International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:06 76

Finite Element Analysis of Fatigue Life of Spot

Welded Joint and the Influence of Sheet Thickness
and Spot Diameter
M.Venkatasudhahar a,*, N.Dilipraja a, P.Mathiyalagan b, S.Venkata Subba Reddy a, P.Sathyaseelan a, K. Logesh a
a
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,Veltech Dr.RR& Dr.SR Technical University, Chennai, Tamilnadu,
India.
b
Professor, School of Mechanical Engineering, Veltech Dr.RR& Dr.SR Technical University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
a
kmrflowers@gmail.com, a dilip_raja10@yahoo.co.in, b mathis09051970@yahoo.co.in,
a
sallasubbu345@gmail.com, a sathyaseelan156@gmail.com , a klogesh7@gmail.com

Abstract Spot welding of sheet metal is essential in various
manufacturing sectors such as automobile, ship building,
aerospace, construction, refrigeration and air-condition. In this
paper the impact of sheet metal thickness and spot weld
diameter on the fatigue life of sheet metals is discussed. Three
different sheet thicknesses (1.5mm, 2 mm and 3 mm) and two
different spot diameters (2.5 mm and 5 mm) were selected for
the study. The loads given during fatigue analysis were 35, 40,
50, 70, 100 N respectively. Pro-E was used for designing the
specimen and Ansys was used for analysis of fatigue life. Finite
Element Analysis was used for the study to determine the
relationship between fatigue life on spot weld diameter and
thickness of the sheet metal is discussed. It was found that for
higher number of sheet thickness and spot diameters
respectively and respectively lower load, the number of cycles
taken for the specimen to rupture was greater. In this case were
9.00E+06.
Index Term Spot welding, fatigue strength, sheet thickness,
spot weld diameter.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sheet metals are widely and extensively used in almost
every sector of manufacturing, production and construction.
Few of these include automobile, ship building, aircraft
manufacturing and commercial purposes such as
construction, refrigeration and air-conditioning. In every of
these manufacturing sectors the sheet metals are subjected to
spot welding for creating of joints.
The parts fabricated by these sectors are subjected to
fatigue load. Mechanical failure of structures and
components is a serious concern in all types of industries.
Robert Stone [1] estimated that between 50 to 90 % of these
failures are due to fatigue. According to him fatigue is
defined as The process of progressive localized permanent
structural change occurring in a material subjected to
conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at
some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or
complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.
Fatigue life is one of the most important properties when
designing such components. Fatigue damage has long been
an important aspect of designing automotive and aeronautical
components, and it has been extensively studied. The
expected life of a product can be determined in the design
stage itself by considering various factors such as static and
dynamic load, nature of working environment, nature of
weld joint, etc. A typical car or truck may have more
than 2000 spot welds [2]. The majority of structural
components under actual working conditions, in the
customers environment, are subjected to random amplitude
service loading, during its operating life.
According to Single there are three major fatigue life
methods used in design and analysis. These three methods
are stress-life method, the strain-life method, and the linear-
elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method. The numerical
techniques based on the linear-elastic fracture mechanics
with input data from laboratory tests is often used to
establish fatigue failure criteria. The Strain Life approach is
widely used at present. In this method strain can be directly
measured and has been shown to be an excellent quantity for
characterizing low-cycle fatigue. Strain Life is typically
concerned with crack initiation, whereas Stress Life is
concerned with total life and does not distinguish between
initiation and propagation. Fracture Mechanics starts with an
assumed flaw of known size and determines the cracks
growth as is therefore sometimes referred to as Crack Life.
Fracture Mechanics is widely used to determine inspection
intervals.
In general, the fatigue process is characterized by three
distinct regions [3]. Region I is associated with the growth of
cracks at low stress intensity factor ranges and is commonly
believed to account for a significant proportion of the fatigue
life of a component. Region II is the stable crack growth
region and has been extensively studied for its technological
importance [4-17]. Rapid crack growth occurs in region III
and this region is typically thought to account for a small
fraction of the total life.
In this paper the relationship between sheet metal
thickness and spot weld diameter on the fatigue life of a
welded sheet metal joint has been studied. Much research
work on welded sheet metal had been carried out by
researchers. The results based on mechanical properties,
defects in joints, had been published in their papers. FEA on
welded joints and relationship with fatigues had also been
analyzed and published. A few of those papers and their
contents are shown below
Alenius [18] have investigated Spot weldability of
dissimilar metal joints between stainless steels and non
stainless steels The aim was to determine the spot welding
parameters for the dissimilar metal joints and to characterize
the mechanical properties of the joints. Bin Zhou [19] has
presented a methodology for determining the cohesive
facture parameters associated with pull-out of spot welds.
Since failure of a spot weld by pull-out occurs by mixed-
mode fracture of the base metal, the cohesive parameters for

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 International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:06 77
ductile fracture of an aluminum alloy were determined and structure such as the failure strength, fatigue life and so on.
then used to predict the failure of two very different spot- The arrangement of spot welded structure under investigation
welded geometries. is shown in the Fig.1. The parts were designed using Pro-E
Helmut Dannbauer[20] modeled has given an overview of software and had the following dimensions.
some common methods and standards for the assessment of Length: 154 mm
welding seams and spot joints including spot welds and self Width: 50 mm
piercing rivets. It has been shown, how the influence of the Thickness: 3mm, 2mm, 1.5 mm
mesh quality and the element size can be minimized. For
spot welds force based concepts and stress based concepts
have been presented. It has been shown, that stress based
concepts usually deliver better results and can be applied for
self piercing rivets too, but the effort for the local mesh
refinement is very high and error prone.
Jeremy L. Lucas [21] have designed tests with the
intention of addressing the highway sign problem and
determining a solution as quickly as possible with the limited
amount of material available for testing. It must be noted that
these results are based on testing sample connections from
one new sign panel. There are many variables (including
weld quality and pre-torque) involved in manufacturing and
erection that add to uncertainties in the quality of the signs in
service and the test sign. Unfortunately, the testing
procedures described did not adequately model the loading Fig. 1. Plate Specification
conditions found in the field because the load ranges that The mechanical properties of the selected material is
found infinite fatigue life cycles are still higher than the shown in the below table
fatigue loads due to wind gusts in the field. TABLE I
Radakovic D.J.[23] have performed an analysis which Material Properties
includes a combination of finite element modeling and
Property Value
fracture mechanics calculations was used to predict the weld
failure modes in the shear-tension tests of resistance spot Youngs modulus (E) 2 x 1011 Pa
welds in AHSS grades. In the finite element model, the base
material and heat affected zone and weld properties were Density ( ) 7850 kg/m3
assumed to be homogeneous. The homogeneous model
Poissons Ratio 0.3
predictions agreed well with the test data for cases where
pullout failures occurred. This is because the pullout failures Tensile strength 744.6 x 106 Pa
most often initiated in the base metal outside of the notch at
Yield strength 472.3 x 106 Pa
the perimeter of the weld. However, when comparing the
homogeneous model results to actual test data, the predicted 3. ANALYSIS
failure loads for the interfacial fractures were not consistent. The objective of the study is two folds. First is to predict
the fatigue life of spot-weld joint under imposed loading
Palma E.S. [22] presented a method for design durability
conditions. Second is to examine the influence of spot
qualification of a vehicle body shell. Field test data were
welded diameter and sheet thickness on fatigue life of the
used to produce an accelerated durability test that retains the
spot welded joint.
entire damaging real time load histories present in the
original test cycle. Fatigue analysis methods are used to Detailed finite element modeling of spot welds is not
access and compare the fatigue damage imposed during feasible for 3000 - 5000 spot welds in a typical automotive
durability test and laboratory (torsion) experiments. body structure. Instead of the detailed modeling of the spot
welds, a simple spot welded specimen is chosen for the
The literature review carried out on various areas of the
fatigue analysis. The analysis is carried out by repeatedly
project in fatigue analysis and spot welded joints suggests
loading i.e., fatigue loading the geometry to predefined time
that various tests have been carried out for lap-shear, in-
steps. The finite element analysis was conducted to simulate
plane rotation; coach-peel, normal separation, and in-plane
the mechanical behavior of the spot weld process. A detailed
shear tests. But very limited performance data on fatigue life
finite element model of a spot welded joint is required to
of spot welded joints have been reported in the open
calculate the stress states near the joint.
literature.
Simple information of the study is shown below.
2. DESIGN OF THE PART Number of spot welds = 1no
The first part of the study was to design the part. Spot diameter variables = 2 nos
Galvanized Iron (STEEL 4340) sheet was selected as the Thickness variables = 3 nos
work piece material for the study. The mechanical features of Number of loading = 5 nos
the selected materials are important aspects of resistance spot Three parameters were selected as variables i.e., spot weld
welding process since they have great influences on the diameter, thickness of the plates and load values.
properties of the welded joint and the quality of the welded Characterizing the capability of a material to survive the

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 International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:06 78
many cycles a component may experience during its lifetime axes do change, then the cycles cannot be counted simply
is the aim of fatigue analysis. and it is non-proportional loading.
Stress life is based on empirical S-N curves and then 3.3. Spot welding process
modified by a variety of factors. However strain life is based Spot welding is one of the primary methods to join sheet
upon the equation relating the strain life. The parameters of metals for automotive components. The resistance spot
the Strain Life are values for a particular material that best fit welding (RSW) is the most important joining method for
the equation to measured results. The strain life relation joining sheets of metal. According to studies, about 90 % of
requires a total of 6 parameters to define the strain-life the welds used in an automotive body assembly are RSWs. A
material properties; four strain life parameter properties and typical vehicle contains more than 3000 spot welds. This
the two cyclic stress-strain parameters. Thus by number may reach 5000 and sometimes 8000 in couch and
simultaneously solving Neubers equation along with cyclic bus bodies. The advantages of using spot welding are that it
strain equation, we can thus calculate the local stress/strains is a quicker joining technique, no filter material is required,
including plastic response given only elastic input. and that the low heat input implies less risk for altered
dimensions during welding.
3.1. Common Decisions to Both Types of Fatigue Analysis
Once the decision on which type of fatigue analysis to
perform, Stress Life or Strain Life, there are 4 other topics Table II shows the relation with number of cycles and the
upon which your fatigue results are dependent upon. Input stress induced respectively.
decisions that are common to both types of fatigue analyses
are shown in Fig.2. TABLE III
Stress Vs No. Of Cycles
Alternating Stress
Cycles
Fatigue Analysis (Pa)
Type/stress life
1000 5.1 x 108
Loading Type
2000 4.40 x 108
Constant amplitude, proportional loading 10000 2.68 x 108
Constant amplitude, non proportional 20000 2.14 x 108
loading
100000 1.38 x 108
Non Constant amplitude, proportional
loading
200000 1.14 x 108
o Bin size 1000000 8.62 x 107
Non Constant amplitude, non 2000000 7.892 x 107
proportional loading 10000000 5.22 x 107
Mean Stress Effects Multi Axial Stress 20000000 4.92 x 107
Goodman Correction
Component X
Soderberg
Component Y 3.4. Steps in Analysis Procedure
Gerber
Component z The following are the important steps involved in problem
Mean stress curves
Component XY
Mean stress dependent solving, which are as follows:
Component YZ
Multiple r-ratio curves
Von mises Step 1: Building the model
Signed von mises Pro-E wildfire platform is utilized to build the model of
Maximum shear plate with the following dimensions.
Maximum principal
Fatigue Modifications Abs Maximum Length of the plate = 154 mm
Value of infinite life principal Width of the plate = 50 mm
Fatigue strength factor Lapped length = 40 mm
Load scale factor
Interpolation type Step 2: Assembly
o Log on The next step is the assembly of the plates in the assembly
o Semi log
module of Pro-E wildfire. The bottom plate is imported in to
o linear
the assembly window and kept as default reference. Then
the top plate is imported at the same compass location and
assembled.
Fig. 2. Fatigue Analysis Chart
Step 3: Creation of spot weld
3.2. Types of cyclic loading
1. Enter Assembly mode and retrieve the assembly.
Unlike static stress, which is analyzed with calculations
2. Click Applications > Welding. The WELDING
for a single stress state, fatigue damage occurs when stress at
menu appears.
a point changes over time.
3. Set up the welding environment.
In the above descriptions, the amplitude identifier is 4. Choose Spot from the WELD ROUTE menu.
readily understood. The second identifier, proportionality, 5. A dialog box appears, listing elements of the weld
describes whether the changing load causes the principal feature that need to be defined.
stress axes to change. If the principal stress axes do not Spot Refs - Specify geometric references for
change, then it is proportional loading. If the principal stress the weld.

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 International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:06 79
Penetration - Specify the penetration
depth.
Measurements - Create measurements used to
control welding parameters
6. Locate the weld by referencing datum points. Create
or select datum points for locating the weld using
options in the SELECT POINT menu. Choose
Create and create datum points, or Select and pick
existing datum points.
7. When finished specifying reference points, choose
done from the FEATURE REFS menu.
8. Enter the penetration distance.
9. To conclude feature creation, choose OK from the
dialog box.

Step 4: Meshing the model Fig. 3. Von-Mises Stress value

In this section ways to divide the model assembly in ansys In Fig.4, the maximum stress around the nugget is 469.53
is discussed, such that it has enough nodes, to make an MPa, which is well below the tensile strength of the material.
accurate enough analysis.
Before detailed FEA, optimization with element size
ranging from 0.01 to 0.5mm concluded that an element size
equal to 0.05mm yields optimum results. The conclusion was
in agreement with the earlier studies which concluded that an
element size in the neighborhood of 0.05 mm yielded
satisfactory stable crack growth predictions under constant
amplitude loading.
Number of elements = 33500
Number of nodes = 171801
Element type = Solid ElementMidsized
Nodes
Step 5: Performing Fatigue analysis
The fatigue analysis procedure is based on stress life
method. Stress Life is concerned with total life and does not
Fig. 4. Stress value around the nugget
distinguish between initiation and propagation.
Using the boundary condition the plate was modeled and 4.1. For spot diameter of 2.5 mm with varying sheet
defined to analyze the plate assembly, we need to apply the thickness
appropriate boundary conditions. The model is considered to Analysis is carried out on the specimen for a spot diameter
be one single beam of cantilever type. I.e. At one end all the of 2.5 mm with varying sheet thickness. Maximum stress and
displacement degrees of freedom are arrested and load is fatigue life values for a spot diameter of 2.5 mm with a sheet
applied at the opposite end in vertical direction. Two load thickness of 3 mm are shown in Table III.
cases are applied to the free end of the specimen: TABLE IIIII
+ve N at each corner. The time at the end of the load Case 1 (sheet thickness of 3 mm)
step is 10 seconds.
ve N at each corner. The time at the end of the load Maximum No. of cycles to
Load
step is 20 seconds. Loading type is of constant stress failure
(N)
amplitude. (MPa)

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS 35 86.2 1.00E+06

The finite element analysis is conducted to simulate the 40 91.8 8.00E+05
life of spot welded joints when subjected to fatigue loading.
A finite element model is generated using the commercial 50 102.5 2.60E+05
software. The stress distributions in the weldment and their 70 110.6 8.10E+04
changes during the loading condition are determined.
100 268.2 1.00E+04
The fatigue analysis is performed using Ansys workbench
to determine stress and strain results of the finite element
model. The results of the maximum principal stresses are
used for subsequent fatigue life analysis. The stress
distribution of the spot welded specimen is presented in Fig.3.

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 International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:06 80

Spot Diameter = 2.5 mm TABLE V

Case 1 (sheet thickness of 1.5 mm)
120
Maximum No. of cycles to
100
Load
stress failure
(N)
80 (MPa)
Load (N)

60 Ts = 3 mm
35 138.5 1.00E+05
40
40 157.1 8.50E+04
20
50 214.9 2.00E+04
0
1.00E+04 8.10E+04 2.60E+05 8.00E+05 1.00E+06 70 311.17 7.50E+03
No. of Cycles 100 510.4 1.00E+03

Fig. 5. Case 1 (Sheet thickness of 3 mm)

Spot Diameter = 2.5 mm
A Maximum stress and fatigue life values for a spot
diameter of 2.5mm with a sheet thickness of 2mm is shown 120
in Table IV. 100
TABLE IVV
80

Load (N)
Case 1 (sheet thickness of 2 mm)
60 Ts = 1.5 mm
40
Maximum No. of cycles to
Load 20
stress failure
(N) 0
(MPa) (N f) 1.00E+03 7.50E+03 2.00E+04 8.50E+04 1.00E+05
No. of Cycles

35 95.76 5.00E+05 Fig. 7. Case 3 (Sheet thickness of 1.5 mm)

40 114.5 2.00E+05 4.2. For spot diameter of 5 mm with varying sheet thickness
50 176.2 8.00E+04 Analysis is carried out on the specimen for a spot diameter
of 5 mm with varying sheet thickness. Maximum stress and
70 241.2 1.50E+04 fatigue life values for a spot diameter of 5 mm with a sheet
thickness of 3 mm are shown in Table VI.
100 469.53 2.00E+03 TABLE VI
Case 1 (sheet thickness of 3 mm)

Spot Diameter = 2.5 mm Maximum No. of cycles to

Load
stress failure
(N)
120 (MPa) (N f)
100

80 35 58.8 9.00E+06
Load (N)

60 Ts = 2 mm 40 65.56 5.00E+06
40
50 82.81 1.50E+06
20
70 99.74 5.00E+05
0
2.00E+03 1.50E+04 8.00E+04 2.00E+05 5.00E+05 100 169.5 7.60E+04
No. of Cycles

Fig. 6. Case 2 (Sheet thickness of 2 mm)

A maximum stress and fatigue life value for a spot
diameter of 2.5 mm with a sheet thickness of 1.5 mm is
shown in Table V.

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 International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:06 81
TABLE VII
Spot Diameter = 5 mm Case 2 (sheet thickness of 1.5 mm)

Maximum No. of cycles to

Load
120 stress failure
(N)
100 (MPa) (N f)
80
Load (N)

60 Ts = 3 mm 35 100.01 7.50E+05
40
40 101.9 3.00E+05
20
0 50 150.2 9.00E+04
7.60E+04 5.00E+05 1.50E+06 5.00E+06 9.00E+06
70 214.9 2.00E+04
No. of Cycles

Fig. 8. Case 1 (Sheet thickness of 3 mm) 100 380.4 5.00E+03

A maximum stress and fatigue life value for a spot

diameter of 5mm with a sheet thickness of 2mm is shown in Spot Diameter = 5 mm
Table VII.
TABLE VII
Case 1 (sheet thickness of 2 mm) 120
100
Maximum No. of cycles to
Load 80
stress failure
Load (N)
(N)
(MPa) (N f) 60 Ts = 2 mm

40

35 78.92 2.00E+06 20
0
40 97.5 9.00E+05 1.50E+04 8.00E+04 3.00E+05 9.00E+05 2.00E+06
No. of Cycles
50 101.2 3.00E+05
Fig. 10. Case 3 (Sheet thickness of 1.5 mm)

70 180.69 8.00E+04 4.3. Effect of sheet thickness

The number of cycles to failure is plotted against sheet
100 241.75 1.50E+04 thickness for spot diameter values of 2.5 mm and 5 mm.

Spot Diameter = 2.5 mm

Spot Diameter = 5 mm

1.00E+07

120 1.00E+06
No. of Cycles

100
1.00E+05 Ts = 3 mm
80
Load (N)

Ts = 2 m
60 Ts = 2 mm
1.00E+04 Ts = 1.5 mm
40
20 1.00E+03
0
1.00E+02
1.50E+04 8.00E+04 3.00E+05 9.00E+05 2.00E+06
35 40 50 70 100
No. of Cycles
Load (N)
Fig. 9. Case 2 (Sheet thickness of 2 mm)
Fig. 11. Effect of sheet thickness for spot diameter of 2.5 mm
A maximum stress and fatigue life value for a spot
diameter of 5mm with a sheet thickness of 1.5mm is shown
in Table VIII.

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 International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:14 No:06 82
[9] Wu F, Ni C, 2006 Eng. Fracture Mech.DOI:10. 1016
/j.engfracmech.2006.08.019
Spot Diameter = 5 mm [10] Meshii T and Watanabe K 2003 Nuclear Eng. Design 220 285
92
1.00E+07 [11] Borrego L P, Ferreira J M, Pinho da Cruz J M and Costa JM
2003 Eng. Fracture Mech. 70 137997
[12] Kim J and Shim D 2000 Int. J. Fatigue 22 61118
1.00E+06
No. of Cycles

[13] Shin C S and Cai C Q 2007 Int. J. Fatigue 29 397405

Ts =3 mm
1.00E+05 Ts =2 mm
Ts =1.5 mm
1.00E+04
1.00E+03
35 40 50 70 100
Load (N)
Fig. 12. Effect of sheet thickness for spot diameter of 5 mm
5. CONCLUSION
A spot welded joint on a Galvanized Iron (STEEL 4340)
sheet metal was analyzed using Finite Element Analysis. The
variables selected for the study were sheet metal thickness
(1.5 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm), diameter of the spot weld (2 mm
and 3 mm) and fatigue load.
It was found that lower load i.e., 35 N induced
lower stress to the joint and thereby increased the fatigue life
of the joint. The respective fatigue life for the specimen with
varying thickness revealed that for lower load and higher
sheet thickness the life expectancy was higher. Notably
9.00E+06 for 3 mm sheet, 2.00E+06 for 2 mm sheet and
7.50E+05. This reveals that the failure due to fatigue was
lower for thicker sheet metal which in this case was 3 mm.
Noting the relationship between sheet metal
thickness and weld spot diameter, the following information
was gathered. Within a same spot diameter, i.e., 2.5 mm. The
fatigue life was higher for a 3 mm joint. However comparing
the result between the two different spot diameters, it was
found that the 5 mm spot diameter with 3 mm sheet metal
thickness had still higher fatigue life, i.e., 9.00E+06.
It can be concluded that for a joint to have higher
fatigue life, the criteria required is sheet metal thickness
should be high, weld spot diameter should be high and
applied load i.e., fatigue load should be low. In this study the
values for the respective parameter were 3 mm sheet metal
thickness, 5 mm spot diameter and 35 N loads. The fatigue
life for this case was 9.00E+06.
[14] Amrouche, Mesmacque G, Garcia S and Talha A 2003 Int. J.
Fatigue 25 94954
[15] Jiang Y and Feng M 2004 In: Fracture Methodologies and
Manufacturing Process, uly 2529, 2004, San Diego,
California, ASME PVP-Vol. 474, PVP2004-2297, 2331
[16] Ding F, Feng M and Jiang Y 2007 Int. J. Plasticity 23 116788
[17] Alam M S and Wahab M A 2005 Int. J. Pressure Vessels Piping
82 105113
[18] Alenius M., pohjanne P., Somervuori M., and Hanninen H.
(2006), Exploring the Mechanical Properties of Spot Welded
Dissimilar Joints for Stainless and Galvanized Steels,
International of Welding, pp. 305-313.
[19] Bin Zhou, Thouless, M. D. and Ward S. M. (2006),
[20] Helmut Dannbauer, Christian Gaier, Klaus Hofwimmer (2005),
Fatigue Analysis of Welding Seams and Spot Joints in
Automotive Structures, International of Fatigue, pp. 132-140.
Jeremy L. Lucas and Thomas E. Cousins (2005), Determination
of Remaining Fatigue Life of Welded Stud Details on Overhead
Aluminum Sign Panels in Virginia, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University.
[21] Palma E.S. and Vidal F.A.C. (2002), Fatigue Damage
Analysis on Body Shell of a Passenger Vehicle Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 11(4), pp 450-
460.
[22] Radakovic D.J. and Tumuluru M., (2008), Predicting Resistance
Spot Weld Failure Modes in Shear Tension Tests of Advanced
High-Strength Automotive Steels, Journal of Welding
Reasearch, vol 87, pp. 96-105. Predicting the Failure of
Ultrasonic Spot Welds by Pull-out from Sheet Metal,
Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of
Michigan.

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