bone. 354f, 355
Pelvic-on-femoral hip motion, 403 innervation of, 411, 572t of ulna, 136, 136f, 137f
hip flexor function in, 413-414, 4141 Piriformis syndrome, 426 temporal, of zygomatic bone, 354f, 355
in hip abduction, 424 Pisiform, 1741, 1751. 175-176 transverse, 269, 272f
in hip extension, 419-421, 4211, 4221 Piane joints, 273 uncinate, 264, 2641, 266f
in hip rotation. 4041, 406f, 406-408, 4071 Piantar fascia zygomatic, of temporal bone, 354f, 355
hip extemal rotators in, 426, 4271 forces applied to, in gait, 5611 Productivc antagonism, between opposing mus-
in frontal piane, on support hip, 4071, 408 of mediai longitudinal arch, 496, 497 cles, 14, 14f
in sagittal piane, pelvic tilt in, 406, 4071, wmdlass effect on, 506, 506f Pronation
408 Piantar flexion at radioulnar joints, 149, 1501
Pelvis, 390, 39013921 ankle, acceleration of by acttve piantar flexion restriction of, 149-150, 150f, 150t
impairment of, abnormal gali pattern al hip/ of foot, 514, 516f with weight-bearing, 150-151, 151f, 152t
pelvis/trunk with, 566t, 567f, 5681 delnition of. 482, 482f, 483t kinematic mechamsms of, in early stance
motion of, in gait, 535-537, 5361, 538b extreme, ankle injury from, 489b phase, 499-501, 500f. 500t, 501b
in frontal piane, 5391, 539540 knee extension with, 515b, 515f of foot and ankle, delnition of, 482f, 4 8 2 -
in horizoncal piane, 542, 542f, 544b of lalocrural pini, 186-488, 4871, 514 483, 483l
Perimysium, in muscle, 42, 431 of transverse tarsal joint, 493, 495f of forearm, 145f, 145-149
Peroneal nerve, common, 506, 5081 used to decelerate ankle dorsiflexion, 514 as spin movement, lOf
dcep and superfcial branches of, 506-507, Piantar mierossei, attachments and inneivation innervation of, 152, 157t
508f of, 575l of subtalar joint, 490, 490f, 49 lb
injury to, 516-517, 518t Piantar nerve of transverse tarsal joint, 491, 492f, 493, 4941,
Peroneus brevis lateral, 507, 509f 496
anatomy and function of, 510-512, 51 11 mediai, 507, 509f Pronator quadratus
attachments and innervation of, 573t Piantar piate, of metatarsophalangeal joints, 504, attachments and innervation of, 245t
in gait, 5491, 551 504f dual role in distai radioulnar joint, 170, 170f
maximal torque potential of al ankle, 514, Plantaris vs. pronator teres, 169-170
516l action and innervation of at knee, 454t Pronator teres
Peroneus longus anatomy and function of, 512, 513f, 514 attachments and innervation of, 245t
action of, on tiptoes, 512, 5121 attachments of, 573t biomechanical and structural variables of, 157t
anatomy and funclion of, 510-512, 5111, innervation of, 454t, 573t vs. pronator quadratus, 169-170
5121 Piate Prosthetic design, mass moment of inertia and,
attachments and innervation of, 573t palmar, of metacarpophalangeal joints, 208, 60b
in gait, 549f, 551 208f Proteoglycans, in nucleus pulposus, 273, 276b
maximal torque potential of at ankle, 514, piantar, of metatarsophalangeal joints, 504, Psoas major
516t 504f anatomy and action of, 412, 413f
paralysis of, 511-512 pterygoid, of sphenotd bone, 355, 355f as extrinsic trunk stabihzer, 330f, 330-331,
Peroneus tertius Plicae, of knee, 439, 442b 331b
anatomy and function of, 508, 510, 5101 Poliomyelitis, pes cavus and, 498 attachments and innervation of, 572t
attachments and innervation of, 573t Popliteus in gait, 548, 549f
innervation of, 507, 5081 action of al knee, 454t in trunk movement, 327-328, 328b, 3281,
Pes anserinus, 439, 440t, 4411 attachments of, 572t 329t
functional anatomy of, 463-464 functional anatomy of, 4 4 lf, 464-465, 465b lines of force of, 328, 328f
Pes calcaneus, 518, 518t innervation of, 454t, 572t Psoas minor
gait deviations with, 562t internai rotator function of, 465b anatomy and action of, 412, 413f
Pes cavus, 497-498, 4981 Posterior dravver test, of posterior cruciate liga- attachments and innervation of, 572t
gait deviations with, 562t menl, 451, 452f Pterygoid muscles
Pes equinovarus Postglenoid tubercle, of temporal bone, 354f, attachments and innervation of, 383t
gait deviations with, 562t 355 lateral
mjury lo common peroneal nerve and, 517, Posture anatomy and function of, 364f, 364-365,
518t abnormal 365t
Pes equinus in thoracic spine, 288-292 inferior head of, 366, 367f
gait deviations wilh, 539, 562t kyphosis development and, 288-290, 291f supenor head of, 366, 367b, 367f
injury to common peroneal nerve and, 516 types of, 259f, 260f mediai
517, 518l in static stability of glenohumeral joint, 111 anatomy and function of, 364, 364b, 364f,
Pes planus, 497, 4971 sitting. See Sitting posture, 365t, 366, 3671'
decreased windlass effect in, 506, 5061 vertebra! coiumn curvature and, 256, 2591 interaction with masseter, 363f, 364b
flexible, 497 260f Pterygoid piate, mediai and lateral, of sphenoid
gait deviations with, 562t Power, in work-energy relationship, 61 -6 2 , bone, 355, 3551
rigid, 497, 4971 62b Pttbic ramus
Pes varus, peroneal nerve injury and, 518, Power gnp, 234-235, 2351-2361 inferior, 39 lf, 393
518t Power (key) pinch, 234-235, 23.5f-236f superior, 39lf, 392
592 Index
Pubic symphysis joim, 3911. 393 Radiography, for measurements of vertebral col- Ribs
Pubic tubercle, 391f, 392 umn motion, 277b at costovenebral joints, 265, 2671
Pubis, osteologie features of, 391f, 392b. 3 9 2 - Radioulnar joint in ventilation, 371, 3711
393 distai, 133-134, 134f, 1451, 145-146, 146, structure of, 253-254, 256f. 2571
Pulled elbow syndrome, 147, 147f 1481 Rtght-hand rule, 67, 86
Pulmonary dtsease, chronic obstructive, 373, pronation and supination at, 1491-15H, Roll-and-slide movements
375-376 149-151, 152t of glenohumeral joint, 113, 113f, 115, 1151,
Push-off, 531, 531 f, 531t sensory tnnert'ation of, 157 1161
Push-up maneuver, serratus anterior action in, stabilizers of, 146, 147b of joints, 8t, 8 -1 0 , 9f, 101
123b periarticular connective tissue of, 146, 1461, with spin, 10, lOf
1481 of wrist, 181-182, 182f-184f
proximal, 133-134, 1341, 1451, 145-146, Rotatton
Q 146, 1461 of acromtoclavicular joint, 104, 1051
Q angle, 461-462, 4641, 501 as pivot joint, 28, 281 of clavicle, 1011-1021, 102
Quadrate tubercle, 394, 3951 dislocation of, 147, 1471 of forearm, 145f, 145-146
Quadratus lemoris pronation and supination at, 1491-15U, of glenohumeral joint, 1121, 1151, 115-116,
attachments ol, 572t 149-151, 152t 116t, 131-132, 132f
mnervaton ol, 4101, 411, 572t pulled elbow syndrome of, 147, 1471 of hip, internai and extemal, 4071, 4081, 408-
Quadratus lumborum sensory innervation of, 156-157 409
action ol, 375l structure of, 146, 1461 of scapulothoracic joint, upward and down-
as extrinsic trunk stabilizer, 3301, 330-331, Radtus ward. 99, 991, 106, 1071. 124-127
331b distai 125b, 1251. 1261
attachments of, 383t articular surface of, 172-173 screw-home, of knee, 445-446, 4461, 4471,
in trunk movement, 328, 328b, 3281, 329t osteology of, 172-173, 1731, 1741 448, 4491
innervation of, 375t, 383l head of, 1361, 137 vs. translation, 4 -5 , 51, 5t
Quadratus plantae osteology of, 1361, 136-137, 137b, 137f Rotator culi muscles, 107, 108b, 109-110, 1101
anatomy and function of, 519, 5191 palmar tilt of, 173, 1741 in chronic impingement syndrome at shoul-
attachments and innervation of, 574t styloid process of, 172 der, 114b, 1141
Quadriceps ulnar tilt of, 1741 in elevation of arm, 1271-128f, 127-129.
action and innervation of, 453-454, 454t Rays 128b, 129b
anatomy of. 4551, 455-456 of feet, 4801-48 If, 482 in shoulder adduction and extension, 129-
cruciate ligament changes and, 451, 452f, of hand, 195, 195b, 1991 130
453b Rearfoot.See also Subtalar joint. in stabilizing glenohumeral joint, 128-129,
forces in, and patellofemoral joint kinetics, actions of during stance phase of gait, 507t 129b
457, 4571, 460, 4611, 462, 463f defmition of, 478 in stabilizing humeral head, 1151, 116b
function of, 454-455 Rearfoot varus, 501 Rotator culi syndrome, 129b
in gait, 5491, 550, 564t, 5651 gait deviations with, 562t Rotatores
in patellectomy, 4571 Rectus abdomints, 323, 3241, 325 anatomy and action of, 3211, 32 lt, 321-323,
lines of force of, 455f, 461, 4641 as extrinsic trunk stabilizer, 3301, 330-331 329t
maximal knee torque produced by, 4551 331b attachments and innervation of, 38lt
strengthening exercises for, 453b, 456-457, attachments and innervations of, 382l Running
4581, 459f in gait, 5491, 551 gait speed in, 530-531
torque potenual of in trunk movement, 329t hip-and-knee flexion-extension in, muscle syn-
extemal, 456, 458f Rectus capitis ergy in, 466, 4681, 468-469
internai, 456-457, 4591 antenor, 3361, 336-337, 339b, 3401 knee flexor-rotator muscle interaction in, 465
patellar augmentation of, 456, 4561 attachments and innervation ol, 382t 4661
weakness of lateral, 336f, 336-337, 339b, 3401
abnormal gait pattern ai knee with, 564t, attachments and innervation of, 382i
5651 posterior, 339b, 340f s
extensor lag with, 460b attachments and innervation of, 383t Sacrai canal, 269, 271f
Quadriplegia Rectus femoris, 455 Sacrai plexus, innervating muscles of hip and
elbow extensor paralysis in, 165b, 1651 anatomy and action of, 413, 4131 lower limb, 4101, 411, 41 Ib
reverse contraction of elbow flexors in, 162b, auachments and innervation of, 573t Sacrai promontory, 269, 2711
162f in atypical movement combinations between Sacrococcygeal joint, 269
tenodesis action of finger flexors in, 219, hip and knee, 469f, 469-470 Sacrohorizontal angle, anterior spondylolisthests
2191 in gait, 548, 5491 and, 294b
in hip and knee extension, 469, 469t Sacroiliac joint, 303-308
Rectus shealh, formation of, 323, 325, 3251 anatomy of, 303-306, 3041-306f
Recurrent mentngeal nerve, axial skeletal tissues funetional considerations with, 3071, 307-308
Radiai deviation, of wrist. 179-180, 180f, 182- innervated by, 313, 313f ligamentous support of, 304-305, 3051
184, 18311841, 184b, 191, 191f, 191t Rheumatold arthritis, 38 motion of, 306, 306b, 3061
Radiai fossa, 134, 134f joint deformtties due to, 236-240, 2371- stability of
Radiai nerve 2391 muscular reinforcement of, 3071, 308, 308t
of elbow and forearm, 152. 1541 boutonniere deformity as, 237f 239240 nutation torque and, 307, 3071
deep and superlicial branches of, 152, 1541 2401 structure of, 3041, 304-305, 305f
of hand, 213 palmar dislocation of metacarpophalangeal Sacrum
of wrist, muscles innervated by, 186 joint as, 237, 2381 anatomy of, 293, 2931
Radiai notch, of ulna, 135, 1361 swan-neck deformity as, 2371, 238-239 vertebrae of, osteologie features of, 263t, 269
Radiculopathy, 2381, 283b 2401 271 f
Radtocarpal joint, 173f, 176-177, 1771 ulnar drift at metacarpophalangeal joint as, Saddle jotnt(s), 28, 30, 301
as ellipsoid joint, 28, 29f 237, 239f complex, 198, 200, 202, 2031, 2041
in ulnar translocation of carpus, 185, 1861 zig-zag deformity of fngere as, 238-240 Sagittal piane, 5, 61, 6t
movements of zig-zag deformity of thumb as, 236, 2371 Sarcomere
flexion and extension, 1811-1821, 181-182 Rhombotds active length-tension curve of, 4 6 -4 7 , 47f
ulttar and radiai deviation, 182-184, 1831 action of, 120f, 120-121, 317, 317f banding pattern of, 45t, 4 5 -4 6
184f, 184b attachments and innervation of, 244i ideal resting length of, 46
Index 593
Sartorius
anatomy and action of, 412, 413f, 4411, 454t
Serratus anterior Sil-up exercise(Cimtinuecl)
action of, 317, 317f, 375t diagonal, 3261
463 attachments of, 244t trunk muscles active in, 331 f, 331-333,
attachments and innervation of, 454t, 573t in push-up maneuver, 123b 3321
in gau, 548, 549f in scapulothoracic joint protraction, 122, 123f Sliding filament hypothesis, of active force gener
Scalene muscles, anatomy and action of, 336, in scapulothoracic upward rotation, 125f, ation, 4 6 -4 7
336f, 339b, 372t, 373 125-126, 126f Slipped capitai femoral epiphysis, 432
Scalenus anterior, attachments and innervation innervation of, 244t, 375t Snuflbox, anatomie, of thumb, 221, 223f
of, 382t kinesiologic importante of, 127 Soleus
Scalenus medius, attachments and innervation of, paralysis of, 126f, 126-127 anatomy and function of, 512, 513f, 514,
3821 Serratus posterior 5151
Scalenus posterior, attachments and innervation inferior, 3761 attachments and innervation of, 574t
of, 382t action and innervation of, 317, 317f, 375t, in gait, 5491, 550
Scaphoid, 174, 174f-175f, 199f 376f, 384t in stabilizing knee in extension, 515b, 5151
fracture of, 174, 185, 185f attachments of, 384t maximal torque potential of at ankle, 514,
in carpai instability, 174, 185, I85f superior 516t
in opposition of thurnb, 205 action and innervation of, 317, 317f, 375t, paralysis of, 517-518, 518t
in ulnar and radiai deviation of wrist, 183b 376f, 384t Sphenoid bone, 355, 355b, 3551
183f attachments of, 384t Sphenomandibular ligament, of temporomandib-
Scapholunate ligament, in carpai instability, 179, Sesamoid bones, of first metatarsophalangeal ular joint, 358, 3581
185, 185f joint, 504, 504f Spinai accessory nerve, paralysis of upper trape
Scapula Shear forces, 12f zius and, 120b
osteologie features of, 94, 96b, 96f, 9 6 -9 7 , anterior-posterior Spinai cord
97f anterior spondylolislhesis and, 294b cross section of, 2541
winging of, 126f, 126-127 cruciale ligaments and, 449 in cauda equina, 270b, 2701
Scapular piane, 97 at apophyseal joints, 272t injury of, paradoxical breathing after, 374b
Scapulothoracic joint, 98, 104-106, 1061- on lumbar interbody joints, 293, 293f Spinai coupling, 273b
107f Sheath(s) Spinai nerve(s), 312
movement at, 99b, 99f, 9 9-100, 105-106, digitai synovial, 215f, 217 cervical nerve roots of, 254f
106f-107f fibrous digitai, 215f, 217 dorsal rami of. 312
muscles of, 120f-124f, 120-122 of metacarpophalangeal joints, 208, 208f cutaneous distribution of, 3141
as depressors, 99, 99f, 105, 106f, 121, Shin splints, in gait, 551 segmentai innervation of, 312, 314, 314t
121f, 122f Short segmentai muscles mixed, structure of, 312, 312f
as elevators, 120f, 120-121, 317, 317f as intrinsic trunk stabilizers, 329-330, 330b, ventral rami of, 312-314, 3131
as protractors, 122, 123f 330f of lower extremity muscles used for lesting
as retractors, 122, 124f attachments of, 381t function, 571t
as rotators, 122 innervations of, 382t of upper extremity muscles used for lesting
upper trapezius paralysis and, 120b of deep layer of back, 317, 318t, 321f, 323 function, 243t
upward rotation ai, 116-117, 117f, 118f, Shoulder complex, 93-132. See ako Clavicle; plexus of, 312, 3131
119t, 124-127, 125b, 125f, 126f Humerus; Rib; Scapula; Stemum segmentai nerves of, 3131, 313-314
Scheuermann disease, 288 abduction of Spinalis cervicis, attachments and innervation of,
Sciatic foramen, Iesser, 393 acromioclavicular joint interaction during, 381t
Sciatic nerve 116-117, 118f, 119t Spinalis muscles
branches of, in comparttnents of leg, 506 scapulohumeral rhyihm in, 116, 117f anatomy and actions of, 318t, 3191, 319-321
in piriformis syndrome, 426 scapulothoracic upward rotation in, 124- in trunk movement, 329t
muscles innervated by, at hip, 41 Of, 411 127, 125b, 125f, 126f Spinalis thoracis, attachments and innervation of,
tibial portion of, 454, 454t stemoclavicular joint interaction during, 3811
Sciatic notch 116-117, 118f, 119t Spinous process, 269, 2721
greater, 391, 392f adduction and extension of, 129-130, 130f, Splenius capitis, 339b
Iesser, 392f, 393 131b anatomy and action of, 337-338, 3381, 339b
Scoliosis, of thoractc spine. 290, 292, 292f arthology of, 98-1 1 7 attachments and innervation of, 383t
Screw-home rotation, of knee. 445-446, 446f, chronic impingemem syndrome at, 114b, Splenius cervicis, 339b
447f 114f, 127 anatomy and action of, 337-338, 338f, 339b
knee ligaments in, 448, 449f definition of, 93, 94f atlachments and innervation of, 383t
Semmembranosus in anatomie posiiion, 95f Spondylolisthesis, anterior, of lumbar spine,
action of at knee, 454t internai and exlemal rotation of, 131-132 294b, 2941
attachments of, 573t 132f Sport equipment, impulse-momentum relation-
functional anatomy of, 440f-441f, 463 isometric torque at, of (lexors and abductors, ship and, 60
innervation of, 454t, 573t 125t Squat lift, 348, 348f
Semispinalis capitis, 321f-322f, 322 joints of, innervation of, 117, 119, 119f Squat position, extemal torque at knee in, 74b,
attachments and innervation of, 381 1 motion of, in gait, 543-544 741, 460, 4611
Semispinalis cervicis, 32 lf, 322
attachments and innervation of, 38 lt
muscles of, 93 Stance phase. See Gait, phases of, stancc.
action of, 119-120 Standing
Semispinalis muscles attachments of, 243t-244t compression forces on foot during, 496b
anatomy and action of, 321f-322f, 3 2 lt, in triceps paralysis, 165, 165f effect of hip flexor contracture on, 416, 4161
321-323 innervation of, 117, 119, 1191, 243t-244t mediai longitudinal arch function during,
in trunk movement, 329t osteology of, 9 3 -9 8 , 94f-99f 496-497, 497f
Semispinalis thoracis, 32lf, 322 sensory innervation of, 119 normal joint reaction forces through knee in,
attachments and innervation of, 38 lt Sitting posture 470f, 470-471
Semitendinosus effect on alignment of lumbar and craniocervi- Static rotary equilibnum, 16, 161
action of at knee, 454t cai regions, 301-302, 3021 Step, 527, 5271
attachments of, 573t hermated disc and, 297b Step length, 527, 5271
functional anatomy of, 440f-441f, 463 poor, 30 lb impaired, 528f
in hip and knee extension in running, 468, Sit-up exercise normal, 529t
468f, 469, 469t abdominal muscle action in, 331-333, 332f Step rate, 528
innervation of, 454i. 573t 3331 normal, 529t
594 Index
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