INORGANIC NUTRIENT INTERACTION IN MARICULTURE PRODUCTION

Romi Novriadi*

1 School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and aquatic Science, Auburn University

2 Batam Mariculture Development Center. Directorate General of Aquaculture. Ministry of
Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia

Introduction

Mariculture is one category of aquaculture production involving the cultivation of marine

organisms in the sea and intertidal zones as well as those operated with land-based (onshore)

production facilities and structures (FAO, 2014). The demand of omnivorous and carnivorous

species farmed and harvested in marine and brackish coastal environment, particularly groupers

(Epinephelus spp), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax), and

seabream (Pagrus major) have grown markedly in the last two decades (Sadovy, 2000; Toranzo

et al., 2005). However, the rapid expansion of the mariculture industry also effect the

environmental quality due to the use of fish meal or trash fish and other supplemental substances

in their diets. Therefore, reducing negative environmental impacts is a key issue for ensuring

long-term sustainability and the health system of mariculture production (Troell et al. 2003).

The environmental impact of mariculture production largely depends on culture method,

stocking density, feed type, and the application of feeding strategies (Wu, 1995). About 57% of

feed N and 76% of feed P in the Norwegian salmonid industry may be released into the

environment (Wang et al., 2014). Moreover, in mariculture farming system, about 85% of

phosphorus, 80-88% of carbon and 52 95% of nitrogen input may be lost into the environment

through fed wastage, fish excretion, faces production, and respiration (Wu, 1995). From this

number, some 39% of feed N and 24% of feed P were excreted as dissolved inorganic N (DIN) and
dissolved inorganic P (DIP), respectively (Wang et al., 2013). The quality and quantity of wastes

depend on feed quality, cultured species, feed management practices and culture system

characteristics (Iwama, 1991). In general, most of the nutrients released to the environment is in

a dissolved form, particular for nitrogen (Neori et al., 2000). Pollution loading of these nutrients

may enrich the water column around the cages (Karakassis et al., 2005), algal blooms and coastal

eutrophication (Skogen et al., 2009).

Inorganic Nutrients Interaction in Marine Water

The concentration of Inorganic nutrients in water is a static variable and mainly described

as the chemical mass (weight) of an element or compound per unit volume at a particular place

or time (Wetzel and Likens, 2000). Certain nutrients, such as magnesium and sodium, are

relatively conservative in concentration and unaffected by metabolically altered reduction-

oxidation conditions of the water. On the other hand, concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus

compounds are highly dynamic because they may be utilized, stored, transformed, and excreted

rapidly and repeatedly by various aquatic organisms (Wetzel and Likens, 2000). Marine nitrogen

(N) cycle in the oceans is driven by complex biogeochemical transformations, including nitrogen

fixation, denitrification, assimilation and anaerobic ammonia oxidation, mediated by

microorganisms (Zehr and Kudela, 2011). Atmosphere is an essentially unlimited source of

nitrogen for N2-fixing microorganisms and composed of approximately 80% N2 gas. Meanwhile,

there is no atmospheric source for phosphorus and must be obtained from recycling organic

matter (in shallow or deep water) or terrestrial sources (Zehr and Kudela, 2011).
Inorganic Nutrients Interaction with pH and Alkalinity

Theoretically, the term of pH referred to the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion

activity (Boyd, 2000) and alkalinity referred to the buffering capacity of the carbonate system in

water (Wetzel and Likens, 2000). Interest in the pH response to inorganic nutrient enrichment in

marine aquatic ecosystem began to increase since the ammonia toxicity as one of the inorganic

form of nitrogen is related to the pH differences rather than to the comparatively minor

influences of salinity and temperature (Eddy, 2005). According to Weiler (1979) and Boyd (2000)

ammonia diffusion from water to air will be greatest when pH and the concentration of total

ammonia nitrogen were high.

As recently addressed by Spiteri et al. (2008) high pH values affect more than just the N

cycle. At pH values >8.5, rates of phosphate desorption increase and the amount of bioavailable

phosphorous in the water column during biologically active periods is also increase. Similarly,

rates of biogenic silica dissolution also exponentially rise with pH, increasing dissolved silica

concentrations in the water column, particularly at the sediment water interface, during bloom

periods (Van Cappellen and Qiu 1997). In general, there is a positive feedback between primary

productivity and increasing pH, which increases the bioavailability of limiting nutrients (N, P, Si)

in these well-mixed systems Coastal Marine Waters (Nixon et al., 2015).

Typically, it was known that seawater is alkaline due to contain with large amounts of

dissolved inorganic carbon (Wetzel and Likens, 2000). Nitrification and nitrogen fixation may

affect the alkalinity concentration but Cellular fixation of N2 by itself does not change total

alkalinity (Wolf-Gladrow et al., 2007). The assimilation of 1 mole of nitrogen (atoms) leads to an

increase of alkalinity by 1 mole when nitrate or nitrite is the nitrogen source and the use of
ammonia as the nitrogen source decrease the alkalinity by 1 mole. Moreover, there is no change

of alkalinity when molecular nitrogen is used as the N source (Goldman and Brewer (1980). In

steady state, the denitrification process will balance the input of reactive nitrate by nitrogen

fixation (Schlesinger, 1997). However, because of N2 fixation and denitrification occur in different

areas of the marine area, these processes will affect the spatial distribution of total alkalinity

(Wolf-Gladrow et al., 2007).

Inorganic Nutrients Interaction in Primary Productivity

In most cases, nitrogen and phosphorus limit the primary productivity (Tyrell, 1999),

although iron limitation has also been detected (Entsch et al. 1983). Since the biological demands

may be higher than the availability of these elements, environmental sources can regulate or

limit the aquatic organisms productivity. Many key variables control these ecosystem variables,

and nitrogen (N) cycle is a critical component of the biogeochemical cycles in the context of the

productivity in the water column of the ocean (Zehr and Kudela, 2010). Investigation conducted

by Vitousek and Howarth (1991) clearly mentioned that N is a central nutrient for terrestrial and

aquatic ecosystem and also as the key element in global environmental change. Most marine

plankton can utilize ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate as N sources for growth but cannot fix N 2

(Baker et al., 2009). However, the fixation of molecular nitrogen (N2) by microflora, such as by

Trichodesmium and other N2-fixing cyanobacteria, can serve as a major input of nitrogen to

aquatic ecosystem and may also help to meet the N budget requirement (Zehr and Kudela, 2010).

One of the findings of the biogeochemical approach suggest that phosphorus also

believed as the primary nutrients limiting biomass accumulation and have an important impact

on the species distribution and ecosystem structure (Wetzel and Likens, 2000). This argument
largely based on the existence of biological N2 fixation and the availability of approximately 80%

of N2 gas in the atmosphere as an essential unlimited source of N for N 2-fixing microorganisms.

Meanwhile, there is no atmospheric source for P and P must be obtained from organic matter

recycling and ultimately dependent on the balance between terrestrial rock weathering and

oceanic burial (Zehr and Kudela, 2010). Despite the assumption that P ultimately limits the

primary productivity, marine nutrient experiments often result in growth response when N is

added (Elser et al., 2000). However, an even greater response in productivity will be obtained

when P is added along with N (Smith, 1984).

Alternative strategy for healthy function of aquatic ecosystem

The external supplies of inorganic nutrients to aquatic ecosystems will influence the

healthy function of coastal marine ecosystems and can cause ecological and toxicological

effects that are either directly or indirectly related to the proliferation of primary producers

(Camargo and Alonso, 2006). In clear waters, increases in nutrient loading with low water

turnover rates will lead to (1) phytoplankton blooms (Smith et al., 1999); (2) development of a

region of water column anoxia (Tyson, 1997); (3) macroalgal blooms in shallow estuaries (Valiela

et al., 1997); and (4) cause an extensive kill of both invertebrates and fishes (Shumway, 1990).

Therefore, eutrophication in fact is the most widespread water quality problem in the US and

many other nations (Carpenter et al., 1998).

Among the different inorganic nitrogenous compounds (NH4+, NH3, NO2- , HNO2, NO3- )

that aquatic animals can take up directly from the ambient water, ammonium and nitrate ions

are the least toxic, while unionized ammonia is the most toxic compounds (Boyd, 2000). The toxic
effect of unionized ammonia on aquatic animals, particularly on fish, include the following:

decrease in the ability of aquatic organisms to excrete ammonia; elevation of blood pH;

disruption of enzyme systems; gill damage; histological lesions in various internal organs,

increased water uptake and oxygen consumption (Boyd, 2000). Meanwhile, the main toxic action

of nitrite on fish and crayfish, is due to the conversion of oxygen-carrying pigments to forms that

are incapable of carrying oxygen, causing hypoxia and ultimately death (Camargo and Alonso,

2006). However, because of the ameliorating effect of water salinity (sodium, chloride, calcium

and other ions), sea water aquatic organisms seem to be more tolerant to the toxicity of inorganic

nitrogenous compounds than freshwater animals (Camargo and Alonso, 2006).

Based on monitoring program at marine fish cage sites, Pearson and Black (2001)

concluded that discharges from farms, including nitrogen, represent a significant influx of

inorganic nutrients to the marine environment. Thus, dilution is not a sufficient strategy to

address the issue and recommend that proper siting, adherence to best management practices,

improved feed formulation and Integrated mariculture system with the application of extractive

organisms could removes a significant fraction of inorganic nutrients within the mariculture

production (Troell et al., 2003)

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