Aim PDF

April 3, 2014
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Aeronautical
Information
Official Guide to
Manual Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures
An electronic version of this publication is on the internet at

http://www.faa.gov/atpubs
AIM
Record of Changes
Change Number Change Filed Comments

U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION
MANUAL
Change 3
June 25, 2015
DO NOT DESTROY
BASIC DATED
APRIL 3, 2014
6/25/15 AIM
Aeronautical Information Manual

Explanation of Changes
Effective: June 25, 2015
a. 117. Distance Measuring Equipment change reflects those requirements and provides
(DME) symmetry amongst all guidance/procedures.
1116. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), e. 433. Traffic Patterns
Inertial Navigation System (INS), and Attitude
Heading Reference System (AHRS) This change updates guidance regarding traffic
pattern charting to bring forth more clarity.
This changes relocates the information contained
within subparagraph d from paragraph 117 to f. 528. Instrument Departure Procedures
paragraph 1116, as the latter was a more (DP) Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and
appropriate destination for the information contained Standard Instrument Departures (SID)
therein. This change provides guidance regarding diverse
vector areas and their use in greater detail.
b. 1111. Microwave Landing System (MLS)
519. International Flight Plan (FAA g. 548. Special Instrument Approach Proced-
Form 72334) IFR Flights (For Domestic or ures
International Flights) This change includes information on NOTAMs for
Appendix 3. Abbreviations/Acronyms Special Instrument Approach Procedures.
Pilot/Controller Glossary (various places)
h. 5415. Simultaneous Parallel ILS/RNAV/
This change removes all references to Microwave GLS Approaches (Independent)
Landing System (MLS). This change reflects updated charting revisions.
FIG 5420 is also updated to improve clarity of the
c. 212. Visual Glideslope Indicators
depicted concepts.
This change adds verbiage to describe how the i. 5417. Simultaneous Converging Instru-
obstacle clearance area for a Visual Approach Slope ment Approaches
Indicator (VASI) and/or Precision Approach Path
Indicator (PAPI) may be changed. This change also This change is updated to reflect the use of letter V
instructs pilots to check notices to airmen (NOTAM) in the approach title to indicate a simultaneous
for information on VASI and/or PAPI clearance area converging approach.
changes. j. Pilot/Controller Glossary
d. 4116. Safety Alert Terms have been added, deleted, or modified within
this glossary. Please refer to page PCG1 for more
In 2013, changes were incorporated into FAA Order details.
7110.65, Paragraph 216, Safety Alert, that
k. Entire publication.
removed the requirement to issue Decision Altitude
(DA), Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA), or Editorial/format changes were made where neces-
Decision Height (DH) in the event an aircraft exceeds sary. Revision bars were not used when changes are
the safety limits for a particular approach. This insignificant in nature.
Explanation of Changes E of Chg1

6/25/15 AIM
AIM Change 3
Page Control Chart
June 25, 2015
REMOVE PAGES DATED INSERT PAGES DATED
Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 1/8/15 Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 6/25/15
Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
115 through 1110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 115 through 1110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
1111 and 1112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 1111 and 1112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
1113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 1113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
1114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 1114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
1115 and 1116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 1115 and 1116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
1117 through 1137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 1117 through 1134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
212 and 213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 212 and 213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
214 and 215 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 214 and 215 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
216 through 2110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 216 through 2110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
4111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 4111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
4112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 4112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
431 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 431 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
432 and 433 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 432 and 433 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
434 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 434 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
4317 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 4317 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
4318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 4318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
474 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 474 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
5121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 5121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
5122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 5122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
527 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 527 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
528 through 5211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 528 through 5212 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
5427 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5427 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
5428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
5435 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5435 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
5436 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5436 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
5437 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5437 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
5438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
5439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
5440 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 5440 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
5449 and 5450 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 5449 and 5450 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
713 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 713 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
714 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 714 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
Appendix 33 through Appendix 35 . . . . . . 4/3/14 Appendix 33 through Appendix 35 . . . . . . 6/25/15
Page Control Chart

AIM 6/25/15

PCG1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 PCG1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
PCG C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG C4 through PCG C9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 PCG C4 through PCG C9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
PCG D1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG D1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
PCG D2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 PCG D2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
PCG G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
PCG G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG M2 through PCG M6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG M2 through PCG M6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
PCG P1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG P1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG P2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG P2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
PCG S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG S4 and PCG S5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG S4 and PCG S5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
PCG S6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG S6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG T3 through PCG T8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG T3 through PCG T8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
Index I1 through I13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15 Index I1 through I13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/25/15
2 Page Control Chart

6/25/15 AIM
Checklist of Pages
PAGE DATE PAGE DATE PAGE DATE
Cover 6/25/15 1112 6/25/15 Chapter 2. Aeronautical

Record of Changes N/A 1113 6/25/15 Lighting and Other Airport
Exp of Chg1 6/25/15 1114 6/25/15 Visual Aids
1115 6/25/15 Section 1. Airport Lighting
1116 6/25/15 Aids
1117 6/25/15 211 6/25/15
1118 6/25/15 212 4/3/14
Checklist of Pages 1119 6/25/15 213 4/3/14
CK1 6/25/15 1120 6/25/15 214 6/25/15
CK2 6/25/15 1121 6/25/15 215 6/25/15
CK3 6/25/15 1122 6/25/15 216 6/25/15
CK4 6/25/15 1123 6/25/15 217 6/25/15
CK5 6/25/15 1124 6/25/15 218 6/25/15
CK6 6/25/15 1125 6/25/15 219 6/25/15
1126 6/25/15 2110 6/25/15
Subscription Info 7/24/14 1127 6/25/15 2111 4/3/14
Comments/Corr 4/3/14 1128 6/25/15 2112 4/3/14
Comments/Corr 4/3/14 1129 6/25/15 2113 4/3/14
Basic Flight Info 1/8/15 1130 6/25/15 2114 4/3/14
Publication Policy 4/3/14 1131 6/25/15 2115 4/3/14
Reg & Advis Cir 4/3/14 1132 6/25/15
1133 6/25/15 Section 2. Air Navigation and
Table of Contents 1134 6/25/15 Obstruction Lighting
1135 6/25/15 221 4/3/14
i 6/25/15
ii 6/25/15 222 4/3/14
iii 6/25/15
iv 6/25/15 Section 3. Airport Marking
v 6/25/15 Aids and Signs
vi 6/25/15 231 4/3/14
vii 6/25/15 232 4/3/14
viii 6/25/15 233 4/3/14
ix 6/25/15 234 4/3/14
x 6/25/15 235 4/3/14
xi 6/25/15 Section 2. PerformanceBased 236 4/3/14
Navigation (PBN) and Area 237 7/24/14
Navigation (RNAV) 238 4/3/14
121 1/8/15 239 4/3/14
Chapter 1. Air Navigation
122 1/8/15 2310 4/3/14
Section 1. Navigation Aids 123 1/8/15 2311 4/3/14
111 4/3/14 124 1/8/15 2312 7/24/14
112 7/24/14 125 1/8/15 2313 4/3/14
113 7/24/14 126 1/8/15 2314 4/3/14
114 6/25/15 127 1/8/15 2315 4/3/14
115 6/25/15 128 1/8/15 2316 4/3/14
116 6/25/15
2317 4/3/14
117 6/25/15
2318 4/3/14
118 6/25/15
2319 4/3/14
119 6/25/15
2320 4/3/14
1110 6/25/15
2321 4/3/14
1111 6/25/15
Checklist of Pages CK1

AIM 6/25/15
Checklist of Pages
2322 4/3/14 Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control 439 7/24/14

2323 4/3/14 Section 1. Services Available 4310 7/24/14
2324 4/3/14 to Pilots 4311 7/24/14
2325 4/3/14 4313 7/24/14
2326 4/3/14 411 4/3/14 4314 7/24/14
2327 4/3/14 412 4/3/14 4315 7/24/14
2328 4/3/14 413 1/8/15 4316 7/24/14
2329 4/3/14 414 1/8/15 4317 6/25/15
2330 4/3/14 415 1/8/15 4318 7/24/14
2331 4/3/14 416 1/8/15 4319 7/24/14
417 4/3/14 4320 7/24/14
418 4/3/14 4321 7/24/14
Chapter 3. Airspace 419 4/3/14 4322 7/24/14
Section 1. General 4110 4/3/14 4323 7/24/14
311 4/3/14 4111 6/25/15 4324 7/24/14
312 4/3/14 4112 4/3/14 4325 7/24/14
4113 4/3/14 4326 7/24/14
4114 4/3/14 4327 7/24/14
Section 2. Controlled Airspace
4115 4/3/14 4328 7/24/14
321 4/3/14
4116 4/3/14 4329 7/24/14
322 4/3/14
323 4/3/14 4117 4/3/14
324 4/3/14 4118 4/3/14 Section 4. ATC Clearances
325 4/3/14 4119 4/3/14 and Aircraft Separation
326 4/3/14 4120 4/3/14 441 4/3/14
327 4/3/14 4121 7/24/14 442 4/3/14
328 4/3/14 4122 4/3/14 443 4/3/14
329 4/3/14 4123 4/3/14 444 4/3/14

445 4/3/14
Section 2. Radio 446 4/3/14
Section 3. Class G Airspace
331 4/3/14
Communications Phraseology 447 4/3/14
and Techniques 448 4/3/14
421 4/3/14 449 4/3/14
Section 4. Special Use
422 4/3/14 4410 4/3/14
Airspace
423 4/3/14 4411 4/3/14
341 4/3/14
424 4/3/14
342 4/3/14
425 4/3/14 Section 5. Surveillance
426 4/3/14 Systems
Section 5. Other Airspace 427 4/3/14 451 4/3/14
Areas
428 4/3/14 452 4/3/14
351 4/3/14
453 4/3/14
352 4/3/14
Section 3. Airport Operations 454 4/3/14
353 4/3/14
431 4/3/14 455 4/3/14
354 4/3/14
432 6/25/15 456 4/3/14
355 4/3/14
433 6/25/15 457 4/3/14
356 4/3/14
434 7/24/14 458 4/3/14
357 4/3/14
435 7/24/14 459 4/3/14
358 4/3/14
436 7/24/14 4510 4/3/14
359 4/3/14
437 7/24/14 4511 4/3/14
438 7/24/14 4512 4/3/14
CK2 Checklist of Pages

6/25/15 AIM
Checklist of Pages
4513 4/3/14 5112 4/3/14 5312 4/3/14

4514 7/24/14 5113 4/3/14 5313 4/3/14
4515 1/8/15 5114 4/3/14 5314 4/3/14
4516 1/8/15 5115 4/3/14
4517 1/8/15 5116 4/3/14 Section 4. Arrival Procedures
4518 1/8/15 5117 1/8/15 541 4/3/14
4519 4/3/14 5118 1/8/15 542 4/3/14
4520 4/3/14 5119 4/3/14 543 7/24/14
5120 4/3/14 544 7/24/14
Section 6. Operational Policy/ 5121 6/25/15 545 4/3/14
Procedures for Reduced Vertical 5122 1/8/15 546 4/3/14
Separation Minimum (RVSM) in 5123 4/3/14
the Domestic U.S., Alaska, 547 7/24/14
Offshore Airspace and the 5124 4/3/14 548 7/24/14
San Juan FIR 5125 1/8/15 549 7/24/14
461 1/8/15 5126 4/3/14 5410 7/24/14
462 1/8/15 5127 4/3/14 5411 7/24/14
463 1/8/15 5128 4/3/14 5412 7/24/14
464 1/8/15 5129 4/3/14 5413 1/8/15
465 1/8/15 5130 4/3/14 5414 7/24/14
466 1/8/15 5131 4/3/14 5415 7/24/14
467 1/8/15 5416 7/24/14
468 1/8/15 Section 2. Departure 5417 7/24/14
469 1/8/15 Procedures 5418 7/24/14
4610 1/8/15 521 4/3/14 5419 7/24/14
4611 1/8/15 522 4/3/14 5420 7/24/14
523 4/3/14 5421 7/24/14
Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 525 4/3/14 5423 7/24/14
50 NM Lateral Separation
526 4/3/14 5424 7/24/14
Initiative
527 4/3/14 5425 7/24/14
471 4/3/14
528 6/25/15 5426 7/24/14
472 1/8/15
529 6/25/15 5427 7/24/14
473 4/3/14
5210 6/25/15 5428 6/25/15
474 6/25/15
5211 6/25/15 5429 7/24/14
475 1/8/15
5212 6/25/15 5430 7/24/14
5431 7/24/14
Chapter 5. Air Traffic
Section 3. En Route 5432 7/24/14
Procedures
Procedures 5433 7/24/14
Section 1. Preflight 5434 7/24/14
531 4/3/14
511 1/8/15 5435 7/24/14
532 4/3/14
512 1/8/15 5436 6/25/15
533 4/3/14
513 1/8/15 5437 7/24/14
534 7/24/14
514 1/8/15 5438 6/25/15
535 4/3/14
515 4/3/14 5439 7/24/14
536 4/3/14
516 4/3/14 5440 6/25/15
537 4/3/14
517 4/3/14 5441 7/24/14
538 4/3/14
518 4/3/14 5442 1/8/15
539 4/3/14
519 4/3/14 5443 1/8/15
5310 4/3/14
5110 4/3/14 5444 1/8/15
5311 4/3/14
5111 4/3/14

AIM 6/25/15
Checklist of Pages
5445 1/8/15 Section 2. Emergency Services 7111 4/3/14

5446 1/8/15 Available to Pilots 7112 4/3/14
5447 1/8/15 621 4/3/14 7113 4/3/14
5448 1/8/15 622 4/3/14 7114 4/3/14
5449 6/25/15 623 4/3/14 7115 4/3/14
5450 6/25/15 624 4/3/14 7116 4/3/14
5451 7/24/14 625 4/3/14 7117 4/3/14
5452 7/24/14 626 4/3/14 7118 4/3/14
5453 7/24/14 627 4/3/14 7119 4/3/14
5454 7/24/14 628 4/3/14 7120 4/3/14
5455 7/24/14 629 4/3/14 7121 4/3/14
5456 7/24/14 6210 4/3/14 7122 4/3/14
5457 7/24/14 6211 4/3/14 7123 4/3/14
5458 7/24/14 7124 7/24/14
5459 7/24/14 Section 3. Distress and 7125 7/24/14
5460 7/24/14 Urgency Procedures 7126 4/3/14
5461 7/24/14 631 4/3/14 7127 4/3/14
5462 7/24/14 632 4/3/14 7128 4/3/14
5463 7/24/14 633 4/3/14 7129 4/3/14
634 4/3/14 7130 4/3/14
Section 5. Pilot/Controller 635 4/3/14 7131 4/3/14
Roles and Responsibilities 636 4/3/14 7132 4/3/14
551 4/3/14 637 4/3/14 7133 4/3/14
552 4/3/14 7134 4/3/14
553 4/3/14 Section 4. Twoway Radio 7135 4/3/14
554 4/3/14 Communications Failure 7136 4/3/14
555 4/3/14 641 4/3/14 7137 4/3/14
556 4/3/14 642 4/3/14 7138 4/3/14
557 4/3/14 7139 4/3/14
558 4/3/14 7140 4/3/14
7141 4/3/14
Section 5. Aircraft Rescue
Section 6. National Security and Fire Fighting 7142 7/24/14
and Interception Procedures Communications 7143 4/3/14
561 7/24/14 651 4/3/14 7144 1/8/15
562 7/24/14 652 4/3/14 7145 4/3/14
563 7/24/14 7146 4/3/14
564 4/3/14 Chapter 7. Safety of Flight 7147 4/3/14
565 4/3/14 7148 4/3/14
Section 1. Meteorology
566 4/3/14 7149 4/3/14
711 4/3/14
567 4/3/14 7150 4/3/14
712 4/3/14
568 4/3/14 7151 4/3/14
713 6/25/15
569 4/3/14 7152 4/3/14
714 7/24/14
5610 4/3/14 7153 4/3/14
715 1/8/15
7154 4/3/14
716 1/8/15
7155 4/3/14
Chapter 6. Emergency 717 1/8/15
718 1/8/15
7157 4/3/14
Section 1. General 719 1/8/15
7158 4/3/14
611 4/3/14 7110 4/3/14
7159 4/3/14

6/25/15 AIM
Checklist of Pages
7160 7/24/14 7511 4/3/14 1012 4/3/14

7161 4/3/14 7512 4/3/14 1013 4/3/14
7162 4/3/14 7513 7/24/14 1014 4/3/14
7163 4/3/14 7514 7/24/14 1015 4/3/14
7164 4/3/14 1016 4/3/14
7165 4/3/14 Section 6. Safety, Accident, 1017 4/3/14
7166 4/3/14 and Hazard Reports
7167 4/3/14 761 4/3/14 Section 2. Special Operations
7168 4/3/14 762 4/3/14 1021 4/3/14
7169 4/3/14 763 7/24/14 1022 4/3/14
7170 4/3/14 1023 4/3/14
7171 4/3/14 Chapter 8. Medical Facts 1024 4/3/14
7172 4/3/14 for Pilots 1025 4/3/14
Section 1. Fitness for Flight 1026 4/3/14
Section 2. Altimeter Setting 811 4/3/14 1027 4/3/14
Procedures 812 4/3/14 1028 4/3/14
721 4/3/14 813 4/3/14 1029 4/3/14
722 4/3/14 814 4/3/14 10210 4/3/14
723 1/8/15 815 4/3/14 10211 4/3/14
724 4/3/14 816 4/3/14 10212 4/3/14
817 4/3/14 10213 4/3/14
Section 3. Wake Turbulence 818 4/3/14 10214 4/3/14
731 4/3/14 819 4/3/14 10215 4/3/14
732 1/8/15 10216 4/3/14
733 4/3/14 Chapter 9. Aeronautical 10217 4/3/14
734 4/3/14 Charts and Related
735 4/3/14 Publications Appendices
736 4/3/14 Section 1. Types of Charts Appendix 11 4/3/14
737 4/3/14 Available Env N/A
738 4/3/14 911 1/8/15 Appendix 21 4/3/14
912 1/8/15 Appendix 31 4/3/14
Section 4. Bird Hazards and 913 1/8/15 Appendix 32 4/3/14
Flight Over National Refuges, 914 1/8/15 Appendix 33 6/25/15
Parks, and Forests 915 1/8/15 Appendix 34 6/25/15
741 4/3/14 916 1/8/15 Appendix 35 6/25/15
742 4/3/14 917 1/8/15
918 1/8/15
Section 5. Potential Flight 919 1/8/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
Hazards 9110 1/8/15 PCG1 6/25/15
751 4/3/14 9111 1/8/15 PCG2 7/24/14
752 4/3/14 9112 1/8/15 PCG A1 7/24/14
753 4/3/14 9113 1/8/15 PCG A2 7/24/14
754 4/3/14 PCG A3 7/24/14
755 4/3/14 Chapter 10. Helicopter PCG A4 7/24/14
756 4/3/14 Operations PCG A5 7/24/14
757 4/3/14
Section 1. Helicopter IFR PGC A6 7/24/14
758 4/3/14 Operations PCG A7 7/24/14
759 4/3/14 1011 4/3/14 PCG A8 7/24/14
7510 4/3/14

AIM 6/25/15
Checklist of Pages
PCG A9 7/24/14 PCG J1 7/24/14 PCG T2 7/24/14

PCG A10 7/24/14 PCG K1 7/24/14 PCG T3 6/25/15
PCG A11 1/8/15 PCG L1 7/24/14 PCG T4 6/25/15
PCG A12 1/8/15 PCG L2 7/24/14 PCG T5 6/25/15
PCG A13 1/8/15 PCG L3 7/24/14 PCG T6 6/25/15
PCG A14 1/8/15 PCG M1 7/24/14 PCG T7 6/25/15
PCG A15 1/8/15 PCG M2 6/25/15 PCG T8 6/25/15
PCG A16 1/8/15 PCG M3 6/25/15 PCG U1 7/24/14
PCG B1 7/24/14 PCG M4 6/25/15 PCG V1 7/24/14
PCG B2 7/24/14 PCG M5 6/25/15 PCG V2 7/24/14
PCG C1 7/24/14 PCG M6 6/25/15 PCG V3 7/24/14
PCG C2 7/24/14 PCG N1 7/24/14 PCG V4 7/24/14
PCG C3 7/24/14 PCG N2 7/24/14 PCG W1 7/24/14
PCG C4 6/25/15 PCG N3 7/24/14 PCG W2 7/24/14
PCG C5 6/25/15 PCG N4 7/24/14
PCG C6 6/25/15 PCG O1 7/24/14
PCG C7 6/25/15 PCG O2 7/24/14 Index
PCG C8 6/25/15 PCG O3 7/24/14 I1 6/25/15
PCG C9 6/25/15 PCG O4 7/24/14 I2 6/25/15
PCG C10 7/24/14 PCG P1 7/24/14 I3 6/25/15
PCG D1 6/25/15 PCG P2 6/25/15 I4 6/25/15
PCG D2 1/8/15 PCG P3 7/24/14 I5 6/25/15
PCG D3 1/8/15 PCG P4 7/24/14 I6 6/25/15
PCG D4 1/8/15 PCG P5 7/24/14 I7 6/25/15
PCG E1 7/24/14 PCG Q1 7/24/14 I8 6/25/15
PCG E2 7/24/14 PCG R1 7/24/14 I9 6/25/15
PCG F1 7/24/14 PCG R2 7/24/14 I10 6/25/15
PCG F2 7/24/14 PCG R3 7/24/14 I11 6/25/15
PCG F3 7/24/14 PCG R4 7/24/14 I12 6/25/15
PCG F4 7/24/14 PCG R5 7/24/14 I13 6/25/15
PCG F5 7/24/14 PCG R6 7/24/14
PCG F6 7/24/14 PCG R7 7/24/14
PCG G1 6/25/15 PCG R8 7/24/14 Back Cover N/A
PCG G2 7/24/14 PCG S1 7/24/14
PCG H1 7/24/14 PCG S2 7/24/14
PCG H2 7/24/14 PCG S3 7/24/14
PCG H3 7/24/14 PCG S4 6/25/15
PCG I1 7/24/14 PCG S5 6/25/15
PCG I2 7/24/14 PCG S6 7/24/14
PCG I3 7/24/14 PCG S7 7/24/14
PCG I4 7/24/14 PCG S8 7/24/14
PCG I5 7/24/14 PCG T1 7/24/14

U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION
MANUAL
Change 2
January 8, 2015
DO NOT DESTROY
BASIC DATED
APRIL 3, 2014
1/8/15 AIM

Effective: January 8, 2015
a. 1114. User Reports Requested on the pilots responsibilities. This change also reflects
NAVAID or Global Navigation Satellite System a change in procedures for Mode S transponders.
(GNSS) Performance or Interference g. 466. Guidance on Severe Turbulence and
This change provides an electronic option for Mountain Wave Activity (MWA)
reporting GNSS problems using the agencys Global This change adds Graphical Turbulence Guidance
Positioning System (GPS) Anomaly Reporting (GTG) as a source to help pilots ascertain the
Form. possibility of severe weather turbulence or MWA.
b. 1118. Global Positioning System (GPS) h. 475. Provisions for Accommodation of
NonRNP10 Aircraft (Aircraft Not Authorized
This change updates the GPS chapter to reflect RNP 10 or RNP 4)
current policies and procedures. 478. Flight Planning Requirements
c. 1119. Wide Area Augmentation System 511. Preflight Preparation
(WAAS) 519. International Flight Plan (FAA
Form 72334) IFR Flights (For Domestic or
This change updates the the description of WAAS International Flights)
system components and the example Notices to
This change implements revised procedures for
Airmen (NOTAMS).
operators of NonRNP10 aircraft for flight plan filing.
d. 121. Area Navigation (RNAV) En Route Automation System (ERAS) modified
122. Required Navigation Performance procedures for flight planning requirements refer-
(RNP) ence information which should be in Items 10 and 18.
Tables 514 and 515 have also been updated as
This change is updated to include Performance appropriate.
Based Navigation and introduce RNAV navigation
specifications. The graphics have also been updated i. 5415. Simultaneous Parallel ILS/RNAV/
as appropriate. GLS Approaches (Independent)
5416. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS/
e. 419. Traffic Advisory Practices of Airports RNAV/GLS PRM Approaches (Independent) and
Without Operating Control Towers Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches
(SOIA)
This change provides the procedural basis for
carrying out CTAF practices in Alaska while This change clarifies the concepts depicted within the
operating in designated areas in addition to graphics and makes the language more consistent
operations to/from airports without an airport traffic with the descriptions within the text.
control tower. j. 511. Preflight Preparation
712. FAA Weather Services
f. 457. Automatic Dependent Surveillance
713. Use of Aviation Weather Products
Broadcast (ADSB) Services
This change adds Lockheed Martin Flight Services as
This change updates the title of subparagraph c to a source of weather forecast services to pilots and
include procedures to clarify the intent of the updates their contact information.
paragraph. In addition, this change explains that an
aircrafts flight identification (FLT ID), also known k. 713. Use of Aviation Weather Products
as the registration number or airline flight number, is This change removes subparagraph l, as it contains
transmitted by the ADSB Out avionics, and explains information deemed no longer necessary to pilots.

AIM 1/8/15
l. 723. Altimeter Errors o. 914. General Description of Each Chart

Series
This change updates guidance on cold temperature
altimetry operations. It also adds a note to emphasize This change adds a description of the Helicopter
Route Chart series and the U.S. VFR Wall Planning
how nonstandard temperatures impact BaroVNAV
Chart. The name of the Sectional Raster Aeronautic-
equipment.
al Charts (SRAC) product was changed to
m. 734. Vortex Behavior digital-Visual Charts (d-VC) and the description was
updated to reflect recent product enhancements and
This change fixes a discrepancy between Advisory expansion of the compliment of charts included.
Circular AC 9023G, Aircraft Wake Turbulence, and Other minor editorial changes were made to clarify
the Aeronautical Information Manual. product descriptions and availability.
p. Entire publication.
n. 912. Obtaining Aeronautical Charts
Editorial/format changes were made where neces-
This change reflects that chart sales are made through sary. Revision bars were not used when changes are
FAA chart agents. insignificant in nature.
E of Chg2 Explanation of Changes

1/8/15 AIM
AIM Change 2
Page Control Chart
January 8, 2015
Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 7/24/14 Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 1/8/15
FAA/AIM Basic Flight Info & Procedures . . 7/24/14 FAA/AIM Basic Flight Info & Procedures . . 1/8/15
Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
1117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 1117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
1118 through 1135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 1118 through 1135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
1136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 1136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
1137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 1137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
121 through 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 121 through 128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
413 through 416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 413 through 416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
4515 and 4516 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 4515 and 4516 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
4517 and 4518 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 4517 and 4518 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
461 through 467 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 461 through 467 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
468 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 468 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
469 through 4611 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 469 through 4611 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
474 and 475 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 474 and 475 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
511 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 511 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
512 through 514 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 512 through 514 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
5117 and 5118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 5117 and 5118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
5121 and 5122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 5121 and 5122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
5125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 5125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
5126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 5126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
5413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
5414 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5414 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
5439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
5440 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5440 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
5441 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5441 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
5442 through 5450 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 5442 through 5450 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
713 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 713 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
714 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 714 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
715 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 715 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
716 through 719 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 716 through 719 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
7110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 7110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
7143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 7143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
7144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 7144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
723 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 723 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
724 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 724 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
Page Control Chart

AIM 1/8/15

731 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 731 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14
732 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 732 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
911 through 9113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/3/14 911 through 9112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
PCG1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
PCG A11 through PCG A16 . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG A11 through PCG A16 . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
PCG C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG C4 through PCG C9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG C4 through PCG C9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
PCG D1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG D1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14
PCG D2 through PCG D4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 PCG D2 through PCG D4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
Index I1 through I13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/24/14 Index I1 through I13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8/15
2 Page Control Chart

1/8/15 AIM
Checklist of Pages
Cover 1/8/15 1112 7/24/14 Chapter 2. Aeronautical

Record of Changes N/A 1113 4/3/14 Lighting and Other Airport
Exp of Chg1 1/8/15 1114 7/24/14 Visual Aids
Exp of Chg2 1/8/15 1115 4/3/14 Section 1. Airport Lighting
1116 4/3/14 Aids
1117 1/8/15 211 4/3/14
1118 1/8/15 212 4/3/14
Checklist of Pages 1119 1/8/15 213 4/3/14
CK1 1/8/15 1120 1/8/15 214 4/3/14
CK2 1/8/15 1121 1/8/15 215 4/3/14
CK3 1/8/15 1122 1/8/15 216 7/24/14
CK4 1/8/15 1123 1/8/15 217 7/24/14
CK5 1/8/15 1124 1/8/15 218 7/24/14
CK6 1/8/15 1125 1/8/15 219 7/24/14
1126 1/8/15 2110 7/24/14
Subscription Info 7/24/14 1127 1/8/15 2111 4/3/14
Comments/Corr 4/3/14 1128 1/8/15 2112 4/3/14
Comments/Corr 4/3/14 1129 1/8/15 2113 4/3/14
Basic Flight Info 1/8/15 1130 1/8/15 2114 4/3/14
Publication Policy 4/3/14 1131 1/8/15 2115 4/3/14
Reg & Advis Cir 4/3/14 1132 1/8/15
1133 1/8/15 Section 2. Air Navigation and
Table of Contents 1134 1/8/15 Obstruction Lighting
1135 1/8/15 221 4/3/14
i 1/8/15
1136 1/8/15 222 4/3/14
ii 1/8/15
1137 1/8/15
iii 1/8/15
iv 1/8/15 Section 3. Airport Marking
v 1/8/15 Aids and Signs
vi 1/8/15 231 4/3/14
vii 1/8/15 232 4/3/14
viii 1/8/15 233 4/3/14
ix 1/8/15 234 4/3/14
x 1/8/15 235 4/3/14
xi 1/8/15 236 4/3/14
237 7/24/14
Section 2. PerformanceBased 238 4/3/14
Navigation (PBN) and Area 239 4/3/14
Chapter 1. Air Navigation Navigation (RNAV) 2310 4/3/14
Section 1. Navigation Aids 121 1/8/15 2311 4/3/14
111 4/3/14 122 1/8/15 2312 7/24/14
112 7/24/14 123 1/8/15 2313 4/3/14
113 7/24/14 124 1/8/15 2314 4/3/14
114 7/24/14 125 1/8/15 2315 4/3/14
115 4/3/14 126 1/8/15 2316 4/3/14
116 4/3/14 127 1/8/15 2317 4/3/14
117 4/3/14 128 1/8/15 2318 4/3/14
118 4/3/14
2319 4/3/14
119 4/3/14
2320 4/3/14
1110 4/3/14
2321 4/3/14
1111 7/24/14

AIM 1/8/15
Checklist of Pages
2322 4/3/14 Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control 439 7/24/14

2323 4/3/14 Section 1. Services Available 4310 7/24/14
2324 4/3/14 to Pilots 4311 7/24/14
2325 4/3/14 4313 7/24/14
2326 4/3/14 411 4/3/14 4314 7/24/14
2327 4/3/14 412 4/3/14 4315 7/24/14
2328 4/3/14 413 1/8/15 4316 7/24/14
2329 4/3/14 414 1/8/15 4317 7/24/14
2330 4/3/14 415 1/8/15 4318 7/24/14
2331 4/3/14 416 1/8/15 4319 7/24/14
417 4/3/14 4320 7/24/14
418 4/3/14 4321 7/24/14
Chapter 3. Airspace 419 4/3/14 4322 7/24/14
Section 1. General 4110 4/3/14 4323 7/24/14
311 4/3/14 4111 4/3/14 4324 7/24/14
312 4/3/14 4112 4/3/14 4325 7/24/14
4113 4/3/14 4326 7/24/14
4114 4/3/14 4327 7/24/14
4115 4/3/14 4328 7/24/14
321 4/3/14
4116 4/3/14 4329 7/24/14
322 4/3/14
323 4/3/14 4117 4/3/14
324 4/3/14 4118 4/3/14 Section 4. ATC Clearances
325 4/3/14 4119 4/3/14 and Aircraft Separation
326 4/3/14 4120 4/3/14 441 4/3/14
327 4/3/14 4121 7/24/14 442 4/3/14
328 4/3/14 4122 4/3/14 443 4/3/14
329 4/3/14 4123 4/3/14 444 4/3/14

445 4/3/14
Section 2. Radio 446 4/3/14
331 4/3/14
Communications Phraseology 447 4/3/14
and Techniques 448 4/3/14
421 4/3/14 449 4/3/14
Section 4. Special Use
422 4/3/14 4410 4/3/14
Airspace
423 4/3/14 4411 4/3/14
341 4/3/14
424 4/3/14
342 4/3/14
425 4/3/14 Section 5. Surveillance
426 4/3/14 Systems
Section 5. Other Airspace 427 4/3/14 451 4/3/14
Areas
428 4/3/14 452 4/3/14
351 4/3/14
453 4/3/14
352 4/3/14
Section 3. Airport Operations 454 4/3/14
353 4/3/14
431 4/3/14 455 4/3/14
354 4/3/14
432 7/24/14 456 4/3/14
355 4/3/14
433 7/24/14 457 4/3/14
356 4/3/14
434 7/24/14 458 4/3/14
357 4/3/14
435 7/24/14 459 4/3/14
358 4/3/14
436 7/24/14 4510 4/3/14
359 4/3/14
437 7/24/14 4511 4/3/14
438 7/24/14 4512 4/3/14

1/8/15 AIM
Checklist of Pages
4513 4/3/14 5112 4/3/14 5313 4/3/14

4514 7/24/14 5113 4/3/14 5314 4/3/14
4515 1/8/15 5114 4/3/14
4516 1/8/15 5115 4/3/14 Section 4. Arrival Procedures
4517 1/8/15 5116 4/3/14 541 4/3/14
4518 1/8/15 5117 1/8/15 542 4/3/14
4519 4/3/14 5118 1/8/15 543 7/24/14
4520 4/3/14 5119 4/3/14 544 7/24/14
5120 4/3/14 545 4/3/14
Procedures for Reduced Vertical 5122 1/8/15 547 7/24/14
Separation Minimum (RVSM) in 5123 4/3/14
the Domestic U.S., Alaska, 548 7/24/14
Offshore Airspace and the 5124 4/3/14 549 7/24/14
San Juan FIR 5125 1/8/15 5410 7/24/14
461 1/8/15 5126 4/3/14 5411 7/24/14
462 1/8/15 5127 4/3/14 5412 7/24/14
463 1/8/15 5128 4/3/14 5413 1/8/15
464 1/8/15 5129 4/3/14 5414 7/24/14
465 1/8/15 5130 4/3/14 5415 7/24/14
466 1/8/15 5131 4/3/14 5416 7/24/14
467 1/8/15 5417 7/24/14
468 1/8/15 Section 2. Departure 5418 7/24/14
469 1/8/15 Procedures 5419 7/24/14
4610 1/8/15 521 4/3/14 5420 7/24/14
4611 1/8/15 522 4/3/14 5421 7/24/14
523 4/3/14 5422 7/24/14
Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 525 4/3/14 5424 7/24/14
50 NM Lateral Separation
526 4/3/14 5425 7/24/14
Initiative
527 4/3/14 5426 7/24/14
471 4/3/14
528 4/3/14 5427 7/24/14
472 1/8/15
529 4/3/14 5428 7/24/14
473 4/3/14
5210 4/3/14 5429 7/24/14
474 1/8/15
5211 4/3/14 5430 7/24/14
475 1/8/15
5431 7/24/14
Section 3. En Route 5432 7/24/14
Chapter 5. Air Traffic
Procedures
531 4/3/14 5434 7/24/14
Section 1. Preflight 5435 7/24/14
532 4/3/14
511 1/8/15 5436 7/24/14
533 4/3/14
512 1/8/15 5437 7/24/14
534 7/24/14
513 1/8/15 5438 7/24/14
535 4/3/14
514 1/8/15 5439 7/24/14
536 4/3/14
515 4/3/14 5440 1/8/15
537 4/3/14
516 4/3/14 5441 7/24/14
538 4/3/14
517 4/3/14 5442 1/8/15
539 4/3/14
518 4/3/14 5443 1/8/15
5310 4/3/14
519 4/3/14 5444 1/8/15
5311 4/3/14
5110 4/3/14 5445 1/8/15
5312 4/3/14
5111 4/3/14

AIM 1/8/15
Checklist of Pages
5446 1/8/15 Section 2. Emergency Services 7111 4/3/14

5447 1/8/15 Available to Pilots 7112 4/3/14
5448 1/8/15 621 4/3/14 7113 4/3/14
5449 1/8/15 622 4/3/14 7114 4/3/14
5450 1/8/15 623 4/3/14 7115 4/3/14
5451 7/24/14 624 4/3/14 7116 4/3/14
5452 7/24/14 625 4/3/14 7117 4/3/14
5453 7/24/14 626 4/3/14 7118 4/3/14
5454 7/24/14 627 4/3/14 7119 4/3/14
5455 7/24/14 628 4/3/14 7120 4/3/14
5456 7/24/14 629 4/3/14 7121 4/3/14
5457 7/24/14 6210 4/3/14 7122 4/3/14
5458 7/24/14 6211 4/3/14 7123 4/3/14
5459 7/24/14 7124 7/24/14
5460 7/24/14 Section 3. Distress and 7125 7/24/14
5461 7/24/14 Urgency Procedures 7126 4/3/14
5462 7/24/14 631 4/3/14 7127 4/3/14
5463 7/24/14 632 4/3/14 7128 4/3/14
633 4/3/14 7129 4/3/14
Section 5. Pilot/Controller 634 4/3/14 7130 4/3/14
Roles and Responsibilities 635 4/3/14 7131 4/3/14
551 4/3/14 636 4/3/14 7132 4/3/14
552 4/3/14 637 4/3/14 7133 4/3/14
553 4/3/14 7134 4/3/14
554 4/3/14 Section 4. Twoway Radio 7135 4/3/14
555 4/3/14 Communications Failure 7136 4/3/14
556 4/3/14 641 4/3/14 7137 4/3/14
557 4/3/14 642 4/3/14 7138 4/3/14
558 4/3/14 7139 4/3/14
7140 4/3/14
Section 6. National Security 7141 4/3/14
Section 5. Aircraft Rescue
and Interception Procedures and Fire Fighting 7142 7/24/14
561 7/24/14 Communications 7143 4/3/14
562 7/24/14 651 4/3/14 7144 1/8/15
563 7/24/14 652 4/3/14 7145 4/3/14
564 4/3/14 7146 4/3/14
565 4/3/14 7147 4/3/14
566 4/3/14 Chapter 7. Safety of Flight 7148 4/3/14
567 4/3/14 7149 4/3/14
568 4/3/14 7150 4/3/14
711 4/3/14
569 4/3/14 7151 4/3/14
712 4/3/14
5610 4/3/14 7152 4/3/14
713 1/8/15
7153 4/3/14
714 7/24/14
7154 4/3/14
Chapter 6. Emergency 715 1/8/15
716 1/8/15
7156 4/3/14
Section 1. General 717 1/8/15
7157 4/3/14
611 4/3/14 718 1/8/15
7158 4/3/14
719 1/8/15
7159 4/3/14
7110 4/3/14

1/8/15 AIM
Checklist of Pages
7160 7/24/14 7511 4/3/14 1012 4/3/14

7161 4/3/14 7512 4/3/14 1013 4/3/14
7162 4/3/14 7513 7/24/14 1014 4/3/14
7163 4/3/14 7514 7/24/14 1015 4/3/14
7164 4/3/14 1016 4/3/14
7165 4/3/14 Section 6. Safety, Accident, 1017 4/3/14
7166 4/3/14 and Hazard Reports
7167 4/3/14 761 4/3/14 Section 2. Special Operations
7168 4/3/14 762 4/3/14 1021 4/3/14
7169 4/3/14 763 7/24/14 1022 4/3/14
7170 4/3/14 1023 4/3/14
7171 4/3/14 Chapter 8. Medical Facts 1024 4/3/14
7172 4/3/14 for Pilots 1025 4/3/14
Section 1. Fitness for Flight 1026 4/3/14
Section 2. Altimeter Setting 811 4/3/14 1027 4/3/14
Procedures 812 4/3/14 1028 4/3/14
721 4/3/14 813 4/3/14 1029 4/3/14
722 4/3/14 814 4/3/14 10210 4/3/14
723 1/8/15 815 4/3/14 10211 4/3/14
724 4/3/14 816 4/3/14 10212 4/3/14
817 4/3/14 10213 4/3/14
Section 3. Wake Turbulence 818 4/3/14 10214 4/3/14
731 4/3/14 819 4/3/14 10215 4/3/14
732 1/8/15 10216 4/3/14
733 4/3/14 Chapter 9. Aeronautical 10217 4/3/14
734 4/3/14 Charts and Related
735 4/3/14 Publications Appendices
736 4/3/14 Section 1. Types of Charts Appendix 11 4/3/14
737 4/3/14 Available Env N/A
738 4/3/14 911 1/8/15 Appendix 21 4/3/14
912 1/8/15 Appendix 31 4/3/14
Section 4. Bird Hazards and 913 1/8/15 Appendix 32 4/3/14
Flight Over National Refuges, 914 1/8/15 Appendix 33 4/3/14
Parks, and Forests 915 1/8/15 Appendix 34 4/3/14
741 4/3/14 916 1/8/15 Appendix 35 4/3/14
742 4/3/14 917 1/8/15
918 1/8/15
Section 5. Potential Flight 919 1/8/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
Hazards 9110 1/8/15 PCG1 1/8/15
751 4/3/14 9111 1/8/15 PCG2 7/24/14
752 4/3/14 9112 1/8/15 PCG A1 7/24/14
753 4/3/14 9113 1/8/15 PCG A2 7/24/14
754 4/3/14 PCG A3 7/24/14
755 4/3/14 Chapter 10. Helicopter PCG A4 7/24/14
756 4/3/14 Operations PCG A5 7/24/14
757 4/3/14
Section 1. Helicopter IFR PGC A6 7/24/14
758 4/3/14 Operations PCG A7 7/24/14
759 4/3/14 1011 4/3/14 PCG A8 7/24/14
7510 4/3/14

AIM 1/8/15
Checklist of Pages
PCG A9 7/24/14 PCG J1 7/24/14 PCG T2 7/24/14

PCG A10 7/24/14 PCG K1 7/24/14 PCG T3 7/24/14
PCG A11 1/8/15 PCG L1 7/24/14 PCG T4 7/24/14
PCG A12 1/8/15 PCG L2 7/24/14 PCG T5 7/24/14
PCG A13 1/8/15 PCG L3 7/24/14 PCG T6 7/24/14
PCG A14 1/8/15 PCG M1 7/24/14 PCG T7 7/24/14
PCG A15 1/8/15 PCG M2 7/24/14 PCG T8 7/24/14
PCG A16 1/8/15 PCG M3 7/24/14 PCG U1 7/24/14
PCG B1 7/24/14 PCG M4 7/24/14 PCG V1 7/24/14
PCG B2 7/24/14 PCG M5 7/24/14 PCG V2 7/24/14
PCG C1 7/24/14 PCG M6 7/24/14 PCG V3 7/24/14
PCG C2 7/24/14 PCG N1 7/24/14 PCG V4 7/24/14
PCG C3 7/24/14 PCG N2 7/24/14 PCG W1 7/24/14
PCG C4 1/8/15 PCG N3 7/24/14 PCG W2 7/24/14
PCG C5 1/8/15 PCG N4 7/24/14
PCG C6 1/8/15 PCG O1 7/24/14
PCG C7 1/8/15 PCG O2 7/24/14 Index
PCG C8 1/8/15 PCG O3 7/24/14 I1 1/8/15
PCG C9 1/8/15 PCG O4 7/24/14 I2 1/8/15
PCG C10 7/24/14 PCG P1 7/24/14 I3 1/8/15
PCG D1 7/24/14 PCG P2 7/24/14 I4 1/8/15
PCG D2 1/8/15 PCG P3 7/24/14 I5 1/8/15
PCG D3 1/8/15 PCG P4 7/24/14 I6 1/8/15
PCG D4 1/8/15 PCG P5 7/24/14 I7 1/8/15
PCG E1 7/24/14 PCG Q1 7/24/14 I8 1/8/15
PCG E2 7/24/14 PCG R1 7/24/14 I9 1/8/15
PCG F1 7/24/14 PCG R2 7/24/14 I10 1/8/15
PCG F2 7/24/14 PCG R3 7/24/14 I11 1/8/15
PCG F3 7/24/14 PCG R4 7/24/14 I12 1/8/15
PCG F4 7/24/14 PCG R5 7/24/14 I13 1/8/15
PCG F5 7/24/14 PCG R6 7/24/14
PCG F6 7/24/14 PCG R7 7/24/14
PCG G1 7/24/14 PCG R8 7/24/14 Back Cover N/A
PCG G2 7/24/14 PCG S1 7/24/14
PCG H1 7/24/14 PCG S2 7/24/14
PCG H2 7/24/14 PCG S3 7/24/14
PCG H3 7/24/14 PCG S4 7/24/14
PCG I1 7/24/14 PCG S5 7/24/14
PCG I2 7/24/14 PCG S6 7/24/14
PCG I3 7/24/14 PCG S7 7/24/14
PCG I4 7/24/14 PCG S8 7/24/14
PCG I5 7/24/14 PCG T1 7/24/14

U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION
MANUAL
Change 1
July 24, 2014
DO NOT DESTROY
BASIC DATED
APRIL 3, 2014
7/24/14 AIM

Effective: July 24, 2014
a. 113. VHF OmniDirectional Range f. 4122. Airport Reservation Operations

(VOR) and Special Traffic Management Programs
This change reflects the fact that some VOR receivers This change updates the contact information for the
are capable of identifying the VOR. Airport Reservation Office since the Command
Centers relocation to Vint Hill, VA.
b. 119. Instrument Landing System (ILS) g. 433. Traffic Patterns
For those facilities that have had the middle marker This change adds a graphic that depicts headwind,
decommissioned, this change identifies a distance crosswind, and tailwind calculation charts.
(1/2 mile) from the approach end of the runway for h. 469. Contingency Actions: Weather En-
protection of the Localizer Critical Area. This change counters and Aircraft System Failures
also removes MLS from the required phraseology to
advise pilots that the ILS Critical Area is not This change is made to clarify to operators that they
protected. may request deviations per Title 14, of the Code of
Federal Regulations (14 CFR), Part 91.180 (d) after
c. 1111. Microwave Landing System (MLS) entry into Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum
(RVSM) airspace and not before.
This change removes the reference to the ILS service i. 511. Preflight Preparation
protection date of 2010.
This change reflects the cancellation of FAA Orders
d. 1114. User Reports Requested on 7230.16C, Pilot Education ProgramOperation Rain
NAVAID or Global Navigation Satellite System Check, and 7230.17, Pilot Education Program
(GNSS) Performance or Interference Operation Takeoff.
456. Traffic Information Service (TIS) j. 533. Additional Reports
457. Automatic Dependent Surveillance
Broadcast (ADSB) Services This change harmonizes the AIM/Aeronautical
458. Traffic Information Service (TIS) Information Publication guidance with the most
Broadcast (TISB) recent update to International Civil Aviation
7111. Flight Information Services (FIS) Organization (ICAO) Annex 2, Rules of the Air,
Paragraph 3.6.2.2.
FAA Form 87405, Safety Improvement Report, is k. 543. Approach Control
no longer used to report malfunctions. Therefore, 5426. Landing Priority
references to this form have been deleted.
This change removes references to MLS and adds
e. 1121. Precision Approach Systems other references to include RNAV and GBAS Landing
than ILS, GLS, and MLS System (GLS) approaches.
215. Inrunway Lighting l. 545. Instrument Approach Procedure
234. Taxiway Markings Charts
235. Holding Position Markings
5412. Radar Monitoring of Instrument This change clarifies the pilots responsibility while
Approaches descending on the glidepath in dependent and
independent approaches. The content and graphics
This change removes Microwave Landing System within the Terminal Arrival Area section is also
(MLS) as an approach type. updated to bring it in line with new procedures and

AIM 7/24/14
terminology. In addition, this change provides an tion about the unique Flight Management System
explanation (both visually and verbally) as to why coding issues for SOIA.
circling minima may be lower than the LNAV/VNAV
p. 5417. Simultaneous Converging Instru-
minima on the same approach plate.
ment Approaches
m. 5413. ILS/MLS Approaches to Parallel This change broadens the requirements for conduct-
Runways ing converging approaches to include approaches
5414. Parallel ILS/MLS Approaches (De- other than ILS.
pendent)
q. 561. National Security
This change removes references to MLS and adds
references to include RNAV and GLS approaches. It This change now contains complete instructions
clarifies the runway spacing requirements for the use regarding Defense Visual Flight Rule position
of final monitor controller and PRM radar. It also reporting prior to Air Defense Identification Zone
includes a discussion of pilot procedures when penetration per 14 CFR 99.15.
conducting simultaneous (parallel) dependent opera- r. 7515. Avoid Flight in the Vicinity of
tions. Thermal Plumes (Smoke Stacks and Cooling
Towers)
n. 5415. Simultaneous Parallel ILS/RNAV/
GLS Approaches (Independent) This change updates the terminology and provides
more detail regarding the associated hazards of
This change clarifies the runway spacing requirement exhaust plumes.
when No Transgression Zone (NTZ) monitoring is
required. It also clarifies monitor controller proced- s. 764. Unidentified Flying Object (UFO)
ures during NTZ monitoring of simultaneous Reports
(parallel) independent approaches. This change removes outdated contact information
o. 5416. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS/ regarding the collection and/or reporting of UFO
RNAV/GLS PRM Approaches (Independent) and phenomena.
Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches t. Entire publication.
(SOIA)
Editorial/format changes were made where neces-
This change adds RNAV PRM and GLS PRM sary. Revision bars were not used when changes are
approach discussions. It includes specific informa- insignificant in nature.

4/3/14 AIM

Effective: April 3, 2014
a. 113. VHF OmniDirectional Range g. 528. Instrument Departure Procedures

(VOR) (DP) Obstacle Departure Procedures and
Standard Instrument Departures (SID)
This change reflects the fact that some VOR receivers 541. Standard Terminal Arrival(STAR),
are capable of identifying the VOR. Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR, and Flight
b. 1118. Global Positioning System (GPS) Management System Procedures (FMSP) for
Arrivals
This change explains how pilots should use a
This change incorporates updated guidance on
Computer Navigation Fix (CNF) in Area Navigation
resumption of published altitude and speed
(RNAV) system operations.
restrictions, guidance on what is expected of aircrews
c. 1118. Global Positioning System (GPS) when issued a climb via clearance, and clarifies the
528. Instrument Departure Procedures expectation that pilots will advise the receiving
(DP) Obstacle Departure Procedures and controller of the altitude being vacated and the
Standard Instrument Departures (SID) altitude they are climbing to when changing
541. Standard Terminal Arrival(STAR), frequencies.
Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR, and Flight h. 532. Position Reporting
Management System Procedures (FMSP) for
Arrivals This change clarifies guidance on reporting
requirements in the Oceanic environment.
This change updates guidance on the impact of i. 545. Instrument Approach Procedure
magnetic variation on RNAV systems. Charts
d. 352. Military Training Routes This change updates guidance to reflect the fact that
the initial approach fix (IAF) waypoint is not an IAF,
This change updates route charting guidance and
but an intermediate fix (IF). This change also updates
publishing information.
guidance on descent below the minimum descent
e. 4412. Speed Adjustments altitude (MDA).
559. Speed Adjustments j. 5413. ILS/MLS Approaches to Parallel
This change clarifies existing speed termination Runways
procedures, adds the phraseology resume published This change was made to clarify the distance
speed, and redefines the phraseology resume requirements and make the definition apply to all
normal speed. applicable approach types, not just ILS.
f. 518. Flight Plan (FAA Form 72331) k. 5414. Parallel ILS/MLS Approaches (De-
Domestic IFR Flights pendent)
534. Airways and Route Systems This change adds references to include RNAV and
GNSS Landing System (GLS) approaches.
This change implements revised air traffic control
(ATC) surveillance requirements for Global l. 5415. Simultaneous Parallel ILS/MLS
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)equipped Approaches (Independent)
aircraft operating on RNAV ATS routes, random and This change adds references to include RNAV and
on random (impromptu) single pointtopoint GLS approaches. The upper limit of 9,000 feet
RNAV routes in controlled airspace, excluding runway spacing for simultaneous parallel ILS/
oceanic airspace. RNAV/GLS approaches was also added.

AIM 4/3/14
m. 5416. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS p. 713. Use of Aviation Weather Products
PRM and RNAV (GPS) PRM Approaches 7111. Flight Information Services (FIS)
(Independent) and Simultaneous Offset Instru-
This change updates information and guidance to
ment Approaches (SOIA)
modify outdated information, reflect policy and
terminology changes, and address changing techno-
This change expands the use of ILS PRM and logies.
localizer type directional aid (LDA) PRM approaches
to also mean RNAV PRM and GLS PRM approaches. q. 711. National Weather Service Aviation
Explanation of FMC coding of the SOIA offset Products
approach is also added. Further, this change updates 716. Inflight Aviation Weather
guidance regarding runway separation when high Advisories
update PRM radar is required to conduct simultan- 7114. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance
eous close parallel approaches. Assistance
7131. International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Weather Formats
n. 5415. Simultaneous Parallel ILS/MLS
Approaches (Independent) This change updates information and guidance at the
5416. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS request of the National Weather Service (NWS) as the
PRM and RNAV (GPS) PRM Approaches information was outdated.
(Independent) and Simultaneous Offset Instru- r. 7114. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance
ment Approaches (SOIA) Assistance
5417. Simultaneous Converging Instru-
ment Approaches This change was added to expand the meaning of the
phrase when able when used in conjunction with a
Microwave Landing System (MLS) is no longer an clearance to deviate around weather. The clearance to
approach option and was deleted. deviate is clarified to allow maneuvering within the
lateral limits of the deviation clearance.
o. 561. National Security s. 7129. Thunderstorm Flying
This change updates information and guidance to
This change adds the Title 14 of the Code of Federal reflect new information in Advisory Circular 00-24C,
Regulations Section 99.7 (14 CFR 99.7) description Thunderstorms, published on February 19, 2013.
of Special Security Instructions and the
t. Entire publication.
14 CFR 99.3 definition of Defense Area. In
addition, the Emergency Security Control of Editorial/format changes were made where neces-
Air Traffic (ESCAT) overview has been retitled and sary. Revision bars were not used when changes are
moved under a new subparagraph. insignificant in nature.

7/24/14 AIM
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4/3/14 AIM
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ATC Process and Publications, AJV8
Attn: AIM Editor, Room 636F
800 Independence Avenue, SW.
Washington, DC 20591
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mailed to:
Federal Aviation Administration

Mission Support Services
ATC Process and Publications, AJV8
Attn: AIM Editor, Room 636F
800 Independence Avenue, SW.
Washington, DC 20591
To submit comments electronically, please email: 9AWAATPUBS@faa.gov
Notice to Editor
The following comments/corrections are submitted concerning the information contained in:
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Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
The Federal Aviation Administration is responsible and the establishment, operation, and maintenance of
for insuring the safe, efficient, and secure use of the a civilmilitary common system of air traffic control
Nations airspace, by military as well as civil (ATC) and navigation facilities; research and
aviation, for promoting safety in air commerce, for development in support of the fostering of a national
encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, system of airports, promulgation of standards and
including new aviation technology, and for support- specifications for civil airports, and administration of
ing the requirements of national defense. Federal grantsinaid for developing public airports;
various joint and cooperative activities with the
The activities required to carry out these responsibili- Department of Defense; and technical assistance
ties include: safety regulations; airspace management (under State Department auspices) to other countries.
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures
This manual is designed to provide the aviation operational publications listed here. It also includes
community with basic flight information and ATC current Flight Data Center NOTAMs, which are
procedures for use in the National Airspace System regulatory in nature, issued to establish restrictions to
(NAS) of the United States. An international version flight or to amend charts or published Instrument
called the Aeronautical Information Publication Approach Procedures. This publication is issued
contains parallel information, as well as specific every four weeks and is available through subscrip-
information on the international airports for use by tion from the Superintendent of Documents.
the international community.
This manual contains the fundamentals required in The Airport/Facility Directory, the Alaska
order to fly in the United States NAS. It also contains Supplement, and the Pacific Chart Supplement
items of interest to pilots concerning health and These publications contain information on airports,
medical facts, factors affecting flight safety, a communications, navigation aids, instrument landing
pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the ATC systems, VOR receiver check points, preferred
System, and information on safety, accident, and routes, Flight Service Station/Weather Service
hazard reporting. telephone numbers, Air Route Traffic Control Center
(ARTCC) frequencies, parttime surface areas, and
This manual is complemented by other operational
various other pertinent special notices essential to air
publications which are available via separate
navigation. These publications are available through
subscriptions. These publications are:
a network of FAA chart agents primarily located at or
Notices to Airmen publication - A publication near major civil airports. A listing of products,
containing current Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) dates of latest editions and agents is available on
which are considered essential to the safety of flight the AeroNav website at:
as well as supplemental data affecting the other http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav.
Publication Schedule
Cutoff Date Effective Date
Basic or Change
for Submission of Publication
Basic Manual 8/22/13 4/3/14
Change 1 4/3/14 7/24/14
Change 2 7/24/14 1/8/15
Change 3 1/8/15 6/25/15
Basic Manual 6/25/15 12/10/15
Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures

4/3/14 AIM
Flight Information Publication Policy
The following is in essence, the statement issued by c. The fact that the agency under one particular
the FAA Administrator and published in the situation or another may or may not furnish in-
December 10, 1964, issue of the Federal Register, formation does not serve as a precedent of the
concerning the FAA policy as pertaining to the type agencys responsibility to the aviation community;
of information that will be published as NOTAMs neither does it give assurance that other information
and in the Aeronautical Information Manual. of the same or similar nature will be advertised, nor,
does it guarantee that any and all information
a. It is a pilots inherent responsibility to be alert known to the agency will be advertised.
at all times for and in anticipation of all circum- d. This publication, while not regulatory, pro-
stances, situations, and conditions affecting the safe vides information which reflects examples of oper-
operation of the aircraft. For example, a pilot should ating techniques and procedures which may be re-
expect to find air traffic at any time or place. At or quirements in other federal publications or
near both civil and military airports and in the vicin- regulations. It is made available solely to assist pi-
ity of known training areas, a pilot should expect lots in executing their responsibilities required by
concentrated air traffic and realize concentrations other publications.
of air traffic are not limited to these places. Consistent with the foregoing, it is the policy of the
Federal Aviation Administration to furnish in-
b. It is the general practice of the agency to adver- formation only when, in the opinion of the agency,
tise by NOTAM or other flight information publica- a unique situation should be advertised and not to
tions such information it may deem appropriate; in- furnish routine information such as concentrations
formation which the agency may from time to time of air traffic, either civil or military. The
make available to pilots is solely for the purpose of Aeronautical Information Manual will not contain
assisting them in executing their regulatory respon- informative items concerning everyday circum-
sibilities. Such information serves the aviation stances that pilots should, either by good practices
community as a whole and not pilots individually. or regulation, expect to encounter or avoid.
Flight Information Publication Policy

4/3/14 AIM
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

Code of Federal Regulations and Advisory Circulars
Code of Federal Regulations - The FAA publishes the NOTE

Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) to make readily The above information relating to CFRs and ACs is
available to the aviation community the regulatory extracted from AC 002. Many of the CFRs and ACs listed
requirements placed upon them. These regulations in AC 002 are crossreferenced in the AIM. These
are sold as individual parts by the Superintendent of regulatory and nonregulatory references cover a wide
range of subjects and are a source of detailed information
Documents.
of value to the aviation community. AC 002 is issued
The more frequently amended parts are sold on annually and can be obtained freeofcharge from:
subscription service with subscribers receiving
changes automatically as issued. Less active parts are U.S. Department of Transportation
sold on a singlesale basis. Changes to single-sale Subsequent Distribution Office
parts will be sold separately as issued. Information Ardmore East Business Center
3341 Q 75th Avenue
concerning these changes will be furnished by the
Landover, MD 20785
FAA through its Status of Federal Aviation Telephone: 3013224961
Regulations, AC 0044.
Advisory Circulars - The FAA issues Advisory AC 002 may also be found at: http://www.faa.gov under
Circulars (ACs) to inform the aviation public in a Advisory Circulars.
systematic way of nonregulatory material. Unless
incorporated into a regulation by reference, the
External References - All references to Advisory
contents of an advisory circular are not binding on the
Circulars and other FAA publications in the
public. Advisory Circulars are issued in a numbered
Aeronautical Information Manual include the FAA
subject system corresponding to the subject areas of
Advisory Circular or Order identification numbers
the Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) (Title 14,
(when available). However, due to varied publication
Chapter 1, FAA).
dates, the basic publication letter is not included.
AC 002, Advisory Circular Checklist and Status of
Other FAA Publications, contains advisory circulars EXAMPLE
that are for sale as well as those distributed FAAO JO 7110.65M, Air Traffic Control, is referenced as
freeofcharge by the FAA. FAAO JO 7110.65.
Code of Federal Regulations and Advisory Circulars

6/25/15 AIM
Table of Contents
Chapter 1.Air Navigation

Section 1.Navigation Aids
Paragraph Page
1-1-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-1
1-1-2.Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-1
1-1-3.VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-1
1-1-4.VOR Receiver Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-2
1-1-5.Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-3
1-1-6.VHF Omni-directional Range/Tactical Air Navigation (VORTAC) . . . . . . . . . 1-1-3
1-1-7.Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-3
1-1-8.Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-4
1-1-9.Instrument Landing System (ILS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-7
1-1-10.Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-11
1-1-11.NAVAID Identifier Removal During Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-14
1-1-12.NAVAIDs with Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-14
1-1-13.User Reports Requested on NAVAID or Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS) Performance or Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-14
1-1-14.LORAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-14
1-1-15.Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), Inertial Navigation System (INS), and
Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-15
1-1-16.Doppler Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-15
1-1-17.Global Positioning System (GPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-15
1-1-18.Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-28
1-1-19.Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS) . . . . . . 1-1-32
1-1-20.Precision Approach Systems other than ILS and GLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1-33
Section 2.Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation

(RNAV)
1-2-1.Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation (RNAV) . . . . . . 1-2-1
1-2-2.Required Navigation Performance (RNP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2-4
1-2-3.Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems on Conventional
Procedures and Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2-6
Chapter 2.Aeronautical Lighting and

Other Airport Visual Aids
Section 1.Airport Lighting Aids
2-1-1.Approach Light Systems (ALS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-1
2-1-2.Visual Glideslope Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-1
2-1-3.Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-6
2-1-4.Runway Edge Light Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-6
2-1-5.In-runway Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-6
2-1-6.Runway Status Light (RWSL) System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-7
2-1-7.StandAlone Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS) . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-10
2-1-8.Control of Lighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-11
2-1-9.Pilot Control of Airport Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-11
Table of Contents i
AIM 6/25/15
Paragraph Page
2-1-10.Airport/Heliport Beacons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-14
2-1-11.Taxiway Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-15
Section 2.Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting

2-2-1.Aeronautical Light Beacons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2-1
2-2-2.Code Beacons and Course Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2-1
2-2-3.Obstruction Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2-1
Section 3.Airport Marking Aids and Signs

2-3-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-1
2-3-2.Airport Pavement Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-1
2-3-3.Runway Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-1
2-3-4.Taxiway Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-7
2-3-5.Holding Position Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-12
2-3-6.Other Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-16
2-3-7.Airport Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-19
2-3-8.Mandatory Instruction Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-20
2-3-9.Location Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-23
2-3-10.Direction Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-25
2-3-11.Destination Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-28
2-3-12.Information Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-29
2-3-13.Runway Distance Remaining Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-29
2-3-14.Aircraft Arresting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-30
2-3-15.Security Identifications Display Area (Airport Ramp Area) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3-31
Chapter 3.Airspace
Section 1.General
3-1-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-2.General Dimensions of Airspace Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-3.Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-4.Basic VFR Weather Minimums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-5.VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-2
Section 2.Controlled Airspace

3-2-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2-1
3-2-2.Class A Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2-2
3-2-3.Class B Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2-2
3-2-4.Class C Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2-4
3-2-5.Class D Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2-8
3-2-6.Class E Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2-9
Section 3.Class G Airspace

3-3-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3-1
3-3-2.VFR Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3-1
3-3-3.IFR Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3-1
ii Table of Contents
6/25/15 AIM
Section 4.Special Use Airspace

Paragraph Page
3-4-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-1
3-4-2.Prohibited Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-1
3-4-3.Restricted Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-1
3-4-4.Warning Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-1
3-4-5.Military Operations Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-2
3-4-6.Alert Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-2
3-4-7.Controlled Firing Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-2
3-4-8.National Security Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4-2
Section 5.Other Airspace Areas

3-5-1.Airport Advisory/Information Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5-1
3-5-2.Military Training Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5-1
3-5-3.Temporary Flight Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5-2
3-5-4.Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5-5
3-5-5.Published VFR Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5-5
3-5-6.Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5-9
Chapter 4.Air Traffic Control
Section 1.Services Available to Pilots

4-1-1.Air Route Traffic Control Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-1
4-1-2.Control Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-1
4-1-3.Flight Service Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-1
4-1-4.Recording and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-1
4-1-5.Communications Release of IFR Aircraft Landing at an Airport Without
an Operating Control Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-1
4-1-6.Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-1
4-1-7.Operation Takeoff and Operation Raincheck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-2
4-1-8.Approach Control Service for VFR Arriving Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-2
4-1-9.Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers . . . . 4-1-2
4-1-10.IFR Approaches/Ground Vehicle Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-6
4-1-11.Designated UNICOM/MULTICOM Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-6
4-1-12.Use of UNICOM for ATC Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-7
4-1-13.Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-7
4-1-14.Automatic Flight Information Service (AFIS) - Alaska FSSs Only . . . . . . . . . 4-1-8
4-1-15.Radar Traffic Information Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-8
4-1-16.Safety Alert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-10
4-1-17.Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-11
4-1-18.Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-12
4-1-19.Tower En Route Control (TEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-14
4-1-20.Transponder Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-15
4-1-21.Hazardous Area Reporting Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-18
4-1-22.Airport Reservation Operations and Special Traffic Management Programs . 4-1-21
4-1-23.Requests for Waivers and Authorizations from Title 14, Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-23
4-1-24.Weather System Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1-23
Table of Contents iii

AIM 6/25/15
Section 2.Radio Communications Phraseology

and Techniques
Paragraph Page
4-2-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-1
4-2-2.Radio Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-1
4-2-3.Contact Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-1
4-2-4.Aircraft Call Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-3
4-2-5.Description of Interchange or Leased Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-4
4-2-6.Ground Station Call Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-4
4-2-7.Phonetic Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-5
4-2-8.Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-6
4-2-9.Altitudes and Flight Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-6
4-2-10.Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-6
4-2-11.Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-6
4-2-12.Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-6
4-2-13.Communications with Tower when Aircraft Transmitter or Receiver or
Both are Inoperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-7
4-2-14.Communications for VFR Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2-8
Section 3.Airport Operations

4-3-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-1
4-3-2.Airports with an Operating Control Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-1
4-3-3.Traffic Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-2
4-3-4.Visual Indicators at Airports Without an Operating Control Tower . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-6
4-3-5.Unexpected Maneuvers in the Airport Traffic Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-7
4-3-6.Use of Runways/Declared Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-7
4-3-7.Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-12
4-3-8.Braking Action Reports and Advisories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-12
4-3-9.Runway Friction Reports and Advisories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-12
4-3-10.Intersection Takeoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-13
4-3-11.Pilot Responsibilities When Conducting Land and Hold Short
Operations (LAHSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-14
4-3-12.Low Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-16
4-3-13.Traffic Control Light Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-16
4-3-14.Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-17
4-3-15.Gate Holding Due to Departure Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-18
4-3-16.VFR Flights in Terminal Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-18
4-3-17.VFR Helicopter Operations at Controlled Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-18
4-3-18.Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-20
4-3-19.Taxi During Low Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-21
4-3-20.Exiting the Runway After Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-22
4-3-21.Practice Instrument Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-22
4-3-22.Option Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-24
4-3-23.Use of Aircraft Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-24
4-3-24.Flight Inspection/`Flight Check' Aircraft in Terminal Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-25
4-3-25.Hand Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-25
4-3-26.Operations at Uncontrolled Airports With Automated Surface Observing
System (ASOS)/Automated Weather Sensor System(AWSS)/Automated
Weather Observing System (AWOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-29
iv Table of Contents
6/25/15 AIM
Section 4.ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation

Paragraph Page
4-4-1.Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-1
4-4-2.Clearance Prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-1
4-4-3.Clearance Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-1
4-4-4.Amended Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-2
4-4-5.Coded Departure Route (CDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-3
4-4-6.Special VFR Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-3
4-4-7.Pilot Responsibility upon Clearance Issuance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-4
4-4-8.IFR Clearance VFR-on-top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-4
4-4-9.VFR/IFR Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-5
4-4-10.Adherence to Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-5
4-4-11.IFR Separation Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-7
4-4-12.Speed Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-7
4-4-13.Runway Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-9
4-4-14.Visual Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-10
4-4-15.Use of Visual Clearing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-10
4-4-16.Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS I & II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-11
4-4-17.Traffic Information Service (TIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-11
Section 5.Surveillance Systems

4-5-1.Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-1
4-5-2.Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-2
4-5-3.Surveillance Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-7
4-5-4.Precision Approach Radar (PAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-7
4-5-5.Airport Surface Detection Equipment - Model X (ASDE-X) . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-7
4-5-6.Traffic Information Service (TIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-8
4-5-7.Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) Services . . . . . . . . . 4-5-14
4-5-8.Traffic Information Service- Broadcast (TIS-B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-17
4-5-9.Flight Information Service- Broadcast (FIS-B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-18
4-5-10.Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Rebroadcast (ADS-R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5-20
Section 6.Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical

Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore
Airspace and the San Juan FIR
4-6-1.Applicability and RVSM Mandate (Date/Time and Area) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-1
4-6-2.Flight Level Orientation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-1
4-6-3.Aircraft and Operator Approval Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and
Databases for Aircraft and Operator Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-2
4-6-4.Flight Planning into RVSM Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-3
4-6-5.Pilot RVSM Operating Practices and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-3
4-6-6.Guidance on Severe Turbulence and Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) . . . . . . . 4-6-4
4-6-7.Guidance on Wake Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-5
4-6-8.Pilot/Controller Phraseology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-6
4-6-9.Contingency Actions:Weather Encounters and Aircraft System Failures that
Occur After Entry into RVSM Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-8
4-6-10.Procedures for Accommodation of Non-RVSM Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-10
4-6-11.Non-RVSM Aircraft Requesting Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels
Above RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6-11
Table of Contents v
AIM 6/25/15
Section 7.Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM

Lateral Separation Initiative
Paragraph Page
4-7-1.Introduction and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7-1
4-7-2.Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative Web Page: Policy,
Procedures and Guidance for Operators and Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7-1
4-7-3.Lateral Separation Minima Applied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7-1
4-7-4.Operation on Routes on the periphery of the Gulf of Mexico CTAs . . . . . . . . . 4-7-2
4-7-5.Provisions for Accommodation of NonRNP10 Aircraft (Aircraft Not
Authorized RNP 10 or RNP 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7-2
4-7-6.Operator Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7-2
4-7-7.RNP 10 or RNP 4 Authorization: Policy and Procedures for Aircraft and
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7-2
4-7-8.Flight Planning Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7-4
4-7-9.Pilot and Dispatcher Procedures: Basic and Inflight Contingency Procedures . 4-7-4
Chapter 5.Air Traffic Procedures
Section 1.Preflight
5-1-1.Preflight Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-1
5-1-2.Follow IFR Procedures Even When Operating VFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-2
5-1-3.Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-2
5-1-4.Flight Plan - VFR Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-7
5-1-5.Operational Information System (OIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-10
5-1-6.Flight Plan- Defense VFR (DVFR) Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-10
5-1-7.Composite Flight Plan (VFR/IFR Flights) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-11
5-1-8.Flight Plan (FAA Form 7233-1)- Domestic IFR Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-11
5-1-9.International Flight Plan (FAA Form 7233-4)- IFR Flights (For Domestic
or International Flights) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-17
5-1-10.IFR Operations to High Altitude Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-27
5-1-11.Flights Outside the U.S. and U.S. Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-28
5-1-12.Change in Flight Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-30
5-1-13.Change in Proposed Departure Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-30
5-1-14.Closing VFR/DVFR Flight Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-30
5-1-15.Canceling IFR Flight Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-30
5-1-16.RNAV and RNP Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1-30
Section 2.Departure Procedures

5-2-1.Pretaxi Clearance Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2-1
5-2-2.Pre-departure Clearance Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2-1
5-2-3.Taxi Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2-1
5-2-4.Line Up and Wait (LUAW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2-1
5-2-5.Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance (Cleared. . .as Filed) Procedures . . . . . 5-2-2
5-2-6.Departure Restrictions, Clearance Void Times, Hold for Release, and
Release Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2-4
5-2-7.Departure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2-5
5-2-8.Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) - Obstacle Departure Procedures
(ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures (SID) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2-5
vi Table of Contents
6/25/15 AIM
Section 3.En Route Procedures

Paragraph Page
5-3-1.ARTCC Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-1
5-3-2.Position Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-3
5-3-3.Additional Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-4
5-3-4.Airways and Route Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-5
5-3-5.Airway or Route Course Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-7
5-3-6.Changeover Points (COPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-8
5-3-7.Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-8
5-3-8.Holding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3-8
Section 4.Arrival Procedures

5-4-1.Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-1
5-4-2.Local Flow Traffic Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-3
5-4-3.Approach Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-3
5-4-4.Advance Information on Instrument Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-4
5-4-5.Instrument Approach Procedure Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-5
5-4-6.Approach Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-24
5-4-7.Instrument Approach Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-26
5-4-8.Special Instrument Approach Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-27
5-4-9.Procedure Turn and Hold-in-lieu of Procedure Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-28
5-4-10.Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-31
5-4-11.Radar Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-34
5-4-12.Radar Monitoring of Instrument Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-35
5-4-13.ILS Approaches to Parallel Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-36
5-4-14.Parallel ILS Approaches (Dependent)
(See FIG 5-4-19.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-38
5-4-15.Simultaneous (Parallel) Independent ILS/RNAV/GLS Approaches
(See FIG 5-4-20.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-40
5-4-16.Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS PRM/RNAV PRM/GLS PRM Approaches
and Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)
(See FIG 5-4-21.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-42
5-4-17.Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-49
5-4-18.RNP AR Instrument Approach Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-50
5-4-19.Side-step Maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-52
5-4-20.Approach and Landing Minimums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-52
5-4-21.Missed Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-55
5-4-22.Use of Enhanced Flight Vision Systems (EFVS) on Instrument Approaches . 5-4-58
5-4-23.Visual Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-60
5-4-24.Charted Visual Flight Procedure (CVFP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-61
5-4-25.Contact Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-62
5-4-26.Landing Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-62
5-4-27.Overhead Approach Maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4-62
Section 5.Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

5-5-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-1
5-5-2.Air Traffic Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-1
5-5-3.Contact Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-2
5-5-4.Instrument Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-2
5-5-5.Missed Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-2
5-5-6.Radar Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-3
Table of Contents vii

AIM 6/25/15
Paragraph Page
5-5-7.Safety Alert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-3
5-5-8.See and Avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-4
5-5-9.Speed Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-4
5-5-10.Traffic Advisories (Traffic Information) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-4
5-5-11.Visual Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-5
5-5-12.Visual Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-5
5-5-13.VFRontop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-6
5-5-14.Instrument Departures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-6
5-5-15.Minimum Fuel Advisory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-7
5-5-16.RNAV and RNP Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-7
Section 6.National Security and Interception Procedures

5-6-1.National Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6-1
5-6-2.Interception Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6-2
5-6-3.Law Enforcement Operations by Civil and Military Organizations . . . . . . . . . . 5-6-6
5-6-4.Interception Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6-7
5-6-5.ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas
(See FIG 5-6-3.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6-9
5-6-6.Visual Warning System (VWS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6-10
Chapter 6.Emergency Procedures

Section 1.General
6-1-1.Pilot Responsibility and Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-1
6-1-2.Emergency Condition- Request Assistance Immediately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-1
Section 2.Emergency Services Available to Pilots

6-2-1.Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in Difficulty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-1
6-2-2.Transponder Emergency Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-1
6-2-3.Intercept and Escort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-1
6-2-4.Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-2
6-2-5.FAA K-9 Explosives Detection Team Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
6-2-6.Search and Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-4
Section 3.Distress and Urgency Procedures

6-3-1.Distress and Urgency Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-1
6-3-2.Obtaining Emergency Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-2
6-3-3.Ditching Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
6-3-4.Special Emergency (Air Piracy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-6
6-3-5.Fuel Dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
Section 4.Twoway Radio Communications Failure

6-4-1.Twoway Radio Communications Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-1
6-4-2.Transponder Operation During Twoway Communications Failure . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-2
6-4-3.Reestablishing Radio Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-2
viii Table of Contents

6/25/15 AIM
Section 5.Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications

Paragraph Page
6-5-1.Discrete Emergency Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-1
6-5-2.Radio Call Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-1
6-5-3.ARFF Emergency Hand Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-1
Chapter 7.Safety of Flight
Section 1.Meteorology
7-1-1.National Weather Service Aviation Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-1
7-1-2.FAA Weather Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-1
7-1-3.Use of Aviation Weather Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3
7-1-4.Preflight Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-5
7-1-5.En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-7
7-1-6.Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-8
7-1-7.Categorical Outlooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-18
7-1-8.Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-19
7-1-9.Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) (Alaska Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-19
7-1-10.Inflight Weather Broadcasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-19
7-1-11.Flight Information Services (FIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-22
7-1-12.Weather Observing Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-26
7-1-13.Weather Radar Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-34
7-1-14.ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-38
7-1-15.Runway Visual Range (RVR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-40
7-1-16.Reporting of Cloud Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-42
7-1-17.Reporting Prevailing Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-42
7-1-18.Estimating Intensity of Rain and Ice Pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-42
7-1-19.Estimating Intensity of Snow or Drizzle (Based on Visibility) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-43
7-1-20.Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-43
7-1-21.PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-44
7-1-22.Definitions of Inflight Icing Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-45
7-1-23.PIREPs Relating to Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-47
7-1-24.Wind Shear PIREPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-48
7-1-25.Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-48
7-1-26.Microbursts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-48
7-1-27.PIREPs Relating to Volcanic Ash Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-58
7-1-28.Thunderstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-58
7-1-29.Thunderstorm Flying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-59
7-1-30.Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather
Report (METAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-61
7-1-31.International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Weather Formats . . . . . . . 7-1-63
Section 2.Altimeter Setting Procedures

7-2-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-1
7-2-2.Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-1
7-2-3.Altimeter Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3
7-2-4.High Barometric Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-4
7-2-5.Low Barometric Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-4
Table of Contents ix
AIM 6/25/15
Section 3.Wake Turbulence

Paragraph Page
7-3-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-1
7-3-2.Vortex Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-1
7-3-3.Vortex Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-1
7-3-4.Vortex Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-2
7-3-5.Operations Problem Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-5
7-3-6.Vortex Avoidance Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-5
7-3-7.Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-6
7-3-8.Pilot Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-6
7-3-9.Air Traffic Wake Turbulence Separations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-7
Section 4.Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and
Forests
7-4-1.Migratory Bird Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-2.Reducing Bird Strike Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-3.Reporting Bird Strikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-4.Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-5.Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other Wildlife Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-2
7-4-6.Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas . 7-4-2
Section 5.Potential Flight Hazards

7-5-1.Accident Cause Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-1
7-5-2.VFR in Congested Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-1
7-5-3.Obstructions To Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-1
7-5-4.Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned Balloons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-2
7-5-5.Unmanned Aircraft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-2
7-5-6.Mountain Flying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-3
7-5-7.Use of Runway Half-way Signs at Unimproved Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-5
7-5-8.Seaplane Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-6
7-5-9.Flight Operations in Volcanic Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-7
7-5-10.Emergency Airborne Inspection of Other Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-8
7-5-11.Precipitation Static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-9
7-5-12.Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser)
Operations and Reporting Illumination of Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-10
7-5-13.Flying in Flat Light and White Out Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-11
7-5-14.Operations in Ground Icing Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-12
7-5-15.Avoid Flight in the Vicinity of Exhaust Plumes (Smoke Stacks and
Cooling Towers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-13
Section 6.Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports

7-6-1.Aviation Safety Reporting Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-1
7-6-2.Aircraft Accident and Incident Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-1
7-6-3.Near Midair Collision Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2
7-6-4.Unidentified Flying Object (UFO) Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-3
7-6-5.Safety Alerts For Operators (SAFO) and Information For Operators (InFO) . 7-6-3
x Table of Contents
6/25/15 AIM
Chapter 8.Medical Facts for Pilots
Section 1.Fitness for Flight

Paragraph Page
8-1-1.Fitness For Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-1
8-1-2.Effects of Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-3
8-1-3.Hyperventilation in Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-5
8-1-4.Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-5
8-1-5.Illusions in Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-5
8-1-6.Vision in Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
8-1-7.Aerobatic Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
8-1-8.Judgment Aspects of Collision Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
Chapter 9.Aeronautical Charts and

Related Publications
Section 1.Types of Charts Available

9-1-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-1
9-1-2.Obtaining Aeronautical Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-1
9-1-3.Selected Charts and Products Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-1
9-1-4.General Description of Each Chart Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-1
9-1-5.Where and How to Get Charts of Foreign Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-12
Chapter 10.Helicopter Operations
Section 1.Helicopter IFR Operations

10-1-1.Helicopter Flight Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-1
10-1-2.Helicopter Instrument Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-3
10-1-3.Helicopter Approach Procedures to VFR Heliports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-5
10-1-4.The Gulf of Mexico Grid System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-6
Section 2.Special Operations

10-2-1.Offshore Helicopter Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2-1
10-2-2.Helicopter Night VFR Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2-7
10-2-3.Landing Zone Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2-10
10-2-4.Emergency Medical Service (EMS) Multiple Helicopter Operations . . . . . . . . 10-2-16
Appendices
Appendix 1. Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1-1
Appendix 2. Volcanic Activity Reporting Form (VAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2-1
Appendix 3. Abbreviations/Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3-1
PILOT/CONTROLLER GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PCG-1

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
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Chapter 1. Air Navigation

Section 1. Navigation Aids
111. General d. Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that

may result in erroneous bearing information. Such
a. Various types of air navigation aids are in use disturbances result from such factors as lightning,
today, each serving a special purpose. These aids have precipitation static, etc. At night, radio beacons are
varied owners and operators, namely: the Federal vulnerable to interference from distant stations.
Aviation Administration (FAA), the military ser- Nearly all disturbances which affect the Automatic
vices, private organizations, individual states and Direction Finder (ADF) bearing also affect the
foreign governments. The FAA has the statutory facilitys identification. Noisy identification usually
authority to establish, operate, maintain air naviga- occurs when the ADF needle is erratic. Voice, music
tion facilities and to prescribe standards for the or erroneous identification may be heard when a
operation of any of these aids which are used for steady false bearing is being displayed. Since ADF
instrument flight in federally controlled airspace. receivers do not have a flag to warn the pilot when
These aids are tabulated in the Airport/Facility erroneous bearing information is being displayed, the
Directory (A/FD). pilot should continuously monitor the NDBs
b. Pilots should be aware of the possibility of identification.
momentary erroneous indications on cockpit displays
when the primary signal generator for a ground 113. VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
based navigational transmitter (for example, a
a. VORs operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz
glideslope, VOR, or nondirectional beacon) is
frequency band and have a power output necessary to
inoperative. Pilots should disregard any navigation
provide coverage within their assigned operational
indication, regardless of its apparent validity, if the
service volume. They are subject to lineofsight
particular transmitter was identified by NOTAM or
restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the
otherwise as unusable or inoperative.
altitude of the receiving equipment.
NOTE
112. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) Normal service ranges for the various classes of VORs are
given in Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes,
a. A low or medium frequency radio beacon Paragraph 118.
transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of
an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings b. Most VORs are equipped for voice transmis-
and home on the station. These facilities normally sion on the VOR frequency. VORs without voice
operate in a frequency band of 190 to 535 kilohertz capability are indicated by the letter W (without
(kHz), according to ICAO Annex 10 the frequency voice) included in the class designator (VORW).
range for NDBs is between 190 and 1750 kHz, and c. The only positive method of identifying a VOR
transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or is by its Morse Code identification or by the recorded
1020 hertz (Hz) modulation. All radio beacons automatic voice identification which is always
except the compass locators transmit a continuous indicated by use of the word VOR following the
threeletter identification in code except during voice ranges name. Reliance on determining the identifica-
transmissions. tion of an omnirange should never be placed on
listening to voice transmissions by the Flight Service
b. When a radio beacon is used in conjunction with
Station (FSS) (or approach control facility) involved.
the Instrument Landing System markers, it is called
Many FSSs remotely operate several omniranges
a Compass Locator.
with different names. In some cases, none of the
c. Voice transmissions are made on radio beacons VORs have the name of the parent FSS. During
unless the letter W (without voice) is included in periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a
the class designator (HW). TEST code (- -) or the code may be
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removed. Some VOR equipment decodes the b. To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT
identifier and displays it to the pilot for verification frequency on your VOR receiver. With the Course
to charts, while other equipment simply displays the Deviation Indicator (CDI) centered, the omnibear-
expected identifier from a database to aid in ing selector should read 0 degrees with the to/from
verification to the audio tones. You should be familiar indication showing from or the omnibearing
with your equipment and use it appropriately. If your selector should read 180 degrees with the to/from
equipment automatically decodes the identifier, it is indication showing to. Should the VOR receiver
not necessary to listen to the audio identification. operate an RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator), it will
indicate 180 degrees on any omnibearing selector
d. Voice identification has been added to numer-
(OBS) setting. Two means of identification are used.
ous VORs. The transmission consists of a voice
One is a series of dots and the other is a continuous
announcement, AIRVILLE VOR alternating with
tone. Information concerning an individual test signal
the usual Morse Code identification.
can be obtained from the local FSS.
e. The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon
c. Periodic VOR receiver calibration is most
proper use and adjustment of both ground and
important. If a receivers Automatic Gain Control or
airborne equipment.
modulation circuit deteriorates, it is possible for it to
1. Accuracy. The accuracy of course align- display acceptable accuracy and sensitivity close into
ment of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or the VOR or VOT and display outoftolerance
minus 1 degree. readings when located at greater distances where
weaker signal areas exist. The likelihood of this
2. Roughness. On some VORs, minor course
deterioration varies between receivers, and is
roughness may be observed, evidenced by course
generally considered a function of time. The best
needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are
assurance of having an accurate receiver is periodic
more susceptible to these irregularities than others).
calibration. Yearly intervals are recommended at
At a few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the
which time an authorized repair facility should
pilot may occasionally observe a brief course needle
recalibrate the receiver to the manufacturers
oscillation, similar to the indication of approaching
specifications.
station. Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are
cautioned to be on the alert for these vagaries, and in d. Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR Sec-
particular, to use the to/from indicator to determine tion 91.171) provides for certain VOR equipment
positive station passage. accuracy checks prior to flight under instrument
flight rules. To comply with this requirement and to
(a) Certain propeller revolutions per minute
ensure satisfactory operation of the airborne system,
(RPM) settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause
the FAA has provided pilots with the following means
the VOR Course Deviation Indicator to fluctuate as
of checking VOR receiver accuracy:
much as plus or minus six degrees. Slight changes to
the RPM setting will normally smooth out this 1. VOT or a radiated test signal from an
roughness. Pilots are urged to check for this appropriately rated radio repair station.
modulation phenomenon prior to reporting a VOR 2. Certified airborne check points.
station or aircraft equipment for unsatisfactory
operation. 3. Certified check points on the airport surface.
e. A radiated VOT from an appropriately rated
114. VOR Receiver Check radio repair station serves the same purpose as an
FAA VOR signal and the check is made in much the
a. The FAA VOR test facility (VOT) transmits a same manner as a VOT with the following
test signal which provides users a convenient means differences:
to determine the operational status and accuracy of a
VOR receiver while on the ground where a VOT is 1. The frequency normally approved by the
located. The airborne use of VOT is permitted; Federal Communications Commission is
however, its use is strictly limited to those 108.0 MHz.
areas/altitudes specifically authorized in the A/FD or 2. Repair stations are not permitted to radiate the
appropriate supplement. VOR test signal continuously; consequently, the
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owner or operator must make arrangements with the naval requirements. As a result, the FAA has
repair station to have the test signal transmitted. This integrated TACAN facilities with the civil VOR/
service is not provided by all radio repair stations. DME program. Although the theoretical, or technical
The aircraft owner or operator must determine which principles of operation of TACAN equipment are
repair station in the local area provides this service. quite different from those of VOR/DME facilities, the
A representative of the repair station must make an end result, as far as the navigating pilot is concerned,
entry into the aircraft logbook or other permanent is the same. These integrated facilities are called
record certifying to the radial accuracy and the date VORTACs.
of transmission. The owner, operator or representat- b. TACAN ground equipment consists of either a
ive of the repair station may accomplish the necessary fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne unit in
checks in the aircraft and make a logbook entry conjunction with the ground unit reduces the
stating the results. It is necessary to verify which test transmitted signal to a visual presentation of both
radial is being transmitted and whether you should azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse
get a to or from indication. system and operates in the Ultrahigh Frequency
f. Airborne and ground check points consist of (UHF) band of frequencies. Its use requires TACAN
certified radials that should be received at specific airborne equipment and does not operate through
points on the airport surface or over specific conventional VOR equipment.
landmarks while airborne in the immediate vicinity of
the airport. 116. VHF Omnidirectional
Range/Tactical Air Navigation (VORTAC)
1. Should an error in excess of plus or minus
4 degrees be indicated through use of a ground check, a. A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two
or plus or minus 6 degrees using the airborne check, components, VOR and TACAN, which provides
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight must not be three individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN
attempted without first correcting the source of the azimuth and TACAN distance (DME) at one site.
error. Although consisting of more than one component,
CAUTION incorporating more than one operating frequency,
No correction other than the correction card figures and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC
supplied by the manufacturer should be applied in is considered to be a unified navigational aid. Both
making these VOR receiver checks. components of a VORTAC are envisioned as
operating simultaneously and providing the three
2. Locations of airborne check points, ground services at all times.
check points and VOTs are published in the A/FD.
b. Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are
3. If a dual system VOR (units independent of each identified by threeletter code transmission and
each other except for the antenna) is installed in the are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth with
aircraft, one system may be checked against the other. TACAN distance can be assured that both signals
Turn both systems to the same VOR ground facility being received are definitely from the same ground
and note the indicated bearing to that station. The station. The frequency channels of the VOR and the
maximum permissible variations between the two TACAN at each VORTAC facility are paired in
indicated bearings is 4 degrees. accordance with a national plan to simplify airborne
operation.
115. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)
117. Distance Measuring Equipment
a. For reasons peculiar to military or naval
(DME)
operations (unusual siting conditions, the pitching
and rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil a. In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a
VOR/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) system specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft (this is
of air navigation was considered unsuitable for the interrogation) and are received at the ground
military or naval use. A new navigational system, station. The ground station (transponder) then
TACAN, was therefore developed by the military and transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same
naval forces to more readily lend itself to military and pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time
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required for the round trip of this signal exchange is inoperative, it is important to recognize which
measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated identifier is retained for the operative facility. A
into distance (nautical miles) from the aircraft to the single coded identification with a repetition interval
ground station. of approximately 30 seconds indicates that the DME
is operative.
b. Operating on the lineofsight principle, DME
furnishes distance information with a very high g. Aircraft equipment which provides for auto-
degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received matic DME selection assures reception of azimuth
at distances up to 199 NM at lineofsight altitude and distance information from a common source
with an accuracy of better than 1/2 mile or 3 percent when designated VOR/DME, VORTAC and ILS/
of the distance, whichever is greater. Distance DME navigation facilities are selected. Pilots are
information received from DME equipment is cautioned to disregard any distance displays from
SLANT RANGE distance and not actual horizontal automatically selected DME equipment when VOR
distance. or ILS facilities, which do not have the DME feature
installed, are being used for position determination.
c. Operating frequency range of a DME according
to ICAO Annex 10 is from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz.
Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will 118. Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service
receive distance information from a VORTAC Volumes
automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR
must have a separate DME airborne unit. a. Most air navigation radio aids which provide
positive course guidance have a designated standard
d. VOR/DME, VORTAC, Instrument Landing service volume (SSV). The SSV defines the reception
System (ILS)/DME, and localizer (LOC)/DME limits of unrestricted NAVAIDs which are usable for
navigation facilities established by the FAA provide random/unpublished route navigation.
course and distance information from collocated
components under a frequency pairing plan. Aircraft b. A NAVAID will be classified as restricted if it
receiving equipment which provides for automatic does not conform to flight inspection signal strength
DME selection assures reception of azimuth and and course quality standards throughout the
distance information from a common source when published SSV. However, the NAVAID should not be
designated VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and considered usable at altitudes below that which could
LOC/DME are selected. be flown while operating under random route IFR
conditions (14 CFR Section 91.177), even though
e. Due to the limited number of available these altitudes may lie within the designated SSV.
frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is Service volume restrictions are first published in
required for certain military noncollocated VOR and Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) and then with the
TACAN facilities which serve the same area but alphabetical listing of the NAVAIDs in the A/FD.
which may be separated by distances up to a few
miles. c. Standard Service Volume limitations do not
apply to published IFR routes or procedures.
f. VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/
DME facilities are identified by synchronized d. VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service
identifications which are transmitted on a time share Volumes (SSV).
basis. The VOR or localizer portion of the facility is
1. Standard service volumes (SSVs) are graph-
identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or
ically shown in FIG 111, FIG 112, FIG 113,
a combination of code and voice. The TACAN or
FIG 114, and FIG 115. The SSV of a station is
DME is identified by a coded tone modulated at
indicated by using the class designator as a prefix to
1350 Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification
the station type designation.
is transmitted one time for each three or four times
that the VOR or localizer coded identification is EXAMPLE
transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is TVOR, LDME, and HVORTAC.
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FIG 111 FIG 112

Standard High Altitude Service Volume Standard Low Altitude Service Volume
(See FIG 115 for altitudes below 1,000 feet). (See FIG 115 for altitudes below 1,000 feet).
40 NM
100 NM
60,000 ft.
18,000 ft.
130 NM
45,000 ft.
18,000 ft. 1,000 ft.
14,500 ft.
NOTE: All elevations shown are with respect

1,000 ft. 40 NM to the stations site elevation (AGL).
Coverage is not available in a cone of
airspace directly above the facility.
FIG 113
Standard Terminal Service Volume
(See FIG 114 for altitudes below 1,000 feet).
25 NM
12,000 ft.
1,000 ft.
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2. Within 25 NM, the bottom of the T service 1. NDBs are classified according to their
volume is defined by the curve in FIG 114. Within intended use.
40 NM, the bottoms of the L and H service volumes
are defined by the curve in FIG 115. (See 2. The ranges of NDB service volumes are
TBL 111.) shown in TBL 112. The distances (radius) are the
e. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) same at all altitudes.
TBL 111
VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes
SSV Class Designator Altitude and Range Boundaries

T (Terminal) . . . . . . . . From 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) up to and including 12,000 feet AGL at radial distances out
to 25 NM.
L (Low Altitude) . . . . From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.
H (High Altitude) . . . . From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM. From
14,500 AGL up to and including 60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM. From 18,000 feet AGL
up to and including 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130 NM.
TBL 112
NDB Service Volumes
Class Distance (Radius)

Compass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
*Service ranges of individual facilities may be less than 50 nautical miles (NM). Restrictions to service
volumes are first published as a Notice to Airmen and then with the alphabetical listing of the NAVAID in
the A/FD.
FIG 114
Service Volume Lower Edge Terminal
1000
ALTITUDE IN FEET
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM
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FIG 115
Service Volume Lower Edge
Standard High and Low
1000
ALTITUDE IN FEET
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM
119. Instrument Landing System (ILS) Runway 4 and the approach end of Runway 22) the
ILS systems are not in service simultaneously.
a. General
b. Localizer
1. The ILS is designed to provide an approach
path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on 1. The localizer transmitter operates on one of
final approach to a runway. 40 ILS channels within the frequency range of
108.10 to 111.95 MHz. Signals provide the pilot with
2. The ground equipment consists of two highly course guidance to the runway centerline.
directional transmitting systems and, along the
approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The 2. The approach course of the localizer is called
directional transmitters are known as the localizer the front course and is used with other functional
and glide slope transmitters. parts, e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The
localizer signal is transmitted at the far end of the
3. The system may be divided functionally into runway. It is adjusted for a course width of (full scale
three parts: flyleft to a full scale flyright) of 700 feet at the
(a) Guidance information: localizer, glide runway threshold.
slope; 3. The course line along the extended centerline
(b) Range information: marker beacon, of a runway, in the opposite direction to the front
DME; and course is called the back course.
(c) Visual information: approach lights, CAUTION
touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights. Unless the aircrafts ILS equipment includes reverse
sensing capability, when flying inbound on the back
4. Precision radar, or compass locators located course it is necessary to steer the aircraft in the direction
at the Outer Marker (OM) or Middle Marker (MM), opposite the needle deflection when making corrections
may be substituted for marker beacons. DME, when from offcourse to oncourse. This flying away from the
specified in the procedure, may be substituted for the needle is also required when flying outbound on the
OM. front course of the localizer. Do not use back course
signals for approach unless a back course approach
5. Where a complete ILS system is installed on procedure is published for that particular runway and the
each end of a runway; (i.e., the approach end of approach is authorized by ATC.
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4. Identification is in International Morse Code course and runway. Circling minimums only are
and consists of a threeletter identifier preceded by published where this alignment exceeds 30 degrees.
the letter I ( ) transmitted on the localizer
3. A very limited number of LDA approaches
frequency.
also incorporate a glideslope. These are annotated in
EXAMPLE the plan view of the instrument approach chart with
IDIA a note, LDA/Glideslope. These procedures fall
5. The localizer provides course guidance under a newly defined category of approaches called
throughout the descent path to the runway threshold Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV) described in
from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna between paragraph 545, Instrument Approach Procedure
an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest terrain Charts, subparagraph a7(b), Approach with Vertical
along the course line and 4,500 feet above the Guidance (APV). LDA minima for with and without
elevation of the antenna site. Proper offcourse glideslope is provided and annotated on the minima
indications are provided throughout the following lines of the approach chart as SLDA/GS and
angular areas of the operational service volume: SLDA. Because the final approach course is not
aligned with the runway centerline, additional
(a) To 10 degrees either side of the course maneuvering will be required compared to an ILS
along a radius of 18 NM from the antenna; and approach.
(b) From 10 to 35 degrees either side of the d. Glide Slope/Glide Path
course along a radius of 10 NM. (See FIG 116.) 1. The UHF glide slope transmitter, operating
on one of the 40 ILS channels within the frequency
FIG 116
range 329.15 MHz, to 335.00 MHz radiates its signals
Limits of Localizer Coverage
in the direction of the localizer front course. The term
glide path means that portion of the glide slope that
35
intersects the localizer.
CAUTION
10 False glide slope signals may exist in the area of the
localizer back course approach which can cause the glide
slope flag alarm to disappear and present unreliable glide
10 NM
18 NM
RUNWAY
LOCALIZER
slope information. Disregard all glide slope signal
ANTENNA indications when making a localizer back course
10
approach unless a glide slope is specified on the approach
NORMAL LIMITS OF LOCALIZER and landing chart.
35 COVERAGE: THE SAME AREA
APPLIES TO A BACK COURSE
WHEN PROVIDED. 2. The glide slope transmitter is located between
750 feet and 1,250 feet from the approach end of the
runway (down the runway) and offset 250 to 650 feet
from the runway centerline. It transmits a glide path
6. Unreliable signals may be received outside beam 1.4 degrees wide (vertically). The signal
these areas. provides descent information for navigation down to
c. Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA) the lowest authorized decision height (DH) specified
in the approved ILS approach procedure. The
1. The LDA is of comparable use and accuracy glidepath may not be suitable for navigation below
to a localizer but is not part of a complete ILS. The the lowest authorized DH and any reference to
LDA course usually provides a more precise glidepath indications below that height must be
approach course than the similar Simplified supplemented by visual reference to the runway
Directional Facility (SDF) installation, which may environment. Glidepaths with no published DH are
have a course width of 6 or 12 degrees. usable to runway threshold.
2. The LDA is not aligned with the runway. 3. The glide path projection angle is normally
Straightin minimums may be published where adjusted to 3 degrees above horizontal so that it
alignment does not exceed 30 degrees between the intersects the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at
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about 1,400 feet above the runway elevation. The (b) As a back course (BC) final approach fix
glide slope is normally usable to the distance of (FAF); and
10 NM. However, at some locations, the glide slope (c) To establish other fixes on the localizer
has been certified for an extended service volume course.
which exceeds 10 NM.
2. In some cases, DME from a separate facility
4. Pilots must be alert when approaching the may be used within Terminal Instrument Procedures
glidepath interception. False courses and reverse (TERPS) limitations:
sensing will occur at angles considerably greater than
(a) To provide ARC initial approach seg-
the published path.
ments;
5. Make every effort to remain on the indicated (b) As a FAF for BC approaches; and
glide path.
(c) As a substitute for the OM.
CAUTION
f. Marker Beacon
Avoid flying below the glide path to assure
obstacle/terrain clearance is maintained. 1. ILS marker beacons have a rated power
output of 3 watts or less and an antenna array
6. The published glide slope threshold crossing designed to produce an elliptical pattern with
height (TCH) DOES NOT represent the height of the dimensions, at 1,000 feet above the antenna, of
actual glide path oncourse indication above the approximately 2,400 feet in width and 4,200 feet in
runway threshold. It is used as a reference for length. Airborne marker beacon receivers with a
planning purposes which represents the height above selective sensitivity feature should always be
the runway threshold that an aircrafts glide slope operated in the low sensitivity position for proper
antenna should be, if that aircraft remains on a reception of ILS marker beacons.
trajectory formed by the fourmiletomiddle
marker glidepath segment. 2. Ordinarily, there are two marker beacons
associated with an ILS, the OM and MM. Locations
7. Pilots must be aware of the vertical height with a Category II ILS also have an Inner
between the aircrafts glide slope antenna and the Marker (IM). When an aircraft passes over a marker,
main gear in the landing configuration and, at the DH, the pilot will receive the indications shown in
plan to adjust the descent angle accordingly if the TBL 113.
published TCH indicates the wheel crossing height
(a) The OM normally indicates a position at
over the runway threshold may not be satisfactory.
which an aircraft at the appropriate altitude on the
Tests indicate a comfortable wheel crossing height is
localizer course will intercept the ILS glide path.
approximately 20 to 30 feet, depending on the type of
aircraft. (b) The MM indicates a position approxim-
ately 3,500 feet from the landing threshold. This is
NOTE also the position where an aircraft on the glide path
The TCH for a runway is established based on several
will be at an altitude of approximately 200 feet above
factors including the largest aircraft category that
normally uses the runway, how airport layout effects the the elevation of the touchdown zone.
glide slope antenna placement, and terrain. A higher than (c) The IM will indicate a point at which an
optimum TCH, with the same glide path angle, may cause aircraft is at a designated decision height (DH) on the
the aircraft to touch down further from the threshold if the glide path between the MM and landing threshold.
trajectory of the approach is maintained until the flare.
Pilots should consider the effect of a high TCH on the TBL 113
runway available for stopping the aircraft. Marker Passage Indications
e. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Marker Code Light
OM BLUE
1. When installed with the ILS and specified in
MM AMBER
the approach procedure, DME may be used:
IM WHITE
(a) In lieu of the OM; BC WHITE
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3. A back course marker normally indicates the Localizer MHz Glide Slope
ILS back course final approach fix where approach 110.70 330.20
descent is commenced. 110.75 330.05
110.90 330.80
g. Compass Locator 110.95 330.65
111.10 331.70
1. Compass locator transmitters are often
111.15 331.55
situated at the MM and OM sites. The transmitters
111.30 332.30
have a power of less than 25 watts, a range of at least
111.35 332.15
15 miles and operate between 190 and 535 kHz. At
111.50 332.9
some locations, higher powered radio beacons, up to
111.55 332.75
400 watts, are used as OM compass locators. These
111.70 333.5
generally carry Transcribed Weather Broadcast
111.75 333.35
(TWEB) information.
111.90 331.1
2. Compass locators transmit two letter identi- 111.95 330.95
fication groups. The outer locator transmits the first
two letters of the localizer identification group, and i. ILS Minimums
the middle locator transmits the last two letters of the
localizer identification group. 1. The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with
all required ground and airborne systems components
h. ILS Frequency (See TBL 114.) operative, are:
(a) Category I. Decision Height (DH)
TBL 114
200 feet and Runway Visual Range (RVR) 2,400 feet
Frequency Pairs Allocated for ILS
(with touchdown zone and centerline lighting, RVR
Localizer MHz Glide Slope 1,800 feet), or (with Autopilot or FD or HUD, RVR
108.10 334.70 1,800 feet);
108.15 334.55
108.3 334.10 (b) Special Authorization Category I.
108.35 333.95 DH 150 feet and Runway Visual Range (RVR) 1,400
108.5 329.90 feet, HUD to DH;
108.55 329.75
(c) Category II. DH 100 feet and RVR 1,200
108.7 330.50
feet (with autoland or HUD to touchdown and noted
108.75 330.35
on authorization, RVR 1,000 feet);
108.9 329.30
108.95 329.15 (d) Special Authorization Category II with
109.1 331.40 Reduced Lighting. DH 100 feet and RVR 1,200 feet
109.15 331.25 with autoland or HUD to touchdown and noted on
109.3 332.00 authorization (touchdown zone, centerline lighting,
109.35 331.85 and ALSF2 are not required);
109.50 332.60
109.55 332.45 (e) Category IIIa. No DH or DH below 100
109.70 333.20 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet;
109.75 333.05 (f) Category IIIb. No DH or DH below 50
109.90 333.80 feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not less than 150
109.95 333.65 feet; and
110.1 334.40
110.15 334.25 (g) Category IIIc. No DH and no RVR
110.3 335.00 limitation.
110.35 334.85 NOTE
110.5 329.60 Special authorization and equipment required for
110.55 329.45 Categories II and III.
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j. Inoperative ILS Components (1) No critical area protective action is

provided under these conditions.
1. Inoperative localizer. When the localizer
fails, an ILS approach is not authorized. (2) A flight crew, under these conditions,
should advise the tower that it will conduct an
2. Inoperative glide slope. When the glide AUTOLAND or COUPLED approach.
slope fails, the ILS reverts to a nonprecision EXAMPLE
localizer approach. Denver Tower, United 1153, Request Autoland/Coupled
REFERENCE Approach (runway)
See the inoperative component table in the U.S. Government Terminal ATC replies with:
Procedures Publication (TPP), for adjustments to minimums due to United 1153, Denver Tower, Roger, Critical Areas not
inoperative airborne or ground system equipment.
protected.
k. ILS Course Distortion
3. Aircraft holding below 5,000 feet between
1. All pilots should be aware that disturbances to the outer marker and the airport may cause localizer
ILS localizer and glide slope courses may occur when signal variations for aircraft conducting the ILS
surface vehicles or aircraft are operated near the approach. Accordingly, such holding is not author-
localizer or glide slope antennas. Most ILS ized when weather or visibility conditions are less
installations are subject to signal interference by than ceiling 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.
either surface vehicles, aircraft or both. ILS 4. Pilots are cautioned that vehicular traffic not
CRITICAL AREAS are established near each subject to ATC may cause momentary deviation to
localizer and glide slope antenna. ILS course or glide slope signals. Also, critical areas
2. ATC issues control instructions to avoid are not protected at uncontrolled airports or at airports
interfering operations within ILS critical areas at with an operating control tower when weather or
controlled airports during the hours the Airport visibility conditions are above those requiring
Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) is in operation as protective measures. Aircraft conducting coupled or
follows: autoland operations should be especially alert in
monitoring automatic flight control systems.
(a) Weather Conditions. Less than ceiling (See FIG 117.)
800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.
NOTE
(1) Localizer Critical Area. Except for Unless otherwise coordinated through Flight Standards,
aircraft that land, exit a runway, depart, or execute a ILS signals to Category I runways are not flight inspected
below the point that is 100 feet less than the decision
missed approach, vehicles and aircraft are not
altitude (DA). Guidance signal anomalies may be
authorized in or over the critical area when an arriving encountered below this altitude.
aircraft is inside the outer marker (OM) or the fix
used in lieu of the OM. Additionally, when conditions
are less than reported ceiling 200 feet or RVR less 1110. Simplified Directional Facility
than 2,000 feet, do not authorize vehicles or aircraft (SDF)
operations in or over the area when an arriving a. The SDF provides a final approach course
aircraft is inside the MM, or in the absence of a MM, similar to that of the ILS localizer. It does not provide
mile final. glide slope information. A clear understanding of the
(2) Glide Slope Critical Area. Do not ILS localizer and the additional factors listed below
authorize vehicles or aircraft operations in or over the completely describe the operational characteristics
area when an arriving aircraft is inside the ILS outer and use of the SDF.
marker (OM), or the fix used in lieu of the OM, unless b. The SDF transmits signals within the range of
the arriving aircraft has reported the runway in sight 108.10 to 111.95 MHz.
and is circling or sidestepping to land on another
runway. c. The approach techniques and procedures used
in an SDF instrument approach are essentially the
(b) Weather Conditions. At or above ceil- same as those employed in executing a standard
ing 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles. localizer approach except the SDF course may not be
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aligned with the runway and the course may be wider, be noted that inasmuch as the approach course
resulting in less precision. originates at the antenna site, an approach which is
continued beyond the runway threshold will lead the
d. Usable offcourse indications are limited to aircraft to the SDF offset position rather than along
35 degrees either side of the course centerline. the runway centerline.
Instrument indications received beyond 35 degrees
should be disregarded. f. The SDF signal is fixed at either 6 degrees or
12 degrees as necessary to provide maximum
e. The SDF antenna may be offset from the runway flyability and optimum course quality.
centerline. Because of this, the angle of convergence
between the final approach course and the runway g. Identification consists of a threeletter identifi-
bearing should be determined by reference to the er transmitted in Morse Code on the SDF frequency.
instrument approach procedure chart. This angle is The appropriate instrument approach chart will
generally not more than 3 degrees. However, it should indicate the identifier used at a particular airport.

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FIG 117
FAA Instrument Landing Systems

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1111. NAVAID Identifier Removal During detection by the ground monitors. Some of the
Maintenance characteristics of malfunction or deteriorating
performance which should be reported are: erratic
During periods of routine or emergency maintenance, course or bearing indications; intermittent, or full,
coded identification (or code and voice, where flag alarm; garbled, missing or obviously improper
applicable) is removed from certain FAA NAVAIDs. coded identification; poor quality communications
Removal of identification serves as a warning to reception; or, in the case of frequency interference, an
pilots that the facility is officially off the air for audible hum or tone accompanying radio communic-
tuneup or repair and may be unreliable even though ations or NAVAID identification. GNSS problems are
intermittent or constant signals are received. often characterized by navigation degradation or
NOTE service loss indications.
During periods of maintenance VHF ranges may radiate
a TEST code (- D DDD -). b. Reporters should identify the NAVAID (for
example, VOR) malfunction or GNSS problem,
NOTE
location of the aircraft (i.e., latitude, longitude or
DO NOT attempt to fly a procedure that is NOTAMed out
of service even if the identification is present. In certain
bearing/distance from a NAVAID), magnetic head-
cases, the identification may be transmitted for short ing, altitude, date and time of the observation, type
periods as part of the testing. of aircraft (make/model/call sign), and description of
the condition observed, and the type of receivers in
use (i.e., make/model/software revision). For GNSS
1112. NAVAIDs with Voice
problems, if possible, please note the number of
a. Voice equipped en route radio navigational aids satellites being tracked at the time of the anomaly.
are under the operational control of either a Flight Reports can be made in any of the following ways:
Service Station (FSS) or an approach control facility. 1. Immediately, by radio communication to the
The voice communication is available on some controlling Air Route Traffic Control Center
facilities. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory (ARTCC), Control Tower, or FSS.
Service (HIWAS) broadcast capability is available on
selected VOR sites throughout the conterminous U.S. 2. By telephone to the nearest FAA facility.
and does not provide two-way voice communication. 3. For GNSS problems, by internet via the GPS
The availability of two-way voice communication Anomaly Reporting Form at http://www.faa.gov/
and HIWAS is indicated in the A/FD and aeronautical air_traffic/nas/gps_reports/.
charts.
c. In aircraft that have more than one receiver,
b. Unless otherwise noted on the chart, all radio there are many combinations of possible interference
navigation aids operate continuously except during between units. This can cause either erroneous
shutdowns for maintenance. Hours of operation of navigation indications or, complete or partial
facilities not operating continuously are annotated on blanking out of the communications. Pilots should be
charts and in the A/FD. familiar enough with the radio installation of the
particular airplanes they fly to recognize this type of
1113. User Reports Requested on interference.
NAVAID or Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS) Performance or 1114. LORAN
Interference
a. Users of the National Airspace System (NAS) NOTE
can render valuable assistance in the early correction In accordance with the 2010 DHS Appropriations Act, the
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) terminated the transmission of
of NAVAID malfunctions or GNSS problems and are
all U.S. LORANC signals on 08 Feb 2010. The USCG also
encouraged to report their observations of undesir- terminated the transmission of the Russian American
able performance. Although NAVAIDs are signals on 01 Aug 2010, and the Canadian LORANC
monitored by electronic detectors, adverse effects of signals on 03 Aug 2010. For more information, visit
electronic interference, new obstructions, or changes http://www.navcen.uscg.gov. Operators should also note
in terrain near the NAVAID can exist without that TSOC60b, AIRBORNE AREA NAVIGATION

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EQUIPMENT USING LORANC INPUTS, has been Doppler is less accurate than INS, however, and the
canceled by the FAA. use of an external reference is required for periodic
updates if acceptable position accuracy is to be
1115. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), achieved on long range flights.
Inertial Navigation System (INS), and
Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) 1117. Global Positioning System (GPS)
a. IRUs are selfcontained systems comprised of a. System Overview
gyros and accelerometers that provide aircraft
attitude (pitch, roll, and heading), position, and 1. System Description. The Global Positioning
velocity information in response to signals resulting System is a space-based radio navigation system
from inertial effects on system components. Once used to determine precise position anywhere in the
aligned with a known position, IRUs continuously world. The 24 satellite constellation is designed to
calculate position and velocity. IRU position ensure at least five satellites are always visible to a
accuracy decays with time. This degradation is user worldwide. A minimum of four satellites is
known as drift. necessary for receivers to establish an accurate
threedimensional position. The receiver uses data
b. INSs combine the components of an IRU with from satellites above the mask angle (the lowest
an internal navigation computer. By programming a angle above the horizon at which a receiver can use
series of waypoints, these systems will navigate along a satellite). The Department of Defense (DOD) is
a predetermined track. responsible for operating the GPS satellite constella-
c. AHRSs are electronic devices that provide tion and monitors the GPS satellites to ensure proper
attitude information to aircraft systems such as operation. Each satellites orbital parameters (eph-
weather radar and autopilot, but do not directly emeris data) are sent to each satellite for broadcast as
compute position information. part of the data message embedded in the GPS signal.
The GPS coordinate system is the Cartesian
d. Aircraft equipped with slaved compass systems earthcentered, earthfixed coordinates as specified
may be susceptible to heading errors caused by in the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84).
exposure to magnetic field disturbances (flux fields)
2. System Availability and Reliability.
found in materials that are commonly located on the
surface or buried under taxiways and ramps. These (a) The status of GPS satellites is broadcast as
materials generate a magnetic flux field that can be part of the data message transmitted by the GPS
sensed by the aircrafts compass system flux detector satellites. GPS status information is also available by
or gate, which can cause the aircrafts system to means of the U.S. Coast Guard navigation
align with the materials magnetic field rather than information service: (703) 3135907, Internet:
the earths natural magnetic field. The systems http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/. Additionally, satel-
erroneous heading may not self-correct. Prior to take lite status is available through the Notice to Airmen
off pilots should be aware that a heading (NOTAM) system.
misalignment may have occurred during taxi. Pilots
(b) GNSS operational status depends on the
are encouraged to follow the manufacturers or other
type of equipment being used. For GPSonly
appropriate procedures to correct possible heading
equipment TSOC129 or TSO-C196(), the opera-
misalignment before take off is commenced.
tional status of nonprecision approach capability for
flight planning purposes is provided through a
1116. Doppler Radar prediction program that is embedded in the receiver
or provided separately.
Doppler Radar is a semiautomatic selfcontained
dead reckoning navigation system (radar sensor plus 3. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
computer) which is not continuously dependent on (RAIM). RAIM is the capability of a GPS receiver to
information derived from ground based or external perform integrity monitoring on itself by ensuring
aids. The system employs radar signals to detect and available satellite signals meet the integrity require-
measure ground speed and drift angle, using the ments for a given phase of flight. Without RAIM, the
aircraft compass system as its directional reference. pilot has no assurance of the GPS position integrity.

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RAIM provides immediate feedback to the pilot. This active. New receivers may take advantage of the
fault detection is critical for performance-based discontinuance of SA based on the performance
navigation (PBN)(see Paragraph 121, Perform- values in ICAO Annex 10.
anceBased Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation
b. Operational Use of GPS. U.S. civil operators
(RNAV), for an introduction to PBN), because delays
may use approved GPS equipment in oceanic
of up to two hours can occur before an erroneous
airspace, certain remote areas, the National Airspace
satellite transmission is detected and corrected by the
System and other States as authorized (please consult
satellite control segment.
the applicable Aeronautical Information Publica-
(a) In order for RAIM to determine if a tion). Equipage other than GPS may be required for
satellite is providing corrupted information, at least the desired operation. GPS navigation is used for both
one satellite, in addition to those required for Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight
navigation, must be in view for the receiver to Rules (IFR) operations.
perform the RAIM function. RAIM requires a 1. VFR Operations
minimum of 5 satellites, or 4 satellites and barometric
altimeter input (baroaiding), to detect an integrity (a) GPS navigation has become an asset to
anomaly. Baroaiding is a method of augmenting the VFR pilots by providing increased navigational
GPS integrity solution by using a non-satellite input capabilities and enhanced situational awareness.
source in lieu of the fifth satellite. Some GPS Although GPS has provided many benefits to the
receivers also have a RAIM capability, called fault VFR pilot, care must be exercised to ensure that
detection and exclusion (FDE), that excludes a failed system capabilities are not exceeded. VFR pilots
satellite from the position solution; GPS receivers should integrate GPS navigation with electronic
capable of FDE require 6 satellites or 5 satellites with navigation (when possible), as well as pilotage and
baroaiding. This allows the GPS receiver to isolate dead reckoning.
the corrupt satellite signal, remove it from the (b) GPS receivers used for VFR navigation
position solution, and still provide an integrity-as- vary from fully integrated IFR/VFR installation used
sured position. To ensure that baroaiding is to support VFR operations to handheld devices.
available, enter the current altimeter setting into the Pilots must understand the limitations of the receivers
receiver as described in the operating manual. Do not prior to using in flight to avoid misusing navigation
use the GPS derived altitude due to the large GPS information. (See TBL 116.) Most receivers are
vertical errors that will make the integrity monitoring not intuitive. The pilot must learn the various
function invalid. keystrokes, knob functions, and displays that are
used in the operation of the receiver. Some
(b) There are generally two types of RAIM manufacturers provide computerbased tutorials or
fault messages. The first type of message indicates simulations of their receivers that pilots can use to
that there are not enough satellites available to become familiar with operating the equipment.
provide RAIM integrity monitoring. The GPS
navigation solution may be acceptable, but the (c) When using GPS for VFR operations,
integrity of the solution cannot be determined. The RAIM capability, database currency, and antenna
second type indicates that the RAIM integrity location are critical areas of concern.
monitor has detected a potential error and that there (1) RAIM Capability. VFR GPS panel
is an inconsistency in the navigation solution for the mount receivers and handheld units have no RAIM
given phase of flight. Without RAIM capability, the alerting capability. This prevents the pilot from being
pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS alerted to the loss of the required number of satellites
position. in view, or the detection of a position error. Pilots
should use a systematic crosscheck with other
4. Selective Availability. Selective Availability
navigation techniques to verify position. Be
(SA) is a method by which the accuracy of GPS is
suspicious of the GPS position if a disagreement
intentionally degraded. This feature was designed to
exists between the two positions.
deny hostile use of precise GPS positioning data. SA
was discontinued on May 1, 2000, but many GPS (2) Database Currency. Check the cur-
receivers are designed to assume that SA is still rency of the database. Databases must be updated for

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IFR operations and should be updated for all other current navigation procedures. The uses of VFR
operations. However, there is no requirement for waypoints include providing navigational aids for
databases to be updated for VFR navigation. It is not pilots unfamiliar with an area, waypoint definition of
recommended to use a moving map with an outdated existing reporting points, enhanced navigation in and
database in and around critical airspace. Pilots using around Class B and Class C airspace, and enhanced
an outdated database should verify waypoints using navigation around Special Use Airspace. VFR pilots
current aeronautical products; for example, Airport/ should rely on appropriate and current aeronautical
Facility Directory, Sectional Chart, or En Route charts published specifically for visual navigation. If
Chart. operating in a terminal area, pilots should take
advantage of the Terminal Area Chart available for
(3) Antenna Location. The antenna loca-
that area, if published. The use of VFR waypoints
tion for GPS receivers used for IFR and VFR
does not relieve the pilot of any responsibility to
operations may differ. VFR antennae are typically
comply with the operational requirements of 14 CFR
placed for convenience more than performance,
Part 91.
while IFR installations ensure a clear view is
provided with the satellites. Antennae not providing (2) VFR waypoint names (for computer
a clear view have a greater opportunity to lose the entry and flight plans) consist of five letters
satellite navigational signal. This is especially true beginning with the letters VP and are retrievable
in the case of handheld GPS receivers. Typically, from navigation databases. The VFR waypoint
suction cups are used to place the GPS antennas on names are not intended to be pronounceable, and they
the inside of cockpit windows. While this method has are not for use in ATC communications. On VFR
great utility, the antenna location is limited to the charts, standalone VFR waypoints will be portrayed
cockpit or cabin which rarely provides a clear view using the same fourpoint star symbol used for IFR
of all available satellites. Consequently, signal losses waypoints. VFR waypoints collocated with visual
may occur due to aircraft structure blocking satellite check points on the chart will be identified by small
signals, causing a loss of navigation capability. These magenta flag symbols. VFR waypoints collocated
losses, coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could with visual check points will be pronounceable based
present erroneous position and navigation informa- on the name of the visual check point and may be used
tion with no warning to the pilot. While the use of a for ATC communications. Each VFR waypoint name
handheld GPS for VFR operations is not limited by will appear in parentheses adjacent to the geographic
regulation, modification of the aircraft, such as location on the chart. Latitude/longitude data for all
installing a panel or yokemounted holder, is established VFR waypoints may be found in the
governed by 14 CFR Part 43. Consult with your appropriate regional Airport/Facility Directory
mechanic to ensure compliance with the regulation (A/FD).
and safe installation.
(3) VFR waypoints may not be used on IFR
(d) Do not solely rely on GPS for VFR
flight plans. VFR waypoints are not recognized by the
navigation. No design standard of accuracy or
IFR system and will be rejected for IFR routing
integrity is used for a VFR GPS receiver. VFR GPS
purposes.
receivers should be used in conjunction with other
forms of navigation during VFR operations to ensure (4) Pilots may use the fiveletter identifier
a correct route of flight is maintained. Minimize as a waypoint in the route of flight section on a VFR
headdown time in the aircraft by being familiar with flight plan. Pilots may use the VFR waypoints only
your GPS receivers operation and by keeping eyes when operating under VFR conditions. The point
outside scanning for traffic, terrain, and obstacles. may represent an intended course change or describe
(e) VFR Waypoints the planned route of flight. This VFR filing would be
similar to how a VOR would be used in a route of
(1) VFR waypoints provide VFR pilots flight.
with a supplementary tool to assist with position
awareness while navigating visually in aircraft (5) VFR waypoints intended for use during
equipped with area navigation receivers. VFR flight should be loaded into the receiver while on the
waypoints should be used as a tool to supplement ground. Once airborne, pilots should avoid program-

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ming routes or VFR waypoint chains into their (4) The GPS operation must be conducted
receivers. in accordance with the FAAapproved aircraft flight
manual (AFM) or flight manual supplement. Flight
(6) Pilots should be vigilant to see and crew members must be thoroughly familiar with the
avoid other traffic when near VFR waypoints. With particular GPS equipment installed in the aircraft, the
the increased use of GPS navigation and accuracy, receiver operation manual, and the AFM or flight
expect increased traffic near VFR waypoints. manual supplement. Operation, receiver presenta-
Regardless of the class of airspace, monitor the tion and capabilities of GPS equipment vary. Due to
available ATC frequency for traffic information on these differences, operation of GPS receivers of
other aircraft operating in the vicinity. See Paragraph different brands, or even models of the same brand,
752, VFR in Congested Areas, for more under IFR should not be attempted without thorough
information. operational knowledge. Most receivers have a
builtin simulator mode, which allows the pilot to
2. IFR Use of GPS become familiar with operation prior to attempting
operation in the aircraft.
(a) General Requirements. Authorization
to conduct any GPS operation under IFR requires: (5) Aircraft navigating by IFRapproved
GPS are considered to be performancebased
(1) GPS navigation equipment used for IFR navigation (PBN) aircraft and have special equip-
operations must be approved in accordance with the ment suffixes. File the appropriate equipment suffix
requirements specified in Technical Standard Order in accordance with TBL 513 on the ATC flight
(TSO) TSOC129(), TSOC196(), TSOC145(), or plan. If GPS avionics become inoperative, the pilot
TSOC146(), and the installation must be done in should advise ATC and amend the equipment suffix.
accordance with Advisory Circular AC 20138(), (6) Prior to any GPS IFR operation, the
Airworthiness Approval of Positioning and Naviga- pilot must review appropriate NOTAMs and
tion Systems. Equipment approved in accordance aeronautical information. (See GPS NOTAMs/Aero-
with TSOC115a does not meet the requirements of nautical Information).
TSOC129. Visual flight rules (VFR) and handheld
GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, (b) Database Requirements. The onboard
instrument approaches, or as a principal instrument navigation data must be current and appropriate for
flight reference. the region of intended operation and should include
the navigation aids, waypoints, and relevant coded
(2) Aircraft using un-augmented GPS terminal airspace procedures for the departure,
(TSO-C129() or TSO-C196()) for navigation under arrival, and alternate airfields.
IFR must be equipped with an alternate approved and (1) Further database guidance for terminal
operational means of navigation suitable for and en route requirements may be found in AC
navigating the proposed route of flight. (Examples of 90-100(), U.S. Terminal and En Route Area
alternate navigation equipment include VOR or Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
DME/DME/IRU capability). Active monitoring of
(2) Further database guidance on Required
alternative navigation equipment is not required
Navigation Performance (RNP) instrument approach
when RAIM is available for integrity monitoring.
operations, RNP terminal, and RNP en route
Active monitoring of an alternate means of
requirements may be found in AC 90-105(), Approval
navigation is required when the GPS RAIM
Guidance for RNP Operations and Barometric
capability is lost.
Vertical Navigation in the U.S. National Airspace
(3) Procedures must be established for use System.
in the event that the loss of RAIM capability is (3) All approach procedures to be flown
predicted to occur. In situations where RAIM is must be retrievable from the current airborne
predicted to be unavailable, the flight must rely on navigation database supplied by the equipment
other approved navigation equipment, re-route to manufacturer or other FAAapproved source. The
where RAIM is available, delay departure, or cancel system must be able to retrieve the procedure by name
the flight. from the aircraft navigation database, not just as a

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manually entered series of waypoints. Manual entry [b] Operators must have two independ-
of waypoints using latitude/longitude or place/bear- ent navigation systems appropriate to the route to be
ing is not permitted for approach procedures. flown, or one system that is suitable and a second,
independent backup capability that allows the
(4) Prior to using a procedure or waypoint operator to proceed safely and land at a different
retrieved from the airborne navigation database, the airport, and the aircraft must have sufficient fuel
pilot should verify the validity of the database. This (reference 14 CFR 121.349, 125.203, 129.17, and
verification should include the following preflight 135.165). These rules ensure the safety of the
and inflight steps: operation by preventing a single point of failure.
[a] Preflight: NOTE
An aircraft approved for multi-sensor navigation and
[1] Determine the date of database equipped with a single navigation system must maintain an
issuance, and verify that the date/time of proposed ability to navigate or proceed safely in the event that any
use is before the expiration date/time. one component of the navigation system fails, including the
flight management system (FMS). Retaining a FMS-inde-
[2] Verify that the database provider pendent VOR capability would satisfy this requirement.
has not published a notice limiting the use of the
[c] The requirements for a second
specific waypoint or procedure.
system apply to the entire set of equipment needed to
[b] Inflight: achieve the navigation capability, not just the
individual components of the system such as the radio
[1] Determine that the waypoints navigation receiver. For example, to use two RNAV
and transition names coincide with names found on systems (e.g., GPS and DME/DME/IRU) to comply
the procedure chart. Do not use waypoints which do with the requirements, the aircraft must be equipped
not exactly match the spelling shown on published with two independent radio navigation receivers and
procedure charts. two independent navigation computers (e.g., flight
[2] Determine that the waypoints are management systems (FMS)). Alternatively, to
logical in location, in the correct order, and their comply with the requirements using a single RNAV
orientation to each other is as found on the procedure system with an installed and operable VOR
chart, both laterally and vertically. capability, the VOR capability must be independent
of the FMS.
NOTE
There is no specific requirement to check each waypoint [d] To satisfy the requirement for two
latitude and longitude, type of waypoint and/or altitude independent navigation systems, if the primary
constraint, only the general relationship of waypoints in navigation system is GPSbased, the second system
the procedure, or the logic of an individual waypoints must be independent of GPS (for example, VOR or
location. DME/DME/IRU). This allows continued navigation
in case of failure of the GPS or WAAS services.
[3] If the cursory check of procedure
Recognizing that GPS interference and test events
logic or individual waypoint location, specified in [b]
resulting in the loss of GPS services have become
above, indicates a potential error, do not use the
more common, the FAA requires operators conduct-
retrieved procedure or waypoint until a verification of
ing IFR operations under 14 CFR 121.349, 125.203,
latitude and longitude, waypoint type, and altitude
129.17 and 135.65 to retain a non-GPS navigation
constraints indicate full conformity with the
capability consisting of either DME/DME, IRU, or
published data.
VOR for en route and terminal operations, and VOR
(5) Air carrier and commercial operators and ILS for final approach. Since this system is to be
must meet the appropriate provisions of their used as a reversionary capability, single equipage is
approved operations specifications. sufficient.
[a] During domestic operations for com- 3. Oceanic, Domestic, En Route, and
merce or for hire, operators must have a second Terminal Area Operations
navigation system capable of reversion or contin- (a) Conduct GPS IFR operations in oceanic
gency operations. areas only when approved avionics systems are

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installed. TSOC196() users and TSOC129() GPS systems that satisfy the criteria discussed in AC
users authorized for Class A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, or C2 90100(), U.S. Terminal and En Route Area
operations may use GPS in place of another approved Navigation (RNAV) Operations. T-routes require
means of longrange navigation, such as dual INS. GPS or GPS/WAAS equipment.
(See TBL 115 and TBL 116.) Aircraft with a REFERENCE
single installation GPS, meeting the above specifica- AIM Paragraph 534, Airways and Route Systems
tions, are authorized to operate on short oceanic (c) GPS IFR approach/departure operations
routes requiring one means of longrange navigation can be conducted when approved avionics systems
(reference AC 20-138(), Appendix 1). are installed and the following requirements are met:
(b) Conduct GPS domestic, en route, and (1) The aircraft is TSOC145() or TSO
terminal IFR operations only when approved C146() or TSOC196() or TSOC129() in Class A1,
avionics systems are installed. Pilots may use GPS B1, B3, C1, or C3; and
via TSOC129() authorized for Class A1, B1, B3,
(2) The approach/departure must be re-
C1, or C3 operations GPS via TSO-C196(); or
trievable from the current airborne navigation
GPS/WAAS with either TSO-C145() or
database in the navigation computer. The system
TSO-C146(). When using TSO-C129() or
must be able to retrieve the procedure by name from
TSO-C196() receivers, the avionics necessary to
the aircraft navigation database. Manual entry of
receive all of the groundbased facilities appropriate
waypoints using latitude/longitude or place/bearing
for the route to the destination airport and any
is not permitted for approach procedures.
required alternate airport must be installed and
operational. Groundbased facilities necessary for (3) The authorization to fly instrument
these routes must be operational. approaches/departures with GPS is limited to U.S.
airspace.
(1) GPS en route IFR operations may be
conducted in Alaska outside the operational service (4) The use of GPS in any other airspace
volume of groundbased navigation aids when a must be expressly authorized by the FAA Adminis-
TSOC145() or TSOC146() GPS/wide area aug- trator.
mentation system (WAAS) system is installed and (5) GPS instrument approach/departure
operating. WAAS is the U.S. version of a operations outside the U.S. must be authorized by
satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS). the appropriate sovereign authority.
[a] In Alaska, aircraft may operate on 4. Departures and Instrument Departure
GNSS Q-routes with GPS (TSO-C129 () or Procedures (DPs)
TSO-C196 ()) equipment while the aircraft remains
The GPS receiver must be set to terminal (1 NM)
in Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar surveillance or
CDI sensitivity and the navigation routes contained in
with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145 () or TSO-C146 ())
the database in order to fly published IFR charted
which does not require ATC radar surveillance.
departures and DPs. Terminal RAIM should be
[b] In Alaska, aircraft may only operate automatically provided by the receiver. (Terminal
on GNSS T-routes with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145 () or RAIM for departure may not be available unless the
TSO-C146 ()) equipment. waypoints are part of the active flight plan rather than
proceeding direct to the first destination.) Certain
(2) Groundbased navigation equipment
segments of a DP may require some manual
is not required to be installed and operating for en
intervention by the pilot, especially when radar
route IFR operations when using GPS/WAAS
vectored to a course or required to intercept a specific
navigation systems. All operators should ensure that
course to a waypoint. The database may not contain
an alternate means of navigation is available in the
all of the transitions or departures from all runways
unlikely event the GPS/WAAS navigation system
and some GPS receivers do not contain DPs in the
becomes inoperative.
database. It is necessary that helicopter procedures be
(3) Q-routes and T-routes outside Alaska. flown at 70 knots or less since helicopter departure
Q-routes require system performance currently met procedures and missed approaches use a 20:1
by GPS, GPS/WAAS, or DME/DME/IRU RNAV obstacle clearance surface (OCS), which is double

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the fixedwing OCS, and turning areas are based on approach integrity at the airport where the RNAV
this speed as well. (GPS) approach will be flown, and have proper
knowledge and any required training and/or
5. GPS Instrument Approach Procedures approval to conduct a GPS-based IAP, may file
(a) GPS overlay approaches are designated based on a GPSbased IAP at either the destination
nonprecision instrument approach procedures that or the alternate airport, but not at both locations. At
pilots are authorized to fly using GPS avionics. the alternate airport, pilots may plan for:
Localizer (LOC), localizer type directional aid (1) Lateral navigation (LNAV) or circling
(LDA), and simplified directional facility (SDF) minimum descent altitude (MDA);
procedures are not authorized. Overlay procedures
are identified by the name of the procedure and or (2) LNAV/vertical navigation (LNAV/
GPS (e.g., VOR/DME or GPS RWY 15) in the title. VNAV) DA, if equipped with and using approved
Authorized procedures must be retrievable from a barometric vertical navigation (baro-VNAV) equip-
current onboard navigation database. The naviga- ment;
tion database may also enhance position orientation (3) RNP 0.3 DA on an RNAV (RNP) IAP,
by displaying a map containing information on if they are specifically authorized users using
conventional NAVAID approaches. This approach approved baro-VNAV equipment and the pilot has
information should not be confused with a GPS verified required navigation performance (RNP)
overlay approach (see the receiver operating availability through an approved prediction program.
manual, AFM, or AFM Supplement for details on (d) If the above conditions cannot be met, any
how to identify these approaches in the navigation required alternate airport must have an approved
database). instrument approach procedure other than GPS
NOTE based that is anticipated to be operational and
Overlay approaches do not adhere to the design criteria available at the estimated time of arrival, and which
described in Paragraph 545m, Area Navigation (RNAV) the aircraft is equipped to fly.
Instrument Approach Charts, for standalone GPS
approaches. Overlay approach criteria is based on the (e) Procedures for Accomplishing GPS
design criteria used for groundbased NAVAID ap- Approaches
proaches. (1) An RNAV (GPS) procedure may be
(b) Standalone approach procedures spe- associated with a Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). The
cifically designed for GPS systems have replaced basic design of the RNAV procedure is the T design
many of the original overlay approaches. All or a modification of the T (See Paragraph 5-4-5d,
approaches that contain GPS in the title (e.g., Terminal Arrival Area (TAA), for complete informa-
VOR or GPS RWY 24, GPS RWY 24, or tion).
RNAV (GPS) RWY 24) can be flown using GPS. (2) Pilots cleared by ATC for an RNAV
GPSequipped aircraft do not need underlying (GPS) approach should fly the full approach from an
groundbased NAVAIDs or associated aircraft Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP) or feeder fix.
avionics to fly the approach. Monitoring the Randomly joining an approach at an intermediate fix
underlying approach with groundbased NAVAIDs is does not assure terrain clearance.
suggested when able. Existing overlay approaches
(3) When an approach has been loaded in
may be requested using the GPS title; for example,
the navigation system, GPS receivers will give an
the VOR or GPS RWY 24 may be requested as GPS
arm annunciation 30 NM straight line distance
RWY 24. Some GPS procedures have a Terminal
from the airport/heliport reference point. Pilots
Arrival Area (TAA) with an underlining RNAV
should arm the approach mode at this time if not
approach.
already armed (some receivers arm automatically).
(c) For flight planning purposes, Without arming, the receiver will not change from
TSO-C129() and TSO-C196()equipped users en route CDI and RAIM sensitivity of 5 NM either
(GPS users) whose navigation systems have fault side of centerline to 1 NM terminal sensitivity.
detection and exclusion (FDE) capability, who Where the IAWP is inside this 30 mile point, a CDI
perform a preflight RAIM prediction for the sensitivity change will occur once the approach mode

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is armed and the aircraft is inside 30 NM. Where the outside of any existing segment which is aligned with
IAWP is beyond 30 NM from the airport/heliport the runway. Assigned altitudes must be maintained
reference point and the approach is armed, the CDI until established on a published segment of the
sensitivity will not change until the aircraft is within approach. Required altitudes at waypoints outside the
30 miles of the airport/heliport reference point. FAWP or stepdown fixes must be considered.
Feeder route obstacle clearance is predicated on the Calculating the distance to the FAWP may be
receiver being in terminal (1 NM) CDI sensitivity required in order to descend at the proper location.
and RAIM within 30 NM of the airport/heliport (7) Overriding an automatically selected
reference point; therefore, the receiver should always sensitivity during an approach will cancel the
be armed (if required) not later than the 30 NM approach mode annunciation. If the approach mode
annunciation. is not armed by 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the approach
(4) The pilot must be aware of what bank mode will not become active at 2 NM prior to the
angle/turn rate the particular receiver uses to compute FAWP, and the equipment will flag. In these
turn anticipation, and whether wind and airspeed are conditions, the RAIM and CDI sensitivity will not
included in the receivers calculations. This informa- ramp down, and the pilot should not descend to MDA,
tion should be in the receiver operating manual. Over but fly to the MAWP and execute a missed approach.
or under banking the turn onto the final approach The approach active annunciator and/or the receiver
course may significantly delay getting on course and should be checked to ensure the approach mode is
may result in high descent rates to achieve the next active prior to the FAWP.
segment altitude. (8) Do not attempt to fly an approach unless
the procedure in the onboard database is current and
(5) When within 2 NM of the Final identified as GPS on the approach chart. The
Approach Waypoint (FAWP) with the approach navigation database may contain information about
mode armed, the approach mode will switch to nonoverlay approach procedures that enhances
active, which results in RAIM and CDI changing to position orientation generally by providing a map,
approach sensitivity. Beginning 2 NM prior to the while flying these approaches using conventional
FAWP, the full scale CDI sensitivity will smoothly NAVAIDs. This approach information should not be
change from 1 NM to 0.3 NM at the FAWP. As confused with a GPS overlay approach (see the
sensitivity changes from 1 NM to 0.3 NM receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM Supple-
approaching the FAWP, with the CDI not centered, ment for details on how to identify these procedures
the corresponding increase in CDI displacement in the navigation database). Flying point to point on
may give the impression that the aircraft is moving the approach does not assure compliance with the
further away from the intended course even though it published approach procedure. The proper RAIM
is on an acceptable intercept heading. Referencing the sensitivity will not be available and the CDI
digital track displacement information (cross track sensitivity will not automatically change to 0.3
error), if it is available in the approach mode, may NM. Manually setting CDI sensitivity does not
help the pilot remain position oriented in this automatically change the RAIM sensitivity on some
situation. Being established on the final approach receivers. Some existing nonprecision approach
course prior to the beginning of the sensitivity change procedures cannot be coded for use with GPS and will
at 2 NM will help prevent problems in interpreting the not be available as overlays.
CDI display during ramp down. Therefore, request-
ing or accepting vectors which will cause the aircraft (9) Pilots should pay particular attention
to intercept the final approach course within 2 NM of to the exact operation of their GPS receivers for
the FAWP is not recommended. performing holding patterns and in the case of
overlay approaches, operations such as procedure
(6) When receiving vectors to final, most turns. These procedures may require manual
receiver operating manuals suggest placing the intervention by the pilot to stop the sequencing of
receiver in the nonsequencing mode on the FAWP waypoints by the receiver and to resume automatic
and manually setting the course. This provides an GPS navigation sequencing once the maneuver is
extended final approach course in cases where the complete. The same waypoint may appear in the route
aircraft is vectored onto the final approach course of flight more than once consecutively (for example,

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IAWP, FAWP, MAHWP on a procedure turn). Care change to terminal (1NM) sensitivity and the
must be exercised to ensure that the receiver is receiver will continue to navigate to the MAWP. The
sequenced to the appropriate waypoint for the receiver will not sequence past the MAWP. Turns
segment of the procedure being flown, especially if should not begin prior to the MAWP. If the missed
one or more flyovers are skipped (for example, approach is not activated, the GPS receiver will
FAWP rather than IAWP if the procedure turn is not display an extension of the inbound final approach
flown). The pilot may have to sequence past one or course and the ATD will increase from the MAWP
more flyovers of the same waypoint in order to start until it is manually sequenced after crossing the
GPS automatic sequencing at the proper place in the MAWP.
sequence of waypoints.
(2) Missed approach routings in which the
(10) Incorrect inputs into the GPS receiver
first track is via a course rather than direct to the next
are especially critical during approaches. In some
waypoint require additional action by the pilot to set
cases, an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to
the course. Being familiar with all of the inputs
leave the approach mode.
required is especially critical during this phase of
(11) A fix on an overlay approach identi- flight.
fied by a DME fix will not be in the waypoint
sequence on the GPS receiver unless there is a (g) GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical Informa-
published name assigned to it. When a name is tion
assigned, the along track distance (ATD) to the
waypoint may be zero rather than the DME stated on (1) GPS satellite outages are issued as
the approach chart. The pilot should be alert for this GPS NOTAMs both domestically and internation-
on any overlay procedure where the original ally. However, the effect of an outage on the intended
approach used DME. operation cannot be determined unless the pilot has a
RAIM availability prediction program which allows
(12) If a visual descent point (VDP) is
excluding a satellite which is predicted to be out of
published, it will not be included in the sequence of
service based on the NOTAM information.
waypoints. Pilots are expected to use normal piloting
techniques for beginning the visual descent, such as
(2) The terms UNRELIABLE and MAY
ATD.
NOT BE AVAILABLE are used in conjunction with
(13) Unnamed stepdown fixes in the final GPS NOTAMs. Both UNRELIABLE and MAY NOT
approach segment may or may not be coded in the BE AVAILABLE are advisories to pilots indicating
waypoint sequence of the aircrafts navigation the expected level of service may not be available.
database and must be identified using ATD. UNRELIABLE does not mean there is a problem
Stepdown fixes in the final approach segment of with GPS signal integrity. If GPS service is available,
RNAV (GPS) approaches are being named, in pilots may continue operations. If the LNAV or
addition to being identified by ATD. However, GPS LNAV/VNAV service is available, pilots may use the
avionics may or may not accommodate waypoints displayed level of service to fly the approach. GPS
between the FAF and MAP. Pilots must know the operation may be NOTAMed UNRELIABLE or
capabilities of their GPS equipment and continue to MAY NOT BE AVAILABLE due to testing or
identify stepdown fixes using ATD when necessary. anomalies. (Pilots are encouraged to report GPS
anomalies, including degraded operation and/or loss
(f) Missed Approach
of service, as soon as possible, reference paragraph
(1) A GPS missed approach requires pilot 1113.) When GPS testing NOTAMS are published
action to sequence the receiver past the MAWP to the and testing is actually occurring, Air Traffic Control
missed approach portion of the procedure. The pilot will advise pilots requesting or cleared for a GPS or
must be thoroughly familiar with the activation RNAV (GPS) approach that GPS may not be
procedure for the particular GPS receiver installed in available and request intentions. If pilots have
the aircraft and must initiate appropriate action after reported GPS anomalies, Air Traffic Control will
the MAWP. Activating the missed approach prior to request the pilots intentions and/or clear the pilot for
the MAWP will cause CDI sensitivity to immediately an alternate approach, if available and operational.

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EXAMPLE relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may affect

The following is an example of a GPS testing NOTAM: reception of one or more satellites. Since the relative
!GPS 06/001 ZAB NAV GPS (INCLUDING WAAS, GBAS, positions of the satellites are constantly changing,
AND ADS-B) MAY NOT BE AVAILABLE WITHIN A prior experience with the airport does not guarantee
468NM RADIUS CENTERED AT 330702N1062540W
reception at all times, and RAIM availability should
(TCS 093044) FL400-UNL DECREASING IN AREA
WITH A DECREASE IN ALTITUDE DEFINED AS:
always be checked.
425NM RADIUS AT FL250, 360NM RADIUS AT (2) If RAIM is not available, use another
10000FT, 354NM RADIUS AT 4000FT AGL, 327NM type of navigation and approach system, select
RADIUS AT 50FT AGL. 1406070300-1406071200. another route or destination, or delay the trip until
(3) Civilian pilots may obtain GPS RAIM RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival. On
availability information for nonprecision approach longer flights, pilots should consider rechecking the
procedures by: using a manufacturer-supplied RAIM RAIM prediction for the destination during the flight.
prediction tool; or using the generic tool at This may provide an early indication that an
www.raimprediction.net. The FAA is developing a unscheduled satellite outage has occurred since
replacement prediction tool at www.sapt.faa.gov takeoff.
scheduled for transition in 2014. Pilots can also (3) If a RAIM failure/status annunciation
request GPS RAIM aeronautical information from a occurs prior to the final approach waypoint
flight service station during preflight briefings. GPS (FAWP), the approach should not be completed since
RAIM aeronautical information can be obtained for GPS no longer provides the required integrity. The
a period of 3 hours (for example, if you are scheduled receiver performs a RAIM prediction by 2 NM prior
to arrive at 1215 hours, then the GPS RAIM to the FAWP to ensure that RAIM is available as a
information is available from 1100 to 1400 hours) or condition for entering the approach mode. The pilot
a 24hour timeframe at a particular airport. FAA should ensure the receiver has sequenced from
briefers will provide RAIM information for a period Armed to Approach prior to the FAWP (normally
of 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA hour, unless occurs 2 NM prior). Failure to sequence may be an
a specific timeframe is requested by the pilot. If flying indication of the detection of a satellite anomaly,
a published GPS departure, a RAIM prediction failure to arm the receiver (if required), or other
should also be requested for the departure airport. problems which preclude flying the approach.
(4) The military provides airfield specific (4) If the receiver does not sequence into
GPS RAIM NOTAMs for nonprecision approach the approach mode or a RAIM failure/status
procedures at military airfields. The RAIM outages annunciation occurs prior to the FAWP, the pilot must
are issued as Mseries NOTAMs and may be obtained not initiate the approach or descend, but instead
for up to 24 hours from the time of request. proceed to the missed approach waypoint ( MAWP)
(5) Receiver manufacturers and/or data- via the FAWP, perform a missed approach, and
base suppliers may supply NOTAM type contact ATC as soon as practical. The GPS receiver
information concerning database errors. Pilots may continue to operate after a RAIM flag/status
should check these sources, when available, to ensure annunciation appears, but the navigation information
that they have the most current information should be considered advisory only. Refer to the
concerning their electronic database. receiver operating manual for specific indications
and instructions associated with loss of RAIM prior
(h) Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monit- to the FAF.
oring (RAIM)
(5) If the RAIM flag/status annunciation
(1) RAIM outages may occur due to an appears after the FAWP, the pilot should initiate a
insufficient number of satellites or due to unsuitable climb and execute the missed approach. The GPS
satellite geometry which causes the error in the receiver may continue to operate after a RAIM
position solution to become too large. Loss of satellite flag/status annunciation appears, but the navigation
reception and RAIM warnings may occur due to information should be considered advisory only.
aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle). Refer to the receiver operating manual for operating
Antenna location on the aircraft, satellite position mode information during a RAIM annunciation.

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(i) Waypoints the International Civil Aviation Organization

(ICAO).
(1) GPS receivers navigate from one
defined point to another retrieved from the aircrafts (3) GPS approaches use flyover and
onboard navigational database. These points are flyby waypoints to join route segments on an
waypoints (5-letter pronounceable name), existing approach. Flyby waypoints connect the two
VHF intersections, DME fixes with 5letter segments by allowing the aircraft to turn prior to the
pronounceable names and 3-letter NAVAID IDs. current waypoint in order to roll out on course to the
Each waypoint is a geographical location defined by next waypoint. This is known as turn anticipation and
a latitude/longitude geographic coordinate. These is compensated for in the airspace and terrain
5letter waypoints, VHF intersections, 5letter clearances. The MAWP and the missed approach
pronounceable DME fixes and 3letter NAVAID IDs holding waypoint (MAHWP) are normally the only
are published on various FAA aeronautical naviga- two waypoints on the approach that are not flyby
tion products (IFR Enroute Charts, VFR Charts, waypoints. Flyover waypoints are used when the
Terminal Procedures Publications, etc.). aircraft must overfly the waypoint prior to starting a
turn to the new course. The symbol for a fly-over
(2) A Computer Navigation Fix (CNF) is waypoint is a circled waypoint. Some waypoints may
also a point defined by a latitude/longitude coordinate have dual use; for example, as a flyby waypoint
and is required to support PerformanceBased when used as an IF for a NoPT route and as a fly-over
Navigation (PBN) operations. The GPS receiver uses waypoint when the same waypoint is also used as an
CNFs in conjunction with waypoints to navigate from IAF/IF hold-in-lieu of PT. When this occurs, the less
point to point. However, CNFs are not recognized by restrictive (fly-by) symbology will be charted.
ATC. ATC does not maintain CNFs in their database Overlay approach charts and some early standalone
and they do not use CNFs for any air traffic control GPS approach charts may not reflect this convention.
purpose. CNFs may or may not be charted on FAA
aeronautical navigation products, are listed in the (4) Unnamed waypoints for each airport
chart legends, and are for advisory purposes only. will be uniquely identified in the database. Although
Pilots are not to use CNFs for point to point the identifier may be used at different airports (for
navigation (proceed direct), filing a flight plan, or in example, RW36 will be the identifier at each airport
aircraft/ATC communications. CNFs that do appear with a runway 36), the actual point, at each airport, is
on aeronautical charts allow pilots increased defined by a specific latitude/longitude coordinate.
situational awareness by identifying points in the (5) The runway threshold waypoint, nor-
aircraft database route of flight with points on the mally the MAWP, may have a fiveletter identifier
aeronautical chart. CNFs are random five-letter (for example, SNEEZ) or be coded as RW## (for
identifiers, not pronounceable like waypoints and example, RW36, RW36L). MAWPs located at the
placed in parenthesis. Eventually, all CNFs will begin runway threshold are being changed to the RW##
with the letters CF followed by three consonants identifier, while MAWPs not located at the threshold
(for example, CFWBG). This five-letter identifier will have a fiveletter identifier. This may cause the
will be found next to an x on enroute charts and approach chart to differ from the aircraft database
possibly on an approach chart. On instrument until all changes are complete. The runway threshold
approach procedures (charts) in the terminal waypoint is also used as the center of the Minimum
procedures publication, CNFs may represent un- Safe Altitude (MSA) on most GPS approaches.
named DME fixes, beginning and ending points of
DME arcs, and sensor (ground-based signal i.e., (j) Position Orientation.
VOR, NDB, ILS) final approach fixes on GPS Pilots should pay particular attention to position
overlay approaches. These CNFs provide the GPS orientation while using GPS. Distance and track
with points on the procedure that allow the overlay information are provided to the next active
approach to mirror the ground-based sensor waypoint, not to a fixed navigation aid. Receivers
approach. These points should only be used by the may sequence when the pilot is not flying along an
GPS system for navigation and should not be used by active route, such as when being vectored or
pilots for any other purpose on the approach. The deviating for weather, due to the proximity to another
CNF concept has not been adopted or recognized by waypoint in the route. This can be prevented by

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placing the receiver in the non-sequencing mode. course that may be attributed to magnetic variation
When the receiver is in the non-sequencing mode, application. Should significant differences between
bearing and distance are provided to the selected the approach chart and the PBN system avionics
waypoint and the receiver will not sequence to the application of the navigation database arise, the
next waypoint in the route until placed back in the published approach chart, supplemented by NOT-
auto sequence mode or the pilot selects a different AMs, holds precedence.
waypoint. The pilot may have to compute the ATD (2) The course into a waypoint may not
to stepdown fixes and other points on overlay always be 180 degrees different from the course
approaches, due to the receiver showing ATD to the leaving the previous waypoint, due to the PBN
next waypoint rather than DME to the VOR or ILS system avionics computation of geodesic paths,
ground station. distance between waypoints, and differences in
(k) Impact of Magnetic Variation on PBN magnetic variation application. Variations in
Systems distances may also occur since PBN system
distancetowaypoint values are ATDs computed to
(1) Differences may exist between PBN the next waypoint and the DME values published on
systems and the charted magnetic courses on underlying procedures are slantrange distances
groundbased NAVAID instrument flight procedures measured to the station. This difference increases
(IFP), enroute charts, approach charts, and Standard with aircraft altitude and proximity to the NAVAID.
Instrument Departure/Standard Terminal Arrival
(l) GPS Familiarization
(SID/STAR) charts. These differences are due to the
magnetic variance used to calculate the magnetic Pilots should practice GPS approaches in visual
course. Every leg of an instrument procedure is first meteorological conditions (VMC) until thoroughly
computed along a desired ground track with reference proficient with all aspects of their equipment
to true north. A magnetic variation correction is then (receiver and installation) prior to attempting flight
applied to the true course in order to calculate a in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
magnetic course for publication. The type of Pilots should be proficient in the following areas:
procedure will determine what magnetic variation (1) Using the receiver autonomous integ-
value is added to the true course. A groundbased rity monitoring (RAIM) prediction function;
NAVAID IFP applies the facility magnetic variation
(2) Inserting a DP into the flight plan,
of record to the true course to get the charted magnetic
including setting terminal CDI sensitivity, if required,
course. Magnetic courses on PBN procedures are
and the conditions under which terminal RAIM is
calculated two different ways. SID/STAR procedures
available for departure;
use the airport magnetic variation of record, while
IFR enroute charts use magnetic reference bearing. (3) Programming the destination airport;
PBN systems make a correction to true north by (4) Programming and flying the ap-
adding a magnetic variation calculated with an proaches (especially procedure turns and arcs);
algorithm based on aircraft position, or by adding the (5) Changing to another approach after
magnetic variation coded in their navigational selecting an approach;
database. This may result in the PBN system and the
procedure designer using a different magnetic (6) Programming and flying direct
variation, which causes the magnetic course missed approaches;
displayed by the PBN system and the magnetic course (7) Programming and flying routed
charted on the IFP plate to be different. It is important missed approaches;
to understand, however, that PBN systems, (with the (8) Entering, flying, and exiting holding
exception of VOR/DME RNAV equipment) navigate patterns, particularly on approaches with a second
by reference to true north and display magnetic waypoint in the holding pattern;
course only for pilot reference. As such, a properly
functioning PBN system, containing a current and (9) Programming and flying a route from
accurate navigational database, should fly the a holding pattern;
correct ground track for any loaded instrument (10) Programming and flying an approach
procedure, despite differences in displayed magnetic with radar vectors to the intermediate segment;

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(11) Indication of the actions required for (12) Programming a radial and distance
RAIM failure both before and after the FAWP; and from a VOR (often used in departure instructions).
TBL 115
GPS IFR Equipment Classes/Categories
TSOC129
Int. Nav. Sys. to Nonprecision
Equipment
RAIM Prov. RAIM Oceanic En Route Terminal Approach
Class
Equiv. Capable
Class A GPS sensor and navigation capability.
A1 yes yes yes yes yes
A2 yes yes yes yes no
Class B GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (i.e., FMS, multisensor navigation system, etc.).
B1 yes yes yes yes yes
B2 yes yes yes yes no
B3 yes yes yes yes yes
B4 yes yes yes yes no
Class C GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (as in Class B) which provides enhanced guidance to an autopilot, or
flight director, to reduce flight tech. errors. Limited to 14 CFR Part 121 or equivalent criteria.
C1 yes yes yes yes yes
C2 yes yes yes yes no
C3 yes yes yes yes yes
C4 yes yes yes yes no
TBL 116
GPS Approval Required/Authorized Use
Installation Operational
Equipment Approval Approval IFR IFR IFR Oceanic In Lieu of
Type1 Required Required En Route2 Terminal2 Approach3 Remote ADF and/or
DME3
Hand held4 X5
VFR Panel Mount4 X
IFR En Route X X X X X
and Terminal
IFR Oceanic/ X X X X X X
Remote
IFR En Route, X X X X X X
Terminal, and
Approach
NOTE
1To determine equipment approvals and limitations, refer to the AFM, AFM supplements, or pilot guides.
2Requires verification of data for correctness if database is expired.
3Requires current database or verification that the procedure has not been amended since the expiration of the database.
4VFR and handheld GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a primary instrument
flight reference. During IFR operations they may be considered only an aid to situational awareness.
5Handheld receivers require no approval. However, any aircraft modification to support the handheld receiver;
i.e., installation of an external antenna or a permanent mounting bracket, does require approval.

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1118. Wide Area Augmentation System corrections to reduce errors. The performance
(WAAS) improvement is sufficient to enable approach
procedures with GPS/WAAS glide paths (vertical
a. General guidance).
1. The FAA developed the WAAS to improve 5. The FAA has completed installation of 3
the accuracy, integrity and availability of GPS GEO satellite links, 38 WRSs, 3 WMSs, 6 GES, and
signals. WAAS will allow GPS to be used, as the the required terrestrial communications to support
aviation navigation system, from takeoff through the WAAS network including 2 operational control
approach when it is complete. WAAS is a critical centers. Prior to the commissioning of the WAAS for
component of the FAAs strategic objective for a public use, the FAA conducted a series of test and
seamless satellite navigation system for civil validation activities. Future dual frequency opera-
aviation, improving capacity and safety. tions are planned.
2. The International Civil Aviation Organiza- 6. GNSS navigation, including GPS and
tion (ICAO) has defined Standards and WAAS, is referenced to the WGS84 coordinate
Recommended Practices (SARPs) for satellitebased system. It should only be used where the Aeronautical
augmentation systems (SBAS) such as WAAS. Information Publications (including electronic data
Japan, India, and Europe are building similar and aeronautical charts) conform to WGS84 or
systems: EGNOS, the European Geostationary equivalent. Other countries civil aviation authorities
Navigation Overlay System; Indias GPS and may impose additional limitations on the use of their
Geo-Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system; and SBAS systems.
Japans Multi-functional Transport Satellite (MT-
SAT)-based Satellite Augmentation System b. Instrument Approach Capabilities
(MSAS). The merging of these systems will create an
expansive navigation capability similar to GPS, but 1. A class of approach procedures which
with greater accuracy, availability, and integrity. provide vertical guidance, but which do not meet the
ICAO Annex 10 requirements for precision ap-
3. Unlike traditional groundbased navigation proaches has been developed to support satellite
aids, WAAS will cover a more extensive service area. navigation use for aviation applications worldwide.
Precisely surveyed widearea reference stations These procedures are not precision and are referred to
(WRS) are linked to form the U.S. WAAS network. as Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV), are
Signals from the GPS satellites are monitored by defined in ICAO Annex 6, and include approaches
these WRSs to determine satellite clock and such as the LNAV/VNAV and localizer performance
ephemeris corrections and to model the propagation with vertical guidance (LPV). These approaches
effects of the ionosphere. Each station in the network provide vertical guidance, but do not meet the more
relays the data to a widearea master station (WMS) stringent standards of a precision approach. Properly
where the correction information is computed. A certified WAAS receivers will be able to fly to LPV
correction message is prepared and uplinked to a minima and LNAV/VNAV minima, using a WAAS
geostationary earth orbit satellite (GEO) via a GEO electronic glide path, which eliminates the errors that
uplink subsystem (GUS) which is located at the can be introduced by using Barometric altimetry.
ground earth station (GES). The message is then
broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1, 2. LPV minima takes advantage of the high
1575.42 MHz) to WAAS receivers within the accuracy guidance and increased integrity provided
broadcast coverage area of the WAAS GEO. by WAAS. This WAAS generated angular guidance
allows the use of the same TERPS approach criteria
4. In addition to providing the correction signal, used for ILS approaches. LPV minima may have a
the WAAS GEO provides an additional pseudorange decision altitude as low as 200 feet height above
measurement to the aircraft receiver, improving the touchdown with visibility minimums as low as 1/2
availability of GPS by providing, in effect, an mile, when the terrain and airport infrastructure
additional GPS satellite in view. The integrity of GPS support the lowest minima. LPV minima is published
is improved through realtime monitoring, and the on the RNAV (GPS) approach charts (see Paragraph
accuracy is improved by providing differential 545, Instrument Approach Procedure Charts).

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3. A different WAAS-based line of minima, operator obtains a fault detection and exclusion
called Localizer Performance (LP) is being added in (FDE) prediction program.
locations where the terrain or obstructions do not 4. Air carrier and commercial operators must
allow publication of vertically guided LPV minima. meet the appropriate provisions of their approved
LP takes advantage of the angular lateral guidance operations specifications.
and smaller position errors provided by WAAS to
provide a lateral only procedure similar to an ILS 5. Prior to GPS/WAAS IFR operation, the pilot
Localizer. LP procedures may provide lower minima must review appropriate Notices to Airmen (NOT-
than a LNAV procedure due to the narrower obstacle AMs) and aeronautical information. This
clearance surface. information is available on request from a Flight
Service Station. The FAA will provide NOTAMs to
NOTE advise pilots of the status of the WAAS and level of
WAAS receivers certified prior to TSOC145b and service available.
TSOC146b, even if they have LPV capability, do not
contain LP capability unless the receiver has been (a) The term MAY NOT BE AVBL is used in
upgraded. Receivers capable of flying LP procedures must conjunction with WAAS NOTAMs and indicates that
contain a statement in the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM), due to ionospheric conditions, lateral guidance may
AFM Supplement, or Approved Supplemental Flight still be available when vertical guidance is
Manual stating that the receiver has LP capability, as well unavailable. Under certain conditions, both lateral
as the capability for the other WAAS and GPS approach and vertical guidance may be unavailable. This
procedure types. NOTAM language is an advisory to pilots indicating
4. WAAS provides a level of service that the expected level of WAAS service (LNAV/VNAV,
supports all phases of flight, including RNAV (GPS) LPV, LP) may not be available.
approaches to LNAV, LP, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV EXAMPLE
lines of minima, within system coverage. Some !FDC FDC NAV WAAS VNAV/LPV/LP MINIMA MAY
locations close to the edge of the coverage may have NOT BE AVBL 1306111330-1306141930EST
a lower availability of vertical guidance. or
!FDC FDC NAV WAAS VNAV/LPV MINIMA NOT AVBL,
c. General Requirements WAAS LP MINIMA MAY NOT BE AVBL
1306021200-1306031200EST
1. WAAS avionics must be certified in
accordance with Technical Standard Order (TSO) WAAS MAY NOT BE AVBL NOTAMs are
TSOC145(), Airborne Navigation Sensors Using predictive in nature and published for flight planning
the (GPS) Augmented by the Wide Area Augmenta- purposes. Upon commencing an approach at
tion System (WAAS); or TSOC146(), StandAlone locations NOTAMed WAAS MAY NOT BE AVBL,
Airborne Navigation Equipment Using the Global if the WAAS avionics indicate LNAV/VNAV or LPV
Positioning System (GPS) Augmented by the Wide service is available, then vertical guidance may be
Area Augmentation System (WAAS), and installed in used to complete the approach using the displayed
accordance with Advisory Circular (AC) 20138(), level of service. Should an outage occur during the
Airworthiness Approval of Positioning and Naviga- approach, reversion to LNAV minima or an alternate
tion Systems. instrument approach procedure may be required.
When GPS testing NOTAMS are published and
2. GPS/WAAS operation must be conducted in testing is actually occurring, Air Traffic Control will
accordance with the FAAapproved aircraft flight advise pilots requesting or cleared for a GPS or
manual (AFM) and flight manual supplements. Flight RNAV (GPS) approach that GPS may not be
manual supplements will state the level of approach available and request intentions. If pilots have
procedure that the receiver supports. IFR approved reported GPS anomalies, Air Traffic Control will
WAAS receivers support all GPS only operations as request the pilots intentions and/or clear the pilot for
long as lateral capability at the appropriate level is an alternate approach, if available and operational.
functional. WAAS monitors both GPS and WAAS
(b) WAAS area-wide NOTAMs are origin-
satellites and provides integrity.
ated when WAAS assets are out of service and impact
3. GPS/WAAS equipment is inherently capable the service area. Areawide WAAS NOT AVAIL-
of supporting oceanic and remote operations if the ABLE (AVBL) NOTAMs indicate loss or

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malfunction of the WAAS system. In flight, Air EXAMPLE

Traffic Control will advise pilots requesting a GPS or Here is an example of a GPS testing NOTAM:
RNAV (GPS) approach of WAAS NOT AVBL !GPS 06/001 ZAB NAV GPS (INCLUDING WAAS, GBAS,
NOTAMs if not contained in the ATIS broadcast. AND ADS-B) MAY NOT BE AVAILABLE WITHIN A
468NM RADIUS CENTERED AT 330702N1062540W
EXAMPLE (TCS 093044) FL400-UNL DECREASING IN AREA
For unscheduled loss of signal or service, an example WITH A DECREASE IN ALTITUDE DEFINED AS:
NOTAM is: !FDC FDC NAV WAAS NOT AVBL 425NM RADIUS AT FL250, 360NM RADIUS AT
1311160600 1311191200EST. 10000FT, 354NM RADIUS AT 4000FT AGL, 327NM
For scheduled loss of signal or service, an example RADIUS AT 50FT AGL. 1406070300-1406071200.
NOTAM is: !FDC FDC NAV WAAS NOT AVBL 7. When the approach chart is annotated with
1312041015- 1312082000EST. the symbol, sitespecific WAAS MAY NOT BE
(c) Sitespecific WAAS MAY NOT BE AVBL NOTAMs or Air Traffic advisories are not
AVBL NOTAMs indicate an expected level of provided for outages in WAAS LNAV/VNAV and
service; for example, LNAV/VNAV, LP, or LPV may LPV vertical service. Vertical outages may occur
not be available. Pilots must request sitespecific daily at these locations due to being close to the edge
WAAS NOTAMs during flight planning. In flight, of WAAS system coverage. Use LNAV or circling
Air Traffic Control will not advise pilots of WAAS minima for flight planning at these locations, whether
MAY NOT BE AVBL NOTAMs. as a destination or alternate. For flight operations at
these locations, when the WAAS avionics indicate
NOTE that LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is available, then
Though currently unavailable, the FAA is updating its the vertical guidance may be used to complete the
prediction tool software to provide this site-service in the approach using the displayed level of service. Should
future. an outage occur during the procedure, reversion to
LNAV minima may be required.
(d) Most of North America has redundant
coverage by two or more geostationary satellites. One NOTE
exception is the northern slope of Alaska. If there is Areawide WAAS NOT AVBL NOTAMs apply to all
airports in the WAAS NOT AVBL area designated in the
a problem with the satellite providing coverage to this
NOTAM, including approaches at airports where an
area, a NOTAM similar to the following example will
approach chart is annotated with the symbol.
be issued:
8. GPS/WAAS was developed to be used within
EXAMPLE GEO coverage over North America without the need
!FDC 4/3406 (PAZA A0173/14) ZAN NAV WAAS SIGNAL for other radio navigation equipment appropriate to
MAY NOT BE AVBL NORTH OF LINE FROM the route of flight to be flown. Outside the WAAS
7000N150000W TO 6400N16400W. RMK WAAS USERS coverage or in the event of a WAAS failure,
SHOULD CONFIRM RAIM AVAILABILITY FOR IFR
GPS/WAAS equipment reverts to GPSonly opera-
OPERATIONS IN THIS AREA. T-ROUTES IN THIS
SECTOR NOT AVBL. ANY REQUIRED ALTERNATE tion and satisfies the requirements for basic GPS
AIRPORT IN THIS AREA MUST HAVE AN APPROVED equipment. (See paragraph 1117 for these
INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE OTHER requirements).
THAN GPS THAT IS ANTICIPATED TO BE OPERATION- 9. Unlike TSOC129 avionics, which were
AL AND AVAILABLE AT THE ESTIMATED TIME OF certified as a supplement to other means of
ARRIVAL AND WHICH THE AIRCRAFT IS EQUIPPED navigation, WAAS avionics are evaluated without
TO FLY. 1406030812-1406050812EST .
reliance on other navigation systems. As such,
6. When GPStesting NOTAMS are published installation of WAAS avionics does not require the
and testing is actually occurring, Air Traffic Control aircraft to have other equipment appropriate to the
will advise pilots requesting or cleared for a GPS or route to be flown. (See paragraph 1117 d for more
RNAV (GPS) approach that GPS may not be information on equipment requirements.)
available and request intentions. If pilots have (a) Pilots with WAAS receivers may flight
reported GPS anomalies, Air Traffic Control will plan to use any instrument approach procedure
request the pilots intentions and/or clear the pilot for authorized for use with their WAAS avionics as
an alternate approach, if available and operational. the planned approach at a required alternate, with

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the following restrictions. When using WAAS at GPS, LNAV, and LNAV/VNAV approach mode, to
an alternate airport, flight planning must be based 40 meters for LPV. It also provides vertical integrity
on flying the RNAV (GPS) LNAV or circling minima monitoring, which bounds the vertical error to 50
line, or minima on a GPS approach procedure, or meters for LNAV/VNAV and LPVs with minima of
conventional approach procedure with or GPS in 250 or above, and bounds the vertical error to 35
the title. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 91 meters for LPVs with minima below 250.
nonprecision weather requirements must be used for 2. When an approach procedure is selected and
planning. Upon arrival at an alternate, when the active, the receiver will notify the pilot of the most
WAAS navigation system indicates that LNAV/ accurate level of service supported by the combina-
VNAV or LPV service is available, then vertical tion of the WAAS signal, the receiver, and the
guidance may be used to complete the approach using selected approach, using the naming conventions on
the displayed level of service. The FAA has begun the minima lines of the selected approach procedure.
removing the NA (Alternate Minimums Not For example, if an approach is published with LPV
Authorized) symbol from select RNAV (GPS) and minima and the receiver is only certified for
GPS approach procedures so they may be used by LNAV/VNAV, the equipment would indicate
approach approved WAAS receivers at alternate LNAV/VNAV available, even though the WAAS
airports. Some approach procedures will still require signal would support LPV. If flying an existing
the NA for other reasons, such as no weather LNAV/VNAV procedure with no LPV minima, the
reporting, so it cannot be removed from all receiver will notify the pilot LNAV/VNAV
procedures. Since every procedure must be individu- available, even if the receiver is certified for LPV
ally evaluated, removal of the NA from RNAV and the signal supports LPV. If the signal does not
(GPS) and GPS procedures will take some time. support vertical guidance on procedures with LPV
and/or LNAV/VNAV minima, the receiver annunci-
NOTE
Properly trained and approved, as required, TSO-C145() ation will read LNAV available. On lateral only
and TSO-C146() equipped users (WAAS users) with and procedures with LP and LNAV minima the receiver
using approved baro-VNAV equipment may plan for will indicate LP available or LNAV available
LNAV/VNAV DA at an alternate airport. Specifically based on the level of lateral service available. Once
authorized WAAS users with and using approved the level of service notification has been given, the
baro-VNAV equipment may also plan for RNP 0.3 DA at the receiver will operate in this mode for the duration of
alternate airport as long as the pilot has verified RNP the approach procedure, unless that level of service
availability through an approved prediction program. becomes unavailable. The receiver cannot change
d. Flying Procedures with WAAS back to a more accurate level of service until the next
time an approach is activated.
1. WAAS receivers support all basic GPS
NOTE
approach functions and provide additional capabilit-
Receivers do not fail down to lower levels of service
ies. One of the major improvements is the ability to once the approach has been activated. If only the
generate glide path guidance, independent of ground vertical off flag appears, the pilot may elect to use the
equipment or barometric aiding. This eliminates LNAV minima if the rules under which the flight is
several problems such as hot and cold temperature operating allow changing the type of approach being flown
effects, incorrect altimeter setting, or lack of a local after commencing the procedure. If the lateral integrity
altimeter source. It also allows approach procedures limit is exceeded on an LP approach, a missed approach
to be built without the cost of installing ground will be necessary since there is no way to reset the lateral
stations at each airport or runway. Some approach alarm limit while the approach is active.
certified receivers may only generate a glide path 3. Another additional feature of WAAS receiv-
with performance similar to BaroVNAV and are ers is the ability to exclude a bad GPS signal and
only approved to fly the LNAV/VNAV line of minima continue operating normally. This is normally
on the RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Receivers with accomplished by the WAAS correction information.
additional capability (including faster update rates Outside WAAS coverage or when WAAS is not
and smaller integrity limits) are approved to fly the available, it is accomplished through a receiver
LPV line of minima. The lateral integrity changes algorithm called FDE. In most cases this operation
dramatically from the 0.3 NM (556 meter) limit for will be invisible to the pilot since the receiver will

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continue to operate with other available satellites 6. There are two ways to select the final
after excluding the bad signal. This capability approach segment of an instrument approach. Most
increases the reliability of navigation. receivers use menus where the pilot selects the
airport, the runway, the specific approach procedure
4. Both lateral and vertical scaling for the and finally the IAF, there is also a channel number
LNAV/VNAV and LPV approach procedures are selection method. The pilot enters a unique 5digit
different than the linear scaling of basic GPS. When number provided on the approach chart, and the
the complete published procedure is flown, 1 NM receiver recalls the matching final approach segment
linear scaling is provided until two (2) NM prior to the from the aircraft database. A list of information
FAF, where the sensitivity increases to be similar to including the available IAFs is displayed and the pilot
the angular scaling of an ILS. There are two differ- selects the appropriate IAF. The pilot should confirm
ences in the WAAS scaling and ILS: 1) on long final that the correct final approach segment was loaded by
approach segments, the initial scaling will be cross checking the Approach ID, which is also
0.3 NM to achieve equivalent performance to GPS provided on the approach chart.
(and better than ILS, which is less sensitive far from 7. The AlongTrack Distance (ATD) during the
the runway); 2) close to the runway threshold, the final approach segment of an LNAV procedure (with
scaling changes to linear instead of continuing to a minimum descent altitude) will be to the MAWP. On
become more sensitive. The width of the final LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches to a decision
approach course is tailored so that the total width is altitude, there is no missed approach waypoint so the
usually 700 feet at the runway threshold. Since the alongtrack distance is displayed to a point normally
origin point of the lateral splay for the angular portion located at the runway threshold. In most cases, the
of the final is not fixed due to antenna placement like MAWP for the LNAV approach is located on the
localizer, the splay angle can remain fixed, making a runway threshold at the centerline, so these distances
consistent width of final for aircraft being vectored will be the same. This distance will always vary
onto the final approach course on different length slightly from any ILS DME that may be present, since
runways. When the complete published procedure is the ILS DME is located further down the runway.
not flown, and instead the aircraft needs to capture the Initiation of the missed approach on the LNAV/
extended final approach course similar to ILS, the VNAV and LPV approaches is still based on reaching
vector to final (VTF) mode is used. Under VTF, the the decision altitude without any of the items listed in
scaling is linear at NM until the point where the ILS 14 CFR Section 91.175 being visible, and must not be
angular splay reaches a width of 1 NM regardless delayed while waiting for the ATD to reach zero. The
of the distance from the FAWP. WAAS receiver, unlike a GPS receiver, will
automatically sequence past the MAWP if the missed
5. The WAAS scaling is also different than GPS approach procedure has been designed for RNAV.
TSOC129() in the initial portion of the missed The pilot may also select missed approach prior to the
approach. Two differences occur here. First, the MAWP; however, navigation will continue to the
scaling abruptly changes from the approach scaling to MAWP prior to waypoint sequencing taking place.
the missed approach scaling, at approximately the
departure end of the runway or when the pilot selects 1119. Ground Based Augmentation
missed approach guidance rather than ramping as System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS)
GPS does. Second, when the first leg of the missed
approach is a Track to Fix (TF) leg aligned within 3 a. General
degrees of the inbound course, the receiver will 1. The GLS provides precision navigation
change to 0.3 NM linear sensitivity until the turn guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft
initiation point for the first waypoint in the missed on approach to a runway. It provides differential
approach procedure, at which time it will abruptly augmentation to the Global Navigation Satellite
change to terminal (1 NM) sensitivity. This allows System (GNSS).
the elimination of close in obstacles in the early part NOTE
of the missed approach that may otherwise cause the GBAS is the ICAO term for Local Area Augmentation
DA to be raised. System (LAAS).

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2. LAAS was developed as an ILS lookalike 2. General aviation operators requesting ap-
system from the pilot perspective. LAAS is based on proval for special procedures should contact the local
GPS signals augmented by ground equipment and has Flight Standards District Office to obtain a letter of
been developed to provide GLS precision approaches authorization. Air carrier operators requesting
similar to ILS at airfields. approval for use of special procedures should contact
their Certificate Holding District Office for authoriz-
3. GLS provides guidance similar to ILS
ation through their Operations Specification.
approaches for the final approach segment; portions
of the GLS approach prior to and after the final c. Transponder Landing System (TLS)
approach segment will be based on Area Navigation 1. The TLS is designed to provide approach
(RNAV) or Required Navigation Performance guidance utilizing existing airborne ILS localizer,
(RNP). glide slope, and transponder equipment.
4. The equipment consists of a GBAS Ground 2. Ground equipment consists of a transponder
Facility (GGF), four reference stations, a VHF Data interrogator, sensor arrays to detect lateral and
Broadcast (VDB) uplink antenna, and an aircraft vertical position, and ILS frequency transmitters. The
GBAS receiver. TLS detects the aircrafts position by interrogating its
transponder. It then broadcasts ILS frequency signals
b. Procedure to guide the aircraft along the desired approach path.
1. Pilots will select the five digit GBAS channel 3. TLS instrument approach procedures are
number of the associated approach within the Flight designated Special Instrument Approach Procedures.
Management System (FMS) menu or manually select Special aircrew training is required. TLS ground
the five digits (system dependent). Selection of the equipment provides approach guidance for only one
GBAS channel number also tunes the VDB. aircraft at a time. Even though the TLS signal is
2. Following procedure selection, confirmation received using the ILS receiver, no fixed course or
that the correct LAAS procedure is loaded can be glidepath is generated. The concept of operation is
accomplished by cross checking the charted very similar to an air traffic controller providing radar
Reference Path Indicator (RPI) or approach ID with vectors, and just as with radar vectors, the guidance
the cockpit displayed RPI or audio identification of is valid only for the intended aircraft. The TLS
the RPI with Morse Code (for some systems). ground equipment tracks one aircraft, based on its
transponder code, and provides correction signals to
3. The pilot will fly the GLS approach using the course and glidepath based on the position of the
same techniques as an ILS, once selected and tracked aircraft. Flying the TLS corrections com-
identified. puted for another aircraft will not provide guidance
relative to the approach; therefore, aircrews must not
1120. Precision Approach Systems other use the TLS signal for navigation unless they have
than ILS and GLS received approach clearance and completed the
required coordination with the TLS ground equip-
a. General ment operator. Navigation fixes based on
Approval and use of precision approach systems conventional NAVAIDs or GPS are provided in the
other than ILS and GLS require the issuance of special instrument approach procedure to allow
special instrument approach procedures. aircrews to verify the TLS guidance.
b. Special Instrument Approach Procedure d. Special Category I Differential GPS (SCAT
I DGPS)
1. Special instrument approach procedures
1. The SCATI DGPS is designed to provide
must be issued to the aircraft operator if pilot training,
approach guidance by broadcasting differential
aircraft equipment, and/or aircraft performance is
correction to GPS.
different than published procedures. Special instru-
ment approach procedures are not distributed for 2. SCATI DGPS procedures require aircraft
general public use. These procedures are issued to an equipment and pilot training.
aircraft operator when the conditions for operations 3. Ground equipment consists of GPS receivers
approval are satisfied. and a VHF digital radio transmitter. The SCATI

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DGPS detects the position of GPS satellites relative System (GBAS) will displace SCATI DGPS as the
to GPS receiver equipment and broadcasts differen- public use service.
tial corrections over the VHF digital radio.
REFERENCE
4. Category I Ground Based Augmentation AIM, Para 547f, Instrument Approach Procedures.

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Section 2. PerformanceBased Navigation (PBN) and

Area Navigation (RNAV)
121. PerformanceBased Navigation FIG 121

(PBN) and Area Navigation (RNAV)
a. Introduction to PBN. As air travel has

evolved, methods of navigation have improved to
give operators more flexibility. Under the umbrella of
area navigation, there are legacy and performance
based navigation (PBN) methods, see FIG 121.
The legacy methods include operations incorporating
systems approved under AC 90-45, Approval of Area
Navigation Systems for Use in the U.S. National
Airspace System, which allows two-dimensional area
navigation (2D RNAV) within the U.S. National
Airspace System (NAS). AC 90-45 describes 2D
RNAV in terms of both VOR/DME dependent
systems and self-contained systems such as Inertial b. Area Navigation (RNAV)
Navigation Systems (INS). Many operators have 1. General. RNAV is a method of navigation
upgraded their systems to obtain the benefits of PBN. that permits aircraft operation on any desired flight
Within PBN there are two main categories of path within the coverage of ground or spacebased
navigation methods: area navigation (RNAV) and navigation aids or within the limits of the capability
required navigation performance (RNP). For an of selfcontained aids, or a combination of these. In
aircraft to meet the requirements of RNAV, a the future, there will be an increased dependence on
specified RNAV accuracy must be met 95 percent of the use of RNAV in lieu of routes defined by
the flight time. RNP is an RNAV system that includes groundbased navigation aids. RNAV routes and
onboard performance monitoring and alerting terminal procedures, including departure procedures
capability (for example, Receiver Autonomous (DPs) and standard terminal arrivals (STARs), are
Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)). PBN also introduces designed with RNAV systems in mind. There are
the concept of navigation specifications (Nav Specs) several potential advantages of RNAV routes and
which are a set of aircraft and aircrew requirements procedures:
needed to support a navigation application within a
defined airspace concept. For both RNP and RNAV (a) Time and fuel savings;
designations, the numerical designation refers to the (b) Reduced dependence on radar vectoring,
lateral navigation accuracy in nautical miles which is altitude, and speed assignments allowing a reduction
expected to be achieved at least 95 percent of the in required ATC radio transmissions; and
flight time by the population of aircraft operating
(c) More efficient use of airspace. In addition
within the airspace, route, or procedure. This
to information found in this manual, guidance for
information is introduced in International Civil
domestic RNAV DPs, STARs, and routes may also be
Aviation Organizations (ICAO) Doc 9613, Perform-
found in Advisory Circular 90100(), U.S. Terminal
ance-based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Fourth
and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
Edition, 2013) and the FAA Advisory Circular (AC)
90-105A, Approval Guidance for RNP Operations 2. RNAV Operations. RNAV procedures, such
and Barometric Vertical Navigation in the U.S. as DPs and STARs, demand strict pilot awareness and
National Airspace System and in Remote and maintenance of the procedure centerline. Pilots
Oceanic Airspace (expected publication date in late should possess a working knowledge of their aircraft
2014) further develops this story. navigation system to ensure RNAV procedures are
PerformanceBased Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation (RNAV) 121

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flown in an appropriate manner. In addition, pilots (b) RNAV Leg Types. A leg type describes
should have an understanding of the various the desired path proceeding, following, or between
waypoint and leg types used in RNAV procedures; waypoints on an RNAV procedure. Leg types are
these are discussed in more detail below. identified by a twoletter code that describes the path
(e.g., heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination
(a) Waypoints. A waypoint is a predeter- point (e.g., the path terminates at an altitude, distance,
mined geographical position that is defined in terms fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure design are
of latitude/longitude coordinates. Waypoints may be included in the aircraft navigation database, but not
a simple named point in space or associated with normally provided on the procedure chart. The
existing navaids, intersections, or fixes. A waypoint narrative depiction of the RNAV chart describes how
is most often used to indicate a change in direction, a procedure is flown. The path and terminator
speed, or altitude along the desired path. RNAV concept defines that every leg of a procedure has a
procedures make use of both flyover and flyby termination point and some kind of path into that
waypoints. termination point. Some of the available leg types are
(1) Flyby waypoints. Flyby waypoints described below.
are used when an aircraft should begin a turn to the (1) Track to Fix. A Track to Fix (TF) leg
next course prior to reaching the waypoint separating is intercepted and acquired as the flight track to the
the two route segments. This is known as turn following waypoint. Track to a Fix legs are
anticipation. sometimes called pointtopoint legs for this reason.
(2) Flyover waypoints. Flyover way- Narrative: direct ALPHA, then on course to
points are used when the aircraft must fly over the BRAVO WP. See FIG 123.
point prior to starting a turn. (2) Direct to Fix. A Direct to Fix (DF) leg
NOTE
is a path described by an aircrafts track from an initial
FIG 122 illustrates several differences between a flyby area direct to the next waypoint. Narrative: turn
and a flyover waypoint. right direct BRAVO WP. See FIG 124.
FIG 122
Flyby and Flyover Waypoints
FIG 123
Track to Fix Leg Type
122 PerformanceBased Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation (RNAV)

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FIG 124 FIG 126

Direct to Fix Leg Type Radius to Fix Leg Type
(5) Heading. A Heading leg may be

(3) Course to Fix. A Course to Fix (CF)
defined as, but not limited to, a Heading to Altitude
leg is a path that terminates at a fix with a specified
(VA), Heading to DME range (VD), and Heading to
course at that fix. Narrative: on course 150 to
Manual Termination, i.e., Vector (VM). Narra-
ALPHA WP. See FIG 125.
tive: climb heading 350 to 1500, heading 265, at
9 DME west of PXR VORTAC, right turn heading
FIG 125 360, fly heading 090, expect radar vectors to
Course to Fix Leg Type DRYHT INT.
(c) Navigation Issues. Pilots should be
aware of their navigation system inputs, alerts, and
annunciations in order to make betterinformed
decisions. In addition, the availability and suitability
of particular sensors/systems should be considered.
(1) GPS/WAAS. Operators using TSO
C129(), TSOC196(), TSOC145() or TSOC146()
systems should ensure departure and arrival airports
are entered to ensure proper RAIM availability and
CDI sensitivity.
(2) DME/DME. Operators should be
aware that DME/DME position updating is depen-
dent on navigation system logic and DME facility
proximity, availability, geometry, and signal mask-
ing.
(3) VOR/DME. Unique VOR character-
istics may result in less accurate values from
VOR/DME position updating than from GPS or
DME/DME position updating.
(4) Inertial Navigation. Inertial reference
(4) Radius to Fix. A Radius to Fix (RF) units and inertial navigation systems are often
leg is defined as a constant radius circular path around coupled with other types of navigation inputs,
a defined turn center that terminates at a fix. See e.g., DME/DME or GPS, to improve overall
FIG 126. navigation system performance.

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NOTE 122. Required Navigation Performance

Specific inertial position updating requirements may (RNP)
apply.
a. General. RNP is RNAV with onboard naviga-
(d) Flight Management System tion monitoring and alerting. RNP is also a statement
(FMS). An FMS is an integrated suite of sensors, of navigation performance necessary for operation
receivers, and computers, coupled with a navigation within a defined airspace. A critical component of
database. These systems generally provide perfor- RNP is the ability of the aircraft navigation system to
mance and RNAV guidance to displays and automatic monitor its achieved navigation performance, and to
flight control systems. identify for the pilot whether the operational
Inputs can be accepted from multiple sources such as requirement is, or is not, being met during an
GPS, DME, VOR, LOC and IRU. These inputs may operation. This onboard performance monitoring
be applied to a navigation solution one at a time or in and alerting capability therefore allows a lessened
combination. Some FMSs provide for the detection reliance on air traffic control intervention (via radar
and isolation of faulty navigation information. monitoring, automatic dependent surveillance
(ADS), multilateration, communications), and/or
When appropriate navigation signals are available, route separation to achieve the overall safety of the
FMSs will normally rely on GPS and/or DME/DME operation. RNP capability of the aircraft is a major
(that is, the use of distance information from two or component in determining the separation criteria to
more DME stations) for position updates. Other ensure that the overall containment of the operation
inputs may also be incorporated based on FMS is met.
system architecture and navigation source geometry.
The RNP capability of an aircraft will vary depending
NOTE upon the aircraft equipment and the navigation
DME/DME inputs coupled with one or more IRU(s) are infrastructure. For example, an aircraft may be
often abbreviated as DME/DME/IRU or D/D/I. equipped and certified for RNP 1.0, but may not be
(e) RNAV Navigation Specifications (Nav capable of RNP 1.0 operations due to limited
Specs) NAVAID coverage.
Nav Specs are a set of aircraft and aircrew b. RNP Operations.
requirements needed to support a navigation 1. Lateral Accuracy Values. Lateral Accuracy
application within a defined airspace concept. For values are applicable to a selected airspace, route, or
both RNP and RNAV designations, the numerical procedure. The lateral accuracy value is a value
designation refers to the lateral navigation accuracy typically expressed as a distance in nautical miles
in nautical miles which is expected to be achieved at from the intended centerline of a procedure, route, or
least 95 percent of the flight time by the population of path. RNP applications also account for potential
aircraft operating within the airspace, route, or errors at some multiple of lateral accuracy value (for
procedure. (See FIG 121.) example, twice the RNP lateral accuracy values).
(1) RNAV 1. Typically RNAV 1 is used for (a) Nav Specs and Standard Lateral
DPs and STARs and appears on the charts. Aircraft Accuracy Values. U.S. standard values supporting
must maintain a total system error of not more than typical RNP airspace are as specified below. Other
1 NM for 95 percent of the total flight time. lateral accuracy values as identified by ICAO, other
states, and the FAA may also be used. (See
(2) RNAV 2. Typically RNAV 2 is used for FIG 121.)
en route operations unless otherwise specified.
(1) RNP Approach (APCH). RNP APCH
T-routes and Q-routes are examples of this Nav Spec.
procedures are titled RNAV (GPS) and offer several
Aircraft must maintain a total system error of not
lines of minima to accommodate varying levels of
more than 2 NM for 95 percent of the total flight time.
aircraft equipage: either lateral navigation (LNAV),
(3) RNAV 10. Typically RNAV 10 is used LNAV/vertical navigation (LNAV/VNAV), and
in oceanic operations. See paragraph 471 for Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance
specifics and explanation of the relationship between (LPV), or LNAV, and Localizer Performance (LP).
RNP 10 and RNAV 10 terminology. GPS or WAAS can provide the lateral information to

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support LNAV minima. LNAV/VNAV incorporates (6) RNP 4. RNP 4 will apply to oceanic and
LNAV lateral with vertical path guidance for systems remote operations only with a lateral accuracy value
and operators capable of either barometric or WAAS of 4.
vertical. Pilots are required to use WAAS to fly to the
(7) RNP 0.3. RNP 0.3 will apply to
LPV or LP minima. RNP APCH has a lateral
rotorcraft only. This Nav Spec requires a lateral
accuracy value of 1 in the terminal and missed
accuracy value of 0.3 for all phases of flight except for
approach segments and essentially scales to RNP 0.3
oceanic and remote and the final approach segment.
in the final approach. (See paragraph 1119.)
(b) Application of Standard Lateral Ac-
(2) RNP AR APCH. RNP AR APCH curacy Values. U.S. standard lateral accuracy values
procedures are titled RNAV (RNP). RNP AR APCH typically used for various routes and procedures
vertical navigation performance is based upon supporting RNAV operations may be based on use of
barometric VNAV or WAAS. RNP AR is intended to a specific navigational system or sensor such as GPS,
provide specific benefits at specific locations. It is not or on multisensor RNAV systems having suitable
intended for every operator or aircraft. RNP AR performance.
capability requires specific aircraft performance,
design, operational processes, training, and specific (c) Depiction of Lateral Accuracy Values.
procedure design criteria to achieve the required The applicable lateral accuracy values will be
target level of safety. RNP AR APCH has lateral depicted on affected charts and procedures.
accuracy values that can range below 1 in the terminal c. Other RNP Applications Outside the U.S.
and missed approach segments and essentially scale The FAA and ICAO member states have led
to RNP 0.3 or lower in the final approach. Operators initiatives in implementing the RNP concept to
conducting these approaches should refer to AC oceanic operations. For example, RNP10 routes
90-101A, Approval Guidance for RNP Procedures have been established in the northern Pacific
with AR. (See paragraph 5418.) (NOPAC) which has increased capacity and
efficiency by reducing the distance between tracks
(3) Advanced RNP (A-RNP). Advanced to 50 NM. See paragraph 471.)
RNP includes a lateral accuracy value of 2 for oceanic
and remote operations but not planned for U.S. d. Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility
implementation and may have a 2 or 1 lateral for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria
accuracy value for domestic enroute segments. will have an appropriate entry including special
Except for the final approach, A-RNP allows for conditions and limitations in its Aircraft Flight
scalable RNP lateral navigation accuracies. Its Manual (AFM), or supplement. Operators of aircraft
applications in the U.S. are still in progress. not having specific AFMRNP certification may be
issued operational approval including special condi-
(4) RNP 1. RNP 1 requires a lateral tions and limitations for specific RNP lateral
accuracy value of 1 for arrival and departure in the accuracy values.
terminal area and the initial and intermediate NOTE
approach phase. Some airborne systems use Estimated Position Uncer-
tainty (EPU) as a measure of the current estimated
(5) RNP 2. RNP 2 will apply to both navigational performance. EPU may also be referred to as
domestic and oceanic/remote operations with a Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) or Estimated
lateral accuracy value of 2. Position Error (EPE).

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TBL 121
U.S. Standard RNP Levels
RNP Level Typical Application Primary Route

Width (NM)
Centerline to
Boundary
0.1 to 1.0 RNP AR Approach Segments 0.1 to 1.0
0.3 to 1.0 RNP Approach Segments 0.3 to 1.0
1 Terminal and En Route 1.0
2 En Route 2.0
4 Projected for oceanic/remote areas where 30 NM horizontal 4.0
separation is applied.
10 Oceanic/remote areas where 50 NM lateral separation is 10.0
applied.
123. Use of Suitable Area Navigation or route based on operational VOR using that RNAV
(RNAV) Systems on Conventional system without monitoring the VOR.
Procedures and Routes NOTE
1. Additional information and associated requirements
a. Discussion. This paragraph sets forth policy, are available in Advisory Circular 90-108 titled Use of
while providing operational and airworthiness Suitable RNAV Systems on Conventional Routes and
guidance regarding the suitability and use of RNAV Procedures.
systems when operating on, or transitioning to,
2. Good planning and knowledge of your RNAV system are
conventional, nonRNAV routes and procedures critical for safe and successful operations.
within the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS):
3. Pilots planning to use their RNAV system as a substitute
1. Use of a suitable RNAV system as a means of navigation guidance in lieu of an outofservice
Substitute Means of Navigation when a VeryHigh NAVAID may need to advise ATC of this intent and
Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR), capability.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), Tactical Air 4. The navigation database should be current for the
Navigation (TACAN), VOR/TACAN (VORTAC), duration of the flight. If the AIRAC cycle will change
VOR/DME, Nondirectional Beacon (NDB), or during flight, operators and pilots should establish
compass locator facility including locator outer procedures to ensure the accuracy of navigation data,
marker and locator middle marker is outofservice including suitability of navigation facilities used to define
(that is, the navigation aid (NAVAID) information is the routes and procedures for flight. To facilitate validating
not available); an aircraft is not equipped with an database currency, the FAA has developed procedures for
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) or DME; or the publishing the amendment date that instrument approach
installed ADF or DME on an aircraft is not procedures were last revised. The amendment date follows
operational. For example, if equipped with a suitable the amendment number, e.g., Amdt 4 14Jan10. Currency of
graphic departure procedures and STARs may be
RNAV system, a pilot may hold over an outof
ascertained by the numerical designation in the procedure
service NDB.
title. If an amended chart is published for the procedure, or
2. Use of a suitable RNAV system as an the procedure amendment date shown on the chart is on or
after the expiration date of the database, the operator must
Alternate Means of Navigation when a VOR, DME,
not use the database to conduct the operation.
VORTAC, VOR/DME, TACAN, NDB, or compass
locator facility including locator outer marker and b. Types of RNAV Systems that Qualify as a
locator middle marker is operational and the Suitable RNAV System. When installed in accord-
respective aircraft is equipped with operational ance with appropriate airworthiness installation
navigation equipment that is compatible with requirements and operated in accordance with
conventional navaids. For example, if equipped with applicable operational guidance (e.g., aircraft flight
a suitable RNAV system, a pilot may fly a procedure manual and Advisory Circular material), the

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following systems qualify as a suitable RNAV when a facility is identified as required on a procedure (for
system: example, Note ADF required).
2. These operations do not include lateral navigation on
1. An RNAV system with TSOC129/
localizerbased courses (including localizer backcourse
C145/C146 equipment, installed in accordance guidance) without reference to raw localizer data.
with AC 20138, Airworthiness Approval of Global
Positioning System (GPS) Navigation Equipment for 3. Unless otherwise specified, a suitable RNAV system
cannot be used for navigation on procedures that are
Use as a VFR and IFR Supplemental Navigation
identified as not authorized (NA) without exception by
System, or AC 20130A, Airworthiness Approval of
a NOTAM. For example, an operator may not use a RNAV
Navigation or Flight Management Systems Integrat- system to navigate on a procedure affected by an expired or
ing Multiple Navigation Sensors, and authorized for unsatisfactory flight inspection, or a procedure that is
instrument flight rules (IFR) en route and terminal based upon a recently decommissioned NAVAID.
operations (including those systems previously
4. Pilots may not substitute for the NAVAID (for example,
qualified for GPS in lieu of ADF or DME a VOR or NDB) providing lateral guidance for the final
operations), or approach segment. This restriction does not refer to
2. An RNAV system with DME/DME/IRU instrument approach procedures with or GPS in the title
inputs that is compliant with the equipment when using GPS or WAAS. These allowances do not apply
provisions of AC 90100A, U.S. Terminal and to procedures that are identified as not authorized (NA)
En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations, for without exception by a NOTAM, as other conditions may
still exist and result in a procedure not being available. For
RNAV routes. A table of compliant equipment is
example, these allowances do not apply to a procedure
available at the following website:
associated with an expired or unsatisfactory flight
h t t p : / / w w w. f a a . g o v / a b o u t / o f f i c e _ o r g / inspection, or is based upon a recently decommissioned
headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs400/afs47 NAVAID.
0/policy_guidance/
5. For the purpose of paragraph c, VOR includes VOR,
NOTE VOR/DME, and VORTAC facilities and compass
Approved RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without locator includes locator outer marker and locator middle
GPS/WAAS position input, may only be used as a substitute marker.
means of navigation when specifically authorized by a
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) or other FAA guidance for a d. Alternate Airport Considerations. For the
specific procedure. The NOTAM or other FAA guidance purposes of flight planning, any required alternate
authorizing the use of DME/DME/IRU systems will also airport must have an available instrument approach
identify any required DME facilities based on an FAA procedure that does not require the use of GPS. This
assessment of the DME navigation infrastructure. restriction includes conducting a conventional
c. Uses of Suitable RNAV Systems. Subject to approach at the alternate airport using a substitute
the operating requirements, operators may use a means of navigation that is based upon the use of
suitable RNAV system in the following ways. GPS. For example, these restrictions would apply
when planning to use GPS equipment as a substitute
1. Determine aircraft position relative to, or means of navigation for an outofservice VOR that
distance from a VOR (see NOTE 5 below), TACAN, supports an ILS missed approach procedure at an
NDB, compass locator, DME fix; or a named fix alternate airport. In this case, some other approach
defined by a VOR radial, TACAN course, NDB not reliant upon the use of GPS must be available.
bearing, or compass locator bearing intersecting a This restriction does not apply to RNAV systems
VOR or localizer course. using TSOC145/C146 WAAS equipment. For
2. Navigate to or from a VOR, TACAN, NDB, further WAAS guidance, see paragraph 1119.
or compass locator. 1. For flight planning purposes, TSO-C129()
3. Hold over a VOR, TACAN, NDB, compass and TSO-C196() equipped users (GPS users) whose
locator, or DME fix. navigation systems have fault detection and
exclusion (FDE) capability, who perform a preflight
4. Fly an arc based upon DME. RAIM prediction at the airport where the RNAV
NOTE (GPS) approach will be flown, and have proper
1. The allowances described in this section apply even knowledge and any required training and/or approval

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to conduct a GPS-based IAP, may file based on a baro-VNAV equipment and the pilot has verified
GPS-based IAP at either the destination or the required navigation performance (RNP) availability
alternate airport, but not at both locations. At the through an approved prediction program.
alternate airport, pilots may plan for applicable
alternate airport weather minimums using: 2. If the above conditions cannot be met, any
required alternate airport must have an approved
(a) Lateral navigation (LNAV) or circling instrument approach procedure other than GPS that is
minimum descent altitude (MDA); anticipated to be operational and available at the
(b) LNAV/vertical navigation (LNAV/ estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is
VNAV) DA, if equipped with and using approved equipped to fly.
barometric vertical navigation (baro-VNAV) equip-
3. This restriction does not apply to
ment;
TSO-C145() and TSO-C146() equipped users
(c) RNP 0.3 DA on an RNAV (RNP) IAP, if (WAAS users). For further WAAS guidance, see
they are specifically authorized users using approved paragraph 1119.

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Chapter 2. Aeronautical Lighting and

Other Airport Visual Aids
Section 1. Airport Lighting Aids
211. Approach Light Systems (ALS) while the upper glide path, provided by the middle
and far bars, is normally 1/4 degree higher. This
a. ALS provide the basic means to transition from
higher glide path is intended for use only by high
instrument flight to visual flight for landing.
cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold
Operational requirements dictate the sophistication
crossing height. Although normal glide path angles
and configuration of the approach light system for a
are three degrees, angles at some locations may be as
particular runway.
high as 4.5 degrees to give proper obstacle clearance.
b. ALS are a configuration of signal lights starting Pilots of high performance aircraft are cautioned that
at the landing threshold and extending into the use of VASI angles in excess of 3.5 degrees may cause
approach area a distance of 24003000 feet for an increase in runway length required for landing and
precision instrument runways and 14001500 feet for rollout.
nonprecision instrument runways. Some systems
include sequenced flashing lights which appear to the 3. The basic principle of the VASI is that of color
pilot as a ball of light traveling towards the runway at differentiation between red and white. Each light unit
high speed (twice a second). (See FIG 211.) projects a beam of light having a white segment in the
upper part of the beam and red segment in the lower
212. Visual Glideslope Indicators part of the beam. The light units are arranged so that
the pilot using the VASIs during an approach will see
a. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) the combination of lights shown below.
1. VASI installations may consist of either 2, 4,
4. The VASI is a system of lights so arranged to
6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars referred to as
provide visual descent guidance information during
near, middle, and far bars. Most VASI installations
the approach to a runway. These lights are visible
consist of 2 bars, near and far, and may consist of 2,
from 35 miles during the day and up to 20 miles or
4, or 12 light units. Some VASIs consist of three bars,
more at night. The visual glide path of the VASI
near, middle, and far, which provide an additional
provides safe obstruction clearance within plus or
visual glide path to accommodate high cockpit
minus 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline
aircraft. This installation may consist of either 6 or
and to 4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent,
16 light units. VASI installations consisting of 2, 4, or
using the VASI, should not be initiated until the
6 light units are located on one side of the runway,
aircraft is visually aligned with the runway. Lateral
usually the left. Where the installation consists of
course guidance is provided by the runway or runway
12 or 16 light units, the units are located on both sides
lights. In certain circumstances, the safe obstruction
of the runway.
clearance area may be reduced by narrowing the
2. Twobar VASI installations provide one beam width or shortening the usable distance due to
visual glide path which is normally set at 3 degrees. local limitations, or the VASI may be offset from the
Threebar VASI installations provide two visual extended runway centerline. This will be noted in the
glide paths. The lower glide path is provided by the Airport/ Facility Directory and/or applicable notices
near and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees to airmen (NOTAM).
Airport Lighting Aids 211

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FIG 211
Precision & Nonprecision Configurations
NOTE
Civil ALSF2 may be operated as SSALR during favorable weather conditions.
212 Airport Lighting Aids

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5. For 2bar VASI (4 light units) see FIG 212.
FIG 212
2Bar VASI
Far Bar
= Red
Near Bar = White
Below Glide Path On Glide Path Above Glide Path
6. For 3bar VASI (6 light units) see FIG 213.
FIG 213
3Bar VASI
Far Bar
Middle Bar
Near Bar
Below Both On Lower On Upper Above Both

Glide Paths Glide Path Glide Path Glide Paths
7. For other VASI configurations see FIG 214.
FIG 214
VASI Variations
2 Bar 2 Bar 3 Bar

2 Light Units 12 Light Units 16 Light Units
On Glide Path On Glide Path on Lower Glide Path

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b. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI). with the runway. The row of light units is normally
The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses installed on the left side of the runway and the glide
light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a path indications are as depicted. Lateral course
single row of either two or four light units. These guidance is provided by the runway or runway lights.
lights are visible from about 5 miles during the day In certain circumstances, the safe obstruction
and up to 20 miles at night. The visual glide path of clearance area may be reduced by narrowing the
the PAPI typically provides safe obstruction beam width or shortening the usable distance due to
clearance within plus or minus 10 degrees of the local limitations, or the PAPI may be offset from the
extended runway centerline and to 4 SM from the extended runway centerline. This will be noted in the
runway threshold. Descent, using the PAPI, should Airport/Facility Directory and/or applicable
not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned NOTAMs. (See FIG 215.)
FIG 215
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
High Slightly High On Glide Path Slightly Low Low

(More Than (3.2 Degrees) (3 Degrees) (2.8 Degrees) (Less Than
3,5 Degrees) 2.5 Degrees)
White
Red
c. Tricolor Systems. Tricolor visual approach the on glide path indication is green. These types of
slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit indicators have a useful range of approximately
projecting a threecolor visual approach path into the onehalf to one mile during the day and up to
final approach area of the runway upon which the five miles at night depending upon the visibility
indicator is installed. The below glide path indication conditions. (See FIG 216.)
is red, the above glide path indication is amber, and
FIG 216
TriColor Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Amber
Green
Path
de
Gli th
Amber
ove e Pa Red
Ab On Glid
ath
w G lide P
Belo
NOTE
1. Since the tricolor VASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots
should exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.

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2. When the aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see a dark amber color during the transition from green to
red.
FIG 217
Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator
PULSATING WHITE
STEADY WHITE
a th
d eP
Gli
ove Pat
h
Ab e STEADY RED
Glid lide Path
On low G
tly Be
Sligh
ath
Glide P PULSATING RED
Below
Threshold
NOTE
Since the PVASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots should
exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.
FIG 218
Alignment of Elements
Above Glide Path On Glide Path Below Glide Path
d. Pulsating Systems. Pulsating visual ap- glide slope. The useful range of the system is about
proach slope indicators normally consist of a single four miles during the day and up to ten miles at night.
light unit projecting a twocolor visual approach (See FIG 217.)
path into the final approach area of the runway upon
which the indicator is installed. The on glide path e. Alignment of Elements Systems. Alignment
indication is a steady white light. The slightly below of elements systems are installed on some small
glide path indication is a steady red light. If the general aviation airports and are a lowcost system
aircraft descends further below the glide path, the red consisting of painted plywood panels, normally black
light starts to pulsate. The above glide path indication and white or fluorescent orange. Some of these
is a pulsating white light. The pulsating rate increases systems are lighted for night use. The useful range of
as the aircraft gets further above or below the desired these systems is approximately threequarter miles.

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To use the system the pilot positions the aircraft so the located along the runway centerline and are spaced at
elements are in alignment. The glide path indications 50foot intervals. When viewed from the landing
are shown in FIG 218. threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until
the last 3,000 feet of the runway. The white lights
begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet, and
213. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
for the last 1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline
REILs are installed at many airfields to provide rapid lights are red.
and positive identification of the approach end of a b. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL). Touch-
particular runway. The system consists of a pair of down zone lights are installed on some precision
synchronized flashing lights located laterally on each approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone
side of the runway threshold. REILs may be either when landing under adverse visibility conditions.
omnidirectional or unidirectional facing the approach They consist of two rows of transverse light bars
area. They are effective for: disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline.
a. Identification of a runway surrounded by a The system consists of steadyburning white lights
preponderance of other lighting. which start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and
extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or
b. Identification of a runway which lacks contrast to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less.
with surrounding terrain.
c. Taxiway Centerline LeadOff Lights. Taxi-
c. Identification of a runway during reduced way centerline leadoff lights provide visual
visibility. guidance to persons exiting the runway. They are
colorcoded to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that
214. Runway Edge Light Systems they are within the runway environment or
instrument landing system (ILS) critical area,
a. Runway edge lights are used to outline the whichever is more restrictive. Alternate green and
edges of runways during periods of darkness or yellow lights are installed, beginning with green,
restricted visibility conditions. These light systems from the runway centerline to one centerline light
are classified according to the intensity or brightness position beyond the runway holding position or ILS
they are capable of producing: they are the High critical area holding position.
Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity
Runway Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity d. Taxiway Centerline LeadOn Lights. Taxi-
Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL way centerline leadon lights provide visual
systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the guidance to persons entering the runway. These
LIRLs normally have one intensity setting. leadon lights are also colorcoded with the same
color pattern as leadoff lights to warn pilots and
b. The runway edge lights are white, except on vehicle drivers that they are within the runway
instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last environment or instrument landing system (ILS)
2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is critical area, whichever is more conservative. The
less, to form a caution zone for landings. fixtures used for leadon lights are bidirectional, i.e.,
c. The lights marking the ends of the runway emit one side emits light for the leadon function while the
red light toward the runway to indicate the end of other side emits light for the leadoff function. Any
runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward fixture that emits yellow light for the leadoff
from the runway end to indicate the threshold to function must also emit yellow light for the leadon
landing aircraft. function. (See FIG 2114.)
e. Land and Hold Short Lights. Land and hold
215. Inrunway Lighting short lights are used to indicate the hold short point on
certain runways which are approved for Land and
a. Runway Centerline Lighting System Hold Short Operations (LAHSO). Land and hold
(RCLS). Runway centerline lights are installed on short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights
some precision approach runways to facilitate installed across the runway at the hold short point.
landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are Where installed, the lights will be on anytime

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LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be off when 1. REL Operating Characteristics Departing
LAHSO is not in effect. Aircraft:
REFERENCE
AIM, Pilot Responsibilities When Conducting Land and Hold Short
When a departing aircraft reaches a site adaptable
Operations (LAHSO), Paragraph 4311. speed of approximately 30 knots, all taxiway
intersections with REL arrays along the runway
ahead of the aircraft will illuminate (see FIG 219).
216. Runway Status Light (RWSL)
As the aircraft approaches an REL equipped taxiway
System
intersection, the lights at that intersection extinguish
a. Introduction. approximately 3 to 4 seconds before the aircraft
reaches it. This allows controllers to apply
RWSL is a fully automated system that provides anticipated separation to permit ATC to move
runway status information to pilots and surface traffic more expeditiously without compromising
vehicle operators to clearly indicate when it is unsafe safety. After the aircraft is declared airborne by the
to enter, cross, takeoff from, or land on a runway. The system, all REL lights associated with this runway
RWSL system processes information from surveil- will extinguish.
lance systems and activates Runway Entrance Lights
(REL), Takeoff Hold Lights (THL), Runway 2. REL Operating Characteristics Arriving
Intersection Lights (RIL), and Final Approach Aircraft:
Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS) in accordance When an aircraft on final approach is approximately
with the position and velocity of the detected surface 1 mile from the runway threshold, all sets of taxiway
traffic and approach traffic. REL, THL, and RIL are REL light arrays that intersect the runway illuminate.
in-pavement light fixtures that are directly visible to The distance is adjustable and can be configured for
pilots and surface vehicle operators. FAROS alerts specific operations at particular airports. Lights
arriving pilots that the approaching runway is extinguish at each equipped taxiway intersection
occupied by flashing the Precision Approach Path approximately 3 to 4 seconds before the aircraft
Indicator (PAPI). FAROS may be implemented as an reaches it to apply anticipated separation until the
add-on to the RWSL system or implemented as a aircraft has slowed to approximately 80 knots (site
stand-alone system at airports without a RWSL adjustable parameter). Below 80 knots, all arrays that
system. RWSL is an independent safety enhancement are not within 30 seconds of the aircrafts forward
that does not substitute for or convey an ATC path are extinguished. Once the arriving aircraft
clearance. Clearance to enter, cross, takeoff from, slows to approximately 34 knots (site adjustable
land on, or operate on a runway must still be received parameter), it is declared to be in a taxi state, and all
from ATC. Although ATC has limited control over lights extinguish.
the system, personnel do not directly use and may not
be able to view light fixture activations and 3. What a pilot would observe: A pilot at or
deactivations during the conduct of daily ATC approaching the hold line to a runway will observe
operations. RELs illuminate and extinguish in reaction to an
aircraft or vehicle operating on the runway, or an
b. Runway Entrance Lights (REL): The REL arriving aircraft operating less than 1 mile from the
system is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement, runway threshold.
unidirectional light fixtures that are parallel to and
focused along the taxiway centerline and directed 4. When a pilot observes the red lights of the
toward the pilot at the hold line. An array of REL REL, that pilot will stop at the hold line or remain
lights include the first light at the hold line followed stopped. The pilot will then contact ATC for
by a series of evenly spaced lights to the runway edge; resolution if the clearance is in conflict with the
one additional light at the runway centerline is in line lights. Should pilots note illuminated lights under
with the last two lights before the runway edge (see circumstances when remaining clear of the runway is
FIG 219 and FIG 2112). When activated, the impractical for safety reasons (for example, aircraft
red lights indicate that there is high speed traffic on is already on the runway), the crew should proceed
the runway or there is an aircraft on final approach according to their best judgment while understanding
within the activation area. the illuminated lights indicate the runway is unsafe to

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enter or cross. Contact ATC at the earliest possible

opportunity.
FIG 219
Runway Status Light System
c. Takeoff Hold Lights (THL) : The THL system (see FIG 219.) Once that aircraft or vehicle exits
is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement, the runway, the THLs extinguish. A pilot may notice
unidirectional light fixtures in a double longitudinal lights extinguish prior to the downfield aircraft or
row aligned either side of the runway centerline vehicle being completely clear of the runway but still
lighting. Fixtures are focused toward the arrival end moving. Like RELs, THLs have an anticipated
of the runway at the line up and wait point. THLs separation feature.
extend for 1,500 feet in front of the holding aircraft NOTE
starting at a point 375 feet from the departure When the THLs extinguish, this is not clearance to begin a
threshold (see FIG 2113). Illuminated red lights takeoff roll. All takeoff clearances will be issued by ATC.
provide a signal, to an aircraft in position for takeoff 2. What a pilot would observe: A pilot in
or rolling, that it is unsafe to takeoff because the position to depart from a runway, or has begun takeoff
runway is occupied or about to be occupied by roll, will observe THLs illuminate in reaction to an
another aircraft or ground vehicle. Two aircraft, or a aircraft or vehicle on the runway or entering or
surface vehicle and an aircraft, are required for the crossing it. Lights will extinguish when the runway is
lights to illuminate. The departing aircraft must be in clear. A pilot may observe several cycles of
position for takeoff or beginning takeoff roll. Another illumination and extinguishing depending on the
aircraft or a surface vehicle must be on or about to amount of crossing traffic.
cross the runway.
3. When a pilot observes the red light of the
1. THL Operating Characteristics Departing THLs, the pilot should safely stop if its feasible or
Aircraft: remain stopped. The pilot must contact ATC for
resolution if any clearance is in conflict with the
THLs will illuminate for an aircraft in position for lights. Should pilots note illuminated lights while in
departure or departing when there is another aircraft takeoff roll and under circumstances when stopping
or vehicle on the runway or about to enter the runway is impractical for safety reasons, the crew should

6/25/15
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proceed according to their best judgment while indicate that continuing the takeoff is unsafe. Contact
understanding the illuminated lights indicate that ATC at the earliest possible opportunity.
continuing the takeoff is unsafe. Contact ATC at the e. The Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal
earliest possible opportunity. (FAROS) is communicated by flashing of the
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) (see FIG
d. Runway Intersection Lights (RIL): The RIL
2-1-9). When activated, the light fixtures of the PAPI
system is composed of flush mounted, inpavement,
flash or pulse to indicate to the pilot on an approach
unidirectional light fixtures in a double longitudinal
that the runway is occupied and that it may be unsafe
row aligned either side of the runway centerline
to land.
lighting in the same manner as THLs. Their
appearance to a pilot is similar to that of THLs. NOTE
Fixtures are focused toward the arrival end of the FAROS is an independent automatic alerting system that
runway, and they extend for 3,000 feet in front of an does not rely on ATC control or input.
aircraft that is approaching an intersecting runway. 1. FAROS Operating Characteristics:
They end at the Land and Hold Short Operation If an aircraft or surface vehicle occupies a FAROS
(LASHO) light bar or the hold short line for the equipped runway, the PAPI(s) on that runway will
intersecting runway. flash. The glide path indication will not be affected,
and the allotment of red and white PAPI lights
1. RIL Operating Characteristics Departing
observed by the pilot on approach will not change.
Aircraft:
The FAROS system will flash the PAPI when traffic
RILs will illuminate for an aircraft departing or in enters the runway and there is an aircraft on approach
position to depart when there is high speed traffic and within 1.5 nautical miles of the landing threshold.
operating on the intersecting runway (see 2. What a pilot would observe: A pilot on
FIG 219). Note that there must be an aircraft or approach to the runway will observe the PAPI flash if
vehicle in a position to observe the RILs for them to there is traffic on the runway and will notice the PAPI
illuminate. Once the conflicting traffic passes ceases to flash when the traffic moves outside the
through the intersection, the RILs extinguish. hold short lines for the runway.
3. When a pilot observes a flashing PAPI at 500
2. RIL Operating Characteristics Arriving
feet above ground level (AGL), the contact height,
Aircraft:
the pilot must look for and acquire the traffic on the
RILs will illuminate for an aircraft that has landed and runway. At 300 feet AGL, the pilot must contact ATC
is rolling out when there is high speed traffic on the for resolution if the FAROS indication is in conflict
with the clearance. If the PAPI continues to flash, the
intersecting runway that is $5 seconds of meeting at
pilot must execute an immediate go around and
the intersection. Once the conflicting traffic passes
contact ATC at the earliest possible opportunity.
through the intersection, the RILs extinguish.
f. Pilot Actions:
3. What a pilot would observe: A pilot departing
1. When operating at airports with RWSL, pilots
or arriving will observe RILs illuminate in reaction to
will operate with the transponder On when
the high speed traffic operation on the intersecting
departing the gate or parking area until it is shutdown
runway. The lights will extinguish when that traffic
upon arrival at the gate or parking area. This ensures
has passed through the runway intersection.
interaction with the FAA surveillance systems such
4. Whenever a pilot observes the red light of the as ASDE-X which provide information to the RWSL
RIL array, the pilot will stop before the LAHSO stop system.
bar or the hold line for the intersecting runway. If a 2. Pilots must always inform the ATCT when
departing aircraft is already at high speed in the they have either stopped, are verifying a landing
takeoff roll when the RILs illuminate, it may be clearance, or are executing a go-around due to RWSL
impractical to stop for safety reasons. The crew or FAROS indication that are in conflict with ATC
should safely operate according to their best instructions. Pilots must request clarification of the
judgment while understanding the illuminated lights taxi, takeoff, or landing clearance.

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3. Never cross over illuminated red lights. Automatic Terminal Information System (ATIS)
Under normal circumstances, RWSL will confirm the must be updated.
pilots taxi or takeoff clearance previously issued by
ATC. If RWSL indicates that it is unsafe to takeoff 217. Stand-Alone Final Approach
from, land on, cross, or enter a runway, immediately Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS)
notify ATC of the conflict and re-confirm the
clearance. a. Introduction:
4. Do not proceed when lights have extin- The stand-alone FAROS system is a fully automated
guished without an ATC clearance. RWSL verifies an system that provides runway occupancy status to
ATC clearance; it does not substitute for an ATC pilots on final approach to indicate whether it may be
clearance. unsafe to land. When an aircraft or vehicle is detected
on the runway, the Precision Approach Path Indicator
5. Never land if PAPI continues to flash. (PAPI) light fixtures flash as a signal to indicate that
Execute a go around and notify ATC. the runway is occupied and that it may be unsafe to
g. ATC Control of RWSL System: land. The stand-alone FAROS system is activated by
localized or comprehensive sensors detecting aircraft
1. Controllers can set inpavement lights to one
or ground vehicles occupying activation zones.
of five (5) brightness levels to assure maximum
conspicuity under all visibility and lighting condi- The stand-alone FAROS system monitors specific
tions. REL, THL, and RIL subsystems may be areas of the runway, called activation zones, to
independently set. determine the presence of aircraft or ground vehicles
in the zone (see FIG 2110). These activation zones
2. System lights can be disabled should RWSL
are defined as areas on the runway that are frequently
operations impact the efficient movement of air
occupied by ground traffic during normal airport
traffic or contribute, in the opinion of the assigned
operations and could present a hazard to landing
ATC Manager, to unsafe operations. REL, THL, RIL,
aircraft. Activation zones may include the full-length
and FAROS light fixtures may be disabled separately.
departure position, the midfield departure position, a
Disabling of the FAROS subsystem does not
frequently crossed intersection, or the entire runway.
extinguish PAPI lights or impact its glide path
function. Whenever the system or a component is Pilots can refer to the airport specific FAROS pilot
disabled, a NOTAM must be issued, and the information sheet for activation zone configuration.
FIG 2110
FAROS Activation Zones
Clearance to land on a runway must be issued by Air control over the system and may not be able to view
Traffic Control (ATC). ATC personnel have limited the FAROS signal.

4/3/14 AIM
b. Operating Characteristics: A pilot on departure from the runway should

disregard any observations of flashing PAPI lights.
If an aircraft or ground vehicle occupies an activation
zone on the runway, the PAPI light fixtures on that d. Pilot Actions:
runway will flash. The glide path indication is not
affected, i.e. the configuration of red and white PAPI When a pilot observes a flashing PAPI at 500 feet
lights observed by the pilot on approach does not above ground level (AGL), the pilot must look for and
change. The stand-alone FAROS system flashes the attempt to acquire the traffic on the runway. At 300
PAPI lights when traffic occupies an activation zone feet AGL, the pilot must contact ATC for resolution
whether or not there is an aircraft on approach. if the FAROS indication is in conflict with the
clearance (see FIG 2111). If the PAPI lights
c. Pilot Observations:
continue to flash and the pilot cannot visually
A pilot on approach to the runway observes the PAPI determine that it is safe to land, the pilot must execute
lights flashing if there is traffic on the runway an immediate go around. As with operations at
activation zones and notices the PAPI lights cease to non-FAROS airports, it is always the pilots
flash when the traffic moves outside the activation responsibility to determine whether or not it is safe to
zones. continue with the approach and to land on the runway.
FIG 2111
FAROS Glide Slope Action Points
Pilots should inform the ATCT when they have flashing lights (SFL) may be turned on and off. Some
executed a go around due to a FAROS indication that sequenced flashing light systems also have intensity
is in conflict with ATC instructions. control.
NOTE
At this time, the stand-alone FAROS system is not widely 219. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
implemented and is used for evaluation purposes.
Radio control of lighting is available at selected
218. Control of Lighting Systems airports to provide airborne control of lights by
keying the aircrafts microphone. Control of lighting
a. Operation of approach light systems and
systems is often available at locations without
runway lighting is controlled by the control tower
specified hours for lighting and where there is no
(ATCT). At some locations the FSS may control the
control tower or FSS or when the tower or FSS is
lights where there is no control tower in operation.
closed (locations with a parttime tower or FSS) or
b. Pilots may request that lights be turned on or off. specified hours. All lighting systems which are radio
Runway edge lights, inpavement lights and controlled at an airport, whether on a single runway
approach lights also have intensity controls which or multiple runways, operate on the same radio
may be varied to meet the pilots request. Sequenced frequency. (See TBL 211 and TBL 212.)

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2112
Runway Entrance Lights
FIG 2113
Takeoff Hold Lights

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2114
Taxiway LeadOn Light Configuration
TBL 211
Runways With Approach Lights
No. of Int. Status During Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks
Lighting System
Steps Nonuse Period
3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks
Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 2 Off Low Low High
Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 3 Off Low Med High
MIRL 3 Off or Low u u u
HIRL 5 Off or Low u u u
VASI 2 Off L L L
NOTES: u Predetermined intensity step.
L Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
TBL 212
Runways Without Approach Lights
No. of Int. Status During Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks
Lighting System
Steps Nonuse Period
3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks
MIRL 3 Off or Low Low Med. High
HIRL 5 Off or Low Step 1 or 2 Step 3 Step 5
LIRL 1 Off On On On
VASIL 2 Off u u u
REILL 1 Off Off On/Off On
REILL 3 Off Low Med. High
NOTES: u Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
L The control of VASI and/or REIL may be independent of other lighting systems.

AIM 4/3/14
a. With FAA approved systems, various combina- TBL 213

tions of medium intensity approach lights, runway Radio Control System
lights, taxiway lights, VASI and/or REIL may be Key Mike Function
activated by radio control. On runways with both 7 times within 5 seconds Highest intensity available
approach lighting and runway lighting (runway edge
5 times within 5 seconds Medium or lower intensity
lights, taxiway lights, etc.) systems, the approach (Lower REIL or REILoff)
lighting system takes precedence for airtoground 3 times within 5 seconds Lowest intensity available
radio control over the runway lighting system which (Lower REIL or REILoff)
is set at a predetermined intensity step, based on
expected visibility conditions. Runways without d. For all public use airports with FAA standard
approach lighting may provide radio controlled systems the Airport/Facility Directory contains the
intensity adjustments of runway edge lights. Other types of lighting, runway and the frequency that is
lighting systems, including VASI, REIL, and taxiway used to activate the system. Airports with IAPs
lights may be either controlled with the runway edge include data on the approach chart identifying the
lights or controlled independently of the runway edge light system, the runway on which they are installed,
lights. and the frequency that is used to activate the system.
NOTE
Although the CTAF is used to activate the lights at many
b. The control system consists of a 3step control airports, other frequencies may also be used. The
responsive to 7, 5, and/or 3 microphone clicks. This appropriate frequency for activating the lights on the
3step control will turn on lighting facilities capable airport is provided in the Airport/Facility Directory and
of either 3step, 2step or 1step operation. The the standard instrument approach procedures publica-
3step and 2step lighting facilities can be altered in tions. It is not identified on the sectional charts.
intensity, while the 1step cannot. All lighting is e. Where the airport is not served by an IAP, it may
illuminated for a period of 15 minutes from the most have either the standard FAA approved control
recent time of activation and may not be extinguished system or an independent type system of different
prior to end of the 15 minute period (except for 1step specification installed by the airport sponsor. The
and 2step REILs which may be turned off when Airport/Facility Directory contains descriptions of
desired by keying the mike 5 or 3 times respectively). pilot controlled lighting systems for each airport
having other than FAA approved systems, and
c. Suggested use is to always initially key the mike explains the type lights, method of control, and
7 times; this assures that all controlled lights are operating frequency in clear text.
turned on to the maximum available intensity. If
desired, adjustment can then be made, where the 2110. Airport/Heliport Beacons
capability is provided, to a lower intensity (or the a. Airport and heliport beacons have a vertical
REIL turned off) by keying 5 and/or 3 times. Due to light distribution to make them most effective from
the close proximity of airports using the same one to ten degrees above the horizon; however, they
frequency, radio controlled lighting receivers may be can be seen well above and below this peak spread.
set at a low sensitivity requiring the aircraft to be The beacon may be an omnidirectional capacitordis-
relatively close to activate the system. Consequently, charge device, or it may rotate at a constant speed
even when lights are on, always key mike as directed which produces the visual effect of flashes at regular
when overflying an airport of intended landing or just intervals. Flashes may be one or two colors
prior to entering the final segment of an approach. alternately. The total number of flashes are:
This will assure the aircraft is close enough to activate
the system and a full 15 minutes lighting duration is 1. 24 to 30 per minute for beacons marking
available. Approved lighting systems may be airports, landmarks, and points on Federal airways.
activated by keying the mike (within 5 seconds) as 2. 30 to 45 per minute for beacons marking
indicated in TBL 213. heliports.

4/3/14 AIM
b. The colors and color combinations of beacons portions, on the centerline of curved portions, and
are: along designated taxiing paths in portions of
runways, ramp, and apron areas. Taxiway centerline
1. White and Green Lighted land airport.
lights are steady burning and emit green light.
2. *Green alone Lighted land airport.
c. Clearance Bar Lights. Clearance bar lights
3. White and Yellow Lighted water airport. are installed at holding positions on taxiways in order
4. *Yellow alone Lighted water airport. to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in
low visibility conditions. They may also be installed
5. Green, Yellow, and White Lighted heliport. to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway
NOTE during periods of darkness. Clearance bars consist of
*Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection three inpavement steadyburning yellow lights.
with a whiteandgreen or whiteandyellow beacon
display, respectively. d. Runway Guard Lights. Runway guard lights
c. Military airport beacons flash alternately white are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They
and green, but are differentiated from civil beacons are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of
by dualpeaked (two quick) white flashes between the taxiway/runway intersections during low visibility
green flashes. conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions.
Runway guard lights consist of either a pair of
d. In Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side
areas, operation of the airport beacon during the hours of the taxiway, or a row of inpavement yellow lights
of daylight often indicates that the ground visibility installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway
is less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling is less than holding position marking.
1,000 feet. ATC clearance in accordance with
14 CFR Part 91 is required for landing, takeoff and NOTE
Some airports may have a row of three or five inpavement
flight in the traffic pattern. Pilots should not rely
yellow lights installed at taxiway/runway intersections.
solely on the operation of the airport beacon to They should not be confused with clearance bar lights
indicate if weather conditions are IFR or VFR. At described in paragraph 2111 c, Clearance Bar Lights.
some locations with operating control towers, ATC
personnel turn the beacon on or off when controls are e. Stop Bar Lights. Stop bar lights, when
in the tower. At many airports the airport beacon is installed, are used to confirm the ATC clearance to
turned on by a photoelectric cell or time clocks and enter or cross the active runway in low visibility
ATC personnel cannot control them. There is no conditions (below 1,200 ft Runway Visual Range). A
regulatory requirement for daylight operation and it stop bar consists of a row of red, unidirectional,
is the pilots responsibility to comply with proper steadyburning inpavement lights installed across
preflight planning as required by 14 CFR the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and
Section 91.103. elevated steadyburning red lights on each side. A
controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the
taxiway centerline leadon lights which extend from
2111. Taxiway Lights
the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC
a. Taxiway Edge Lights. Taxiway edge lights are clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the
used to outline the edges of taxiways during periods leadon lights are turned on. The stop bar and leadon
of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup
fixtures emit blue light. timer.
NOTE CAUTION
At most major airports these lights have variable intensity Pilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even
settings and may be adjusted at pilot request or when if an ATC clearance has been given to proceed onto or
deemed necessary by the controller. across the runway.
b. Taxiway Centerline Lights. Taxiway center- NOTE
line lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under If after crossing a stop bar, the taxiway centerline leadon
low visibility conditions. They are located along the lights inadvertently extinguish, pilots should hold their
taxiway centerline in a straight line on straight position and contact ATC for further instructions.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 2. Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting
221. Aeronautical Light Beacons 1. Aviation Red Obstruction Lights. Flash-

ing aviation red beacons (20 to 40 flashes per minute)
a. An aeronautical light beacon is a visual and steady burning aviation red lights during
NAVAID displaying flashes of white and/or colored nighttime operation. Aviation orange and white paint
light to indicate the location of an airport, a heliport, is used for daytime marking.
a landmark, a certain point of a Federal airway in
2. Medium Intensity Flashing White
mountainous terrain, or an obstruction. The light used
Obstruction Lights. Medium intensity flashing
may be a rotating beacon or one or more flashing
white obstruction lights may be used during daytime
lights. The flashing lights may be supplemented by
and twilight with automatically selected reduced
steady burning lights of lesser intensity.
intensity for nighttime operation. When this system
b. The color or color combination displayed by a is used on structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or less in
particular beacon and/or its auxiliary lights tell height, other methods of marking and lighting the
whether the beacon is indicating a landing place, structure may be omitted. Aviation orange and white
landmark, point of the Federal airways, or an paint is always required for daytime marking on
obstruction. Coded flashes of the auxiliary lights, if structures exceeding 500 feet (153m) AGL. This
employed, further identify the beacon site. system is not normally installed on structures less
than 200 feet (61m) AGL.
3. High Intensity White Obstruction Lights.
222. Code Beacons and Course Lights Flashing high intensity white lights during daytime
with reduced intensity for twilight and nighttime
a. Code Beacons. The code beacon, which can be operation. When this type system is used, the marking
seen from all directions, is used to identify airports of structures with red obstruction lights and aviation
and landmarks. The code beacon flashes the three or orange and white paint may be omitted.
four character airport identifier in International
4. Dual Lighting. A combination of flashing
Morse Code six to eight times per minute. Green
aviation red beacons and steady burning aviation red
flashes are displayed for land airports while yellow
lights for nighttime operation and flashing high
flashes indicate water airports.
intensity white lights for daytime operation. Aviation
b. Course Lights. The course light, which can be orange and white paint may be omitted.
seen clearly from only one direction, is used only with 5. Catenary Lighting. Lighted markers are
rotating beacons of the Federal Airway System: available for increased night conspicuity of high
two course lights, back to back, direct coded flashing voltage (69KV or higher) transmission line catenary
beams of light in either direction along the course of wires. Lighted markers provide conspicuity both day
airway. and night.
NOTE b. Medium intensity omnidirectional flashing
Airway beacons are remnants of the lighted airways white lighting system provides conspicuity both day
which antedated the present electronically equipped and night on catenary support structures. The unique
federal airways system. Only a few of these beacons exist sequential/simultaneous flashing light system alerts
today to mark airway segments in remote mountain areas. pilots of the associated catenary wires.
Flashes in Morse code identify the beacon site.
c. High intensity flashing white lights are being
used to identify some supporting structures of
223. Obstruction Lights overhead transmission lines located across rivers,
chasms, gorges, etc. These lights flash in a middle,
a. Obstructions are marked/lighted to warn airmen top, lower light sequence at approximately 60 flashes
of their presence during daytime and nighttime per minute. The top light is normally installed near
conditions. They may be marked/lighted in any of the the top of the supporting structure, while the lower
following combinations: light indicates the approximate lower portion of the
Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting 221

AIM 4/3/14
wire span. The lights are beamed towards the and towers, as obstructions to air navigation. The
companion structure and identify the area of the wire lights provide a 360 degree coverage about the
span. structure at 40 flashes per minute and consist of from
one to seven levels of lights depending upon the
d. High intensity flashing white lights are also height of the structure. Where more than one level is
employed to identify tall structures, such as chimneys used the vertical banks flash simultaneously.
222 Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting

4/3/14 AIM
Section 3. Airport Marking Aids and Signs
231. General 232. Airport Pavement Markings
a. Airport pavement markings and signs provide a. General. For the purpose of this presentation
information that is useful to a pilot during takeoff, the Airport Pavement Markings have been grouped
landing, and taxiing. into four areas:
1. Runway Markings.
b. Uniformity in airport markings and signs from
one airport to another enhances safety and improves 2. Taxiway Markings.
efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the
3. Holding Position Markings.
operators of the airports they use to achieve the
marking and sign standards described in this section. 4. Other Markings.
c. Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or b. Marking Colors. Markings for runways are
confusing markings or signs on an airport should white. Markings defining the landing area on a
make the operator of the airport aware of the problem. heliport are also white except for hospital heliports
These situations may also be reported under the which use a red H on a white cross. Markings for
Aviation Safety Reporting Program as described in taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft
paragraph 761, Aviation Safety Reporting Pro- (closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions
gram. Pilots may also report these situations to the (even if they are on a runway) are yellow.
FAA regional airports division.
233. Runway Markings
d. The markings and signs described in this
section of the AIM reflect the current FAA a. General. There are three types of markings for
recommended standards. runways: visual, nonprecision instrument, and
precision instrument. TBL 231 identifies the
REFERENCE
AC 150/53401, Standards for Airport Markings.
marking elements for each type of runway and
AC 150/534018, Standards for Airport Sign Systems. TBL 232 identifies runway threshold markings.
TBL 231
Runway Marking Elements
Nonprecision Precision
Marking Element Visual Runway Instrument Instrument
Runway Runway
Designation X X X
Centerline X X X
Threshold X1 X X
Aiming Point X2 X X
Touchdown Zone X
Side Stripes X
1 On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports.
2 On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft.
Airport Marking Aids and Signs 231

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 231
Precision Instrument Runway Markings
b. Runway Designators. Runway numbers and d. Runway Aiming Point Marking. The aiming
letters are determined from the approach direction. point marking serves as a visual aiming point for a
The runway number is the whole number nearest landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings
one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of
the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic the runway centerline and approximately 1,000 feet
north. The letters, differentiate between left (L), from the landing threshold, as shown in FIG 231,
right (R), or center (C), parallel runways, as Precision Instrument Runway Markings.
applicable: e. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers. The
1. For two parallel runways L R. touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown
zone for landing operations and are coded to provide
2. For three parallel runways L C R. distance information in 500 feet (150m) increments.
c. Runway Centerline Marking. The runway These markings consist of groups of one, two, and
centerline identifies the center of the runway and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in
provides alignment guidance during takeoff and pairs about the runway centerline, as shown in
landings. The centerline consists of a line of FIG 231, Precision Instrument Runway Markings.
uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. For runways having touchdown zone markings on
both ends, those pairs of markings which extend to
within 900 feet (270m) of the midpoint between the
thresholds are eliminated.
232 Airport Marking Aids and Signs

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 232
Nonprecision Instrument Runway and Visual Runway Markings
AIMING POINT
MARKING
20
DESIGNATION PAVEMENT EDGE
THRESHOLD THRESHOLD MARKING
MARKINGS
NONPRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY MARKINGS
AIMING POINT
MARKING
20
DESIGNATION MARKING
PAVEMENT EDGE
THRESHOLD
VISUAL RUNWAY MARKINGS
f. Runway Side Stripe Marking. Runway side dimensions disposed symmetrically about the
stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They runway centerline, as shown in FIG 231, or the
provide a visual contrast between runway and the number of stripes is related to the runway width as
abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of indicated in TBL 232. A threshold marking helps
continuous white stripes located on each side of the identify the beginning of the runway that is available
runway as shown in FIG 234. for landing. In some instances the landing threshold
may be relocated or displaced.
g. Runway Shoulder Markings. Runway shoul-
der stripes may be used to supplement runway side TBL 232
stripes to identify pavement areas contiguous to the Number of Runway Threshold Stripes
runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft. Runway Width Number of Stripes
Runway Shoulder stripes are Yellow. 60 feet (18 m) 4
(See FIG 235.)
75 feet (23 m) 6
h. Runway Threshold Markings. Runway 100 feet (30 m) 8
threshold markings come in two configurations. They 150 feet (45 m) 12
either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform 200 feet (60 m) 16

AIM 4/3/14
1. Relocation of a Threshold. Sometimes located across the width of the runway at the
construction, maintenance, or other activities require displaced threshold. White arrows are located along
the threshold to be relocated towards the rollout end the centerline in the area between the beginning of the
of the runway. (See FIG 233.) When a threshold is runway and displaced threshold. White arrow heads
relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the are located across the width of the runway just prior
approach end of a runway, but also shortens the length to the threshold bar, as shown in FIG 234.
of the opposite direction runway. In these cases, a NOTE
NOTAM should be issued by the airport operator Airport operator. When reporting the relocation or
identifying the portion of the runway that is closed, displacement of a threshold, the airport operator should
e.g., 10/28 W 900 CLSD. Because the duration of the avoid language which confuses the two.
relocation can vary from a few hours to several i. Demarcation Bar. A demarcation bar delin-
months, methods identifying the new threshold may eates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast
vary. One common practice is to use a ten feet wide pad, stopway or taxiway that precedes the runway. A
white threshold bar across the width of the runway. demarcation bar is 3 feet (1m) wide and yellow, since
Although the runway lights in the area between the it is not located on the runway as shown in
old threshold and new threshold will not be FIG 236.
illuminated, the runway markings in this area may or
may not be obliterated, removed, or covered. 1. Chevrons. These markings are used to show
pavement areas aligned with the runway that are
unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons
2. Displaced Threshold. A displaced thresh-
are yellow. (See FIG 237.)
old is a threshold located at a point on the runway
other than the designated beginning of the runway. j. Runway Threshold Bar. A threshold bar
Displacement of a threshold reduces the length of delineates the beginning of the runway that is
runway available for landings. The portion of runway available for landing when the threshold has been
behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10 feet (3m)
in either direction and landings from the opposite in width and extends across the width of the runway,
direction. A ten feet wide white threshold bar is as shown in FIG 234.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 233
Relocation of a Threshold with Markings for Taxiway Aligned with Runway

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 234
Displaced Threshold Markings

7/24/14
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 235 2. Enhanced Centerline. At some airports,

Runway Shoulder Markings mostly the larger commercial service airports, an
enhanced taxiway centerline will be used. The
enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a
SHOULDER RUNWAY SHOULDER parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the
normal taxiway centerline. The taxiway centerlines
are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a
45 45
runway holding position marking. The purpose of
this enhancement is to warn the pilot that he/she is
MIDPOINT OF approaching a runway holding position marking and
RUNWAY
should prepare to stop unless he/she has been cleared
onto or across the runway by ATC. (See FIG 238.)
c. Taxiway Edge Markings. Taxiway edge

markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway.
They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does
not correspond with the edge of the pavement. There
are two types of markings depending upon whether
the aircraft is supposed to cross the taxiway edge:
45 45
1. Continuous Markings. These consist of a
continuous double yellow line, with each line being
RUNWAY THRESHOLD at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches
(15 cm) apart. They are used to define the taxiway
edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved
surface not intended for use by aircraft.
234. Taxiway Markings 2. Dashed Markings. These markings are

used when there is an operational need to define the
a. General. All taxiways should have centerline edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface
markings and runway holding position markings where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is
whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron. Dashed
markings are present whenever there is a need to taxiway edge markings consist of a broken double
separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches
intended for aircraft use or to delineate the edge of the (15 cm) in width, spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge
taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings to edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with
and holding position markings for Instrument 25 foot (7.5 m) gaps. (See FIG 239.)
Landing System (ILS) critical areas, and taxiway/
taxiway intersection markings. d. Taxi Shoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding
REFERENCE bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved
AIM, Holding Position Markings, Paragraph 235. shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion.
b. Taxiway Centerline. Although shoulders may have the appearance of full
strength pavement they are not intended for use by
1. Normal Centerline. The taxiway centerline aircraft, and may be unable to support an aircraft.
is a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to Usually the taxiway edge marking will define this
12 inches (30 cm) in width. This provides a visual cue area. Where conditions exist such as islands or
to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally, the taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which
aircraft should be kept centered over this line during side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway
taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway shoulder markings may be used to indicate the
centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with pavement is unusable. Taxiway shoulder markings
other aircraft or other objects. are yellow. (See FIG 2310.)

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 236
Markings for Blast Pad or Stopway or Taxiway Preceding a Displaced Threshold

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 237
Markings for Blast Pads and Stopways

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 238 to the left being on the left side of the taxiway
Enhanced Taxiway Centerline centerline and signs indicating turns to the right being
on the right side of the centerline. (See FIG 2311.)
FIG 2310
Taxi Shoulder Markings
RUNWAY
PAVEMENT EDGE
YELLOW STRIPES
TAXIWAY EDGE
MARKINGS
f. Surface Painted Location Signs. Surface

FIG 239
painted location signs have a black background with
Dashed Markings
a yellow inscription. When necessary, these markings
are used to supplement location signs located along
side the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the
DOUBLE
designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is
YELLOW located. These markings are located on the right side
LINES of the centerline. (See FIG 2311.)
g. Geographic Position Markings. These mark-
ings are located at points along low visibility taxi
routes designated in the airports Surface Movement
Guidance Control System (SMGCS) plan. They are
used to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during
low visibility operations. Low visibility operations
TAXIWAY EDGE TAXIWAY EDGE are those that occur when the runway visible
MARKINGS MARKINGS range (RVR) is below 1200 feet(360m). They are
CONTINUOUS DASHED positioned to the left of the taxiway centerline in the
direction of taxiing. (See FIG 2312.) The
geographic position marking is a circle comprised of
an outer black ring contiguous to a white ring with a
e. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction pink circle in the middle. When installed on asphalt
Signs. Surface painted taxiway direction signs have or other dark-colored pavements, the white ring and
a yellow background with a black inscription, and are the black ring are reversed, i.e., the white ring
provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway becomes the outer ring and the black ring becomes the
direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to inner ring. It is designated with either a number or a
supplement such signs. These markings are located number and letter. The number corresponds to the
adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating turns consecutive position of the marking on the route.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2311
Surface Painted Signs

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
7/24/14
4/3/14
235. Holding Position Markings Areas. These markings are used at some airports
a. Runway Holding Position Markings. For where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway
runways, these markings indicate where an aircraft is located in the approach or departure area of a runway
supposed to stop when approaching a runway. They so that the aircraft does not interfere with the
consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, operations on that runway. This marking is collocated
spaced six or twelve inches apart, and extending with the runway approach area holding position sign.
across the width of the taxiway or runway. The solid When specifically instructed by ATC Hold short of
lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to (runway xx approach area) the pilot should stop so
hold. There are three locations where runway holding no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding
position markings are encountered. position marking. (See subparagraph 238b2,
1. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign, and
Taxiways. These markings identify the locations on FIG 2315.)
a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop when b. Holding Position Markings for Instrument
it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway. Landing System (ILS). Holding position markings
Generally, runway holding position markings also for ILS critical areas consist of two yellow solid lines
identify the boundary of the runway safety area for spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of solid lines
aircraft exiting the runway. The runway holding spaced ten feet apart extending across the width of the
position markings are shown in FIG 2313 and taxiway as shown. (See FIG 2316.) A sign with an
FIG 2316. When instructed by ATC to, Hold short inscription in white on a red background is installed
of (runway xx), the pilot must stop so that no part adjacent to these hold position markings. When the
of the aircraft extends beyond the runway holding ILS critical area is being protected, the pilot should
position marking. When approaching the runway, a stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the
pilot should not cross the runway holding position holding position marking. When approaching the
marking without ATC clearance at a controlled holding position marking, a pilot should not cross the
airport, or without making sure of adequate marking without ATC clearance. ILS critical area is
separation from other aircraft at uncontrolled not clear until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the
airports. An aircraft exiting a runway is not clear of applicable holding position marking.
the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed REFERENCE
AIM, Instrument Landing System (ILS), Paragraph 119.
the applicable holding position marking. c. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/
REFERENCE
AIM, Exiting the Runway After Landing,. Paragraph 4320. Taxiway Intersections. Holding position markings
2. Runway Holding Position Markings on for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single
Runways. These markings are installed on runways dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
only if the runway is normally used by air traffic as shown. (See FIG 2317.) They are installed on
control for land, hold short operations or taxiing taxiways where air traffic control normally holds
operations and have operational significance only for aircraft short of a taxiway intersection. When
those two types of operations. A sign with a white instructed by ATC hold short of (taxiway) the pilot
inscription on a red background is installed adjacent should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond
to these holding position markings. (See the holding position marking. When the marking is
FIG 2314.) The holding position markings are not present the pilot should stop the aircraft at a point
placed on runways prior to the intersection with which provides adequate clearance from an aircraft
another runway, or some designated point. Pilots on the intersecting taxiway.
receiving instructions cleared to land, runway xx d. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs.
from air traffic control are authorized to use the entire Surface painted holding position signs have a red
landing length of the runway and should disregard background with a white inscription and supplement
any holding position markings located on the runway. the signs located at the holding position. This type of
Pilots receiving and accepting instructions cleared marking is normally used where the width of the
to land runway xx, hold short of runway yy from holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200
air traffic control must either exit runway xx, or feet(60m). It is located to the left side of the taxiway
stop at the holding position prior to runway yy. centerline on the holding side and prior to the holding
3. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach position marking. (See FIG 2311.)

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2312
Geographic Position Markings
FIG 2313
Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiway
15
RUNWAY TAXIWAY/RUNWAY
HOLDING POSITION
MARKINGS
HOLDING
BAY
TAXIWAY
EXAMPLE OF HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS
EXTENDED ACROSS HOLDING BAY

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2314
Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2315
Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2316
Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area
15
RUNWAY HOLDING
DETAIL 1 POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 1
ILS HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 2
ILS CRITICAL
AREA
DETAIL 2
236. Other Markings the middle; the arrow is aligned in the direction of the
checkpoint azimuth. This marking, and an associated
a. Vehicle Roadway Markings. The vehicle
sign, is located on the airport apron or taxiway at a
roadway markings are used when necessary to define
point selected for easy access by aircraft but where
a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas
other airport traffic is not to be unduly obstructed.
that are also intended for aircraft. These markings
(See FIG 2320.)
consist of a white solid line to delineate each edge of
the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes within NOTE
the edges of the roadway. In lieu of the solid lines, The associated sign contains the VOR station identification
zipper markings may be used to delineate the edges letter and course selected (published) for the check, the
of the vehicle roadway. (See FIG 2318.) Details of words VOR check course, and DME data (when
applicable). The color of the letters and numerals are black
the zipper markings are shown in FIG 2319.
on a yellow background.
b. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings. The EXAMPLE
VOR receiver checkpoint marking allows the pilot to DCA 176356
check aircraft instruments with navigational aid VOR check course
signals. It consists of a painted circle with an arrow in DME XXX

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2317
Holding Position Markings: Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
TAXIWAY HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 1
DETAIL 1
FIG 2318
Vehicle Roadway Markings

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2319 FIG 2320

Roadway Edge Stripes, White, Zipper Style Ground Receiver Checkpoint Markings
1 2
3
4
5
1. WHITE
2. YELLOW
3. YELLOW ARROW ALIGNED TOWARD THE FACILITY
4. INTERIOR OF CIRCLE BLACK (CONCRETE SURFACE ONLY)
5. CIRCLE MAY BE BORDERED ON INSIDE AND OUTSIDE WITH
6" BLACK BAND IF NECESSARY FOR CONTRAST
FIG 2321
Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings
DASHED LINE ON
MOVEMENT SIDE BOTH LINES
ARE YELLOW
SOLID LINE ON
NONMOVEMENT
SIDE
FIG 2322
Closed or Temporarily Closed Runway
and Taxiway Markings
c. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings.

These markings delineate the movement area,
X 2
i.e., area under air traffic control. These markings are

yellow and located on the boundary between the d. Marking and Lighting of Permanently
movement and nonmovement area. The nonmove- Closed Runways and Taxiways. For runways and
ment area boundary markings consist of two yellow taxiways which are permanently closed, the lighting
lines (one solid and one dashed) 6 inches (15cm) in circuits will be disconnected. The runway threshold,
width. The solid line is located on the nonmovement runway designation, and touchdown markings are
area side while the dashed yellow line is located on obliterated and yellow crosses are placed at each end
the movement area side. The nonmovement of the runway and at 1,000 foot intervals.
boundary marking area is shown in FIG 2321. (See FIG 2322.)

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2323
Helicopter Landing Areas
e. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways. f. Helicopter Landing Areas. The markings
To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway illustrated in FIG 2323 are used to identify the
is temporarily closed, crosses are placed on the landing and takeoff area at a public use heliport and
runway only at each end of the runway. The crosses hospital heliport. The letter H in the markings is
are yellow in color. (See FIG 2322.) oriented to align with the intended direction of
approach. FIG 2323 also depicts the markings for
1. A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed
a closed airport.
on each runway end in lieu of the markings described
in subparagraph e,Temporarily Closed Runways and
Taxiways, to indicate the runway is closed.
237. Airport Signs
2. A visual indication may not be present
depending on the reason for the closure, duration of
There are six types of signs installed on airfields:
the closure, airfield configuration and the existence
mandatory instruction signs, location signs, direction
and the hours of operation of an airport traffic control
signs, destination signs, information signs, and
tower. Pilots should check NOTAMs and the
runway distance remaining signs. The characteristics
Automated Terminal Information System (ATIS) for
and use of these signs are discussed in para-
local runway and taxiway closure information.
graph 238, Mandatory Instruction Signs, through
3. Temporarily closed taxiways are usually paragraph 2313, Runway Distance Remaining
treated as hazardous areas, in which no part of an Signs.
aircraft may enter, and are blocked with barricades.
REFERENCE
However, as an alternative a yellow cross may be AC150/534018, Standards for Airport Sign Systems for Detailed
installed at each entrance to the taxiway. Information on Airport Signs.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2324
Runway Holding Position Sign
FIG 2325
Holding Position Sign at Beginning of Takeoff Runway
238. Mandatory Instruction Signs runways. The inscription on the sign contains the
designation of the intersecting runway as shown in
a. These signs have a red background with a white
FIG 2324. The runway numbers on the sign are
inscription and are used to denote:
arranged to correspond to the respective runway
1. An entrance to a runway or critical area and; threshold. For example, 1533 indicates that the
2. Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from threshold for Runway 15 is to the left and the
entering. threshold for Runway 33 is to the right.
b. Typical mandatory signs and applications

(a) On taxiways that intersect the beginning
are:
of the takeoff runway, only the designation of the
1. Runway Holding Position Sign. This sign takeoff runway may appear on the sign as shown in
is located at the holding position on taxiways that FIG 2325, while all other signs will have the
intersect a runway or on runways that intersect other designation of both runway directions.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2326
Holding Position Sign for a Taxiway that Intersects the Intersection of Two Runways
FIG 2327
Holding Position Sign for a Runway Approach Area
(b) If the sign is located on a taxiway that position markings are described in paragraph 235,
intersects the intersection of two runways, the Holding Position Markings.
designations for both runways will be shown on the
sign along with arrows showing the approximate 2. Runway Approach Area Holding Position
alignment of each runway as shown in FIG 2326. Sign. At some airports, it is necessary to hold an
In addition to showing the approximate runway aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or
alignment, the arrow indicates the direction to the departure area for a runway so that the aircraft does
threshold of the runway whose designation is not interfere with operations on that runway. In these
immediately next to the arrow. situations, a sign with the designation of the approach
end of the runway followed by a dash () and letters
(c) A runway holding position sign on a APCH will be located at the holding position on the
taxiway will be installed adjacent to holding position taxiway. Holding position markings in accordance
markings on the taxiway pavement. On runways, with paragraph 235, Holding Position Markings,
holding position markings will be located only on the will be located on the taxiway pavement. An example
runway pavement adjacent to the sign, if the runway of this sign is shown in FIG 2327. In this example,
is normally used by air traffic control for Land, Hold the sign may protect the approach to Runway 15
Short operations or as a taxiway. The holding and/or the departure for Runway 33.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2328
Holding Position Sign for ILS Critical Area
FIG 2329
Sign Prohibiting Aircraft Entry into an Area
3. ILS Critical Area Holding Position 4. No Entry Sign. This sign, shown in
Sign. At some airports, when the instrument landing FIG 2329, prohibits an aircraft from entering an
system is being used, it is necessary to hold an aircraft area. Typically, this sign would be located on a
on a taxiway at a location other than the holding taxiway intended to be used in only one direction or
position described in paragraph 235, Holding at the intersection of vehicle roadways with runways,
Position Markings. In these situations the holding taxiways or aprons where the roadway may be
position sign for these operations will have the mistaken as a taxiway or other aircraft movement
inscription ILS and be located adjacent to the surface.
holding position marking on the taxiway described in NOTE
paragraph 235. An example of this sign is shown The holding position sign provides the pilot with a visual
in FIG 2328. cue as to the location of the holding position marking. The
operational significance of holding position markings are
described in the notes for paragraph 235, Holding
Position Markings.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2330
Taxiway Location Sign
FIG 2331
Taxiway Location Sign Collocated with Runway Holding Position Sign
239. Location Signs 1. Taxiway Location Sign. This sign has a

black background with a yellow inscription and
a. Location signs are used to identify either a
yellow border as shown in FIG 2330. The
taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located.
inscription is the designation of the taxiway on which
Other location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to
the aircraft is located. These signs are installed along
assist them in determining when they have exited an
taxiways either by themselves or in conjunction with
area. The various location signs are described below.
direction signs or runway holding position signs.
(See FIG 2335 and FIG 2331.)

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2332
Runway Location Sign
FIG 2333
Runway Boundary Sign
2. Runway Location Sign. This sign has a 3. Runway Boundary Sign. This sign has a
black background with a yellow inscription and yellow background with a black inscription with a
yellow border as shown in FIG 2332. The graphic depicting the pavement holding position
inscription is the designation of the runway on which marking as shown in FIG 2333. This sign, which
the aircraft is located. These signs are intended to faces the runway and is visible to the pilot exiting the
complement the information available to pilots runway, is located adjacent to the holding position
through their magnetic compass and typically are marking on the pavement. The sign is intended to
installed where the proximity of two or more runways provide pilots with another visual cue which they can
to one another could cause pilots to be confused as to use as a guide in deciding when they are clear of the
which runway they are on. runway.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2334
ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
4. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign. This taxiway designations by either a vertical message
sign has a yellow background with a black inscription divider or a taxiway location sign as shown in
with a graphic depicting the ILS pavement holding FIG 2335.
position marking as shown in FIG 2334. This sign
c. Direction signs are normally located on the left
is located adjacent to the ILS holding position
prior to the intersection. When used on a runway to
marking on the pavement and can be seen by pilots
indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side
leaving the critical area. The sign is intended to
of the runway as the exit. FIG 2336 shows a
provide pilots with another visual cue which they can
direction sign used to indicate a runway exit.
use as a guide in deciding when they are clear of the
ILS critical area. d. The taxiway designations and their associated
arrows on the sign are arranged clockwise starting
2310. Direction Signs from the first taxiway on the pilots left.
(See FIG 2335.)
a. Direction signs have a yellow background with
a black inscription. The inscription identifies the e. If a location sign is located with the direction
designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading signs, it is placed so that the designations for all turns
out of the intersection that a pilot would normally be to the left will be to the left of the location sign; the
expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each designations for continuing straight ahead or for all
designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating turns to the right would be located to the right of the
the direction of the turn. location sign. (See FIG 2335.)
b. Except as noted in subparagraph e, each f. When the intersection is comprised of only one
taxiway designation shown on the sign is accompa- crossing taxiway, it is permissible to have two arrows
nied by only one arrow. When more than one taxiway associated with the crossing taxiway as shown in
designation is shown on the sign each designation and FIG 2337. In this case, the location sign is located
its associated arrow is separated from the other to the left of the direction sign.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2335
Direction Sign Array with Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection
FIG 2336
Direction Sign for Runway Exit

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2337
Direction Sign Array for Simple Intersection

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 2338
Destination Sign for Military Area
FIG 2339
Destination Sign for Common Taxiing Route to Two Runways
2311. Destination Signs areas, and fixed base operators. An abbreviation may
be used as the inscription on the sign for some of these
a. Destination signs also have a yellow back- destinations.
ground with a black inscription indicating a
destination on the airport. These signs always have an c. When the inscription for two or more
arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to destinations having a common taxiing route are
that destination. FIG 2338 is an example of a placed on a sign, the destinations are separated by a
typical destination sign. When the arrow on the dot () and one arrow would be used as shown in
destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located FIG 2339. When the inscription on a sign contains
prior to the intersection. two or more destinations having different taxiing
routes, each destination will be accompanied by an
b. Destinations commonly shown on these types arrow and will be separated from the other
of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military destinations on the sign with a vertical black message
areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international divider as shown in FIG 2340.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 2340
Destination Sign for Different Taxiing Routes to Two Runways
2312. Information Signs FIG 2341

Runway Distance Remaining Sign Indicating
Information signs have a yellow background with a 3,000 feet of Runway Remaining
black inscription. They are used to provide the pilot
with information on such things as areas that cannot
be seen from the control tower, applicable radio
frequencies, and noise abatement procedures. The
airport operator determines the need, size, and
3
location for these signs.
2313. Runway Distance Remaining Signs
Runway distance remaining signs have a black

background with a white numeral inscription and
may be installed along one or both side(s) of the
runway. The number on the signs indicates the
distance (in thousands of feet) of landing runway
remaining. The last sign, i.e., the sign with the
numeral 1, will be located at least 950 feet from the
runway end. FIG 2341 shows an example of a
runway distance remaining sign.

AIM 4/3/14
2314. Aircraft Arresting Systems NOTE

Aircraft operations on the runway are not restricted by the
a. Certain airports are equipped with a means of installation of aircraft arresting devices.
rapidly stopping military aircraft on a runway. This
c. Engineered materials arresting systems
equipment, normally referred to as EMERGENCY
(EMAS). EMAS, which are constructed of high
ARRESTING GEAR, generally consists of pendant
energyabsorbing materials of selected strength, are
cables supported over the runway surface by rubber
located in the safety area beyond the end of the
donuts. Although most devices are located in the
runway. They are designed to crush under the weight
overrun areas, a few of these arresting systems have
of commercial aircraft and they exert deceleration
cables stretched over the operational areas near the
forces on the landing gear. These systems do not
ends of a runway.
affect the normal landing and takeoff of airplanes.
b. Arresting cables which cross over a runway More information concerning EMAS is in FAA
require special markings on the runway to identify Advisory Circular AC 150/522022, Engineered
the cable location. These markings consist of 10 feet Materials Arresting Systems (EMAS) for Aircraft
diameter solid circles painted identification yel- Overruns.
low, 30 feet on center, perpendicular to the runway NOTE
centerline across the entire runway width. Additional EMAS may be located as close as 35 feet beyond the end of
details are contained in AC 150/52209, Aircraft the runway. Aircraft should never taxi or drive across the
Arresting Systems for Joint Civil/Military Airports. runway.
FIG 2342
Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS)

4/3/14 AIM
2315. Security Identifications Display 2. Measures used to perform the access control
Area (Airport Ramp Area) functions required under CFR 49 Part
1542.201(b)(1);
a. Security Identification Display Areas (SIDA)
are limited access areas that require a badge issued in 3. Procedures to control movement within the
accordance with procedures in CFR 49 Part 1542. secured area, including identification media required
Movement through or into these areas is prohibited under CFR 49 Part 1542.201(b)(3); and
without proper identification being displayed. If you
are unsure of the location of a SIDA, contact the 4. A description of the notification signs
airport authority for additional information. Airports required under CFR 49 Part 1542.201(b)(6).
that have a SIDA must have the following
b. Pilots or passengers without proper identifica-
information available:
tion that are observed entering a SIDA (ramp area)
1. A description and map detailing boundaries may be reported to TSA or airport security. Pilots are
and pertinent features; advised to brief passengers accordingly.

4/3/14 AIM
Chapter 3. Airspace
Section 1. General
311. General 312. General Dimensions of Airspace

Segments
a. There are two categories of airspace or airspace
Refer to Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) for
areas:
specific dimensions, exceptions, geographical areas
1. Regulatory (Class A, B, C, D and E airspace covered, exclusions, specific transponder or equip-
areas, restricted and prohibited areas); and ment requirements, and flight operations.
2. Nonregulatory (military operations areas 313. Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace

(MOAs), warning areas, alert areas, and controlled Designations
firing areas). a. When overlapping airspace designations apply
NOTE to the same airspace, the operating rules associated
Additional information on special use airspace (prohibited with the more restrictive airspace designation apply.
areas, restricted areas, warning areas, MOAs, alert areas b. For the purpose of clarification:
and controlled firing areas) may be found in Chapter 3,
Airspace, Section 4, Special Use Airspace, para- 1. Class A airspace is more restrictive than
graphs 341through 347. Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class G
airspace;
b. Within these two categories, there are four
types: 2. Class B airspace is more restrictive than
Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace;
1. Controlled, 3. Class C airspace is more restrictive than
Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace;
2. Uncontrolled,
4. Class D airspace is more restrictive than
3. Special use, and Class E or Class G airspace; and
5. Class E is more restrictive than Class G
4. Other airspace. airspace.
c. The categories and types of airspace are dictated
by: 314. Basic VFR Weather Minimums
a. No person may operate an aircraft under basic
1. The complexity or density of aircraft VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance
movements, from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the
corresponding altitude and class of airspace.
2. The nature of the operations conducted (See TBL 311.)
within the airspace,
NOTE
Student pilots must comply with 14 CFR Section 61.89(a)
3. The level of safety required, and
(6) and (7).
4. The national and public interest. b. Except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.157,
Special VFR Weather Minimums, no person may
d. It is important that pilots be familiar with the operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR
operational requirements for each of the various types within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace
or classes of airspace. Subsequent sections will cover designated to the surface for an airport when the
each class in sufficient detail to facilitate ceiling is less than 1,000 feet. (See 14 CFR
understanding. Section 91.155(c).)
General 311
AIM 4/3/14
TBL 311
Basic VFR Weather Minimums
Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds

Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not Applicable Not Applicable
Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles Clear of Clouds
Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
Class E
Less than 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
At or above 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below
1,000 feet above
1 statute mile horizontal
Class G
1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of MSL
altitude).
Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile Clear of clouds
Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less than
10,000 feet MSL.
Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or above 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below
10,000 feet MSL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 feet above
1 statute mile horizontal
315. VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels

(See TBL 312.)
TBL 312
VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels
If your magnetic course And you are more than 3,000 feet above the And you are above 18,000 feet
(ground track) is: surface but below 18,000 feet MSL, fly: MSL to FL 290, fly:
0 to 179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odd thousands MSL, plus 500 feet Odd Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(3,500; 5,500; 7,500, etc.) (FL 195; FL 215; FL 235, etc.)
180 to 359 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Even thousands MSL, plus 500 feet Even Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(4,500; 6,500; 8,500, etc.) (FL 185; FL 205; FL 225, etc.)
312 General
4/3/14 AIM
321. General into Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The pilot

retains this responsibility when receiving ATC radar
a. Controlled Airspace. A generic term that advisories. (See 14 CFR Part 91.)
covers the different classification of airspace
(Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E e. Traffic Advisories. Traffic advisories will be
airspace) and defined dimensions within which air provided to all aircraft as the controllers work
traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and situation permits.
to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace f. Safety Alerts. Safety Alerts are mandatory
classification. (See FIG 321.) services and are provided to ALL aircraft. There are
two types of Safety Alerts:
b. IFR Requirements. IFR operations in any
class of controlled airspace requires that a pilot must 1. Terrain/Obstruction Alert. A Terrain/
file an IFR flight plan and receive an appropriate ATC Obstruction Alert is issued when, in the controllers
clearance. judgment, an aircrafts altitude places it in unsafe
proximity to terrain and/or obstructions; and
c. IFR Separation. Standard IFR separation is
provided to all aircraft operating under IFR in 2. Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert.
controlled airspace. An Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert is issued
if the controller observes another aircraft which
d. VFR Requirements. It is the responsibility of places it in an unsafe proximity. When feasible, the
the pilot to ensure that ATC clearance or radio controller will offer the pilot an alternative course of
communication requirements are met prior to entry action.
FIG 321
Airspace Classes
FL 600 CLASS A
18,000 MSL
14,500 MSL CLASS E
CLASS B
CLASS C
CLASS D
Nontowered 700 AGL 1,200 AGL
Airport
CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G
MSL - mean sea level

AGL - above ground level
FL - flight level
Controlled Airspace 321

AIM 4/3/14
g. Ultralight Vehicles. No person may operate an consists of a surface area and two or more layers
ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down
Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all
the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an published instrument procedures once an aircraft
airport unless that person has prior authorization from enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for
the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that
airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 103.) are so cleared receive separation services within the
airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR
h. Unmanned Free Balloons. Unless otherwise operations is clear of clouds.
authorized by ATC, no person may operate an
unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B, Requirements for VFR Operations. Regardless of
Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required
an airport. (See 14 CFR Part 101.) prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots
should not request a clearance to operate within
i. Parachute Jumps. No person may make a Class B airspace unless the requirements of 14 CFR
parachute jump, and no pilotincommand may Section 91.215 and 14 CFR Section 91.131 are met.
allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, Included among these requirements are:
in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D
airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an 1. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft
ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having must be equipped with an operable two-way radio
jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 105.) capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate
frequencies for that Class B airspace.
2. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft
322. Class A Airspace
at the following primary airports within Class B
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from airspace unless the pilotincommand holds at least
18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600, a private pilot certificate:
including the airspace overlying the waters within (a) Andrews Air Force Base, MD
12 nautical miles off the coast of the 48 contiguous
States and Alaska; and designated international (b) Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, GA
airspace beyond 12 nautical miles off the coast of the (c) Boston Logan Airport, MA
48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of
domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar (d) Chicago OHare Intl. Airport, IL
coverage, and within which domestic procedures are (e) Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport, TX
applied.
(f) Los Angeles Intl. Airport, CA
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized, all (g) Miami Intl. Airport, FL
persons must operate their aircraft under IFR. (See (h) Newark Intl. Airport, NJ
14 CFR Section 71.33 and 14 CFR Section 91.167
(i) New York Kennedy Airport, NY
through 14 CFR Section 91.193.)
(j) New York La Guardia Airport, NY
c. Charts. Class A airspace is not specifically
charted. (k) Ronald Reagan Washington National
Airport, DC
323. Class B Airspace (l) San Francisco Intl. Airport, CA

3. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil
surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nations
aircraft within Class B airspace unless:
busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or
passenger enplanements. The configuration of each (a) The pilotincommand holds at least a
Class B airspace area is individually tailored and private pilot certificate; or
322 Controlled Airspace

4/3/14 AIM
(b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot c. Charts. Class B airspace is charted on
or recreational pilot who seeks private pilot Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and
certification and has met the requirements of 14 CFR Terminal Area Charts.
Section 61.95.
d. Flight Procedures.
4. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each
1. Flights. Aircraft within Class B airspace are
person operating a large turbine engine-powered
required to operate in accordance with current IFR
airplane to or from a primary airport must operate at
procedures. A clearance for a visual approach to a
or above the designated floors while within the lateral
primary airport is not authorization for turbine
limits of Class B airspace.
powered airplanes to operate below the designated
5. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each floors of the Class B airspace.
aircraft must be equipped as follows: 2. VFR Flights.
(a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or (a) Arriving aircraft must obtain an ATC
TACAN receiver; and clearance prior to entering Class B airspace and must
contact ATC on the appropriate frequency, and in
(b) For all operations, a two-way radio relation to geographical fixes shown on local charts.
capable of communications with ATC on appropriate Although a pilot may be operating beneath the floor
frequencies for that area; and of the Class B airspace on initial contact,
communications with ATC should be established in
(c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an
relation to the points indicated for spacing and
operable radar beacon transponder with automatic
sequencing purposes.
altitude reporting equipment.
(b) Departing aircraft require a clearance to
NOTE
ATC may, upon notification, immediately authorize a depart Class B airspace and should advise the
deviation from the altitude reporting equipment require- clearance delivery position of their intended altitude
ment; however, a request for a deviation from the 4096 and route of flight. ATC will normally advise VFR
transponder equipment requirement must be submitted to aircraft when leaving the geographical limits of the
the controlling ATC facility at least one hour before the Class B airspace. Radar service is not automatically
proposed operation. terminated with this advisory unless specifically
REFERENCE stated by the controller.
AIM, Transponder Operation, Paragraph 4120.
(c) Aircraft not landing or departing the
6. Mode C Veil. The airspace within 30 nauti- primary airport may obtain an ATC clearance to
cal miles of an airport listed in Appendix D, Section 1 transit the Class B airspace when traffic conditions
of 14 CFR Part 91 (generally primary airports within permit and provided the requirements of 14 CFR
Class B airspace areas), from the surface upward to Section 91.131 are met. Such VFR aircraft are
10,000 feet MSL. Unless otherwise authorized by encouraged, to the extent possible, to operate at
ATC, aircraft operating within this airspace must be altitudes above or below the Class B airspace or
equipped with automatic pressure altitude reporting transit through established VFR corridors. Pilots
equipment having Mode C capability. operating in VFR corridors are urged to use frequency
122.750 MHz for the exchange of aircraft position
However, an aircraft that was not originally information.
certificated with an enginedriven electrical system
or which has not subsequently been certified with a e. ATC Clearances and Separation. An ATC
system installed may conduct operations within a clearance is required to enter and operate within
Mode C veil provided the aircraft remains outside Class B airspace. VFR pilots are provided sequenc-
Class A, B or C airspace; and below the altitude of the ing and separation from other aircraft while operating
ceiling of a Class B or Class C airspace area within Class B airspace.
designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL, REFERENCE
whichever is lower. AIM, Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, Paragraph 4118.

AIM 4/3/14
NOTE operating too closely to the boundaries, especially

1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be where the floor of the Class B airspace is 3,000 feet
suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is or less above the surface or where VFR cruise
dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the altitudes are at or near the floor of higher levels.
service is not available and issued wind, runway
Observance of this precaution will reduce the
information and the time or place to contact the tower.
potential for encountering an aircraft operating at the
2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during altitudes of Class B floors. Additionally, VFR aircraft
CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to are encouraged to utilize the VFR Planning Chart as
the primary airport will be provided on a workload a tool for planning flight in proximity to Class B
permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when center
airspace. Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts are
radar presentation (CENRAP) is in use.
published on the back of the existing VFR Terminal
1. VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR Area Charts.
aircraft which weigh 19,000 pounds or less by a
minimum of: 324. Class C Airspace
(a) Target resolution, or a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation
(b) 500 feet vertical separation, or
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have
(c) Visual separation. an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar
approach control, and that have a certain number of
2. VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR
IFR operations or passenger enplanements. Although
aircraft which weigh more than 19,000 and turbojets
the configuration of each Class C airspace area is
by no less than:
individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of
(a) 1 1/2 miles lateral separation, or a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the
surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation,
(b) 500 feet vertical separation, or
and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends no lower
(c) Visual separation. than 1,200 feet up to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation.
3. This program is not to be interpreted as
relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and b. Charts. Class C airspace is charted on
avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and
conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path Terminal Area Charts where appropriate.
as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to c. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear- Requirements:
ance or to remain in weather conditions equal to or
better than the minimums required by 14 CFR 1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica-
Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised tion required.
and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when 2. Equipment.
compliance with an assigned route, heading and/or (a) Two-way radio; and
altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility
with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance, (b) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an
vortex exposure, and weather minimums. operable radar beacon transponder with automatic
altitude reporting equipment.
4. ATC may assign altitudes to VFR aircraft that
NOTE
do not conform to 14 CFR Section 91.159. See paragraph 4120, Transponder Operation, subpara-
RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES graph f2(c) for Mode C transponder requirements for
will be broadcast when the altitude assignment is no operating above Class C airspace.
longer needed for separation or when leaving Class B
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require-
airspace. Pilots must return to an altitude that
ments. Two-way radio communication must be
conforms to 14 CFR Section 91.159.
established with the ATC facility providing ATC
f. Proximity operations. VFR aircraft operating services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those
in proximity to Class B airspace are cautioned against communications while in Class C airspace. Pilots of

4/3/14 AIM
arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace 5. Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise autho-
ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give rized or required by ATC, no person may operate an
their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destina- aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface
tion, and request Class C service. Radio contact within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a
should be initiated far enough from the Class C Class C airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more
airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C than 200 knots (230 mph).
airspace before two-way radio communications are
established. d. Air Traffic Services. When two-way radio
communications and radar contact are established, all
NOTE participating VFR aircraft are:
1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, (aircraft
callsign) standby, radio communications have been 1. Sequenced to the primary airport.
established and the pilot can enter the Class C airspace.
2. Provided Class C services within the Class C
2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate
airspace and the outer area.
provision of Class C services, the controller will inform the
pilot to remain outside the Class C airspace until 3. Provided basic radar services beyond the
conditions permit the services to be provided. outer area on a workload permitting basis. This can be
3. It is important to understand that if the controller terminated by the controller if workload dictates.
responds to the initial radio call without using the aircraft
identification, radio communications have not been e. Aircraft Separation. Separation is provided
established and the pilot may not enter the Class C within the Class C airspace and the outer area after
airspace. two-way radio communications and radar contact are
established. VFR aircraft are separated from IFR
4. Though not requiring regulatory action, Class C
aircraft within the Class C airspace by any of the
airspace areas have a procedural Outer Area. Normally
this area is 20 NM from the primary Class C airspace
following:
airport. Its vertical limit extends from the lower limits of 1. Visual separation.
radio/radar coverage up to the ceiling of the approach
controls delegated airspace, excluding the Class C 2. 500 feet vertical; except when operating
airspace itself, and other airspace as appropriate. (This beneath a heavy jet.
outer area is not charted.)
3. Target resolution.
5. Pilots approaching an airport with Class C service
should be aware that if they descend below the base altitude NOTE
of the 5 to 10 mile shelf during an instrument or visual 1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be
approach, they may encounter nontransponder, VFR suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is
aircraft. dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the
service is not available and issued wind, runway
EXAMPLE information and the time or place to contact the tower.
1. [Aircraft callsign] remain outside the Class Charlie
airspace and standby. 2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during
CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to
2. Aircraft calling Dulles approach control, standby. the primary airport will be provided on a workload
4. Departures from: permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when CENRAP
is in use.
(a) A primary or satellite airport with an
operating control tower. Two-way radio communica- 3. Pilot participation is voluntary within the outer area
and can be discontinued, within the outer area, at the pilots
tions must be established and maintained with the
request. Class C services will be provided in the outer area
control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC
unless the pilot requests termination of the service.
while operating in Class C airspace.
4. Some facilities provide Class C services only during
(b) A satellite airport without an operating published hours. At other times, terminal IFR radar service
control tower. Two-way radio communications must will be provided. It is important to note that the
be established as soon as practicable after departing communications and transponder requirements are
with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the dependent of the class of airspace established outside of the
Class C airspace. published hours.

AIM 4/3/14
f. Secondary Airports TBL 321

Class C Airspace Areas by State
1. In some locations Class C airspace may State/City Airport
overlie the Class D surface area of a secondary ALABAMA
airport. In order to allow that control tower to provide Birmingham . . . . . . . . . BirminghamShuttlesworth
service to aircraft, portions of the overlapping International
Class C airspace may be procedurally excluded when Huntsville . . . . . . . . . . . InternationalCarl T Jones Fld
the secondary airport tower is in operation. Aircraft Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
ALASKA
operating in these procedurally excluded areas will
Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . Ted Stevens International
only be provided airport traffic control services when
ARIZONA
in communication with the secondary airport tower. DavisMonthan . . . . . . . AFB
Tucson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
2. Aircraft proceeding inbound to a satellite ARKANSAS
airport will be terminated at a sufficient distance to Fayetteville (Springdale) Northwest Arkansas Regional
allow time to change to the appropriate tower or Little Rock . . . . . . . . . . Adams Field
advisory frequency. Class C services to these aircraft CALIFORNIA
will be discontinued when the aircraft is instructed to Beale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Burbank . . . . . . . . . . . . Bob Hope
contact the tower or change to advisory frequency.
Fresno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yosemite International
Monterey . . . . . . . . . . . . Peninsula
3. Aircraft departing secondary controlled Oakland . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan Oakland
airports will not receive Class C services until they International
have been radar identified and two-way communica- Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
tions have been established with the Class C airspace Riverside . . . . . . . . . . . . March AFB
facility. Sacramento . . . . . . . . . . International
San Jose . . . . . . . . . . . . Norman Y. Mineta International
Santa Ana . . . . . . . . . . . John Wayne/Orange County
4. This program is not to be interpreted as Santa Barbara . . . . . . . . Municipal
relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and COLORADO
avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather Colorado Springs . . . . . Municipal
conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path CONNECTICUT
as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to Windsor Locks . . . . . . . Bradley International
maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear- FLORIDA
ance or to remain in weather conditions equal to or Daytona Beach . . . . . . . International
better than the minimums required by 14 CFR Fort Lauderdale . . . . . . . Hollywood International
Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised Fort Myers . . . . . . . . . . SW Florida Regional
Jacksonville . . . . . . . . . . International
and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when
Orlando . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanford International
compliance with an assigned route, heading and/or Palm Beach . . . . . . . . . . International
altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility Pensacola . . . . . . . . . . . NAS
with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance, Pensacola . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
vortex exposure, and weather minimums. Sarasota . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bradenton International
Tallahassee . . . . . . . . . . Regional
g. Class C Airspace Areas by State Whiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAS
GEORGIA
Savannah . . . . . . . . . . . . Hilton Head International
These states currently have designated Class C
HAWAII
airspace areas that are depicted on sectional charts. Kahului . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kahului
Pilots should consult current sectional charts and IDAHO
NOTAMs for the latest information on services Boise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Terminal
available. Pilots should be aware that some Class C ILLINOIS
airspace underlies or is adjacent to Class B airspace. Champaign . . . . . . . . . . Urbana U of IllinoisWillard
(See TBL 321.) Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . Midway International

4/3/14 AIM
State/City Airport State/City Airport

Moline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quad City International NORTH CAROLINA
Peoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greater Peoria Regional Asheville . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Springfield . . . . . . . . . . Abraham Lincoln Capital Fayetteville . . . . . . . . . . Regional/Grannis Field
INDIANA Greensboro . . . . . . . . . . Piedmont Triad International
Evansville . . . . . . . . . . . Regional Pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Fort Wayne . . . . . . . . . . International Raleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . RaleighDurham International
Indianapolis . . . . . . . . . . International OHIO
South Bend . . . . . . . . . . Regional Akron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AkronCanton Regional
IOWA Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . Port Columbus International
Cedar Rapids . . . . . . . . . The Eastern Iowa Dayton . . . . . . . . . . . . . James M. Cox International
Des Moines . . . . . . . . . . International Toledo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Express
KANSAS OKLAHOMA
Wichita . . . . . . . . . . . . . MidContinent Oklahoma City . . . . . . . Will Rogers World
KENTUCKY Tinker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Lexington . . . . . . . . . . . Blue Grass Tulsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . InternationalStandiford Field OREGON
LOUISIANA Portland . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Baton Rouge . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan, Ryan Field PENNSYLVANIA
Lafayette . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional Allentown . . . . . . . . . . . Lehigh Valley International
Shreveport . . . . . . . . . . . Barksdale AFB PUERTO RICO
Shreveport . . . . . . . . . . . Regional San Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . Luis Munoz Marin International
MAINE RHODE ISLAND
Bangor . . . . . . . . . . . . . International Providence . . . . . . . . . . Theodore Francis Green State
Portland . . . . . . . . . . . . . International Jetport SOUTH CAROLINA
MICHIGAN Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . AFB/International
Flint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bishop International Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan
Grand Rapids . . . . . . . . Gerald R. Ford International Greer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GreenvilleSpartanburg
Lansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capital City International
MISSISSIPPI Myrtle Beach . . . . . . . . Myrtle Beach International
Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . AFB Shaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . JacksonEvers International TENNESSEE
MISSOURI Chattanooga . . . . . . . . . Lovell Field
Springfield . . . . . . . . . . SpringfieldBranson National Knoxville . . . . . . . . . . . McGhee Tyson
MONTANA Nashville . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Billings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Logan International TEXAS
NEBRASKA Abilene . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lincoln Amarillo . . . . . . . . . . . . Rick Husband International
Omaha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eppley Airfield Austin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AustinBergstrom International
Offutt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB Corpus Christi . . . . . . . . International
NEVADA Dyess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Reno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reno/Tahoe International El Paso . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
NEW HAMPSHIRE Harlingen . . . . . . . . . . . Valley International
Manchester . . . . . . . . . . Manchester Laughlin . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
NEW JERSEY Lubbock . . . . . . . . . . . . Preston Smith International
Atlantic City . . . . . . . . . International Midland . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
NEW MEXICO San Antonio . . . . . . . . . International
Albuquerque . . . . . . . . . International Sunport VERMONT
NEW YORK
Burlington . . . . . . . . . . . International
Albany . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . Niagara International VIRGIN ISLANDS
Islip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long Island MacArthur St. Thomas . . . . . . . . . . Charlotte Amalie Cyril E. King
Rochester . . . . . . . . . . . Greater Rochester International
Syracuse . . . . . . . . . . . . Hancock International

AIM 4/3/14
State/City Airport 2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate

VIRGINIA entry into Class D airspace, the controller will inform the
Richmond . . . . . . . . . . . International pilot to remain outside the Class D airspace until
Norfolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . International conditions permit entry.
Roanoke . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional/Woodrum Field
EXAMPLE
WASHINGTON
1. [Aircraft callsign] remain outside the Class Delta
Point Roberts . . . . . . . . Vancouver International
airspace and standby.
Spokane . . . . . . . . . . . . Fairchild AFB
It is important to understand that if the controller responds
Spokane . . . . . . . . . . . . International
to the initial radio call without using the aircraft callsign,
Whidbey Island . . . . . . . NAS, Ault Field
WEST VIRGINIA
radio communications have not been established and the
Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . Yeager pilot may not enter the Class D airspace.
WISCONSIN 2. Aircraft calling Manassas tower standby.
Green Bay . . . . . . . . . . .Austin Straubel International At those airports where the control tower does not operate
Madison . . . . . . . . . . . .Dane County RegionalTraux 24 hours a day, the operating hours of the tower will be
Field listed on the appropriate charts and in the A/FD. During
Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . General Mitchell International the hours the tower is not in operation, the Class E surface
area rules or a combination of Class E rules to 700 feet
above ground level and Class G rules to the surface will
325. Class D Airspace become applicable. Check the A/FD for specifics.
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the 4. Departures from:
surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have (a) A primary or satellite airport with an
an operational control tower. The configuration of operating control tower. Two-way radio communica-
each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and tions must be established and maintained with the
when instrument procedures are published, the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC
airspace will normally be designed to contain the while operating in the Class D airspace.
procedures. (b) A satellite airport without an operating
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment control tower. Two-way radio communications must
Requirements: be established as soon as practicable after departing
with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the
1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica- Class D airspace as soon as practicable after
tion required. departing.
2. Equipment. Unless otherwise authorized 5. Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise autho-
by ATC, an operable twoway radio is required. rized or required by ATC, no person may operate an
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface
Requirements. Twoway radio communication within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a
must be established with the ATC facility providing Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more
ATC services prior to entry and thereafter maintain than 200 knots (230 mph).
those communications while in the Class D airspace. c. Class D airspace areas are depicted on Sectional
Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the control and Terminal charts with blue segmented lines, and
tower on the publicized frequency and give their on IFR En Route Lows with a boxed [D].
position, altitude, destination, and any request(s).
Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the d. Arrival extensions for instrument approach
Class D airspace boundary to preclude entering the procedures may be Class D or Class E airspace. As a
Class D airspace before twoway radio communica- general rule, if all extensions are 2 miles or less, they
tions are established. remain part of the Class D surface area. However, if
any one extension is greater than 2 miles, then all
NOTE extensions become Class E.
1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, [aircraft
callsign] standby, radio communications have been e. Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation
established and the pilot can enter the Class D airspace. services are provided to VFR aircraft.

4/3/14 AIM
326. Class E Airspace 1,200 feet AGL used to transition to/from the
terminal or en route environment.
a. Definition. Generally, if the airspace is not
Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is 4. En Route Domestic Areas. There are
controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace. Class E airspace areas that extend upward from a
specified altitude and are en route domestic airspace
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
areas that provide controlled airspace in those areas
Requirements:
where there is a requirement to provide IFR en route
1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica- ATC services but the Federal airway system is
tion required. inadequate.
2. Equipment. No specific equipment 5. Federal Airways. The Federal airways are
required by the airspace. Class E airspace areas and, unless otherwise
specified, extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require-
including, 18,000 feet MSL. The colored airways are
ments. No specific requirements.
green, red, amber, and blue. The VOR airways are
c. Charts. Class E airspace below 14,500 feet classified as Domestic, Alaskan, and Hawaiian.
MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal, and IFR
6. Offshore Airspace Areas. There are
Enroute Low Altitude charts.
Class E airspace areas that extend upward from a
d. Vertical limits. Except for 18,000 feet MSL, specified altitude to, but not including, 18,000 feet
Class E airspace has no defined vertical limit but MSL and are designated as offshore airspace areas.
rather it extends upward from either the surface or a These areas provide controlled airspace beyond
designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent 12 miles from the coast of the U.S. in those areas
controlled airspace. where there is a requirement to provide IFR en route
ATC services and within which the U.S. is applying
e. Types of Class E Airspace:
domestic procedures.
1. Surface area designated for an air-
7. Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class E
port. When designated as a surface area for an
airspace begins at 14,500 feet MSL to, but not
airport, the airspace will be configured to contain all
including, 18,000 feet MSL overlying: the 48 contig-
instrument procedures.
uous States including the waters within 12 miles from
2. Extension to a surface area. There are the coast of the 48 contiguous States; the District of
Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to Columbia; Alaska, including the waters within
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas 12 miles from the coast of Alaska, and that airspace
designated for an airport. Such airspace provides above FL 600; excluding the Alaska peninsula west
controlled airspace to contain standard instrument of long. 160 0000W, and the airspace below
approach procedures without imposing a commu- 1,500 feet above the surface of the earth unless
nications requirement on pilots operating under VFR. specifically so designated.
3. Airspace used for transition. There are f. Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation
Class E airspace areas beginning at either 700 or services are provided to VFR aircraft.

4/3/14 AIM
331. General 333. IFR Requirements

Class G airspace (uncontrolled) is that portion of
airspace that has not been designated as Class A, a. Title 14 CFR specifies the pilot and aircraft
Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace. equipment requirements for IFR flight. Pilots are
reminded that in addition to altitude or flight level
requirements, 14 CFR Section 91.177 includes a
332. VFR Requirements
requirement to remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 feet
Rules governing VFR flight have been adopted to in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest
assist the pilot in meeting the responsibility to see and obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical
avoid other aircraft. Minimum flight visibility and miles from the course to be flown.
distance from clouds required for VFR flight are
contained in 14 CFR Section 91.155. b. IFR Altitudes.
(See TBL 311.) (See TBL 331.)
TBL 331
IFR Altitudes
Class G Airspace
If your magnetic course And you are below

(ground track) is: 18,000 feet MSL, fly:
0 to 179 Odd thousands MSL, (3,000; 5,000; 7,000, etc.)
180 to 359 Even thousands MSL, (2,000; 4,000; 6,000, etc.)
Class G Airspace 331

4/3/14 AIM
Section 4. Special Use Airspace
341. General controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to

the aircraft and its occupants. Restricted areas are
a. Special use airspace consists of that airspace published in the Federal Register and constitute
wherein activities must be confined because of their 14 CFR Part 73.
nature, or wherein limitations are imposed upon
aircraft operations that are not a part of those b. ATC facilities apply the following procedures
activities, or both. Except for controlled firing areas, when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance
special use airspace areas are depicted on aeronauti- (including those cleared by ATC to maintain
cal charts. VFR-on-top) via a route which lies within joint-use
restricted airspace.
b. Prohibited and restricted areas are regulatory
special use airspace and are established in 14 CFR 1. If the restricted area is not active and has been
Part 73 through the rulemaking process. released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC
facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the
c. Warning areas, military operations areas restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance
(MOAs), alert areas, and controlled firing areas for it to do so.
(CFAs) are nonregulatory special use airspace.
2. If the restricted area is active and has not been
d. Special use airspace descriptions (except CFAs) released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC
are contained in FAA Order JO 7400.8, Special Use facility will issue a clearance which will ensure the
Airspace. aircraft avoids the restricted airspace unless it is on an
approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained
e. Special use airspace (except CFAs) are charted
its own permission to operate in the airspace and so
on IFR or visual charts and include the hours of
informs the controlling facility.
operation, altitudes, and the controlling agency.
NOTE
The above apply only to joint-use restricted airspace and
342. Prohibited Areas not to prohibited and nonjoint-use airspace. For the latter
categories, the ATC facility will issue a clearance so the
Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined aircraft will avoid the restricted airspace unless it is on an
dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained its
earth within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. own permission to operate in the airspace and so informs
Such areas are established for security or other the controlling facility.
reasons associated with the national welfare. These c. Restricted airspace is depicted on the en route
areas are published in the Federal Register and are chart appropriate for use at the altitude or flight level
depicted on aeronautical charts. being flown. For joint-use restricted areas, the name
of the controlling agency is shown on these charts.
343. Restricted Areas For all prohibited areas and nonjoint-use restricted
areas, unless otherwise requested by the using
a. Restricted areas contain airspace identified by agency, the phrase NO A/G is shown.
an area on the surface of the earth within which the
flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is 344. Warning Areas
subject to restrictions. Activities within these areas
must be confined because of their nature or A warning area is airspace of defined dimensions,
limitations imposed upon aircraft operations that are extending from three nautical miles outward from the
not a part of those activities or both. Restricted areas coast of the U.S., that contains activity that may be
denote the existence of unusual, often invisible, hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose
hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial of such warning areas is to warn nonparticipating
gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of restricted pilots of the potential danger. A warning area may be
areas without authorization from the using or located over domestic or international waters or both.
Special Use Airspace 341

AIM 4/3/14
345. Military Operations Areas 346. Alert Areas

Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to
a. MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical inform nonparticipating pilots of areas that may
and lateral limits established for the purpose of contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual
separating certain military training activities from type of aerial activity. Pilots should be particularly
IFR traffic. Whenever a MOA is being used, alert when flying in these areas. All activity within an
nonparticipating IFR traffic may be cleared through alert area must be conducted in accordance with
a MOA if IFR separation can be provided by ATC. CFRs, without waiver, and pilots of participating
Otherwise, ATC will reroute or restrict nonparticipat- aircraft as well as pilots transiting the area must be
ing IFR traffic. equally responsible for collision avoidance.
b. Examples of activities conducted in MOAs 347. Controlled Firing Areas

include, but are not limited to: air combat tactics, air CFAs contain activities which, if not conducted in a
intercepts, aerobatics, formation training, and controlled environment, could be hazardous to
lowaltitude tactics. Military pilots flying in an active nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature
MOA are exempted from the provisions of 14 CFR of the CFA, as compared to other special use airspace,
Section 91.303(c) and (d) which prohibits aerobatic is that its activities are suspended immediately when
flight within Class D and Class E surface areas, and spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions
within Federal airways. Additionally, the Department indicate an aircraft might be approaching the area.
of Defense has been issued an authorization to There is no need to chart CFAs since they do not cause
operate aircraft at indicated airspeeds in excess of a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.
250 knots below 10,000 feet MSL within active
MOAs. 348. National Security Areas
National Security Areas consist of airspace of defined
c. Pilots operating under VFR should exercise vertical and lateral dimensions established at
extreme caution while flying within a MOA when locations where there is a requirement for increased
military activity is being conducted. The activity security and safety of ground facilities. Pilots are
status (active/inactive) of MOAs may change requested to voluntarily avoid flying through the
frequently. Therefore, pilots should contact any FSS depicted NSA. When it is necessary to provide a
within 100 miles of the area to obtain accurate greater level of security and safety, flight in NSAs
real-time information concerning the MOA hours of may be temporarily prohibited by regulation under
operation. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots the provisions of 14 CFR Section 99.7. Regulatory
should contact the controlling agency for traffic prohibitions will be issued by System Operations,
advisories. System Operations Airspace and AIM Office,
Airspace and Rules, and disseminated via NOTAM.
d. MOAs are depicted on sectional, VFR Terminal Inquiries about NSAs should be directed to Airspace
Area, and Enroute Low Altitude charts. and Rules.
342 Special Use Airspace

4/3/14 AIM
Section 5. Other Airspace Areas
351. Airport Advisory/Information continuous readout of the current winds and

Services altimeter; therefore, RAIS does not include weather
and/or Final Guard service. However, known traffic,
a. There are three advisory type services available special event instructions, and all other services are
at selected airports. provided.
1. Local Airport Advisory (LAA) service is NOTE
operated within 10 statute miles of an airport where The airport authority and/or manager should request RAIS
a control tower is not operating but where a FSS is support on official letterhead directly with the manager of
located on the airport. At such locations, the FSS the FSS that will provide the service at least 60 days in
provides a complete local airport advisory service to advance. Approval authority rests with the FSS manager
arriving and departing aircraft. During periods of fast and is based on workload and resource availability.
changing weather the FSS will automatically provide REFERENCE
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
Final Guard as part of the service from the time the Towers, Paragraph 419.
aircraft reports onfinal or takingtheactive
runway until the aircraft reports ontheground or b. It is not mandatory that pilots participate in the
airborne. Airport Advisory programs. Participation enhances
safety for everyone operating around busy GA
NOTE airports; therefore, everyone is encouraged to
Current policy, when requesting remote ATC services, participate and provide feedback that will help
requires that a pilot monitor the automated weather improve the program.
broadcast at the landing airport prior to requesting ATC
services. The FSS automatically provides Final Guard,
when appropriate, during LAA/Remote Airport Advisory 352. Military Training Routes
(RAA) operations. Final Guard is a value added
wind/altimeter monitoring service, which provides an
a. National security depends largely on the
automatic wind and altimeter check during active weather deterrent effect of our airborne military forces. To be
situations when the pilot reports onfinal or taking the proficient, the military services must train in a wide
active runway. During the landing or takeoff operation range of airborne tactics. One phase of this training
when the winds or altimeter are actively changing the FSS involves low level combat tactics. The required
will blind broadcast significant changes when the maneuvers and high speeds are such that they may
specialist believes the change might affect the operation. occasionally make the see-and-avoid aspect of VFR
Pilots should acknowledge the first wind/altimeter check flight more difficult without increased vigilance in
but due to cockpit activity no acknowledgement is expected areas containing such operations. In an effort to
for the blind broadcasts. It is prudent for a pilot to report ensure the greatest practical level of safety for all
ontheground or airborne to end the service.
flight operations, the Military Training Route (MTR)
2. RAA service is operated within 10 statute program was conceived.
miles of specified high activity GA airports where a
b. The MTR program is a joint venture by the FAA
control tower is not operating. Airports offering this
and the Department of Defense (DOD). MTRs are
service are listed in the A/FD and the published
mutually developed for use by the military for the
service hours may be changed by NOTAM D. Final
purpose of conducting low-altitude, high-speed
Guard is automatically provided with RAA.
training. The routes above 1,500 feet AGL are
3. Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS) developed to be flown, to the maximum extent
is provided in support of short term special events like possible, under IFR. The routes at 1,500 feet AGL
small to medium flyins. The service is advertised by and below are generally developed to be flown under
NOTAM D only. The FSS will not have access to a VFR.
Other Airspace Areas 351

AIM 4/3/14
c. Generally, MTRs are established below e. The FLIP contains charts and narrative
10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of descriptions of these routes. To obtain this
250 knots. However, route segments may be defined publication contact:
at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity.
For example, route segments may be defined for Defense Logistics Agency for Aviation
descent, climbout, and mountainous terrain. There Mapping Customer Operations (DLA AVN/QAM)
are IFR and VFR routes as follows: 8000 Jefferson Davis Highway
Richmond, VA 232975339
1. IFR Military Training Routes(IR). Toll free phone: 18008260342
Operations on these routes are conducted in Commercial: 8042796500
accordance with IFR regardless of weather
conditions. This NGA FLIP is available for pilot briefings at FSS
2. VFR Military Training Routes(VR). and many airports.
Operations on these routes are conducted in
accordance with VFR except flight visibility must be f. Nonparticipating aircraft are not prohibited
5 miles or more; and flights must not be conducted from flying within an MTR; however, extreme
below a ceiling of less than 3,000 feet AGL. vigilance should be exercised when conducting flight
through or near these routes. Pilots should contact
d. Military training routes will be identified and FSSs within 100 NM of a particular MTR to obtain
charted as follows: current information or route usage in their vicinity.
1. Route identification. Information available includes times of scheduled
activity, altitudes in use on each route segment, and
(a) MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet actual route width. Route width varies for each MTR
AGL must be identified by four number characters; and can extend several miles on either side of the
e.g., IR1206, VR1207. charted MTR centerline. Route width information for
(b) MTRs that include one or more segments IR and VR MTRs is also available in the FLIP AP/1B
above 1,500 feet AGL must be identified by three along with additional MTR (slow routes/air refueling
number characters; e.g., IR206, VR207. routes) information. When requesting MTR informa-
tion, pilots should give the FSS their position, route
(c) Alternate IR/VR routes or route segments of flight, and destination in order to reduce frequency
are identified by using the basic/principal route congestion and permit the FSS specialist to identify
designation followed by a letter suffix, e.g., IR008A, the MTR which could be a factor.
VR1007B, etc.
2. Route charting.
(a) IFR Enroute Low Altitude Chart. This 353. Temporary Flight Restrictions
chart will depict all IR routes and all VR routes that
accommodate operations above 1,500 feet AGL. a. General. This paragraph describes the types of
conditions under which the FAA may impose
(b) VFR Sectional Aeronautical temporary flight restrictions. It also explains which
Charts. These charts will depict military training FAA elements have been delegated authority to issue
activities such as IR, VR, MOA, Restricted Area, a temporary flight restrictions NOTAM and lists the
Warning Area, and Alert Area information. types of responsible agencies/offices from which the
(c) Area Planning (AP/1B) Chart (DOD FAA will accept requests to establish temporary
Flight Information PublicationFLIP). This chart flight restrictions. The 14 CFR is explicit as to what
is published by the National GeospatialIntelligence operations are prohibited, restricted, or allowed in a
Agency (NGA) primarily for military users and temporary flight restrictions area. Pilots are responsi-
contains detailed information on both IR and VR ble to comply with 14 CFR Sections 91.137, 91.138,
routes. 91.141 and 91.143 when conducting flight in an area
where a temporary flight restrictions area is in effect,
REFERENCE
AIM, National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (NGA) Products,
and should check appropriate NOTAMs during flight
Paragraph 915, Subparagraph a. planning.
352 Other Airspace Areas

4/3/14 AIM
b. The purpose for establishing a temporary authority. For the situations involving 14 CFR
flight restrictions area is to: Section 91.137(a)(2), the FAA accepts recommenda-
tions from military commanders serving as regional,
1. Protect persons and property in the air or on
subregional, or Search and Rescue (SAR) coordina-
the surface from an existing or imminent hazard
tors; by military commanders directing or
associated with an incident on the surface when the
coordinating air operations associated with disaster
presence of low flying aircraft would magnify, alter,
relief; or by civil authorities directing or coordinating
spread, or compound that hazard (14 CFR
organized relief air operations (includes representa-
Section 91.137(a)(1));
tives of the Office of Emergency Planning, U.S.
2. Provide a safe environment for the operation Forest Service, and State aeronautical agencies).
of disaster relief aircraft (14 CFR Sec- Appropriate authorities for a temporary flight
tion 91.137(a)(2)); or restrictions establishment under 14 CFR
Section 91.137(a)(3) are any of those listed above or
3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing
by State, county, or city government entities.
aircraft above an incident or event which may
generate a high degree of public interest (14 CFR e. The type of restrictions issued will be kept to a
Section 91.137(a)(3)). minimum by the FAA consistent with achievement of
the necessary objective. Situations which warrant the
4. Protect declared national disasters for
extreme restrictions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1)
humanitarian reasons in the State of Hawaii (14 CFR
include, but are not limited to: toxic gas leaks or
Section 91.138).
spills, flammable agents, or fumes which if fanned by
5. Protect the President, Vice President, or other rotor or propeller wash could endanger persons or
public figures (14 CFR Section 91.141). property on the surface, or if entered by an aircraft
could endanger persons or property in the air;
6. Provide a safe environment for space agency
imminent volcano eruptions which could endanger
operations (14 CFR Section 91.143).
airborne aircraft and occupants; nuclear accident or
c. Except for hijacking situations, when the incident; and hijackings. Situations which warrant
provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) or (a)(2) the restrictions associated with 14 CFR Sec-
are necessary, a temporary flight restrictions area will tion 91.137(a)(2) include: forest fires which are
only be established by or through the area manager at being fought by releasing fire retardants from
the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) aircraft; and aircraft relief activities following a
having jurisdiction over the area concerned. A disaster (earthquake, tidal wave, flood, etc.). 14 CFR
temporary flight restrictions NOTAM involving the Section 91.137(a)(3) restrictions are established for
conditions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) will be events and incidents that would attract an unsafe
issued at the direction of the service area office congestion of sightseeing aircraft.
director having oversight of the airspace concerned.
f. The amount of airspace needed to protect
When hijacking situations are involved, a temporary
persons and property or provide a safe environment
flight restrictions area will be implemented through
for rescue/relief aircraft operations is normally
the TSA Aviation Command Center. The appropriate
limited to within 2,000 feet above the surface and
FAA air traffic element, upon receipt of such a
within a 3nauticalmile radius. Incidents occurring
request, will establish a temporary flight restrictions
within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace will
area under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1).
normally be handled through existing procedures and
d. The FAA accepts recommendations for the should not require the issuance of a temporary flight
establishment of a temporary flight restrictions area restrictions NOTAM. Temporary flight restrictions
under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) from military affecting airspace outside of the U.S. and its
major command headquarters, regional directors of territories and possessions are issued with verbiage
the Office of Emergency Planning, Civil Defense excluding that airspace outside of the 12mile coastal
State Directors, State Governors, or other similar limits.

AIM 4/3/14
g. The FSS nearest the incident site is normally the AFB, Matthews, Virginia. Commander, Laser AFB, in
coordination facility. When FAA communications charge (897) 9465543 (122.4). Steenson FSS
assistance is required, the designated FSS will (792) 5556141 (123.1) is the FAA coordination facility.
function as the primary communications facility for
2. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2):
coordination between emergency control authorities
The following NOTAM permits flight operations in
and affected aircraft. The ARTCC may act as liaison accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2). The on-site
for the emergency control authorities if adequate emergency response official to authorize media aircraft
communications cannot be established between the operations below the altitudes used by the relief aircraft.
designated FSS and the relief organization. For Flight restrictions 25 miles east of Bransome, Idaho,
example, the coordination facility may relay effective immediately until 9601202359 UTC. Pursuant to
authorizations from the on-scene emergency re- 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2) temporary flight restrictions
sponse official in cases where news media aircraft are in effect within a 4nauticalmile radius of the
operations are approved at the altitudes used by relief intersection of county roads 564 and 315 at and below
aircraft. 3,500 feet MSL to provide a safe environment for fire
fighting aircraft operations. Davis County sheriff s
h. ATC may authorize operations in a temporary department (792) 5558122 (122.9) is in charge of
flight restrictions area under its own authority only on-scene emergency response activities. Glivings FSS
when flight restrictions are established under 14 CFR (792) 5551618 (122.2) is the FAA coordination facility.
Section 91.137(a)(2) and (a)(3). The appropriate
3. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3):
ARTCC/airport traffic control tower manager will, The following NOTAM prohibits sightseeing aircraft
however, ensure that such authorized flights do not operations.
hamper activities or interfere with the event for which Flight restrictions Brown, Tennessee, due to olympic
restrictions were implemented. However, ATC will activity. Effective 9606181100 UTC until 9607190200
not authorize local IFR flights into the temporary UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) temporary
flight restrictions area. flight restrictions are in effect within a 3nauticalmile
radius of N355783/W835242 and Volunteer VORTAC 019
i. To preclude misunderstanding, the implement- degree radial 3.7 DME fix at and below 2,500 feet MSL.
ing NOTAM will contain specific and formatted Norton FSS (423) 5556742 (126.6) is the FAA
information. The facility establishing a temporary coordination facility.
flight restrictions area will format a NOTAM
beginning with the phrase FLIGHT RESTRIC- 4. 14 CFR Section 91.138:
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft except those
TIONS followed by: the location of the temporary
operating under the authorization of the official in charge
flight restrictions area; the effective period; the area
of associated emergency or disaster relief response
defined in statute miles; the altitudes affected; the activities, aircraft carrying law enforcement officials,
FAA coordination facility and commercial telephone aircraft carrying personnel involved in an emergency or
number; the reason for the temporary flight legitimate scientific purposes, carrying properly accred-
restrictions; the agency directing any relief activities ited news media, and aircraft operating in accordance with
and its commercial telephone number; and other an ATC clearance or instruction.
information considered appropriate by the issuing Flight restrictions Kapalua, Hawaii, effective 9605101200
authority. UTC until 9605151500 UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR
Section 91.138 temporary flight restrictions are in effect
EXAMPLE within a 3nauticalmile radius of N205778/W1564038
1. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1): and Maui/OGG/VORTAC 275 degree radial at 14.1
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft operations nautical miles. John Doe 8087574469 or 122.4 is in
except those specified in the NOTAM. charge of the operation. Honolulu/HNL 8087574470
Flight restrictions Matthews, Virginia, effective immedi- (123.6) FSS is the FAA coordination facility.
ately until 9610211200. Pursuant to 14 CFR
Section 91.137(a)(1) temporary flight restrictions are in 5. 14 CFR Section 91.141:
effect. Rescue operations in progress. Only relief aircraft The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft.
operations under the direction of the Department of Flight restrictions Stillwater, Oklahoma, June 21, 1996.
Defense are authorized in the airspace at and below Pursuant to 14 CFR Section 91.141 aircraft flight
5,000 feet MSL within a 2nauticalmile radius of Laser operations are prohibited within a 3nauticalmile radius,

4/3/14 AIM
below 2000 feet AGL of N360962/W970515 and the exchange traffic information as recommended in
Stillwater/SWO/VOR/DME 176 degree radial 3.8nauti- paragraph 419, Traffic Advisory Practices at
calmile fix from 1400 local time to 1700 local time Airports Without Operating Control Towers. In
June 21, 1996, unless otherwise authorized by ATC. addition, pilots should avoid releasing parachutes
6. 14 CFR Section 91.143: while in an airport traffic pattern when there are other
The following NOTAM prohibits any aircraft of U.S. aircraft in that pattern. Pilots should make
registry, or pilot any aircraft under the authority of an appropriate broadcasts on the designated Common
airman certificate issued by the FAA. Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF), and monitor
Kennedy space center space operations area effective that CTAF until all parachute activity has terminated
immediately until 9610152100 UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR or the aircraft has left the area. Prior to commencing
Section 91.143, flight operations conducted by FAA a jump operation, the pilot should broadcast the
certificated pilots or conducted in aircraft of U.S. registry
aircrafts altitude and position in relation to the
are prohibited at any altitude from surface to unlimited,
airport, the approximate relative time when the jump
within the following area 30nauticalmile radius of the
Melbourne/MLB/VORTAC 010 degree radial 21nauti-
will commence and terminate, and listen to the
calmile fix. St. Petersburg, Florida/PIE/FSS position reports of other aircraft in the area.
8135451645(122.2) is the FAA coordination facility and
should be contacted for the current status of any airspace 355. Published VFR Routes
associated with the space shuttle operations. This airspace
encompasses R2933, R2932, R2931, R2934, R2935, Published VFR routes for transitioning around, under
W497A and W158A. Additional warning and restricted and through complex airspace such as Class B
areas will be active in conjunction with the operations. airspace were developed through a number of FAA
Pilots must consult all NOTAMs regarding this operation. and industry initiatives. All of the following terms,
i.e., VFR Flyway VFR Corridor and Class B
354. Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations Airspace VFR Transition Route have been used
a. Procedures relating to parachute jump areas are when referring to the same or different types of routes
contained in 14 CFR Part 105. Tabulations of or airspace. The following paragraphs identify and
parachute jump areas in the U.S. are contained in the clarify the functionality of each type of route, and
A/FD. specify where and when an ATC clearance is
required.
b. Pilots of aircraft engaged in parachute jump
operations are reminded that all reported altitudes a. VFR Flyways.
must be with reference to mean sea level, or flight
1. VFR Flyways and their associated Flyway
level, as appropriate, to enable ATC to provide
Planning Charts were developed from the recommen-
meaningful traffic information.
dations of a National Airspace Review Task Group.
c. Parachute operations in the vicinity of an airport A VFR Flyway is defined as a general flight path not
without an operating control tower there is no defined as a specific course, for use by pilots in
substitute for alertness while in the vicinity of an planning flights into, out of, through or near complex
airport. It is essential that pilots conducting parachute terminal airspace to avoid Class B airspace. An ATC
operations be alert, look for other traffic, and clearance is NOT required to fly these routes.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 351
VFR Flyway Planning Chart

4/3/14 AIM
2. VFR Flyways are depicted on the reverse side traffic using a corridor, extreme caution and vigilance
of some of the VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC), must be exercised.
commonly referred to as Class B airspace charts. (See
FIG 352
FIG 351.) Eventually all TACs will include a VFR
Class B Airspace
Flyway Planning Chart. These charts identify VFR
flyways designed to help VFR pilots avoid major
controlled traffic flows. They may further depict
multiple VFR routings throughout the area which
may be used as an alternative to flight within Class B
airspace. The ground references provide a guide for
improved visual navigation. These routes are not
intended to discourage requests for VFR operations
within Class B airspace but are designed solely to
assist pilots in planning for flights under and around
busy Class B airspace without actually entering
Class B airspace.
3. It is very important to remember that these

suggested routes are not sterile of other traffic. The
entire Class B airspace, and the airspace underneath
it, may be heavily congested with many different
types of aircraft. Pilot adherence to VFR rules must 3. Because of the heavy traffic volume and the
be exercised at all times. Further, when operating procedures necessary to efficiently manage the flow
beneath Class B airspace, communications must be of traffic, it has not been possible to incorporate VFR
established and maintained between your aircraft and corridors in the development or modifications of
any control tower while transiting the Class B, Class B airspace in recent years.
Class C, and Class D surface areas of those airports c. Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes.
under Class B airspace.
1. To accommodate VFR traffic through certain
Class B airspace, such as Seattle, Phoenix and
b. VFR Corridors.
Los Angeles, Class B Airspace VFR Transition
Routes were developed. A Class B Airspace VFR
1. The design of a few of the first Class B
Transition Route is defined as a specific flight course
airspace areas provided a corridor for the passage of
depicted on a TAC for transiting a specific Class B
uncontrolled traffic. A VFR corridor is defined as
airspace. These routes include specific ATC-assigned
airspace through Class B airspace, with defined
altitudes, and pilots must obtain an ATC clearance
vertical and lateral boundaries, in which aircraft may
prior to entering Class B airspace on the route.
operate without an ATC clearance or communication
with air traffic control. 2. These routes, as depicted in FIG 353, are
designed to show the pilot where to position the
2. These corridors are, in effect, a hole aircraft outside of, or clear of, the Class B airspace
through Class B airspace. (See FIG 352.) A classic where an ATC clearance can normally be expected
example would be the corridor through the Los with minimal or no delay. Until ATC authorization is
Angeles Class B airspace, which has been subse- received, pilots must remain clear of Class B
quently changed to Special Flight Rules airspace airspace. On initial contact, pilots should advise ATC
(SFR). A corridor is surrounded on all sides by of their position, altitude, route name desired, and
Class B airspace and does not extend down to the direction of flight. After a clearance is received, pilots
surface like a VFR Flyway. Because of their finite must fly the route as depicted and, most importantly,
lateral and vertical limits, and the volume of VFR adhere to ATC instructions.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 353
VFR Transition Route

4/3/14 AIM
356. Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA) as TRSA Service.

a. Background. TRSAs were originally estab- b. TRSAs. The primary airport(s) within the
lished as part of the Terminal Radar Program at TRSA become(s) Class D airspace. The remaining
selected airports. TRSAs were never controlled portion of the TRSA overlies other controlled
airspace from a regulatory standpoint because the airspace which is normally Class E airspace
establishment of TRSAs was never subject to the beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and established to
rulemaking process; consequently, TRSAs are not transition to/from the en route/terminal environment.
contained in 14 CFR Part 71 nor are there any TRSA
c. Participation. Pilots operating under VFR are
operating rules in 14 CFR Part 91. Part of the Airport
encouraged to contact the radar approach control and
Radar Service Area (ARSA) program was to
avail themselves of the TRSA Services. However,
eventually replace all TRSAs. However, the ARSA
participation is voluntary on the part of the pilot. See
requirements became relatively stringent and it was
Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control, for details and
subsequently decided that TRSAs would have to
procedures.
meet ARSA criteria before they would be converted.
TRSAs do not fit into any of the U.S. airspace classes; d. Charts. TRSAs are depicted on VFR sectional
therefore, they will continue to be nonPart 71 and terminal area charts with a solid black line and
airspace areas where participating pilots can receive altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion is
additional radar services which have been redefined charted with a blue segmented line.

4/3/14 AIM
Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control

Section 1. Services Available to Pilots
411. Air Route Traffic Control Centers as accident investigations, accident prevention,
search and rescue purposes, specialist training and
Centers are established primarily to provide air traffic
evaluation, and technical evaluation and repair of
service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans within
control and communications systems.
controlled airspace, and principally during the
en route phase of flight. b. Where the public access telephone is recorded,
a beeper tone is not required. In place of the beep
412. Control Towers tone the FCC has substituted a mandatory require-
ment that persons to be recorded be given notice they
Towers have been established to provide for a safe, are to be recorded and give consent. Notice is given
orderly and expeditious flow of traffic on and in the by this entry, consent to record is assumed by the
vicinity of an airport. When the responsibility has individual placing a call to the operational facility.
been so delegated, towers also provide for the
separation of IFR aircraft in the terminal areas. 415. Communications Release of IFR
REFERENCE Aircraft Landing at an Airport Without an
AIM, Approach Control, Paragraph 543.
Operating Control Tower
413. Flight Service Stations Aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan, landing at an
airport without an operating control tower will be
Flight Service Stations (FSSs) are air traffic advised to change to the airport advisory frequency
facilities which provide pilot briefings, flight plan when direct communications with ATC are no longer
processing, en route radio communications, search required. Towers and centers do not have nontower
and rescue services, and assistance to lost aircraft airport traffic and runway in use information. The
and aircraft in emergency situations. FSSs also instrument approach may not be aligned with the
relay ATC clearances, process Notices to Airmen, runway in use; therefore, if the information has not
broadcast aviation weather and aeronautical already been obtained, pilots should make an
information, and notify Customs and Border expeditious change to the airport advisory frequency
Protection of transborder flights. In addition, at when authorized.
selected locations FSSs provide En Route Flight
REFERENCE
Advisory Service (Flight Watch) and Airport AIM, Advance Information on Instrument Approach, Paragraph 544.
Advisory Service (AAS). In Alaska, designated FSSs
also provide TWEB recordings and take weather 416. Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities
observations.
Pilots are encouraged to visit air traffic facilities
(Towers, Centers and FSSs) and familiarize them-
414. Recording and Monitoring
selves with the ATC system. On rare occasions,
a. Calls to air traffic control (ATC) facilities facilities may not be able to approve a visit because
(ARTCCs, Towers, FSSs, Central Flow, and of ATC workload or other reasons. It is, therefore,
Operations Centers) over radio and ATC operational requested that pilots contact the facility prior to the
telephone lines (lines used for operational purposes visit and advise of the number of persons in the group,
such as controller instructions, briefings, opening and the time and date of the proposed visit and the primary
closing flight plans, issuance of IFR clearances and interest of the group. With this information available,
amendments, counter hijacking activities, etc.) may the facility can prepare an itinerary and have someone
be monitored and recorded for operational uses such available to guide the group through the facility.
Services Available to Pilots 411

AIM 4/3/14
417. Operation Take-off and Operation 419. Traffic Advisory Practices at

Raincheck Airports Without Operating Control Towers
Operation Take-off is a program that educates pilots (See TBL 411.)

in how best to utilize the FSS modernization efforts
a. Airport Operations Without Operating
and services available in Flight Service Stations
Control Tower
(FSS), as stated in FAA Order 7230.17, Pilot
Education Program Operation Takeoff. Operation 1. There is no substitute for alertness while in
Raincheck is a program designed to familiarize pilots the vicinity of an airport. It is essential that pilots be
with the ATC system, its functions, responsibilities alert and look for other traffic and exchange traffic
and benefits. information when approaching or departing an
airport without an operating control tower. This is of
particular importance since other aircraft may not
418. Approach Control Service for VFR have communication capability or, in some cases,
Arriving Aircraft pilots may not communicate their presence or
intentions when operating into or out of such airports.
a. Numerous approach control facilities have To achieve the greatest degree of safety, it is essential
established programs for arriving VFR aircraft to that all radio-equipped aircraft transmit/receive on a
contact approach control for landing information. common frequency identified for the purpose of
This information includes: wind, runway, and airport advisories.
altimeter setting at the airport of intended landing.
This information may be omitted if contained in the 2. An airport may have a full or part-time tower
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or FSS located on the airport, a full or part-time
broadcast and the pilot states the appropriate ATIS UNICOM station or no aeronautical station at all.
code. There are three ways for pilots to communicate their
intention and obtain airport/traffic information when
NOTE operating at an airport that does not have an operating
Pilot use of have numbers does not indicate receipt of the tower: by communicating with an FSS, a UNICOM
ATIS broadcast. In addition, the controller will provide operator, or by making a self-announce broadcast.
traffic advisories on a workload permitting basis.
3. Many airports are now providing completely
b. Such information will be furnished upon initial automated weather, radio check capability and airport
contact with concerned approach control facility. The advisory information on an automated UNICOM
pilot will be requested to change to the tower system. These systems offer a variety of features,
frequency at a predetermined time or point, to receive typically selectable by microphone clicks, on the
further landing information. UNICOM frequency. Availability of the automated
c. Where available, use of this procedure will not UNICOM will be published in the Airport/Facility
hinder the operation of VFR flights by requiring Directory and approach charts.
excessive spacing between aircraft or devious b. Communicating on a Common Frequency
routing.
1. The key to communicating at an airport
d. Compliance with this procedure is not without an operating control tower is selection of the
mandatory but pilot participation is encouraged. correct common frequency. The acronym CTAF
REFERENCE
which stands for Common Traffic Advisory
AIM, Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, Paragraph 4118. Frequency, is synonymous with this program. A
CTAF is a frequency designated for the purpose of
NOTE
Approach control services for VFR aircraft are normally carrying out airport advisory practices while
dependent on ATC radar. These services are not available operating to or from an airport without an operating
during periods of a radar outage. Approach control control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM,
services for VFR aircraft are limited when CENRAP is in MULTICOM, FSS, or tower frequency and is
use. identified in appropriate aeronautical publications.
412 Services Available to Pilots

1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
TBL 411
Summary of Recommended Communication Procedures
Communication/Broadcast Procedures
Practice
Facility at Airport Frequency Use Outbound Inbound Instrument
Approach
1. UNICOM (No Tower or Communicate with UNICOM Before taxiing and 10 miles out.
FSS) station on published CTAF before taxiing on Entering
frequency (122.7; 122.8; 122.725; the runway for downwind, base,
122.975; or 123.0). If unable to departure. and final. Leaving
contact UNICOM station, use the runway.
self-announce procedures on
CTAF.
2. No Tower, FSS, or Self-announce on MULTICOM Before taxiing and 10 miles out. Departing final
UNICOM frequency 122.9. before taxiing on Entering approach fix
the runway for downwind, base, (name) or on final
departure. and final. Leaving approach segment
the runway. inbound.
3. No Tower in operation, Communicate with FSS on CTAF Before taxiing and 10 miles out. Approach com-
FSS open frequency. before taxiing on Entering pleted/terminated.
the runway for downwind, base,
departure. and final. Leaving
the runway.
4. FSS Closed (No Tower) Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and 10 miles out.
before taxiing on Entering
the runway.
5. Tower or FSS not in Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and 10 miles out.
operation before taxiing on Entering
the runway.
6. Designated CTAF Area Self-announce on CTAF Before taxiing and When entering
(Alaska Only) designated on chart or Alaska before taxiing on designated CTAF
Supplement (A/FD). the runway for area.
departure until
leaving designated
area.
2. CTAF (Alaska Only). In Alaska, a CTAF c. Recommended Traffic Advisory Practices

may also be designated for the purpose of carrying out
advisory practices while operating in designated 1. Pilots of inbound traffic should monitor and
areas with a high volume of VFR traffic. communicate as appropriate on the designated CTAF
from 10 miles to landing. Pilots of departing aircraft
should monitor/communicate on the appropriate
3. The CTAF frequency for a particular airport frequency from start-up, during taxi, and until
or area is contained in the A/FD, Alaska Supplement, 10 miles from the airport unless the CFRs or local
Alaska Terminal Publication, Instrument Approach procedures require otherwise.
Procedure Charts, and Instrument Departure Proce-
dure (DP) Charts. Also, the CTAF frequency can be 2. Pilots of aircraft conducting other than
obtained by contacting any FSS. Use of the arriving or departing operations at altitudes normally
appropriate CTAF, combined with a visual alertness used by arriving and departing aircraft should
and application of the following recommended good monitor/communicate on the appropriate frequency
operating practices, will enhance safety of flight into while within 10 miles of the airport unless required to
and out of all uncontrolled airports. do otherwise by the CFRs or local procedures. Such

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
1/8/15
4/3/14
operations include parachute jumping/dropping, en frequencies for other service after initial report to
route, practicing maneuvers, etc. FSS, return to FSS frequency for traffic update.
3. In Alaska, pilots of aircraft conducting other (a) Inbound
than arriving or departing operations in designated EXAMPLE
CTAF areas should monitor/communicate on the Vero Beach radio, Centurion Six Niner Delta Delta is
appropriate frequency while within the designated ten miles south, two thousand, landing Vero Beach. I have
area, unless required to do otherwise by CFRs or local the automated weather, request airport advisory.
procedures. Such operations include parachute (b) Outbound
jumping/dropping, en route, practicing maneuvers, EXAMPLE
etc. Vero Beach radio, Centurion Six Niner Delta Delta, ready
REFERENCE to taxi to runway 22, VFR, departing to the southwest. I
AIM, Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations, Paragraph 354. have the automated weather, request airport advisory.
d. Airport Advisory/Information Services 3. Airport advisory service includes wind
Provided by a FSS direction and velocity, favored or designated runway,
altimeter setting, known airborne and ground traffic,
1. There are three advisory type services
NOTAMs, airport taxi routes, airport traffic pattern
provided at selected airports.
information, and instrument approach procedures.
(a) Local Airport Advisory (LAA) is pro- These elements are varied so as to best serve the
vided at airports that have a FSS physically located on current traffic situation. Some airport managers have
the airport, which does not have a control tower or specified that under certain wind or other conditions
where the tower is operated on a parttime basis. The designated runways be used. Pilots should advise the
CTAF for LAA airports is disseminated in the FSS of the runway they intend to use.
appropriate aeronautical publications. CAUTION
(b) Remote Airport Advisory (RAA) is All aircraft in the vicinity of an airport may not be in
provided at selected very busy GA airports, which do communication with the FSS.
not have an operating control tower. The CTAF for e. Information Provided by Aeronautical
RAA airports is disseminated in the appropriate Advisory Stations (UNICOM)
aeronautical publications. 1. UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground
(c) Remote Airport Information Ser- radio communication station which may provide
vice (RAIS) is provided in support of special events airport information at public use airports where there
at nontowered airports by request from the airport is no tower or FSS.
authority. 2. On pilot request, UNICOM stations may
2. In communicating with a CTAF FSS, check provide pilots with weather information, wind
the airports automated weather and establish direction, the recommended runway, or other
twoway communications before transmitting out- necessary information. If the UNICOM frequency is
bound/inbound intentions or information. An designated as the CTAF, it will be identified in
inbound aircraft should initiate contact approximate- appropriate aeronautical publications.
ly 10 miles from the airport, reporting aircraft f. Unavailability of Information from FSS or
identification and type, altitude, location relative to UNICOM
the airport, intentions (landing or over flight), Should LAA by an FSS or Aeronautical Advisory
possession of the automated weather, and request Station UNICOM be unavailable, wind and weather
airport advisory or airport information service. A information may be obtainable from nearby
departing aircraft should initiate contact before controlled airports via Automatic Terminal Informa-
taxiing, reporting aircraft identification and type, tion Service (ATIS) or Automated Weather
VFR or IFR, location on the airport, intentions, Observing System (AWOS) frequency.
direction of takeoff, possession of the automated
weather, and request airport advisory or information g. Self-Announce Position and/or Intentions
service. Also, report intentions before taxiing onto 1. General. Self-announce is a procedure
the active runway for departure. If you must change whereby pilots broadcast their position or intended

1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
flight activity or ground operation on the designated EXAMPLE

CTAF. This procedure is used primarily at airports Strawn traffic, Apache Two Two Five Zulu, (position),
which do not have an FSS on the airport. The (altitude), (descending) or entering downwind/base/final
self-announce procedure should also be used if a pilot (as appropriate) runway one seven full stop, touchand
go, Strawn.
is unable to communicate with the FSS on the
Strawn traffic Apache Two Two Five Zulu clear of runway
designated CTAF. Pilots stating, Traffic in the area, one seven Strawn.
please advise is not a recognized SelfAnnounce
Position and/or Intention phrase and should not be (b) Outbound
used under any condition. EXAMPLE
Strawn traffic, Queen Air Seven One Five Five Bravo
2. If an airport has a tower and it is temporarily (location on airport) taxiing to runway two six Strawn.
closed, or operated on a part-time basis and there is no Strawn traffic, Queen Air Seven One Five Five Bravo
FSS on the airport or the FSS is closed, use the CTAF departing runway two six. Departing the pattern to the
to self-announce your position or intentions. (direction), climbing to (altitude) Strawn.
3. Where there is no tower, FSS, or UNICOM (c) Practice Instrument Approach

station on the airport, use MULTICOM frequency EXAMPLE
122.9 for self-announce procedures. Such airports Strawn traffic, Cessna Two One Four Three Quebec
will be identified in appropriate aeronautical (position from airport) inbound descending through
information publications. (altitude) practice (name of approach) approach runway
three five Strawn.
4. Practice Approaches. Pilots conducting Strawn traffic, Cessna Two One Four Three Quebec
practice instrument approaches should be particular- practice (type) approach completed or terminated runway
ly alert for other aircraft that may be departing in the three five Strawn.
opposite direction. When conducting any practice h. UNICOM Communications Procedures
approach, regardless of its direction relative to other
airport operations, pilots should make announce- 1. In communicating with a UNICOM station,
ments on the CTAF as follows: the following practices will help reduce frequency
congestion, facilitate a better understanding of pilot
(a) Departing the final approach fix, inbound intentions, help identify the location of aircraft in the
(nonprecision approach) or departing the outer traffic pattern, and enhance safety of flight:
marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker, inbound
(a) Select the correct UNICOM frequency.
(precision approach);
(b) State the identification of the UNICOM
(b) Established on the final approach segment station you are calling in each transmission.
or immediately upon being released by ATC;
(c) Speak slowly and distinctly.
(c) Upon completion or termination of the
approach; and (d) Report approximately 10 miles from the
airport, reporting altitude, and state your aircraft type,
(d) Upon executing the missed approach aircraft identification, location relative to the airport,
procedure. state whether landing or overflight, and request wind
information and runway in use.
5. Departing aircraft should always be alert for
arrival aircraft coming from the opposite direction. (e) Report on downwind, base, and final
approach.
6. Recommended self-announce phraseologies:
It should be noted that aircraft operating to or from (f) Report leaving the runway.
another nearby airport may be making self-announce 2. Recommended UNICOM phraseologies:
broadcasts on the same UNICOM or MULTICOM
(a) Inbound
frequency. To help identify one airport from another,
the airport name should be spoken at the beginning PHRASEOLOGY
and end of each self-announce transmission. FREDERICK UNICOM CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT 10 MILES SOUTHEAST
(a) Inbound DESCENDING THROUGH (altitude) LANDING

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
1/8/15
4/3/14
FREDERICK, REQUEST WIND AND RUNWAY 4111. Designated UNICOM/MULTICOM

INFORMATION FREDERICK. Frequencies
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT ENTERING DOWNWIND/BASE/ Frequency use
FINAL (as appropriate) FOR RUNWAY ONE NINER (full
stop/touchandgo)FREDERICK. a. The following listing depicts UNICOM and
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE MULTICOM frequency uses as designated by the
TANGO FOXTROT CLEAR OF RUNWAY ONE NINER Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
FREDERICK. (See TBL 412.)
(b) Outbound TBL 412
Unicom/Multicom Frequency Usage
PHRASEOLOGY
FREDERICK UNICOM CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE Use Frequency
TANGO FOXTROT (location on airport) TAXIING TO Airports without an operating 122.700
RUNWAY ONE NINER, REQUEST WIND AND TRAFFIC control tower. 122.725
INFORMATION FREDERICK. 122.800
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE 122.975
TANGO FOXTROT DEPARTING RUNWAY ONE NINER. 123.000
REMAINING IN THE PATTERN OR DEPARTING 123.050
THE PATTERN TO THE (direction) (as appropriate) 123.075
FREDERICK. (MULTICOM FREQUENCY) 122.900
Activities of a temporary, seasonal,
emergency nature or search and
rescue, as well as, airports with no
4110. IFR Approaches/Ground Vehicle tower, FSS, or UNICOM.
Operations (MULTICOM FREQUENCY) 122.925
Forestry management and fire
suppression, fish and game
a. IFR Approaches. When operating in accor-
management and protection, and
dance with an IFR clearance and ATC approves a environmental monitoring and
change to the advisory frequency, make an protection.
expeditious change to the CTAF and employ the Airports with a control tower or 122.950
recommended traffic advisory procedures. FSS on airport.
b. Ground Vehicle Operation. Airport ground NOTE

vehicles equipped with radios should monitor the 1. In some areas of the country, frequency interference
CTAF frequency when operating on the airport may be encountered from nearby airports using the same
movement area and remain clear of runways/taxi- UNICOM frequency. Where there is a problem, UNICOM
ways being used by aircraft. Radio transmissions operators are encouraged to develop a least interfer-
from ground vehicles should be confined to ence frequency assignment plan for airports concerned
safety-related matters. using the frequencies designated for airports without
operating control towers. UNICOM licensees are
c. Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems. encouraged to apply for UNICOM 25 kHz spaced channel
frequencies. Due to the extremely limited number of
Whenever possible, the CTAF will be used to control
frequencies with 50 kHz channel spacing, 25 kHz channel
airport lighting systems at airports without operating spacing should be implemented. UNICOM licensees may
control towers. This eliminates the need for pilots to then request FCC to assign frequencies in accordance with
change frequencies to turn the lights on and allows a the plan, which FCC will review and consider for approval.
continuous listening watch on a single frequency. The
2. Wind direction and runway information may not be
CTAF is published on the instrument approach chart
available on UNICOM frequency 122.950.
and in other appropriate aeronautical information
publications. For further details concerning radio b. The following listing depicts other frequency
controlled lights, see AC 150/534027, Airto uses as designated by the Federal Communications
Ground Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems. Commission (FCC). (See TBL 413.)

4/3/14 AIM
TBL 413 b. ATIS information includes the time of the latest

Other Frequency Usage Designated by FCC weather sequence, ceiling, visibility, obstructions to
visibility, temperature, dew point (if available), wind
Use Frequency
direction (magnetic), and velocity, altimeter, other
Air-to-air communication 122.750 pertinent remarks, instrument approach and runway
(private fixed wing aircraft). in use. The ceiling/sky condition, visibility, and
Air-to-air communications 123.025 obstructions to vision may be omitted from the ATIS
(general aviation helicopters). broadcast if the ceiling is above 5,000 feet and the
Aviation instruction, Glider, Hot Air 123.300 visibility is more than 5 miles. The departure runway
Balloon (not to be used for 123.500 will only be given if different from the landing
advisory service). runway except at locations having a separate ATIS for
departure. The broadcast may include the appropriate
frequency and instructions for VFR arrivals to make
4112. Use of UNICOM for ATC Purposes
initial contact with approach control. Pilots of aircraft
UNICOM service may be used for ATC purposes, arriving or departing the terminal area can receive the
only under the following circumstances: continuous ATIS broadcast at times when cockpit
duties are least pressing and listen to as many repeats
a. Revision to proposed departure time. as desired. ATIS broadcast must be updated upon the
b. Takeoff, arrival, or flight plan cancellation receipt of any official hourly and special weather. A
time. new recording will also be made when there is a
change in other pertinent data such as runway change,
c. ATC clearance, provided arrangements are instrument approach in use, etc.
made between the ATC facility and the UNICOM
EXAMPLE
licensee to handle such messages. Dulles International information Sierra. 1300 zulu
weather. Measured ceiling three thousand overcast.
Visibility three, smoke. Temperature six eight. Wind
4113. Automatic Terminal Information
three five zero at eight. Altimeter two niner niner two. ILS
Service (ATIS) runway one right approach in use. Landing runway one
a. ATIS is the continuous broadcast of recorded right and left. Departure runway three zero. Armel
VORTAC out of service. Advise you have Sierra.
noncontrol information in selected high activity
terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller c. Pilots should listen to ATIS broadcasts
effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by whenever ATIS is in operation.
automating the repetitive transmission of essential d. Pilots should notify controllers on initial
but routine information. The information is continu- contact that they have received the ATIS broadcast by
ously broadcast over a discrete VHF radio frequency repeating the alphabetical code word appended to the
or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. Arrival ATIS broadcast.
transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are
engineered according to the individual facility EXAMPLE
Information Sierra received.
requirements, which would normally be a protected
service volume of 20 NM to 60 NM from the ATIS e. When a pilot acknowledges receipt of the ATIS
site and a maximum altitude of 25,000 feet AGL. In broadcast, controllers may omit those items con-
the case of a departure ATIS, the protected service tained in the broadcast if they are current. Rapidly
volume cannot exceed 5 NM and 100 feet AGL. At changing conditions will be issued by ATC and the
most locations, ATIS signals may be received on the ATIS will contain words as follows:
surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit EXAMPLE
the maximum ATIS reception distance and/or Latest ceiling/visibility/altimeter/wind/(other condi-
altitude. Pilots are urged to cooperate in the ATIS tions) will be issued by approach control/tower.
program as it relieves frequency congestion on NOTE
approach control, ground control, and local control The absence of a sky condition or ceiling and/or visibility
frequencies. The A/FD indicates airports for which on ATIS indicates a sky condition or ceiling of 5,000 feet or
ATIS is provided. above and visibility of 5 miles or more. A remark may be

AIM 4/3/14
made on the broadcast, the weather is better than conditions exist, the latest ceiling, visibility,
5000 and 5, or the existing weather may be broadcast. altimeter, wind or other conditions may be omitted
f. Controllers will issue pertinent information to from the AFIS and will be issued by the Flight Service
pilots who do not acknowledge receipt of a broadcast Specialist on the appropriate radio frequency.
or who acknowledge receipt of a broadcast which is EXAMPLE
not current. Kotzebue information ALPHA. One six five five zulu.
Wind, two one zero at five; visibility two, fog; ceiling one
g. To serve frequency limited aircraft, FSSs are hundred overcast; temperature minus one two, dew point
equipped to transmit on the omnirange frequency at minus one four; altimeter three one zero five. Altimeter in
most en route VORs used as ATIS voice outlets. Such excess of three one zero zero, high pressure altimeter
communication interrupts the ATIS broadcast. Pilots setting procedures are in effect. Favored runway two six.
of aircraft equipped to receive on other FSS Weather in Kotzebue surface area is below VFR
frequencies are encouraged to do so in order that these minima an ATC clearance is required. Contact
override transmissions may be kept to an absolute Kotzebue Radio on 123.6 for traffic advisories and advise
minimum. intentions. Notice to Airmen, Hotham NDB out of service.
Transcribed Weather Broadcast out of service. Advise on
h. While it is a good operating practice for pilots initial contact you have ALPHA.
to make use of the ATIS broadcast where it is NOTE
available, some pilots use the phrase have numbers The absence of a sky condition or ceiling and/or visibility
in communications with the control tower. Use of this on Alaska FSS AFIS indicates a sky condition or ceiling of
phrase means that the pilot has received wind, 5,000 feet or above and visibility of 5 miles or more. A
runway, and altimeter information ONLY and the remark may be made on the broadcast, the weather is
tower does not have to repeat this information. It does better than 5000 and 5.
not indicate receipt of the ATIS broadcast and should b. Pilots should listen to Alaska FSSs AFIS
never be used for this purpose. broadcasts whenever Alaska FSSs AFIS is in
operation.
4114. Automatic Flight Information NOTE
Service (AFIS) Alaska FSSs Only Some Alaska FSSs are open part time and/or seasonally.
a. Alaska FSSs AFIS is the continuous broadcast c. Pilots should notify controllers on initial
of recorded noncontrol information at airports in contact that they have received the Alaska FSSs
Alaska where a Flight Service Station (FSS) provides AFIS broadcast by repeating the phonetic alphabetic
local airport advisory service. Its purpose is to letter appended to the broadcast.
improve FSS Specialist efficiency by reducing EXAMPLE
frequency congestion on the local airport advisory Information Alpha received.
frequency. The AFIS broadcast will automate the d. While it is a good operating practice for pilots
repetitive transmission of essential but routine to make use of the Alaska FSS AFIS broadcast where
information (weather, favored runway, breaking it is available, some pilots use the phrase have
action, airport NOTAMs, other applicable informa- numbers in communications with the FSS. Use of
tion). The information is continuously broadcast over this phrase means that the pilot has received wind,
a discrete VHF radio frequency (usually the ASOS runway, and altimeter information ONLY and the
frequency). Use of AFIS is not mandatory, but pilots Alaska FSS does not have to repeat this information.
who choose to utilize twoway radio communica- It does not indicate receipt of the AFIS broadcast and
tions with the FSS are urged to listen to AFIS, as it should never be used for this purpose.
relieves frequency congestion on the local airport
advisory frequency. AFIS broadcasts are updated
4115. Radar Traffic Information Service
upon the receipt of any official hourly and special
weather, worsening braking action reports, and This is a service provided by radar ATC facilities.
changes in other pertinent data. When a pilot Pilots receiving this service are advised of any radar
acknowledges receipt of the AFIS broadcast, FSS target observed on the radar display which may be in
Specialists may omit those items contained in the such proximity to the position of their aircraft or its
broadcast if they are current. When rapidly changing intended route of flight that it warrants their attention.

4/3/14 AIM
This service is not intended to relieve the pilot of the service; traffic advisories available on transponder
responsibility for continual vigilance to see and avoid aircraft only. This means simply that only the aircraft
other aircraft. which have transponders installed and in use will be
depicted on ATC radar indicators when the primary radar
a. Purpose of the Service is temporarily out of service.
1. The issuance of traffic information as 2. When receiving VFR radar advisory service,
observed on a radar display is based on the principle pilots should monitor the assigned frequency at all
of assisting and advising a pilot that a particular radar times. This is to preclude controllers concern for
targets position and track indicates it may intersect or radio failure or emergency assistance to aircraft under
pass in such proximity to that pilots intended flight the controllers jurisdiction. VFR radar advisory
path that it warrants attention. This is to alert the pilot service does not include vectors away from
to the traffic, to be on the lookout for it, and thereby conflicting traffic unless requested by the pilot. When
be in a better position to take appropriate action advisory service is no longer desired, advise the
should the need arise. controller before changing frequencies and then
change your transponder code to 1200, if applicable.
2. Pilots are reminded that the surveillance radar Pilots should also inform the controller when
used by ATC does not provide altitude information changing VFR cruising altitude. Except in programs
unless the aircraft is equipped with Mode C and the where radar service is automatically terminated, the
radar facility is capable of displaying altitude controller will advise the aircraft when radar is
information. terminated.
b. Provisions of the Service NOTE
Participation by VFR pilots in formal programs
1. Many factors, such as limitations of the radar, implemented at certain terminal locations constitutes pilot
volume of traffic, controller workload and commu- request. This also applies to participating pilots at those
nications frequency congestion, could prevent the locations where arriving VFR flights are encouraged to
controller from providing this service. Controllers make their first contact with the tower on the approach
possess complete discretion for determining whether control frequency.
they are able to provide or continue to provide this c. Issuance of Traffic Information. Traffic
service in a specific case. The controllers reason information will include the following concerning a
against providing or continuing to provide the service target which may constitute traffic for an aircraft that
in a particular case is not subject to question nor need is:
it be communicated to the pilot. In other words, the
1. Radar identified
provision of this service is entirely dependent upon
whether controllers believe they are in a position to (a) Azimuth from the aircraft in terms of the
provide it. Traffic information is routinely provided 12 hour clock, or
to all aircraft operating on IFR flight plans except (b) When rapidly maneuvering civil test or
when the pilot declines the service, or the pilot is military aircraft prevent accurate issuance of traffic
operating within Class A airspace. Traffic informa- as in (a) above, specify the direction from an aircrafts
tion may be provided to flights not operating on IFR position in terms of the eight cardinal compass points
flight plans when requested by pilots of such flights. (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW). This method must be
NOTE terminated at the pilots request.
Radar ATC facilities normally display and monitor both (c) Distance from the aircraft in nautical
primary and secondary radar when it is available, except
miles;
that secondary radar may be used as the sole display
source in Class A airspace, and under some circumstances (d) Direction in which the target is proceed-
outside of Class A airspace (beyond primary coverage and ing; and
in en route areas where only secondary is available).
Secondary radar may also be used outside Class A (e) Type of aircraft and altitude if known.
airspace as the sole display source when the primary radar EXAMPLE
is temporarily unusable or out of service. Pilots in contact Traffic 10 oclock, 3 miles, west-bound (type aircraft and
with the affected ATC facility are normally advised when altitude, if known, of the observed traffic). The altitude may
a temporary outage occurs; i.e., primary radar out of be known, by means of Mode C, but not verified with the

AIM 4/3/14
pilot for accuracy. (To be valid for separation purposes by FIG 412
ATC, the accuracy of Mode C readouts must be verified. Induced Error in Position of Traffic
This is usually accomplished upon initial entry into the
radar system by a comparison of the readout to pilot stated
altitude, or the field elevation in the case of continuous TRACK
WIND
readout being received from an aircraft on the airport.)
When necessary to issue traffic advisories containing (D)
unverified altitude information, the controller will issue the
(C)
advisory in the same manner as if it were verified due to the
TRACK
accuracy of these readouts. The pilot may upon receipt of
traffic information, request a vector (heading) to avoid
such traffic. The vector will be provided to the extent
possible as determined by the controller provided the EXAMPLE
aircraft to be vectored is within the airspace under the In FIG 412 traffic information would be issued to the
jurisdiction of the controller. pilot of aircraft C as 2 oclock. The actual position of the
traffic as seen by the pilot of aircraft C would be
2. Not radar identified 3 oclock. Traffic information issued to aircraft D would
be at an 11 oclock position. Since it is not necessary for the
(a) Distance and direction with respect to a pilot of aircraft D to apply wind correction (crab) to
fix; remain on track, the actual position of the traffic issued
would be correct. Since the radar controller can only
(b) Direction in which the target is proceed- observe aircraft track (course) on the radar display, traffic
ing; and advisories are issued accordingly, and pilots should give
due consideration to this fact when looking for reported
(c) Type of aircraft and altitude if known. traffic.
EXAMPLE 4116. Safety Alert
Traffic 8 miles south of the airport northeastbound, (type
aircraft and altitude if known). A safety alert will be issued to pilots of aircraft being
controlled by ATC if the controller is aware the
d. The examples depicted in the following figures aircraft is at an altitude which, in the controllers
point out the possible error in the position of this judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to
traffic when it is necessary for a pilot to apply drift terrain, obstructions or other aircraft. The provision
correction to maintain this track. This error could also of this service is contingent upon the capability of the
occur in the event a change in course is made at the controller to have an awareness of a situation
time radar traffic information is issued. involving unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions
and uncontrolled aircraft. The issuance of a safety
FIG 411 alert cannot be mandated, but it can be expected on a
Induced Error in Position of Traffic reasonable, though intermittent basis. Once the alert
is issued, it is solely the pilots prerogative to
determine what course of action, if any, to take. This
WIND
procedure is intended for use in time critical
TRACK TRACK situations where aircraft safety is in question.
Noncritical situations should be handled via the
(A) (B) normal traffic alert procedures.
a. Terrain or Obstruction Alert
1. Controllers will immediately issue an alert to
EXAMPLE
the pilot of an aircraft under their control when they
In FIG 411 traffic information would be issued to the
pilot of aircraft A as 12 oclock. The actual position of recognize that the aircraft is at an altitude which, in
the traffic as seen by the pilot of aircraft A would be their judgment, may be in an unsafe proximity to
2 oclock. Traffic information issued to aircraft B would terrain/obstructions. The primary method of detect-
also be given as 12 oclock, but in this case, the pilot of B ing unsafe proximity is through Mode C automatic
would see the traffic at 10 oclock. altitude reports.

6/25/15
4/3/14 AIM
EXAMPLE Any alternate course(s) of action the controller may

Low altitude alert Cessna Three Four Juliet, check your recommend to the pilot will be predicated only on
altitude immediately. And if the aircraft is not yet on final other traffic being worked by the controller.
approach, the MVA (MEA/MIA/MOCA) in your area is six
thousand. EXAMPLE
American Three, traffic alert, (position of traffic, if time
2. Terminal Automated Radar Terminal System permits), advise you turn right/left heading (degrees)
(ARTS) IIIA, Common ARTS (to include ARTS IIIE and/or climb/descend to (altitude) immediately.
and ARTS IIE) (CARTS), Micro En Route
Automated Radar Tracking System (MEARTS), and 4117. Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft
Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System
(STARS) facilities have an automated function a. Radar equipped FAA ATC facilities provide
which, if operating, alerts controllers when a tracked radar assistance and navigation service (vectors) to
Mode C equipped aircraft under their control is below VFR aircraft provided the aircraft can communicate
or is predicted to be below a predetermined minimum with the facility, are within radar coverage, and can be
safe altitude. This function, called Minimum Safe radar identified.
Altitude Warning (MSAW), is designed solely as a b. Pilots should clearly understand that authoriza-
controller aid in detecting potentially unsafe aircraft tion to proceed in accordance with such radar
proximity to terrain/obstructions. The ARTS IIIA, navigational assistance does not constitute authoriza-
CARTS, MEARTS, and STARS facility will, when tion for the pilot to violate CFRs. In effect, assistance
MSAW is operating, provide MSAW monitoring for provided is on the basis that navigational guidance
all aircraft with an operating Mode C altitude information issued is advisory in nature and the job of
encoding transponder that are tracked by the system flying the aircraft safely, remains with the pilot.
and are:
c. In many cases, controllers will be unable to
(a) Operating on an IFR flight plan; or determine if flight into instrument conditions will
result from their instructions. To avoid possible
(b) Operating VFR and have requested
hazards resulting from being vectored into IFR
MSAW monitoring.
conditions, pilots should keep controllers advised of
3. Terminal AN/TPX42A (number beacon the weather conditions in which they are operating
decoder system) facilities have an automated and along the course ahead.
function called Low Altitude Alert System (LAAS).
d. Radar navigation assistance (vectors) may be
Although not as sophisticated as MSAW, LAAS
initiated by the controller when one of the following
alerts the controller when a Mode C transponder
conditions exist:
equipped aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan is
below a predetermined minimum safe altitude. 1. The controller suggests the vector and the
pilot concurs.
NOTE
Pilots operating VFR may request MSAW or LAAS 2. A special program has been established and
monitoring if their aircraft are equipped with Mode C vectoring service has been advertised.
transponders.
3. In the controllers judgment the vector is
EXAMPLE
necessary for air safety.
Apache Three Three Papa request MSAW/LAAS.
b. Aircraft Conflict Alert. e. Radar navigation assistance (vectors) and other
radar derived information may be provided in
1. Controllers will immediately issue an alert to response to pilot requests. Many factors, such as
the pilot of an aircraft under their control if they are limitations of radar, volume of traffic, communica-
aware of another aircraft which is not under their tions frequency, congestion, and controller workload
control, at an altitude which, in the controllers could prevent the controller from providing it.
judgment, places both aircraft in unsafe proximity to Controllers have complete discretion for determining
each other. With the alert, when feasible, the if they are able to provide the service in a particular
controller will offer the pilot the position of the traffic case. Their decision not to provide the service in a
if time permits and an alternate course(s) of action. particular case is not subject to question.

AIM 4/3/14
4118. Terminal Radar Services for VFR receiving radar services to a towercontrolled airport
Aircraft where basic radar service is provided has landed, or
to all other airports, is instructed to change to tower
a. Basic Radar Service:
or advisory frequency. (See FAA Order JO 7110.65,
1. In addition to the use of radar for the control Air Traffic Control, paragraph 5113, Radar
of IFR aircraft, all commissioned radar facilities Service Termination.)
provide the following basic radar services for VFR
aircraft: 5. Sequencing for VFR aircraft is available at
(a) Safety alerts. certain terminal locations (see locations listed in the
Airport/Facility Directory). The purpose of the
(b) Traffic advisories. service is to adjust the flow of arriving VFR and IFR
(c) Limited radar vectoring (on a workload aircraft into the traffic pattern in a safe and orderly
permitting basis). manner and to provide radar traffic information to
departing VFR aircraft. Pilot participation is urged
(d) Sequencing at locations where proce- but is not mandatory. Traffic information is provided
dures have been established for this purpose and/or on a workload permitting basis. Standard radar
when covered by a Letter of Agreement. separation between VFR or between VFR and IFR
NOTE aircraft is not provided.
When the stage services were developed, two basic radar
services (traffic advisories and limited vectoring) were (a) Pilots of arriving VFR aircraft should
identified as Stage I. This definition became unneces- initiate radio contact on the publicized frequency
sary and the term Stage I was eliminated from use. The
with approach control when approximately 25 miles
term Stage II has been eliminated in conjunction with
the airspace reclassification, and sequencing services to
from the airport at which sequencing services are
locations with local procedures and/or letters of agreement being provided. On initial contact by VFR aircraft,
to provide this service have been included in basic services approach control will assume that sequencing service
to VFR aircraft. These basic services will still be provided is requested. After radar contact is established, the
by all terminal radar facilities whether they include pilot may use pilot navigation to enter the traffic
Class B, Class C, Class D or Class E airspace. Stage III pattern or, depending on traffic conditions, approach
services have been replaced with Class B and TRSA control may provide the pilot with routings or vectors
service where applicable. necessary for proper sequencing with other partici-
2. Vectoring service may be provided when pating VFR and IFR traffic en route to the airport.
requested by the pilot or with pilot concurrence when When a flight is positioned behind a preceding
suggested by ATC. aircraft and the pilot reports having that aircraft in
sight, the pilot will be instructed to follow the
3. Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact preceding aircraft. THE ATC INSTRUCTION TO
approach control on the publicized frequency and FOLLOW THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT DOES
give their position, altitude, aircraft call sign, type NOT AUTHORIZE THE PILOT TO COMPLY
aircraft, radar beacon code (if transponder equipped), WITH ANY ATC CLEARANCE OR INSTRUC-
destination, and request traffic information. TION ISSUED TO THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT.
4. Approach control will issue wind and If other nonparticipating or local aircraft are in
runway, except when the pilot states have numbers the traffic pattern, the tower will issue a landing
or this information is contained in the ATIS broadcast sequence. If an arriving aircraft does not want radar
and the pilot states that the current ATIS information service, the pilot should state NEGATIVE RADAR
has been received. Traffic information is provided on SERVICE or make a similar comment, on initial
a workload permitting basis. Approach control will contact with approach control.
specify the time or place at which the pilot is to
contact the tower on local control frequency for (b) Pilots of departing VFR aircraft are
further landing information. Radar service is encouraged to request radar traffic information by
automatically terminated and the aircraft need not be notifying ground control on initial contact with their
advised of termination when an arriving VFR aircraft request and proposed direction of flight.

4/3/14 AIM
EXAMPLE DOES NOT AUTHORIZE THE PILOT TO

Xray ground control, November One Eight Six, Cessna One COMPLY WITH ANY ATC CLEARANCE OR
Seventy Two, ready to taxi, VFR southbound at 2,500, have INSTRUCTION ISSUED TO THE PRECEDING
information bravo and request radar traffic information. AIRCRAFT.
NOTE
(b) If other nonparticipating or local
Following takeoff, the tower will advise when to contact
departure control. aircraft are in the traffic pattern, the tower will issue
a landing sequence.
(c) Pilots of aircraft transiting the area and in
radar contact/communication with approach control (c) Departing VFR aircraft may be asked if
will receive traffic information on a controller they can visually follow a preceding departure out of
workload permitting basis. Pilots of such aircraft the TRSA. The pilot will be instructed to follow the
should give their position, altitude, aircraft call sign, other aircraft provided that the pilot can maintain
aircraft type, radar beacon code (if transponder visual contact with that aircraft.
equipped), destination, and/or route of flight. 6. VFR aircraft will be separated from VFR/IFR
aircraft by one of the following:
b. TRSA Service (Radar Sequencing and
Separation Service for VFR Aircraft in a TRSA). (a) 500 feet vertical separation.
1. This service has been implemented at certain (b) Visual separation.
terminal locations. The service is advertised in the (c) Target resolution (a process to ensure that
Airport/Facility Directory. The purpose of this correlated radar targets do not touch).
service is to provide separation between all
participating VFR aircraft and all IFR aircraft 7. Participating pilots operating VFR in a
operating within the airspace defined as the Terminal TRSA:
Radar Service Area (TRSA). Pilot participation is (a) Must maintain an altitude when assigned
urged but is not mandatory. by ATC unless the altitude assignment is to maintain
at or below a specified altitude. ATC may assign
2. If any aircraft does not want the service, the
altitudes for separation that do not conform to
pilot should state NEGATIVE TRSA SERVICE or
14 CFR Section 91.159. When the altitude assign-
make a similar comment, on initial contact with
ment is no longer needed for separation or when
approach control or ground control, as appropriate.
leaving the TRSA, the instruction will be broadcast,
3. TRSAs are depicted on sectional aeronautical RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES.
charts and listed in the Airport/Facility Directory. Pilots must then return to an altitude that conforms to
14 CFR Section 91.159 as soon as practicable.
4. While operating within a TRSA, pilots are
provided TRSA service and separation as prescribed (b) When not assigned an altitude, the pilot
in this paragraph. In the event of a radar outage, should coordinate with ATC prior to any altitude
separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be change.
suspended as this service is dependent on radar. The 8. Within the TRSA, traffic information on
pilot will be advised that the service is not available observed but unidentified targets will, to the extent
and issued wind, runway information, and the time or possible, be provided to all IFR and participating
place to contact the tower. Traffic information will be VFR aircraft. The pilot will be vectored upon request
provided on a workload permitting basis. to avoid the observed traffic, provided the aircraft to
5. Visual separation is used when prevailing be vectored is within the airspace under the
conditions permit and it will be applied as follows: jurisdiction of the controller.
(a) When a VFR flight is positioned behind a 9. Departing aircraft should inform ATC of their
preceding aircraft and the pilot reports having that intended destination and/or route of flight and
aircraft in sight, the pilot will be instructed by ATC to proposed cruising altitude.
follow the preceding aircraft. Radar service will be 10. ATC will normally advise participating
continued to the runway. THE ATC INSTRUCTION VFR aircraft when leaving the geographical limits of
TO FOLLOW THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT the TRSA. Radar service is not automatically

AIM 4/3/14
terminated with this advisory unless specifically 4119. Tower En Route Control (TEC)
stated by the controller.
a. TEC is an ATC program to provide a service to
c. Class C Service. This service provides, in aircraft proceeding to and from metropolitan areas. It
addition to basic radar service, approved separation links designated Approach Control Areas by a
between IFR and VFR aircraft, and sequencing of network of identified routes made up of the existing
VFR arrivals to the primary airport. airway structure of the National Airspace System.
The FAA initiated an expanded TEC program to
d. Class B Service. This service provides, in
include as many facilities as possible. The programs
addition to basic radar service, approved separation
intent is to provide an overflow resource in the low
of aircraft based on IFR, VFR, and/or weight, and
altitude system which would enhance ATC services.
sequencing of VFR arrivals to the primary airport(s).
A few facilities have historically allowed turbojets to
e. PILOT RESPONSIBILITY. THESE SER- proceed between certain city pairs, such as
VICES ARE NOT TO BE INTERPRETED AS Milwaukee and Chicago, via tower en route and these
RELIEVING PILOTS OF THEIR RESPONSIBILI- locations may continue this service. However, the
TIES TO SEE AND AVOID OTHER TRAFFIC expanded TEC program will be applied, generally,
OPERATING IN BASIC VFR WEATHER CONDI- for nonturbojet aircraft operating at and below
TIONS, TO ADJUST THEIR OPERATIONS AND 10,000 feet. The program is entirely within the
FLIGHT PATH AS NECESSARY TO PRECLUDE approach control airspace of multiple terminal
SERIOUS WAKE ENCOUNTERS, TO MAINTAIN facilities. Essentially, it is for relatively short flights.
APPROPRIATE TERRAIN AND OBSTRUCTION Participating pilots are encouraged to use TEC for
CLEARANCE, OR TO REMAIN IN WEATHER flights of two hours duration or less. If longer flights
CONDITIONS EQUAL TO OR BETTER THAN are planned, extensive coordination may be required
THE MINIMUMS REQUIRED BY 14 CFR within the multiple complex which could result in
SECTION 91.155. WHENEVER COMPLIANCE unanticipated delays.
WITH AN ASSIGNED ROUTE, HEADING
b. Pilots requesting TEC are subject to the same
AND/OR ALTITUDE IS LIKELY TO COMPRO-
delay factor at the destination airport as other aircraft
MISE PILOT RESPONSIBILITY RESPECTING
in the ATC system. In addition, departure and en route
TERRAIN AND OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE,
delays may occur depending upon individual facility
VORTEX EXPOSURE, AND WEATHER MINI-
workload. When a major metropolitan airport is
MUMS, APPROACH CONTROL SHOULD BE SO
incurring significant delays, pilots in the TEC
ADVISED AND A REVISED CLEARANCE OR
program may want to consider an alternative airport
INSTRUCTION OBTAINED.
experiencing no delay.
f. ATC services for VFR aircraft participating in
c. There are no unique requirements upon pilots to
terminal radar services are dependent on ATC radar.
use the TEC program. Normal flight plan filing
Services for VFR aircraft are not available during
procedures will ensure proper flight plan processing.
periods of a radar outage and are limited during
Pilots should include the acronym TEC in the
CENRAP operations. The pilot will be advised when
remarks section of the flight plan when requesting
VFR services are limited or not available.
tower en route control.
NOTE
Class B and Class C airspace are areas of regulated d. All approach controls in the system may not
airspace. The absence of ATC radar does not negate the operate up to the maximum TEC altitude of
requirement of an ATC clearance to enter Class B airspace 10,000 feet. IFR flight may be planned to any
or two way radio contact with ATC to enter Class C satellite airport in proximity to the major primary
airspace. airport via the same routing.

4/3/14 AIM
4120. Transponder Operation antenna shielding by the aircraft itself may result in
reduced range. Range can be improved by climbing
a. General to a higher altitude. It may be possible to minimize
1. Pilots should be aware that proper application antenna shielding by locating the antenna where dead
of transponder operating procedures will provide spots are only noticed during abnormal flight
both VFR and IFR aircraft with a higher degree of attitudes.
safety in the environment where high-speed closure 7. Aircraft equipped with ADSB (1090 ES or
rates are possible. Transponders substantially in- UAT) must operate the equipment in the transmit
crease the capability of radar to see an aircraft and the mode (on position) at all times while on any airport
Mode C feature enables the controller to quickly surface.
determine where potential traffic conflicts may exist. NOTE
Even VFR pilots who are not in contact with ATC will Pilots of aircraft equipped with ADSB should refer to
be afforded greater protection from IFR aircraft and AIM, Automatic Dependant Surveillance Broadcast
VFR aircraft which are receiving traffic advisories. Services, Paragraph 457, for a complete description of
Nevertheless, pilots should never relax their visual operating limitations and procedures.
scanning vigilance for other aircraft. b. Transponder Code Designation
2. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System 1. For ATC to utilize one or a combination of the
(ATCRBS) is similar to and compatible with military 4096 discrete codes FOUR DIGIT CODE DES-
coded radar beacon equipment. Civil Mode A is IGNATION will be used, e.g., code 2100 will be
identical to military Mode 3. expressed as TWO ONE ZERO ZERO. Due to the
3. Civil and military transponders should be operational characteristics of the rapidly expanding
turned to the on or normal altitude reporting automated ATC system, THE LAST TWO DIGITS
position prior to moving on the airport surface to OF THE SELECTED TRANSPONDER CODE
ensure the aircraft is visible to ATC surveillance SHOULD ALWAYS READ 00 UNLESS SPECIF-
systems. IN ALL CASES, WHILE IN CON- ICALLY REQUESTED BY ATC TO BE
TROLLED AIRSPACE EACH PILOT OTHERWISE.
OPERATING AN AIRCRAFT EQUIPPED WITH c. Automatic Altitude Reporting (Mode C)
AN OPERABLE ATC TRANSPONDER MAIN- 1. Some transponders are equipped with a
TAINED IN ACCORDANCE WITH 14 CFR Mode C automatic altitude reporting capability. This
SECTION 91.413 MUST OPERATE THE TRANS- system converts aircraft altitude in 100 foot
PONDER, INCLUDING MODE C IF INSTALLED, increments to coded digital information which is
ON THE APPROPRIATE CODE OR AS AS- transmitted together with Mode C framing pulses to
SIGNED BY ATC. IN CLASS G AIRSPACE, THE the interrogating radar facility. The manner in which
TRANSPONDER SHOULD BE OPERATING transponder panels are designed differs, therefore, a
WHILE AIRBORNE UNLESS OTHERWISE RE- pilot should be thoroughly familiar with the operation
QUESTED BY ATC. of the transponder so that ATC may realize its full
4. A pilot on an IFR flight who elects to cancel capabilities.
the IFR flight plan prior to reaching destination, 2. Adjust transponder to reply on the Mode A/3
should adjust the transponder according to VFR code specified by ATC and, if equipped, to reply on
operations. Mode C with altitude reporting capability activated
5. If entering a U.S. OFFSHORE AIRSPACE unless deactivation is directed by ATC or unless the
AREA from outside the U.S., the pilot should advise installed aircraft equipment has not been tested and
on first radio contact with a U.S. radar ATC facility calibrated as required by 14 CFR Section 91.217. If
that such equipment is available by adding deactivation is required by ATC, turn off the altitude
transponder to the aircraft identification. reporting feature of your transponder. An instruction
by ATC to STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK, ALTI-
6. It should be noted by all users of ATC TUDE DIFFERS (number of feet) FEET, may be an
transponders that the coverage they can expect is indication that your transponder is transmitting
limited to line of sight. Low altitude or aircraft incorrect altitude information or that you have an

AIM 4/3/14
incorrect altimeter setting. While an incorrect requirements are found in 14 CFR Section 91.215 and
altimeter setting has no effect on the Mode C altitude 14 CFR Section 99.12.
information transmitted by your transponder (trans- 2. In general, the CFRs require aircraft to be
ponders are preset at 29.92), it would cause you to fly equipped with Mode C transponders when operating:
at an actual altitude different from your assigned
altitude. When a controller indicates that an altitude (a) At or above 10,000 feet MSL over the
readout is invalid, the pilot should initiate a check to 48 contiguous states or the District of Columbia,
verify that the aircraft altimeter is set correctly. excluding that airspace below 2,500 feet AGL;
3. Pilots of aircraft with operating Mode C (b) Within 30 miles of a Class B airspace
altitude reporting transponders should report exact primary airport, below 10,000 feet MSL. Balloons,
altitude or flight level to the nearest hundred foot gliders, and aircraft not equipped with an engine
increment when establishing initial contact with an driven electrical system are excepted from the above
ATC facility. Exact altitude or flight level reports on requirements when operating below the floor of
initial contact provide ATC with information that is Class A airspace and/or; outside of a Class B airspace
required prior to using Mode C altitude information and below the ceiling of the Class B airspace (or
for separation purposes. This will significantly 10,000 feet MSL, whichever is lower);
reduce altitude verification requests. (c) Within and above all Class C airspace, up
to 10,000 feet MSL;
d. Transponder IDENT Feature
(d) Within 10 miles of certain designated
1. The transponder must be operated only as airports, excluding that airspace which is both outside
specified by ATC. Activate the IDENT feature only the Class D surface area and below 1,200 feet AGL.
upon request of the ATC controller. Balloons, gliders and aircraft not equipped with an
e. Code Changes engine driven electrical system are excepted from this
requirement.
1. When making routine code changes, pilots
3. 14 CFR Section 99.12 requires all aircraft
should avoid inadvertent selection of Codes 7500,
flying into, within, or across the contiguous U.S.
7600 or 7700 thereby causing momentary false
ADIZ be equipped with a Mode C or Mode S
alarms at automated ground facilities. For example,
transponder. Balloons, gliders and aircraft not
when switching from Code 2700 to Code 7200,
equipped with an engine driven electrical system are
switch first to 2200 then to 7200, NOT to 7700 and
excepted from this requirement.
then 7200. This procedure applies to nondiscrete
Code 7500 and all discrete codes in the 7600 and 7700 4. Pilots must ensure that their aircraft trans-
series (i.e., 76007677, 77007777) which will ponder is operating on an appropriate ATC assigned
trigger special indicators in automated facilities. VFR/IFR code and Mode C when operating in such
Only nondiscrete Code 7500 will be decoded as the airspace. If in doubt about the operational status of
hijack code. either feature of your transponder while airborne,
contact the nearest ATC facility or FSS and they will
2. Under no circumstances should a pilot of a advise you what facility you should contact for
civil aircraft operate the transponder on Code 7777. determining the status of your equipment.
This code is reserved for military interceptor
operations. 5. In-flight requests for immediate deviation
from the transponder requirement may be approved
3. Military pilots operating VFR or IFR within by controllers only when the flight will continue IFR
restricted/warning areas should adjust their trans- or when weather conditions prevent VFR descent and
ponders to Code 4000 unless another code has been continued VFR flight in airspace not affected by the
assigned by ATC. CFRs. All other requests for deviation should be
f. Mode C Transponder Requirements made by contacting the nearest Flight Service or
Air Traffic facility in person or by telephone. The
1. Specific details concerning requirements to nearest ARTCC will normally be the controlling
carry and operate Mode C transponders, as well as agency and is responsible for coordinating requests
exceptions and ATC authorized deviations from the involving deviations in other ARTCC areas.

4/3/14 AIM
g. Transponder Operation Under Visual Flight 2. IDENT. Engage the IDENT feature (mili-
Rules (VFR) tary I/P) of the transponder.
1. Unless otherwise instructed by an ATC 3. SQUAWK (number) and IDENT. Operate
facility, adjust transponder to reply on Mode 3/A transponder on specified code in Mode A/3 and
Code 1200 regardless of altitude. engage the IDENT (military I/P) feature.
NOTE 4. SQUAWK STANDBY. Switch transponder
1. Aircraft not in contact with an ATC facility may squawk
1255 in lieu of 1200 while en route to, from, or within the
to standby position.
designated fire fighting area(s). 5. SQUAWK LOW/NORMAL. Operate
2. VFR aircraft which fly authorized SAR missions for the transponder on low or normal sensitivity as specified.
USAF or USCG may be advised to squawk 1277 in lieu of Transponder is operated in NORMAL position
1200 while en route to, from, or within the designated unless ATC specifies LOW (ON is used instead
search area. of NORMAL as a master control label on some
3. Gliders not in contact with an ATC facility should types of transponders.)
squawk 1202 in lieu of 1200.
6. SQUAWK ALTITUDE. Activate Mode C
REFERENCE
FAAO 7110.66, National Beacon Code Allocation Plan. with automatic altitude reporting.
2. Adjust transponder to reply on Mode C, with 7. STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK. Turn off
altitude reporting capability activated if the aircraft is altitude reporting switch and continue transmitting
so equipped, unless deactivation is directed by ATC Mode C framing pulses. If your equipment does not
or unless the installed equipment has not been tested have this capability, turn off Mode C.
and calibrated as required by 14 CFR Section 91.217.
If deactivation is required and your transponder is so 8. STOP SQUAWK (mode in use). Switch off
designed, turn off the altitude reporting switch and specified mode. (Used for military aircraft when the
continue to transmit Mode C framing pulses. If this controller is unaware of military service require-
capability does not exist, turn off Mode C. ments for the aircraft to continue operation on another
Mode.)
h. Radar Beacon Phraseology
9. STOP SQUAWK. Switch off transponder.
Air traffic controllers, both civil and military, will use
the following phraseology when referring to 10. SQUAWK MAYDAY. Operate transpond-
operation of the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon er in the emergency position (Mode A Code 7700 for
System (ATCRBS). Instructions by ATC refer only to civil transponder. Mode 3 Code 7700 and emergency
Mode A/3 or Mode C operation and do not affect the feature for military transponder.)
operation of the transponder on other Modes.
11. SQUAWK VFR. Operate radar beacon
1. SQUAWK (number). Operate radar beacon transponder on Code 1200 in the Mode A/3, or other
transponder on designated code in Mode A/3. appropriate VFR code.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 413
Hazardous Area Reporting Service
4121. Hazardous Area Reporting Service expected to land as soon as practicable and cancel
their request for the service. FIG 413 depicts the
a. Selected FSSs provide flight monitoring where areas and the FSS facilities involved in this program.
regularly traveled VFR routes cross large bodies of
water, swamps, and mountains. This service is b. Long Island Sound Reporting Service.
provided for the purpose of expeditiously alerting New York and Bridgeport FSS Radio Sectors
Search and Rescue facilities when required. provide Long Island Sound Reporting service on
(See FIG 413.) request for aircraft traversing Long Island Sound.
1. When requesting the service either in person, 1. When requesting the service, pilots should
by telephone or by radio, pilots should be prepared to ask for SOUND REPORTING SERVICE and should
give the following information: type of aircraft, be prepared to provide the following appropriate
altitude, indicated airspeed, present position, route of information:
flight, heading. (a) Type and color of aircraft;
2. Radio contacts are desired at least every (b) The specific route and altitude across the
10 minutes. If contact is lost for more than sound including the shore crossing point;
15 minutes, Search and Rescue will be alerted. Pilots (c) The overwater crossing time;
are responsible for canceling their request for service
when they are outside the service area boundary. (d) Number of persons on board; and
Pilots experiencing two-way radio failure are (e) True air speed.

4/3/14 AIM
2. Radio contacts are desired at least every 2. Communications. Pilots are to transmit and
10 minutes; however, for flights of shorter duration a receive on 122.6 MHz.
midsound report is requested. If contact is lost for
NOTE
more than 15 minutes Search and Rescue will be Pilots are advised that 122.6 MHz is a remote receiver
alerted. Pilots are responsible for canceling their located at the Hampton VORTAC site and designed to
request for the Long Island Sound Reporting Service provide radio coverage between Hampton and Block Is-
when outside the service area boundary. Aircraft land. Flights proceeding beyond Block Island may contact
experiencing radio failure will be expected to land as the Bridgeport FSS Radio Sector by transmitting on
soon as practicable and cancel their request for the 122.1 MHz and listening on Groton VOR frequency
service. 110.85 MHz.
3. Communications. Primary communica- d. Cape Cod and Islands Radar Overwater

tions pilots are to transmit on 122.1 MHz and listen Flight Following.
on one of the following VOR frequencies: In addition to normal VFR radar advisory services,
(a) New York FSS Radio Sector Controls: traffic permitting, Cape Approach Control provides
a radar overwater flight following service for aircraft
(1) Hampton RCO (FSS transmits and
traversing the Cape Cod and adjacent Island area.
receives on 122.6 MHz).
Pilots desiring this service may contact Cape
(2) Calverton VOR (FSS transmits on TRACON on 118.2 MHz.
117.2 and receives on standard FSS frequencies).
1. Pilots requesting this service should be
(3) Kennedy VORTAC (FSS transmits on prepared to give the following information:
115.9 and receives on 122.1 MHz).
(a) Type and color of aircraft;
(b) Bridgeport FSS Radio Sector Controls:
(b) Altitude;
(1) Madison VORTAC (FSS transmits on
110.4 and receives on 122.1 MHz). (c) Position and heading;
(2) Groton VOR (FSS transmits on 110.85 (d) Route of flight; and
and receives on 122.1 MHz).
(e) True airspeed.
(3) Bridgeport VOR (FSS transmits on
108.8 and receives on 122.1 MHz). 2. For best radar coverage, pilots are encour-
aged to fly at 1,500 feet MSL or above.
c. Block Island Reporting Service.
3. Pilots are responsible for canceling their
Within the Long Island Sound Reporting Service,
request for overwater flight following when they are
the New York FSS Radio Sector also provides an
over the mainland and/or outside the service area
additional service for aircraft operating between
boundary.
Montauk Point and Block Island. When requesting
this service, pilots should ask for BLOCK ISLAND e. Lake Reporting Service.
REPORTING SERVICE and should be prepared to
provide the same flight information as required for Cleveland and Lansing FSS Radio Sectors provide
the Long Island Sound Reporting Service. Lake Reporting Service on request for aircraft
traversing the western half of Lake Erie; Green Bay,
1. A minimum of three position reports are Kankakee, Lansing, and Terre Haute FSS Radio
mandatory for this service; these are: Sectors provide Lake Reporting Service on request
(a) Reporting leaving either Montauk Point for aircraft traversing Lake Michigan.
or Block Island. 1. When requesting the service, pilots should
(b) Midway report. ask for LAKE REPORTING SERVICE.
(c) Report when over either Montauk Point or 2. Pilots not on a VFR flight plan should be
Block Island. At this time, the overwater service is prepared to provide all information that is normally
canceled. provided for a complete VFR flight plan.

AIM 4/3/14
3. Pilots already on a VFR flight plan should be (2) Green Bay RCO (FSS transmits and
prepared to provide the following information: receives on 122.55 MHz).
(a) Aircraft or flight identification. (3) Manistique RCO (FSS transmits and
(b) Type of aircraft.
(4) Manitowoc VOR (FSS transmits on
(c) Nearshore crossing point or last fix 111.0 and receives on 122.1 MHz).
before crossing.
(5) Menominee VOR (FSS transmits on
(d) Proposed time over nearshore crossing 109.6 and receives on 122.1 MHz).
point or last fix before crossing.
(6) Milwaukee RCO (FSS transmits and
(e) Proposed altitude. receives on 122.65 MHz).
(f) Proposed route of flight. (7) Falls VOR (FSS transmits on 110.0 and
(g) Estimated time over water. receives on 122.1 MHz).
(h) Next landing point. (c) Kankakee FSS Radio Sector Controls:
(i) FSS having complete VFR flight plan (1) Chicago Heights VORTAC (FSS trans-
information. mits on 114.2 and receives on 122.1 MHz).
4. Radio contacts must not exceed 10 minutes (2) Meigs RCO (FSS transmits and re-
when pilots fly at an altitude that affords continuous ceives on 122.15 MHz).
communications. If radio contact is lost for more than (3) Waukegan RCO (FSS transmits and
15 minutes (5 minutes after a scheduled reporting receives on 122.55 MHz).
time), Search and Rescue (SAR) will be alerted.
(d) Lansing FSS Radio Sector Controls:
5. The estimated time for crossing the far shore
will be the scheduled reporting time for aircraft that (1) Lake Erie. Detroit City RCO (FSS
fly at an altitude that does not afford continuous transmits and receives on 122.55 MHz).
communication coverage while crossing the lake. If
(2) Lake Michigan:
radio contact is not established within 5 minutes of
that time, SAR will be alerted. [a] Keeler VORTAC (FSS transmits on
6. Pilots are responsible for canceling their
request for Lake Reporting Service when outside the [b] Ludington RCO (FSS transmits and
service area boundary. Aircraft experiencing radio receives on 122.45 MHz).
failure will be expected to land as soon as practicable
and cancel their Lake Reporting Service flight plan. [c] Manistee VORTAC (FSS transmits
on 111.4 and receives on 122.1 MHz).
7. Communications. Primary communica-
tions Pilots should communicate with the following [d] Muskegon RCO (FSS transmits and
facilities on the indicated frequencies: receives on 122.5 MHz).
(a) Cleveland FSS Radio Sector Controls: [e] Pellston RCO (FSS transmits and
(1) Cleveland RCO (FSS transmits and
receives on 122.35 or 122.55 MHz). [f] Pullman VORTAC (FSS transmits on
(2) Sandusky VOR (FSS transmits on
[g] Traverse City RCO (FSS transmits
and receives on 122.65 MHz).
(b) Green Bay FSS Radio Sector Controls:
(e) Terre Haute FSS Radio Sector Con-
(1) Escanaba VORTAC (FSS transmits on trols. South Bend RCO (FSS transmits and receives
110.8 and receives on 122.1 MHz). on 122.6 MHz).

7/24/14
4/3/14 AIM
f. Everglades Reporting Service. beginning 72 hours in advance of the operation at the

slot controlled airport. Refer to the Web site or
This service is offered by Miami Automated touchtone phone interface for the current listing of
International Flight Service Station (MIA AIFSS), in slot controlled airports, limitations, and reservation
extreme southern Florida. The service is provided to procedures.
aircraft crossing the Florida Everglades, between Lee
County (Ft. Myers, FL) VORTAC (RSW) on the NOTE
northwest side, and Dolphin (Miami, FL) VOR The web interface/telephone numbers to obtain a
(DHP) on the southeast side. reservation for unscheduled operations at a slot controlled
airport are:
1. The pilot must request the service from 1. http://www.fly.faa.gov/ecvrs.
Miami AIFSS. 2. Touchtone: 18008759694 or 7037070568.
(eCVRS interface).
2. MIA AIFSS frequency information, 122.2, 3. Trouble number: 5404224246.
122.3, and 122.65.
3. For more detailed information on operations
3. The pilot must file a VFR flight plan with the and reservation procedures at a Slot Controlled
remark: ERS. Airport, please see Advisory Circular 931A,
4. The pilot must maintain 2000 feet of altitude. Reservations for Unscheduled Operations at slot
controlled airports. A copy of the Advisory
5. The pilot must make position reports every Circular may be obtained via the Internet at:
ten (10) minutes. SAR begins fifteen (15) minutes http://www.faa.gov.
after position report is not made on time.
b. Special Traffic Management Programs
6. The pilot is expected to land as soon as is (STMP).
practical, in the event of twoway radio failure, and
advise MIA AIFSS that the service is terminated. 1. Special procedures may be established when
a location requires special traffic handling to
7. The pilot must notify Miami AIFSS when the
accommodate above normal traffic demand (e.g., the
flight plan is cancelled or the service is suspended.
Indianapolis 500, Super Bowl) or reduced airport
capacity (e.g., airport runway/taxiway closures for
4122. Airport Reservation Operations airport construction). The special procedures may
and Special Traffic Management Programs remain in effect until the problem has been resolved
or until local traffic management procedures can
This section describes procedures for obtaining handle the situation and a need for special handling no
required airport reservations at airports designated by longer exists.
the FAA and for airports operating under Special
Traffic Management Programs. 2. There will be two methods available for
obtaining slot reservations through the
a. Slot Controlled Airports. ATCSCC: the web interface and the touchtone
1. The FAA may adopt rules to require advance interface. If these methods are used, a NOTAM will
operations for unscheduled operations at certain be issued relaying the web site address and toll free
airports. In addition to the information in the rules telephone number. Be sure to check current
adopted by the FAA, a listing of the airports and NOTAMs to determine: what airports are included
relevant information will be maintained on the FAA in the STMP; the dates and times reservations are
Web site listed below. required; the time limits for reservation requests; the
point of contact for reservations; and any other
2. The FAA has established an Airport instructions.
Reservation Office (ARO) to receive and process
reservations for unscheduled flights at the slot c. Users may contact the ARO at 7039044452
controlled airports. The ARO uses the Enhanced if they have a problem making a reservation or have
Computer Voice Reservation System (eCVRS) to a question concerning the slot controlled airport/
allocate reservations. Reservations will be available STMP regulations or procedures.

AIM 4/3/14
d. Making Reservations. a number. Therefore, when entering an aircraft call

sign or tail number two keys are used to represent
1. Internet Users. Detailed information and
each letter or number. When entering a number,
User Instruction Guides for using the Web interface
precede the number you wish by the number 0 (zero)
to the reservation systems are available on the
i.e., 01, 02, 03, 04, . . .. If you wish to enter a letter, first
websites for the slot controlled airports (eCVRS),
press the key on which the letter appears and then
http://www.fly.faa.gov/ecvrs; and STMPs
press 1, 2, or 3, depending upon whether the letter you
(eSTMP), http://www.fly.faa.gov/estmp.
desire is the first, second, or third letter on that key.
2. Telephone users. When using the telephone For example to enter the letter N first press the
to make a reservation, you are prompted for input of 6 key because N is on that key, then press the
information about what you wish to do. All input is 2 key because the letter N is the second letter on
accomplished using the keypad on the telephone. The the 6 key. Since there are no keys for the letters Q
only problem with a telephone is that most keys have and Z eCVRS pretends they are on the number
a letter and number associated with them. When the 1 key. Therefore, to enter the letter Q, press 11,
system asks for a date or time, it is expecting an input and to enter the letter Z press 12.
of numbers. A problem arises when entering an NOTE
aircraft call sign or tail number. The system does not Users are reminded to enter the N character with their
detect if you are entering a letter (alpha character) or tail numbers. (See TBL 414.)
TBL 414
Codes for Call Sign/Tail Number Input
Codes for Call Sign/Tail Number Input Only

A21 J51 S73 1-01
B22 K52 T81 202
C23 L53 U82 303
D31 M61 V83 404
E32 N62 W91 505
F33 O63 X92 606
G41 P71 Y93 707
H42 Q11 Z12 808
I43 R72 000 909

4/3/14 AIM
3. Additional helpful key entries: (See TBL 415.)

TBL 415
Helpful Key Entries
# After entering a call sign/tail number, depressing the pound key (#) twice will indicate the end of the
entry.
*2 Will take the user back to the start of the process.
*3 Will repeat the call sign/tail number used in a previous reservation.
*5 Will repeat the previous question.
*8 Tutorial Mode: In the tutorial mode each prompt for input includes a more detailed description of what
is expected as input. *8 is a toggle on/off switch. If you are in tutorial mode and enter *8, you will return
to the normal mode.
*0 Expert Mode: In the expert mode each prompt for input is brief with little or no explanation. Expert
mode is also on/off toggle.
4123. Requests for Waivers and c. A waiver may be canceled at any time by the
Authorizations from Title 14, Code of Administrator, the person authorized to grant the
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) waiver, or the representative designated to monitor a
specific operation. In such case either written notice
a. Requests for a Certificate of Waiver or
of cancellation, or written confirmation of a verbal
Authorization (FAA Form 77112), or requests for
cancellation will be provided to the holder.
renewal of a waiver or authorization, may be accepted
by any FAA facility and will be forwarded, if
necessary, to the appropriate office having waiver
authority. 4124. Weather System Processor
b. The grant of a Certificate of Waiver or
Authorization from 14 CFR constitutes relief from The Weather System Processor (WSP) was devel-
specific regulations, to the degree and for the period oped for use in the National Airspace System to
of time specified in the certificate, and does not waive provide weather processor enhancements to selected
any state law or local ordinance. Should the proposed Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)9 facilities. The
operations conflict with any state law or local WSP provides Air Traffic with warnings of
ordinance, or require permission of local authorities hazardous wind shear and microbursts. The WSP also
or property owners, it is the applicants responsibility provides users with terminal area 6level weather,
to resolve the matter. The holder of a waiver is storm cell locations and movement, as well as the
responsible for compliance with the terms of the location and predicted future position and intensity of
waiver and its provisions. wind shifts that may affect airport operations.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 2. Radio Communications Phraseology

and Techniques
421. General just changed frequencies, pause, listen, and make sure
the frequency is clear.
a. Radio communications are a critical link in the
ATC system. The link can be a strong bond between b. Think before keying your transmitter. Know
pilot and controller or it can be broken with surprising what you want to say and if it is lengthy; e.g., a flight
speed and disastrous results. Discussion herein plan or IFR position report, jot it down.
provides basic procedures for new pilots and also c. The microphone should be very close to your
highlights safe operating concepts for all pilots. lips and after pressing the mike button, a slight pause
may be necessary to be sure the first word is
b. The single, most important thought in pilot- transmitted. Speak in a normal, conversational tone.
controller communications is understanding. It is
essential, therefore, that pilots acknowledge each d. When you release the button, wait a few
radio communication with ATC by using the seconds before calling again. The controller or FSS
appropriate aircraft call sign. Brevity is important, specialist may be jotting down your number, looking
and contacts should be kept as brief as possible, but for your flight plan, transmitting on a different
controllers must know what you want to do before frequency, or selecting the transmitter for your
they can properly carry out their control duties. And frequency.
you, the pilot, must know exactly what the controller e. Be alert to the sounds or the lack of sounds in
wants you to do. Since concise phraseology may not your receiver. Check your volume, recheck your
always be adequate, use whatever words are frequency, and make sure that your microphone is not
necessary to get your message across. Pilots are to stuck in the transmit position. Frequency blockage
maintain vigilance in monitoring air traffic control can, and has, occurred for extended periods of time
radio communications frequencies for potential due to unintentional transmitter operation. This type
traffic conflicts with their aircraft especially when of interference is commonly referred to as a stuck
operating on an active runway and/or when mike, and controllers may refer to it in this manner
conducting a final approach to landing. when attempting to assign an alternate frequency. If
the assigned frequency is completely blocked by this
c. All pilots will find the Pilot/Controller Glossary type of interference, use the procedures described for
very helpful in learning what certain words or phrases en route IFR radio frequency outage to establish or
mean. Good phraseology enhances safety and is the reestablish communications with ATC.
mark of a professional pilot. Jargon, chatter, and
CB slang have no place in ATC communications. f. Be sure that you are within the performance
The Pilot/Controller Glossary is the same glossary range of your radio equipment and the ground station
used in FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control. equipment. Remote radio sites do not always transmit
We recommend that it be studied and reviewed from and receive on all of a facilitys available frequencies,
time to time to sharpen your communication skills. particularly with regard to VOR sites where you can
hear but not reach a ground stations receiver.
Remember that higher altitudes increase the range of
422. Radio Technique VHF line of sight communications.
a. Listen before you transmit. Many times you can 423. Contact Procedures
get the information you want through ATIS or by
a. Initial Contact.
monitoring the frequency. Except for a few situations
where some frequency overlap occurs, if you hear 1. The terms initial contact or initial callup
someone else talking, the keying of your transmitter means the first radio call you make to a given facility
will be futile and you will probably jam their or the first call to a different controller or FSS
receivers causing them to repeat their call. If you have specialist within a facility. Use the following format:
Radio Communications Phraseology 421

AIM 4/3/14
(a) Name of the facility being called; Most FSSs and control facilities can transmit on
several VOR stations in the area. Use the appropriate
(b) Your full aircraft identification as filed in
FSS call sign as indicated on charts.
the flight plan or as discussed in paragraph 424,
Aircraft Call Signs; EXAMPLE
New York FSS transmits on the Kennedy, the Hampton, and
(c) When operating on an airport surface, the Calverton VORTACs. If you are in the Calverton area,
state your position. your callup should be New York radio, Cessna Three One
Six Zero Foxtrot, receiving Calverton VOR, over.
(d) The type of message to follow or your
request if it is short; and 2. If the chart indicates FSS frequencies above
the VORTAC or in the FSS communications boxes,
(e) The word Over if required. transmit or receive on those frequencies nearest your
EXAMPLE location.
1. New York Radio, Mooney Three One One Echo.
2. Columbia Ground, Cessna Three One Six Zero 3. When unable to establish contact and you
Foxtrot, south ramp, IFR Memphis. wish to call any ground station, use the phrase ANY
3. Miami Center, Baron Five Six Three Hotel, request RADIO (tower) (station), GIVE CESSNA THREE
VFRtraffic advisories. ONE SIX ZERO FOXTROT A CALL ON
(frequency) OR (VOR). If an emergency exists or
2. Many FSSs are equipped with Remote
you need assistance, so state.
Communications Outlets (RCOs) and can transmit on
the same frequency at more than one location. The c. Subsequent Contacts and Responses to
frequencies available at specific locations are Callup from a Ground Facility.
indicated on charts above FSS communications Use the same format as used for the initial contact
boxes. To enable the specialist to utilize the correct except you should state your message or request with
transmitter, advise the location and the frequency on the callup in one transmission. The ground station
which you expect a reply. name and the word Over may be omitted if the
EXAMPLE message requires an obvious reply and there is no
St. Louis FSS can transmit on frequency 122.3 at either possibility for misunderstandings. You should
Farmington, Missouri, or Decatur, Illinois, if you are in the acknowledge all callups or clearances unless the
vicinity of Decatur, your callup should be Saint Louis controller or FSS specialist advises otherwise. There
radio, Piper Six Niner Six Yankee, receiving Decatur One are some occasions when controllers must issue
Two Two Point Three.
time-critical instructions to other aircraft, and they
3. If radio reception is reasonably assured, may be in a position to observe your response, either
inclusion of your request, your position or altitude, visually or on radar. If the situation demands your
and the phrase (ATIS) Information Charlie response, take appropriate action or immediately
received in the initial contact helps decrease radio advise the facility of any problem. Acknowledge with
frequency congestion. Use discretion; do not your aircraft identification, either at the beginning or
overload the controller with information unneeded or at the end of your transmission, and one of the words
superfluous. If you do not get a response from the Wilco, Roger, Affirmative, Negative, or
ground station, recheck your radios or use another other appropriate remarks; e.g., PIPER TWO ONE
transmitter, but keep the next contact short. FOUR LIMA, ROGER. If you have been receiving
EXAMPLE services; e.g., VFR traffic advisories and you are
Atlanta Center, Duke Four One Romeo, request VFR leaving the area or changing frequencies, advise the
traffic advisories, Twenty Northwest Rome, seven thousand ATC facility and terminate contact.
five hundred, over.
d. Acknowledgement of Frequency Changes.
b. Initial Contact When Your Transmitting and
1. When advised by ATC to change frequencies,
Receiving Frequencies are Different.
acknowledge the instruction. If you select the new
1. If you are attempting to establish contact with frequency without an acknowledgement, the control-
a ground station and you are receiving on a different lers workload is increased because there is no way of
frequency than that transmitted, indicate the VOR knowing whether you received the instruction or have
name or the frequency on which you expect a reply. had radio communications failure.
422 Radio Communications Phraseology

4/3/14 AIM
2. At times, a controller/specialist may be before taking action on an ATC clearance. ATC

working a sector with multiple frequency assign- specialists will not abbreviate call signs of air carrier
ments. In order to eliminate unnecessary verbiage or other civil aircraft having authorized call signs.
and to free the controller/specialist for higher priority ATC specialists may initiate abbreviated call signs of
transmissions, the controller/specialist may request other aircraft by using the prefix and the last three
the pilot (Identification), change to my frequency digits/letters of the aircraft identification after
123.4. This phrase should alert the pilot that the communications are established. The pilot may use
controller/specialist is only changing frequencies, not the abbreviated call sign in subsequent contacts with
controller/specialist, and that initial callup phraseolo- the ATC specialist. When aware of similar/identical
gy may be abbreviated. call signs, ATC specialists will take action to
minimize errors by emphasizing certain numbers/let-
EXAMPLE
United Two TwentyTwo on one two three point four or ters, by repeating the entire call sign, by repeating the
one two three point four, United Two TwentyTwo. prefix, or by asking pilots to use a different call sign
temporarily. Pilots should use the phrase VERIFY
e. Compliance with Frequency Changes. CLEARANCE FOR (your complete call sign) if
When instructed by ATC to change frequencies, doubt exists concerning proper identity.
select the new frequency as soon as possible unless
instructed to make the change at a specific time, fix, 3. Civil aircraft pilots should state the aircraft
or altitude. A delay in making the change could result type, model or manufacturers name, followed by the
in an untimely receipt of important information. If digits/letters of the registration number. When the
you are instructed to make the frequency change at a aircraft manufacturers name or model is stated, the
specific time, fix, or altitude, monitor the frequency prefix N is dropped; e.g., Aztec Two Four Six Four
you are on until reaching the specified time, fix, or Alpha.
altitudes unless instructed otherwise by ATC. EXAMPLE
REFERENCE 1. Bonanza Six Five Five Golf.
AIM, ARTCC Communications, Paragraph 531.
2. Breezy Six One Three Romeo Experimental (omit
Experimental after initial contact).
424. Aircraft Call Signs
4. Air Taxi or other commercial operators not
a. Precautions in the Use of Call Signs. having FAA authorized call signs should prefix their
1. Improper use of call signs can result in pilots normal identification with the phonetic word
executing a clearance intended for another aircraft. Tango.
Call signs should never be abbreviated on an initial EXAMPLE
contact or at any time when other aircraft call signs Tango Aztec Two Four Six Four Alpha.
have similar numbers/sounds or identical letters/
number; e.g., Cessna 6132F, Cessna 1622F, 5. Air carriers and commuter air carriers having
Baron 123F, Cherokee 7732F, etc. FAA authorized call signs should identify themselves
EXAMPLE by stating the complete call sign (using group form
Assume that a controller issues an approach clearance to for the numbers) and the word heavy if appropriate.
an aircraft at the bottom of a holding stack and an aircraft
EXAMPLE
with a similar call sign (at the top of the stack)
acknowledges the clearance with the last two or three 1. United TwentyFive Heavy.
numbers of the aircrafts call sign. If the aircraft at the 2. Midwest Commuter Seven Eleven.
bottom of the stack did not hear the clearance and
intervene, flight safety would be affected, and there would 6. Military aircraft use a variety of systems
be no reason for either the controller or pilot to suspect that including serial numbers, word call signs, and
anything is wrong. This kind of human factors error can combinations of letters/numbers. Examples include
strike swiftly and is extremely difficult to rectify.
Army Copter 48931; Air Force 61782; REACH
2. Pilots, therefore, must be certain that aircraft 31792; Pat 157; Air Evac 17652; Navy Golf Alfa
identification is complete and clearly identified Kilo 21; Marine 4 Charlie 36, etc.

AIM 4/3/14
b. Air Ambulance Flights. c. Student Pilots Radio Identification.
Because of the priority afforded air ambulance flights 1. The FAA desires to help student pilots in
in the ATC system, extreme discretion is necessary acquiring sufficient practical experience in the
when using the term MEDEVAC. It is only environment in which they will be required to
intended for those missions of an urgent medical operate. To receive additional assistance while
nature and to be utilized only for that portion of the operating in areas of concentrated air traffic, student
flight requiring expeditious handling. When re- pilots need only identify themselves as a student pilot
quested by the pilot, necessary notification to during their initial call to an FAA radio facility.
expedite ground handling of patients, etc., is provided
EXAMPLE
by ATC; however, when possible, this information Dayton tower, Fleetwing One Two Three Four, student
should be passed in advance through nonATC pilot.
communications systems.
2. This special identification will alert FAA
1. Civilian air ambulance flights responding to ATC personnel and enable them to provide student
medical emergencies (first call to an accident scene, pilots with such extra assistance and consideration as
carrying patients, organ donors, organs, or other they may need. It is recommended that student pilots
urgently needed lifesaving medical material) will be identify themselves as such, on initial contact with
expedited by ATC when necessary. When expedi- each clearance delivery prior to taxiing, ground
tious handling is necessary, include the word control, tower, approach and departure control
MEDEVAC in the flight plan per paragraphs 518 frequency, or FSS contact.
and 519. In radio communications, use the call
signMEDEVAC, followed by the aircraft registra-
tion letters/numbers. 425. Description of Interchange or
Leased Aircraft
EXAMPLE
MEDEVAC Two Six Four Six. a. Controllers issue traffic information based on
2. Similar provisions have been made for the use familiarity with airline equipment and color/
of AIR EVAC and HOSP by air ambulance markings. When an air carrier dispatches a flight
flights, except that these flights will receive priority using another companys equipment and the pilot
handling only when specifically requested. does not advise the terminal ATC facility, the possible
confusion in aircraft identification can compromise
3. Air carrier and air taxi flights responding to safety.
medical emergencies will also be expedited by ATC
b. Pilots flying an interchange or leased
when necessary. The nature of these medical
aircraft not bearing the colors/markings of the
emergency flights usually concerns the transporta-
company operating the aircraft should inform the
tion of urgently needed lifesaving medical materials
terminal ATC facility on first contact the name of the
or vital organs. IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT THE
operating company and trip number, followed by the
COMPANY/PILOT DETERMINE, BY THE
company name as displayed on the aircraft, and
NATURE/URGENCY OF THE SPECIFIC
aircraft type.
MEDICAL CARGO, IF PRIORITY ATC ASSIST-
ANCE IS REQUIRED. Pilots must include the word EXAMPLE
MEDEVAC in the flight plan per paragraphs 518 Air Cal Three Eleven, United (interchange/lease),
and 519, and use the call sign MEDEVAC, Boeing Seven Two Seven.
followed by the company name and flight number for
all transmissions when expeditious handling is
required. It is important for ATC to be aware of 426. Ground Station Call Signs
MEDEVAC status, and it is the pilots responsibil-
Pilots, when calling a ground station, should begin
ity to ensure that this information is provided to ATC.
with the name of the facility being called followed by
EXAMPLE the type of the facility being called as indicated in
MEDEVAC Delta ThirtySeven. TBL 421.

4/3/14 AIM
TBL 421 TBL 422

Calling a Ground Station Phonetic Alphabet/Morse Code
Phonic
Character Morse Code Telephony
Facility Call Sign (Pronunciation)
Airport UNICOM Shannon UNICOM A Alfa (ALFAH)

B Bravo (BRAHVOH)
FAA Flight Service Station Chicago Radio
C Charlie (CHARLEE) or
FAA Flight Service Station Seattle Flight Watch (SHARLEE)
(En Route Flight Advisory D Delta (DELLTAH)
Service (Weather))
E Echo (ECKOH)
Airport Traffic Control Augusta Tower F Foxtrot (FOKSTROT)
Tower
G Golf (GOLF)
Clearance Delivery Position Dallas Clearance H Hotel (HOHTEL)
(IFR) Delivery I India (INDEEAH)
Ground Control Position in Miami Ground J Juliett (JEWLEEETT)
Tower K Kilo (KEYLOH)
Radar or Nonradar Oklahoma City L Lima (LEEMAH)
Approach Control Position Approach M Mike (MIKE)
Radar Departure Control St. Louis Departure N November (NOVEMBER)
Position O Oscar (OSSCAH)
FAA Air Route Traffic Washington Center P Papa (PAHPAH)
Control Center Q Quebec (KEHBECK)
R Romeo (ROWMEOH)
S Sierra (SEEAIRRAH)
T Tango (TANGGO)
U Uniform (YOUNEEFORM) or
427. Phonetic Alphabet (OONEEFORM)
V Victor (VIKTAH)
The International Civil Aviation Organization W Whiskey (WISSKEY)
(ICAO) phonetic alphabet is used by FAA personnel X Xray (ECKSRAY)
when communications conditions are such that the Y Yankee (YANGKEY)
information cannot be readily received without their Z Zulu (ZOOLOO)
use. ATC facilities may also request pilots to use 1 One (WUN)
phonetic letter equivalents when aircraft with similar 2 Two (TOO)
sounding identifications are receiving communica- 3 Three (TREE)
tions on the same frequency. Pilots should use the 4 Four (FOWER)
phonetic alphabet when identifying their aircraft 5 Five (FIFE)
during initial contact with air traffic control facilities. 6 Six (SIX)
Additionally, use the phonetic equivalents for single 7 Seven (SEVEN)
letters and to spell out groups of letters or difficult 8 Eight (AIT)
words during adverse communications conditions. 9 Nine (NINER)
(See TBL 422.) 0 Zero (ZEERO)

AIM 4/3/14
428. Figures EXAMPLE

1. 190 . . . . . . . . Flight Level One Niner Zero
a. Figures indicating hundreds and thousands in
2. 275 . . . . . . . . Flight Level Two Seven Five
round number, as for ceiling heights, and upper wind
levels up to 9,900 must be spoken in accordance with
the following. 4210. Directions
EXAMPLE The three digits of bearing, course, heading, or wind
1. 500 . . . . . . . . five hundred direction should always be magnetic. The word
2. 4,500 . . . . . . four thousand five hundred true must be added when it applies.
b. Numbers above 9,900 must be spoken by EXAMPLE
1. (Magnetic course) 005 . . . . . . zero zero five
separating the digits preceding the word thousand.
2. (True course) 050 . . . . . . . . . . zero five zero true
EXAMPLE
1. 10,000 . . . . . one zero thousand 3. (Magnetic bearing) 360 . . . . . three six zero
2. 13,500 . . . . . one three thousand five hundred 4. (Magnetic heading) 100 . . . . . heading one zero
zero
c. Transmit airway or jet route numbers as follows.
5. (Wind direction) 220 . . . . . . . . wind two two zero
EXAMPLE
1. V12 . . . . . . . Victor Twelve
4211. Speeds
2. J533 . . . . . . . J Five ThirtyThree
The separate digits of the speed followed by the word
d. All other numbers must be transmitted by KNOTS. Except, controllers may omit the word
pronouncing each digit. KNOTS when using speed adjustment procedures;
EXAMPLE e.g., REDUCE/INCREASE SPEED TO TWO
10 . . . . . . . . . . . one zero FIVE ZERO.
e. When a radio frequency contains a decimal EXAMPLE
point, the decimal point is spoken as POINT. (Speed) 250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two five zero knots
(Speed) 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . one niner zero knots
EXAMPLE
122.1 . . . . . . . . . one two two point one The separate digits of the Mach Number preceded by
NOTE Mach.
ICAO procedures require the decimal point be spoken as EXAMPLE
DECIMAL. The FAA will honor such usage by military (Mach number) 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . Mach one point five
aircraft and all other aircraft required to use ICAO (Mach number) 0.64 . . . . . . . . . . . Mach point six four
procedures. (Mach number) 0.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . Mach point seven
429. Altitudes and Flight Levels 4212. Time

a. Up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL, state a. FAA uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
the separate digits of the thousands plus the hundreds for all operations. The word local or the time zone
if appropriate. equivalent must be used to denote local when local
EXAMPLE time is given during radio and telephone communica-
1. 12,000 . . . . . one two thousand tions. The term Zulu may be used to denote UTC.
2. 12,500 . . . . . one two thousand five hundred EXAMPLE
0920 UTC . . . . . zero niner two zero,
b. At and above 18,000 feet MSL (FL 180), state zero one two zero pacific or local,
the words flight level followed by the separate or one twenty AM
digits of the flight level.

4/3/14 AIM
b. To convert from Standard Time to Coordinated REFERENCE

AIM, Traffic Control Light Signals, Paragraph 4313.
Universal Time:
(b) When you are approximately 3 to 5 miles
TBL 423
Standard Time to Coordinated Universal Time from the airport, advise the tower of your position and
join the airport traffic pattern. From this point on,
Eastern Standard Time . . . . . . . . . Add 5 hours watch the tower for light signals. Thereafter, if a
Central Standard Time . . . . . . . . . Add 6 hours complete pattern is made, transmit your position
Mountain Standard Time . . . . . . . Add 7 hours downwind and/or turning base leg.
Pacific Standard Time . . . . . . . . . Add 8 hours
Alaska Standard Time . . . . . . . . . Add 9 hours
Hawaii Standard Time . . . . . . . . . Add 10 hours
2. Transmitter inoperative. Remain outside
or above the Class D surface area until the direction
NOTE and flow of traffic has been determined; then, join the
For daylight time, subtract 1 hour. airport traffic pattern. Monitor the primary local
c. A reference may be made to local daylight or control frequency as depicted on Sectional Charts for
standard time utilizing the 24hour clock system. The landing or traffic information, and look for a light
hour is indicated by the first two figures and the signal which may be addressed to your aircraft.
minutes by the last two figures. During hours of daylight, acknowledge tower
transmissions or light signals by rocking your wings.
EXAMPLE
At night, acknowledge by blinking the landing or
0000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zero zero zero zero
0920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zero niner two zero
navigation lights. To acknowledge tower transmis-
sions during daylight hours, hovering helicopters will
d. Time may be stated in minutes only turn in the direction of the controlling facility and
(two figures) in radiotelephone communications flash the landing light. While in flight, helicopters
when no misunderstanding is likely to occur. should show their acknowledgement of receiving a
e. Current time in use at a station is stated in the transmission by making shallow banks in opposite
nearest quarter minute in order that pilots may use this directions. At night, helicopters will acknowledge
information for time checks. Fractions of a quarter receipt of transmissions by flashing either the landing
minute less than 8 seconds are stated as the preceding or the search light.
quarter minute; fractions of a quarter minute of
8 seconds or more are stated as the succeeding quarter 3. Transmitter and receiver inoperative.
minute. Remain outside or above the Class D surface area
until the direction and flow of traffic has been
EXAMPLE determined; then, join the airport traffic pattern and
0929:05 . . . . . . time, zero niner two niner
maintain visual contact with the tower to receive light
0929:10 . . . . . . time, zero niner two niner and
onequarter signals. Acknowledge light signals as noted above.
b. Departing Aircraft. If you experience radio

4213. Communications with Tower when failure prior to leaving the parking area, make every
Aircraft Transmitter or Receiver or Both are effort to have the equipment repaired. If you are
Inoperative unable to have the malfunction repaired, call the
a. Arriving Aircraft. tower by telephone and request authorization to
depart without two-way radio communications. If
1. Receiver inoperative.
tower authorization is granted, you will be given
(a) If you have reason to believe your receiver departure information and requested to monitor the
is inoperative, remain outside or above the Class D tower frequency or watch for light signals as
surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has appropriate. During daylight hours, acknowledge
been determined; then, advise the tower of your type tower transmissions or light signals by moving the
aircraft, position, altitude, intention to land, and ailerons or rudder. At night, acknowledge by blinking
request that you be controlled with light signals. the landing or navigation lights. If radio malfunction

AIM 4/3/14
occurs after departing the parking area, watch the 122.2 MHz is assigned to the majority of FSSs as a
tower for light signals or monitor tower frequency. common en route simplex frequency.
REFERENCE NOTE
14 CFR Section 91.125 and 14 CFR Section 91.129. In order to expedite communications, state the frequency
being used and the aircraft location during initial callup.
EXAMPLE
4214. Communications for VFR Flights
Dayton radio, November One Two Three Four Five on one
a. FSSs and Supplemental Weather Service two two point two, over Springfield VOR, over.
Locations (SWSLs) are allocated frequencies for b. Certain VOR voice channels are being utilized
different functions; for example, 122.0 MHz is for recorded broadcasts; i.e., ATIS, HIWAS, etc.
assigned as the En Route Flight Advisory Service These services and appropriate frequencies are listed
frequency at selected FSSs. In addition, certain FSSs in the A/FD. On VFR flights, pilots are urged to
provide Local Airport Advisory on 123.6 MHz or monitor these frequencies. When in contact with a
other frequencies which can be found in the A/FD. If control facility, notify the controller if you plan to
you are in doubt as to what frequency to use, leave the frequency to monitor these broadcasts.

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Section 3. Airport Operations
431. General or directed by the tower, pilots of fixedwing aircraft

approaching to land must circle the airport to the left.
Increased traffic congestion, aircraft in climb and
Pilots approaching to land in a helicopter must avoid
descent attitudes, and pilot preoccupation with
the flow of fixedwing traffic. However, in all
cockpit duties are some factors that increase the
instances, an appropriate clearance must be received
hazardous accident potential near the airport. The
from the tower before landing.
situation is further compounded when the weather is
marginal, that is, just meeting VFR requirements. FIG 431
Pilots must be particularly alert when operating in the Components of a Traffic Pattern
vicinity of an airport. This section defines some rules,
practices, and procedures that pilots should be
familiar with and adhere to for safe airport operations.
432. Airports with an Operating Control

Tower
a. When operating at an airport where traffic
control is being exercised by a control tower, pilots
are required to maintain twoway radio contact with
the tower while operating within the Class B, Class C,
and Class D surface area unless the tower authorizes NOTE
otherwise. Initial callup should be made about This diagram is intended only to illustrate terminology
15 miles from the airport. Unless there is a good used in identifying various components of a traffic pattern.
reason to leave the tower frequency before exiting the It should not be used as a reference or guide on how to enter
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas, it is a a traffic pattern.
good operating practice to remain on the tower c. The following terminology for the various
frequency for the purpose of receiving traffic components of a traffic pattern has been adopted as
information. In the interest of reducing tower standard for use by control towers and pilots (See
frequency congestion, pilots are reminded that it is FIG 431):
not necessary to request permission to leave the tower
1. Upwind leg. A flight path parallel to the
frequency once outside of Class B, Class C, and
landing runway in the direction of landing.
Class D surface areas. Not all airports with an
operating control tower will have Class D airspace. 2. Crosswind leg. A flight path at right angles
These airports do not have weather reporting which to the landing runway off its takeoff end.
is a requirement for surface based controlled 3. Downwind leg. A flight path parallel to the
airspace, previously known as a control zone. The landing runway in the opposite direction of landing.
controlled airspace over these airports will normally
begin at 700 feet or 1,200 feet above ground level and 4. Base leg. A flight path at right angles to the
can be determined from the visual aeronautical landing runway off its approach end and extending
charts. Pilots are expected to use good operating from the downwind leg to the intersection of the
practices and communicate with the control tower as extended runway centerline.
described in this section. 5. Final approach. A flight path in the
b. When necessary, the tower controller will issue direction of landing along the extended runway
clearances or other information for aircraft to centerline from the base leg to the runway.
generally follow the desired flight path (traffic 6. Departure leg. The flight path which begins
patterns) when flying in Class B, Class C, and Class D after takeoff and continues straight ahead along the
surface areas and the proper taxi routes when extended runway centerline. The departure climb
operating on the ground. If not otherwise authorized continues until reaching a point at least 1/2 mile
Airport Operations 431

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beyond the departure end of the runway and within Class D surface areas. In an example of this
300 feet of the traffic pattern altitude. situation, the local controller would use the radar to
advise a pilot on an extended downwind when to turn
d. Many towers are equipped with a tower radar base leg.
display. The radar uses are intended to enhance the
effectiveness and efficiency of the local control, or NOTE
tower, position. They are not intended to provide The above tower radar applications are intended to
radar services or benefits to pilots except as they may augment the standard functions of the local control
position. There is no controller requirement to maintain
accrue through a more efficient tower operation. The
constant radar identification. In fact, such a requirement
four basic uses are: could compromise the local controllers ability to visually
1. To determine an aircrafts exact location. scan the airport and local area to meet FAA responsibilities
to the aircraft operating on the runways and within the
This is accomplished by radar identifying the VFR
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas. Normally,
aircraft through any of the techniques available to a pilots will not be advised of being in radar contact since
radar position, such as having the aircraft squawk that continued status cannot be guaranteed and since the
ident. Once identified, the aircrafts position and purpose of the radar identification is not to establish a link
spatial relationship to other aircraft can be quickly for the provision of radar services.
determined, and standard instructions regarding VFR
operation in Class B, Class C, and Class D surface e. A few of the radar equipped towers are
areas will be issued. Once initial radar identification authorized to use the radar to ensure separation
of a VFR aircraft has been established and the between aircraft in specific situations, while still
appropriate instructions have been issued, radar others may function as limited radar approach
monitoring may be discontinued; the reason being controls. The various radar uses are strictly a function
that the local controllers primary means of of FAA operational need. The facilities may be
surveillance in VFR conditions is visually scanning indistinguishable to pilots since they are all referred
the airport and local area. to as tower and no publication lists the degree of radar
use. Therefore, when in communication with a
2. To provide radar traffic advisories. Radar tower controller who may have radar available, do
traffic advisories may be provided to the extent that not assume that constant radar monitoring and
the local controller is able to monitor the radar complete ATC radar services are being provided.
display. Local control has primary control responsibi-
lities to the aircraft operating on the runways, which
will normally supersede radar monitoring duties. 433. Traffic Patterns
3. To provide a direction or suggested a. At most airports and military air bases, traffic
heading. The local controller may provide pilots pattern altitudes for propellerdriven aircraft gener-
flying VFR with generalized instructions which will ally extend from 600 feet to as high as 1,500 feet
facilitate operations; e.g., PROCEED SOUTH- above the ground. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for
WESTBOUND, ENTER A RIGHT DOWNWIND military turbojet aircraft sometimes extend up to
RUNWAY THREE ZERO, or provide a suggested 2,500 feet above the ground. Therefore, pilots of en
heading to establish radar identification or as an route aircraft should be constantly on the alert for
advisory aid to navigation; e.g., SUGGESTED other aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas
HEADING TWO TWO ZERO, FOR RADAR whenever possible. Traffic pattern altitudes should be
IDENTIFICATION. In both cases, the instructions maintained unless otherwise required by the
are advisory aids to the pilot flying VFR and are not applicable distance from cloud criteria (14 CFR
radar vectors. Section 91.155). (See FIG 432 and FIG 433.)
Unless otherwise indicated, all turns in the traffic
NOTE pattern should be made to the left. On Sectional
Pilots have complete discretion regarding acceptance of Aeronautical and VFR Terminal Area Charts, right
the suggested headings or directions and have sole traffic patterns are indicated at public-use and
responsibility for seeing and avoiding other aircraft.
joint-use airports by the abbreviation RP (for Right
4. To provide information and instructions to Pattern), followed by the appropriate runway
aircraft operating within Class B, Class C, and number(s), at the bottom of the airport data block.
432 Airport Operations

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EXAMPLE b. Wind conditions affect all airplanes in varying

RP 9, 18, 22R degrees. Figure 4-3-4 is an example of a chart used to
NOTE determine the headwind, crosswind, and tailwind
1. RP* indicates special conditions exist and refers pilots components based on wind direction and velocity
to the Airport/Facility Directory. relative to the runway. Pilots should refer to similar
2. Right traffic patterns are not shown at airports with information provided by the aircraft manufacturer
fulltime control towers. when determining these wind components.
FIG 432
Traffic Pattern Operations
Single Runway
EXAMPLE 4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of

Key to traffic pattern operations runway.
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the 5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000 AGL is recommended crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .) within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of 6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
the landing runway on downwind leg. exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a lefthand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a righthand traffic
3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway. pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.

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FIG 433
Traffic Pattern Operations
Parallel Runways
EXAMPLE 5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to

Key to traffic pattern operations crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000 AGL is recommended 6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .) exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a lefthand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a righthand traffic
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
the landing runway on downwind leg. reaching pattern altitude.
3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway. 7. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will
penetrate the final approach of the parallel runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway. 8. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the
departure path of the parallel runway.

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FIG 434
Headwind/Tailwind/Crosswind Component Calculator

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434. Visual Indicators at Airports tetrahedron in very light or calm wind conditions as
Without an Operating Control Tower the tetrahedron may not be aligned with the
designated calmwind runway. At airports with
a. At those airports without an operating control
control towers, the tetrahedron should only be
tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if
referenced when the control tower is not in operation.
installed, is designed to provide traffic pattern
Tower instructions supersede tetrahedron indica-
information.
tions.
REFERENCE
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control 4. Landing strip indicators. Installed in pairs
Towers, Paragraph 419. as shown in the segmented circle diagram and used to
b. The segmented circle system consists of the show the alignment of landing strips.
following components:
5. Traffic pattern indicators. Arranged in
1. The segmented circle. Located in a position pairs in conjunction with landing strip indicators and
affording maximum visibility to pilots in the air and used to indicate the direction of turns when there is a
on the ground and providing a centralized location for variation from the normal left traffic pattern. (If there
other elements of the system. is no segmented circle installed at the airport, traffic
pattern indicators may be installed on or near the end
2. The wind direction indicator. A wind cone,
of the runway.)
wind sock, or wind tee installed near the operational
runway to indicate wind direction. The large end of c. Preparatory to landing at an airport without a
the wind cone/wind sock points into the wind as does control tower, or when the control tower is not in
the large end (cross bar) of the wind tee. In lieu of a operation, pilots should concern themselves with the
tetrahedron and where a wind sock or wind cone is indicator for the approach end of the runway to be
collocated with a wind tee, the wind tee may be used. When approaching for landing, all turns must
manually aligned with the runway in use to indicate be made to the left unless a traffic pattern indicator
landing direction. These signaling devices may be indicates that turns should be made to the right. If the
located in the center of the segmented circle and may pilot will mentally enlarge the indicator for the
be lighted for night use. Pilots are cautioned against runway to be used, the base and final approach legs
using a tetrahedron to indicate wind direction. of the traffic pattern to be flown immediately become
apparent. Similar treatment of the indicator at the
3. The landing direction indicator. A tetrahe-
departure end of the runway will clearly indicate the
dron is installed when conditions at the airport
direction of turn after takeoff.
warrant its use. It may be used to indicate the direction
of landings and takeoffs. A tetrahedron may be d. When two or more aircraft are approaching an
located at the center of a segmented circle and may be airport for the purpose of landing, the pilot of the
lighted for night operations. The small end of the aircraft at the lower altitude has the rightofway
tetrahedron points in the direction of landing. Pilots over the pilot of the aircraft at the higher altitude.
are cautioned against using a tetrahedron for any However, the pilot operating at the lower altitude
purpose other than as an indicator of landing should not take advantage of another aircraft, which
direction. Further, pilots should use extreme caution is on final approach to land, by cutting in front of, or
when making runway selection by use of a overtaking that aircraft.

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435. Unexpected Maneuvers in the they may propose specific noise abatement plans to
Airport Traffic Pattern the FAA. If approved, these plans are applied in the
form of Formal or Informal Runway Use Programs
There have been several incidents in the vicinity of for noise abatement purposes.
controlled airports that were caused primarily by
REFERENCE
aircraft executing unexpected maneuvers. ATC Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Runway Use Program
service is based upon observed or known traffic and 1. At airports where no runway use program is
airport conditions. Controllers establish the sequence established, ATC clearances may specify:
of arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to
adjust flight as necessary to achieve proper spacing. (a) The runway most nearly aligned with the
These adjustments can only be based on observed wind when it is 5 knots or more;
traffic, accurate pilot reports, and anticipated aircraft (b) The calm wind runway when wind is
maneuvers. Pilots are expected to cooperate so as to less than 5 knots; or
preclude disrupting traffic flows or creating
(c) Another runway if operationally advanta-
conflicting patterns. The pilotincommand of an
geous.
aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final
authority as to the operation of the aircraft. On NOTE
It is not necessary for a controller to specifically inquire if
occasion it may be necessary for pilots to maneuver
the pilot will use a specific runway or to offer a choice of
their aircraft to maintain spacing with the traffic they runways. If a pilot prefers to use a different runway from
have been sequenced to follow. The controller can that specified, or the one most nearly aligned with the wind,
anticipate minor maneuvering such as shallow S the pilot is expected to inform ATC accordingly.
turns. The controller cannot, however, anticipate a
2. At airports where a runway use program is
major maneuver such as a 360 degree turn. If a pilot
established, ATC will assign runways deemed to have
makes a 360 degree turn after obtaining a landing
the least noise impact. If in the interest of safety a
sequence, the result is usually a gap in the landing
runway different from that specified is preferred, the
interval and, more importantly, it causes a chain
pilot is expected to advise ATC accordingly. ATC will
reaction which may result in a conflict with following
honor such requests and advise pilots when the
traffic and an interruption of the sequence established
requested runway is noise sensitive. When use of a
by the tower or approach controller. Should a pilot
runway other than the one assigned is requested, pilot
decide to make maneuvering turns to maintain
cooperation is encouraged to preclude disruption of
spacing behind a preceding aircraft, the pilot should
traffic flows or the creation of conflicting patterns.
always advise the controller if at all possible. Except
when requested by the controller or in emergency c. Declared Distances.
situations, a 360 degree turn should never be executed 1. Declared distances for a runway represent
in the traffic pattern or when receiving radar service the maximum distances available and suitable for
without first advising the controller. meeting takeoff and landing distance performance
requirements. These distances are determined in
436. Use of Runways/Declared Distances accordance with FAA runway design standards by
adding to the physical length of paved runway any
a. Runways are identified by numbers which clearway or stopway and subtracting from that sum
indicate the nearest 10degree increment of the any lengths necessary to obtain the standard runway
azimuth of the runway centerline. For example, safety areas, runway object free areas, or runway
where the magnetic azimuth is 183 degrees, the protection zones. As a result of these additions and
runway designation would be 18; for a magnetic subtractions, the declared distances for a runway may
azimuth of 87 degrees, the runway designation would be more or less than the physical length of the runway
be 9. For a magnetic azimuth ending in the number 5, as depicted on aeronautical charts and related
such as 185, the runway designation could be either publications, or available in electronic navigation
18 or 19. Wind direction issued by the tower is also databases provided by either the U.S. Government or
magnetic and wind velocity is in knots. commercial companies.
b. Airport proprietors are responsible for taking 2. All 14 CFR Part 139 airports report declared
the lead in local aviation noise control. Accordingly, distances for each runway. Other airports may also

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report declared distances for a runway if necessary The ASDA may be longer than the physical length of
to meet runway design standards or to indicate the the runway when a stopway has been designated
presence of a clearway or stopway. Where reported, available by the airport operator, or it may be shorter
declared distances for each runway end are than the physical length of the runway if necessary to
published in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). use a portion of the runway to satisfy runway design
For runways without published declared distances, standards; for example, where the airport operator
the declared distances may be assumed to be equal to uses a portion of the runway to achieve the runway
the physical length of the runway unless there is a safety area requirement. ASDA is the distance used
displaced landing threshold, in which case the to satisfy the airplane acceleratestop distance
Landing Distance Available (LDA) is shortened by performance requirements where the certification
the amount of the threshold displacement. and operating rules require acceleratestop distance
computations.
NOTE
A symbol is shown on U.S. Government charts to NOTE
indicate that runway declared distance information is The length of any available stopway will be included in the
available (See appropriate A/FD, Alaska, or Pacific ASDA published in the A/FDs entry for that runway end.
Supplement). (4) Landing Distance Available (LDA)
(a) The FAA uses the following definitions The runway length declared available and suitable
for runway declared distances (See FIG 435): for a landing airplane.
REFERENCE The LDA may be less than the physical length of the
Pilot/Controller Glossary Terms: AccelerateStop Distance runway or the length of the runway remaining beyond
Available, Landing Distance Available, Takeoff Distance
Available, Takeoff Run Available, Stopway, and Clearway. a displaced threshold if necessary to satisfy runway
design standards;for example, where the airport
(1) Takeoff Run Available (TORA) The operator uses a portion of the runway to achieve the
runway length declared available and suitable for runway safety area requirement.
the ground run of an airplane taking off.
Although some runway elements (such as stopway
The TORA is typically the physical length of the length and clearway length) may be available
runway, but it may be shorter than the runway length information, pilots must use the declared distances
if necessary to satisfy runway design standards. For determined by the airport operator and not attempt to
example, the TORA may be shorter than the runway independently calculate declared distances by
length if a portion of the runway must be used to adding those elements to the reported physical
satisfy runway protection zone requirements. length of the runway.
(2) Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) (b) The airplane operating rules and/or the
The takeoff run available plus the length of any airplane operating limitations establish minimum
remaining runway or clearway beyond the far end of distance requirements for takeoff and landing and
the takeoff run available. are based on performance data supplied in the
Airplane Flight Manual or Pilots Operating
The TODA is the distance declared available for Handbook. The minimum distances required for
satisfying takeoff distance requirements for airplanes takeoff and landing obtained either in planning
where the certification and operating rules and prior to takeoff or in performance assessments
available performance data allow for the considera- conducted at the time of landing must fall within the
tion of a clearway in takeoff performance applicable declared distances before the pilot can
computations. accept that runway for takeoff or landing.
NOTE (c) Runway design standards may impose
The length of any available clearway will be included in the restrictions on the amount of runway available for
TODA published in the A/FDs entry for that runway end.
use in takeoff and landing that are not apparent
(3) AccelerateStop Distance Available from the reported physical length of the runway or
(ASDA) The runway plus stopway length declared from runway markings and lighting. The runway
available and suitable for the acceleration and elements of Runway Safety Area (RSA), Runway
deceleration of an airplane aborting a takeoff. Object Free Area (ROFA), and Runway Protection

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Zone (RPZ) may reduce a runways declared REFERENCE

AIM, Runway Markings, Paragraph 233.
distances to less than the physical length of the AC 150/53401, Standards for Airport Markings.
runway at geographically constrained airports (See
FIG 436). When considering the amount of EXAMPLE
runway available for use in takeoff or landing 1. The declared LDA for runway 9 must be used when
performance calculations, the declared distances showing compliance with the landing distance require-
ments of the applicable airplane operating rules and/or
published for a runway must always be used in lieu
airplane operating limitations or when making a before
of the runways physical length.
landing performance assessment. The LDA is less than the
REFERENCE physical runway length, not only because of the displaced
AC 150/530013, Airport Design.
threshold, but also because of the subtractions necessary
(d) While some runway elements associated to meet the RSA beyond the far end of the runway. However,
with declared distances may be identifiable through during the actual landing operation, it is permissible for
runway markings or lighting (for example, a the airplane to roll beyond the unmarked end of the LDA.
displaced threshold or a stopway), the individual
2. The declared ASDA for runway 9 must be used when
declared distance limits are not marked or otherwise showing compliance with the acceleratestop distance
identified on the runway. An aircraft is not requirements of the applicable airplane operating rules
prohibited from operating beyond a declared and/or airplane operating limitations. The ASDA is less
distance limit during the takeoff, landing, or taxi than the physical length of the runway due to subtractions
operation provided the runway surface is appropri- necessary to achieve the full RSA requirement. However, in
ately marked as usable runway (See FIG 436). The the event of an aborted takeoff, it is permissible for the
following examples clarify the intent of this airplane to roll beyond the unmarked end of the ASDA as
paragraph. it is brought to a fullstop on the remaining usable runway.

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FIG 435
Declared Distances with FullStandard Runway Safety Areas, Runway Object Free Areas, and Runway
Protection Zones

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FIG 436
Effects of a Geographical Constraint on a Runways Declared Distances
NOTE
A runways RSA begins a set distance prior to the threshold and will extend a set distance beyond the end of the runway
depending on the runways design criteria. If these required lengths cannot be achieved, the ASDA and/or LDA will be
reduced as necessary to obtain the required lengths to the extent practicable.

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437. Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst and intensity of wind shifts that may affect airport
Detection Systems operations. Controllers will receive and issue alerts
based on Areas Noted for Attention (ARENA). An
Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS), ARENA extends on the runway center line from a
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather 3 mile final to the runway to a 2 mile departure.
System Processor (WSP), and Integrated Terminal
Weather System (ITWS) display information on e. An airport equipped with the LLWAS, ITWS, or
hazardous wind shear and microburst activity in the WSP is so indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory
vicinity of an airport to air traffic controllers who under Weather Data Sources for that particular
relay this information to pilots. airport.
a. LLWAS provides wind shear alert and gust front 438. Braking Action Reports and
information but does not provide microburst alerts. Advisories
The LLWAS is designed to detect low level wind
shear conditions around the periphery of an airport. It a. When available, ATC furnishes pilots the
does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation. quality of braking action received from pilots or
Controllers will provide this information to pilots by airport management. The quality of braking action is
giving the pilot the airport wind followed by the described by the terms good, fair, poor, and
boundary wind. nil, or a combination of these terms. When pilots
report the quality of braking action by using the terms
EXAMPLE
noted above, they should use descriptive terms that
Wind shear alert, airport wind 230 at 8, south boundary
wind 170 at 20.
are easily understood, such as, braking action poor
the first/last half of the runway, together with the
b. LLWAS network expansion, (LLWAS NE) particular type of aircraft.
and LLWAS Relocation/Sustainment (LLWASRS)
are systems integrated with TDWR. These systems b. For NOTAM purposes, braking action reports
provide the capability of detecting microburst alerts are classified according to the most critical term
and wind shear alerts. Controllers will issue the (fair, poor, or nil) used and issued as a
appropriate wind shear alerts or microburst alerts. In NOTAM(D).
some of these systems controllers also have the ability c. When tower controllers have received runway
to issue wind information oriented to the threshold or braking action reports which include the terms poor
departure end of the runway. or nil, or whenever weather conditions are conducive
EXAMPLE
to deteriorating or rapidly changing runway braking
Runway 17 arrival microburst alert, 40 knot loss 3 mile conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS
final. broadcast the statement, BRAKING ACTION
REFERENCE
ADVISORIES ARE IN EFFECT.
AIM, Microbursts, Paragraph 7126. d. During the time that braking action advisories
c. More advanced systems are in the field or being are in effect, ATC will issue the latest braking action
developed such as ITWS. ITWS provides alerts for report for the runway in use to each arriving and
microbursts, wind shear, and significant thunder- departing aircraft. Pilots should be prepared for
storm activity. ITWS displays wind information deteriorating braking conditions and should request
oriented to the threshold or departure end of the current runway condition information if not
runway. volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also be
prepared to provide a descriptive runway condition
d. The WSP provides weather processor enhance- report to controllers after landing.
ments to selected Airport Surveillance Radar
(ASR)9 facilities. The WSP provides Air Traffic
439. Runway Friction Reports and
with detection and alerting of hazardous weather such
Advisories
as wind shear, microbursts, and significant thunder-
storm activity. The WSP displays terminal area a. Friction is defined as the ratio of the tangential
6 level weather, storm cell locations and movement, force needed to maintain uniform relative motion
as well as the location and predicted future position between two contacting surfaces (aircraft tires to the

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pavement surface) to the perpendicular force holding istics, type, and weight, previous experience, wind
them in contact (distributed aircraft weight to the conditions, and aircraft tire type (i.e., bias ply vs.
aircraft tire area). Simply stated, friction quantifies radial constructed) to determine runway suitability.
slipperiness of pavement surfaces. g. No correlation has been established between
b. The greek letter MU (pronounced myew), is MU values and the descriptive terms good, fair,
used to designate a friction value representing poor, and nil used in braking action reports.
runway surface conditions.
4310. Intersection Takeoffs
c. MU (friction) values range from 0 to 100 where
a. In order to enhance airport capacities, reduce
zero is the lowest friction value and 100 is the
taxiing distances, minimize departure delays, and
maximum friction value obtainable. For frozen
provide for more efficient movement of air traffic,
contaminants on runway surfaces, a MU value of
controllers may initiate intersection takeoffs as well
40 or less is the level when the aircraft braking
as approve them when the pilot requests. If for ANY
performance starts to deteriorate and directional
reason a pilot prefers to use a different intersection or
control begins to be less responsive. The lower the
the full length of the runway or desires to obtain the
MU value, the less effective braking performance
distance between the intersection and the runway end,
becomes and the more difficult directional control
THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC
becomes.
ACCORDINGLY.
d. At airports with friction measuring devices, b. Pilots are expected to assess the suitability of an
airport management should conduct friction mea- intersection for use at takeoff during their preflight
surements on runways covered with compacted snow planning. They must consider the resultant length
and/or ice. reduction to the published runway length and to the
1. Numerical readings may be obtained by using published declared distances from the intersection
any FAA approved friction measuring device. As intended to be used for takeoff. The minimum runway
these devices do not provide equal numerical required for takeoff must fall within the reduced
readings on contaminated surfaces, it is necessary to runway length and the reduced declared distances
designate the type of friction measuring device used. before the intersection can be accepted for takeoff.
REFERENCE
2. When the MU value for any onethird zone of AIM, Use of Runways/Declared Distances, Paragraph 436.
an active runway is 40 or less, a report should be given c. Controllers will issue the measured distance
to ATC by airport management for dissemination to from the intersection to the runway end rounded
pilots. The report will identify the runway, the time of down to the nearest 50 feet to any pilot who
measurement, the type of friction measuring device requests and to all military aircraft, unless use of the
used, MU values for each zone, and the contaminant intersection is covered in appropriate directives.
conditions, e.g., wet snow, dry snow, slush, deicing Controllers, however, will not be able to inform pilots
chemicals, etc. Measurements for each onethird of the distance from the intersection to the end of any
zone will be given in the direction of takeoff and of the published declared distances.
landing on the runway. A report should also be given REFERENCE
when MU values rise above 40 in all zones of a FAAO JO 7110.65, Ground Traffic Movement, Paragraph 371.
runway previously reporting a MU below 40. d. An aircraft is expected to taxi to (but not onto)
3. Airport management should initiate a the end of the assigned runway unless prior approval
NOTAM(D) when the friction measuring device is for an intersection departure is received from ground
out of service. control.
e. When MU reports are provided by airport e. Pilots should state their position on the airport
management, the ATC facility providing approach when calling the tower for takeoff from a runway
control or local airport advisory will provide the intersection.
report to any pilot upon request. EXAMPLE
Cleveland Tower, Apache Three Seven Two Two Papa, at
f. Pilots should use MU information with other the intersection of taxiway Oscar and runway two three
knowledge including aircraft performance character- right, ready for departure.

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f. Controllers are required to separate small increased airport capacity and system efficiency,
aircraft (12,500 pounds or less, maximum certifi- consistent with safety. This procedure can be done
cated takeoff weight) departing (same or opposite safely provided pilots and controllers are knowl-
direction) from an intersection behind a large edgeable and understand their responsibilities. The
nonheavy aircraft on the same runway, by ensuring following paragraphs outline specific pilot/operator
that at least a 3minute interval exists between the responsibilities when conducting LAHSO.
time the preceding large aircraft has taken off and the
succeeding small aircraft begins takeoff roll. To 2. At controlled airports, air traffic may clear a
inform the pilot of the required 3minute hold, the pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such a
controller will state, Hold for wake turbulence. If clearance provided that the pilotincommand
after considering wake turbulence hazards, the pilot determines that the aircraft can safely land and stop
feels that a lesser time interval is appropriate, the pilot within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD
may request a waiver to the 3minute interval. To data are published in the special notices section of the
initiate such a request, simply say Request waiver to Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) and in the U.S.
3minute interval, or a similar statement. Control- Terminal Procedures Publications. Controllers will
lers may then issue a takeoff clearance if other traffic also provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots or
permits, since the pilot has accepted the responsibility pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not
for wake turbulence separation. participate in the program.
g. The 3minute interval is not required when the 3. The pilotincommand has the final
intersection is 500 feet or less from the departure authority to accept or decline any land and hold
point of the preceding aircraft and both aircraft are short clearance. The safety and operation of the
taking off in the same direction. Controllers may aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot.
permit the small aircraft to alter course after takeoff Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance
to avoid the flight path of the preceding departure. if they determine it will compromise safety.
h. The 3minute interval is mandatory behind a
heavy aircraft in all cases. 4. To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become
familiar with all available information concerning
LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should
4311. Pilot Responsibilities When have, readily available, the published ALD and
Conducting Land and Hold Short runway slope information for all LAHSO runway
Operations (LAHSO) combinations at each airport of intended landing.
a. LAHSO is an acronym for Land and Hold Additionally, knowledge about landing performance
Short Operations. These operations include landing data permits the pilot to readily determine that the
and holding short of an intersecting runway, an ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe
intersecting taxiway, or some other designated LAHSO. As part of a pilots preflight planning
point on a runway other than an intersecting runway process, pilots should determine if their destination
or taxiway. (See FIG 437, FIG 438, airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning
FIG 439.) process should include an assessment of which
LAHSO combinations would work for them given
b. Pilot Responsibilities and Basic Procedures.
their aircrafts required landing distance. Good pilot
1. LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that decision making is knowing in advance whether one
requires pilot participation to balance the needs for can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered.

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FIG 437 FIG 439

Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Runway Land and Hold Short of a Designated Point
on a Runway Other Than an Intersecting
Runway or Taxiway
EXAMPLE
FIG 439 holding short at a designated point may be
5. If, for any reason, such as difficulty in
required to avoid conflicts with the runway safety
area/flight path of a nearby runway.
discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection,
wind conditions, aircraft condition, etc., the pilot
NOTE elects to request to land on the full length of the
Each figure shows the approximate location of LAHSO runway, to land on another runway, or to decline
markings, signage, and inpavement lighting when LAHSO, a pilot is expected to promptly inform air
installed.
traffic, ideally even before the clearance is issued. A
REFERENCE LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be
AIM, Chapter 2, Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids.
adhered to, just as any other ATC clearance,
unless an amended clearance is obtained or an
FIG 438
emergency occurs. A LAHSO clearance does not
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Taxiway
preclude a rejected landing.
6. A pilot who accepts a LAHSO clearance
should land and exit the runway at the first convenient
taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching
the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop
and hold at the hold short point. If a rejected landing
becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO
clearance, the pilot should maintain safe separa-
tion from other aircraft or vehicles, and should
promptly notify the controller.
7. Controllers need a full read back of all
LAHSO clearances. Pilots should read back their
LAHSO clearance and include the words, HOLD
SHORT OF (RUNWAY/TAXIWAY/OR POINT) in
their acknowledgment of all LAHSO clearances. In
order to reduce frequency congestion, pilots are
encouraged to read back the LAHSO clearance

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without prompting. Dont make the controller have to the effects of prevailing inflight visibility (such as
ask for a read back! landing into the sun) and how it may affect overall
situational awareness. Additionally, surface vehicles
c. LAHSO Situational Awareness and aircraft being taxied by maintenance personnel
1. Situational awareness is vital to the success may also be participating in LAHSO, especially in
of LAHSO. Situational awareness starts with having those operations that involve crossing an active
current airport information in the cockpit, readily runway.
accessible to the pilot. (An airport diagram assists
pilots in identifying their location on the airport, thus
4312. Low Approach
reducing requests for progressive taxi instructions
from controllers.) a. A low approach (sometimes referred to as a low
pass) is the goaround maneuver following an
2. Situational awareness includes effective
approach. Instead of landing or making a touchand
pilotcontroller radio communication. ATC expects
go, a pilot may wish to go around (low approach) in
pilots to specifically acknowledge and read back all
order to expedite a particular operation (a series of
LAHSO clearances as follows:
practice instrument approaches is an example of such
EXAMPLE an operation). Unless otherwise authorized by ATC,
ATC: (Aircraft ID) cleared to land runway six right, hold the low approach should be made straight ahead, with
short of taxiway bravo for crossing traffic (type aircraft). no turns or climb made until the pilot has made a
Aircraft: (Aircraft ID), wilco, cleared to land runway six thorough visual check for other aircraft in the area.
right to hold short of taxiway bravo.
ATC: (Aircraft ID) cross runway six right at taxiway b. When operating within a Class B, Class C, and
bravo, landing aircraft will hold short. Class D surface area, a pilot intending to make a low
Aircraft: (Aircraft ID), wilco, cross runway six right at approach should contact the tower for approval. This
bravo, landing traffic (type aircraft) to hold. request should be made prior to starting the final
approach.
3. For those airplanes flown with two crew-
members, effective intracockpit communication c. When operating to an airport, not within a
between cockpit crewmembers is also critical. There Class B, Class C, and Class D surface area, a pilot
have been several instances where the pilot working intending to make a low approach should, prior to
the radios accepted a LAHSO clearance but then leaving the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision
simply forgot to tell the pilot flying the aircraft. approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the
outer marker inbound (precision approach), so advise
4. Situational awareness also includes a thor-
the FSS, UNICOM, or make a broadcast as
ough understanding of the airport markings, signage,
appropriate.
and lighting associated with LAHSO. These visual
aids consist of a threepart system of yellow REFERENCE
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
holdshort markings, red and white signage and, Towers, Paragraph 419.
in certain cases, inpavement lighting. Visual aids
assist the pilot in determining where to hold short.
FIG 437, FIG 438, FIG 439 depict how these 4313. Traffic Control Light Signals
markings, signage, and lighting combinations will
appear once installed. Pilots are cautioned that not all a. The following procedures are used by ATCTs in
airports conducting LAHSO have installed any or all the control of aircraft, ground vehicles, equipment,
of the above markings, signage, or lighting. and personnel not equipped with radio. These same
procedures will be used to control aircraft, ground
5. Pilots should only receive a LAHSO vehicles, equipment, and personnel equipped with
clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of radio if radio contact cannot be established. ATC
1,000 feet and 3 statute miles visibility. The intent of personnel use a directive traffic control signal which
having basic VFR weather conditions is to allow emits an intense narrow light beam of a selected color
pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft (either red, white, or green) when controlling traffic
and ground vehicle operations. Pilots should consider by light signals.

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b. Although the traffic signal light offers the c. Between sunset and sunrise, a pilot wishing to
advantage that some control may be exercised over attract the attention of the control tower should turn
nonradio equipped aircraft, pilots should be cogni- on a landing light and taxi the aircraft into a position,
zant of the disadvantages which are: clear of the active runway, so that light is visible to the
tower. The landing light should remain on until
1. Pilots may not be looking at the control tower appropriate signals are received from the tower.
at the time a signal is directed toward their aircraft.
d. Airport Traffic Control Tower Light Gun
Signals. (See TBL 431.)
2. The directions transmitted by a light signal
are very limited since only approval or disapproval of e. During daylight hours, acknowledge tower
a pilots anticipated actions may be transmitted. No transmissions or light signals by moving the ailerons
supplement or explanatory information may be or rudder. At night, acknowledge by blinking the
transmitted except by the use of the General landing or navigation lights. If radio malfunction
Warning Signal which advises the pilot to be on the occurs after departing the parking area, watch the
alert. tower for light signals or monitor tower frequency.
TBL 431
Airport Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals
Meaning
Movement of Vehicles,
Color and Type of Signal Equipment and Personnel Aircraft on the Ground Aircraft in Flight
Steady green Cleared to cross, proceed or go Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land
Flashing green Not applicable Cleared for taxi Return for landing (to be
followed by steady green at the
proper time)
Steady red STOP STOP Give way to other aircraft and
continue circling
Flashing red Clear the taxiway/runway Taxi clear of the runway in use Airport unsafe, do not land
Flashing white Return to starting point on airport Return to starting point on airport Not applicable
Alternating red and green Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution
4314. Communications c. The majority of ground control frequencies are

a. Pilots of departing aircraft should communicate in the 121.6121.9 MHz bandwidth. Ground control
with the control tower on the appropriate ground frequencies are provided to eliminate frequency
control/clearance delivery frequency prior to starting congestion on the tower (local control) frequency and
engines to receive engine start time, taxi and/or are limited to communications between the tower and
clearance information. Unless otherwise advised by aircraft on the ground and between the tower and
the tower, remain on that frequency during taxiing utility vehicles on the airport, provide a clear VHF
and runup, then change to local control frequency channel for arriving and departing aircraft. They are
when ready to request takeoff clearance. used for issuance of taxi information, clearances, and
other necessary contacts between the tower and
NOTE
Pilots are encouraged to monitor the local tower frequency aircraft or other vehicles operated on the airport. A
as soon as practical consistent with other ATC pilot who has just landed should not change from the
requirements. tower frequency to the ground control frequency until
REFERENCE directed to do so by the controller. Normally, only one
AIM, Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), ground control frequency is assigned at an airport;
Paragraph 4113.
however, at locations where the amount of traffic so
b. The tower controller will consider that pilots of warrants, a second ground control frequency and/or
turbinepowered aircraft are ready for takeoff when another frequency designated as a clearance delivery
they reach the runway or warmup block unless frequency, may be assigned.
advised otherwise.

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d. A controller may omit the ground or local a. Approach Area. Conducting a VFR operation
control frequency if the controller believes the pilot in a Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface
knows which frequency is in use. If the ground area when the official visibility is 3 or 4 miles is not
control frequency is in the 121 MHz bandwidth the prohibited, but good judgment would dictate that you
controller may omit the numbers preceding the keep out of the approach area.
decimal point; e.g., 121.7, CONTACT GROUND
b. Reduced Visibility. It has always been recog-
POINT SEVEN. However, if any doubt exists as to
nized that precipitation reduces forward visibility.
what frequency is in use, the pilot should promptly
Consequently, although again it may be perfectly
request the controller to provide that information.
legal to cancel your IFR flight plan at any time you
e. Controllers will normally avoid issuing a radio can proceed VFR, it is good practice, when
frequency change to helicopters, known to be precipitation is occurring, to continue IFR operation
singlepiloted, which are hovering, air taxiing, or into a terminal area until you are reasonably close to
flying near the ground. At times, it may be necessary your destination.
for pilots to alert ATC regarding single pilot c. Simulated Instrument Flights. In conducting
operations to minimize delay of essential ATC simulated instrument flights, be sure that the weather
communications. Whenever possible, ATC instruc- is good enough to compensate for the restricted
tions will be relayed through the frequency being visibility of the safety pilot and your greater
monitored until a frequency change can be concentration on your flight instruments. Give
accomplished. You must promptly advise ATC if you yourself a little greater margin when your flight plan
are unable to comply with a frequency change. Also, lies in or near a busy airway or close to an airport.
you should advise ATC if you must land to
accomplish the frequency change unless it is clear the
landing will have no impact on other air traffic; 4317. VFR Helicopter Operations at
e.g., on a taxiway or in a helicopter operating area. Controlled Airports
a. General.
4315. Gate Holding Due to Departure 1. The following ATC procedures and phraseol-
Delays ogies recognize the unique capabilities of helicopters
a. Pilots should contact ground control or and were developed to improve service to all users.
clearance delivery prior to starting engines as gate Helicopter design characteristics and user needs often
hold procedures will be in effect whenever departure require operations from movement areas and
delays exceed or are anticipated to exceed nonmovement areas within the airport boundary. In
15 minutes. The sequence for departure will be order for ATC to properly apply these procedures, it
maintained in accordance with initial call up unless is essential that pilots familiarize themselves with the
modified by flow control restrictions. Pilots should local operations and make it known to controllers
monitor the ground control or clearance delivery when additional instructions are necessary.
frequency for engine startup advisories or new 2. Insofar as possible, helicopter operations will
proposed start time if the delay changes. be instructed to avoid the flow of fixedwing aircraft
b. The tower controller will consider that pilots of to minimize overall delays; however, there will be
turbinepowered aircraft are ready for takeoff when many situations where faster/larger helicopters may
they reach the runway or warmup block unless be integrated with fixedwing aircraft for the benefit
advised otherwise. of all concerned. Examples would include IFR
flights, avoidance of noise sensitive areas, or use of
runways/taxiways to minimize the hazardous effects
4316. VFR Flights in Terminal Areas of rotor downwash in congested areas.
Use reasonable restraint in exercising the prerogative 3. Because helicopter pilots are intimately
of VFR flight, especially in terminal areas. The familiar with the effects of rotor downwash, they are
weather minimums and distances from clouds are best qualified to determine if a given operation can be
minimums. Giving yourself a greater margin in conducted safely. Accordingly, the pilot has the final
specific instances is just good judgment. authority with respect to the specific airspeed/altitude

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combinations. ATC clearances are in no way intended another. Helicopters should avoid overflight of other
to place the helicopter in a hazardous position. It is aircraft, vehicles, and personnel during airtaxi
expected that pilots will advise ATC if a specific operations. Caution must be exercised concerning
clearance will cause undue hazards to persons or active runways and pilots must be certain that air taxi
property. instructions are understood. Special precautions may
be necessary at unfamiliar airports or airports with
b. Controllers normally limit ATC ground service
multiple/intersecting active runways. The taxi
and instruction to movement areas; therefore,
procedures given in Paragraph 4318, Taxiing,
operations from nonmovement areas are conducted at
Paragraph 4319, Taxi During Low Visibility, and
pilot discretion and should be based on local policies,
Paragraph 4320, Exiting the Runway After
procedures, or letters of agreement. In order to
Landing, also apply.
maximize the flexibility of helicopter operations, it is
necessary to rely heavily on sound pilot judgment. REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Taxi.
For example, hazards such as debris, obstructions, Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Hover Taxi.
vehicles, or personnel must be recognized by the Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Air Taxi.
pilot, and action should be taken as necessary to avoid c. Takeoff and Landing Procedures.
such hazards. Taxi, hover taxi, and air taxi operations
are considered to be ground movements. Helicopters 1. Helicopter operations may be conducted
conducting such operations are expected to adhere to from a runway, taxiway, portion of a landing strip, or
the same conditions, requirements, and practices as any clear area which could be used as a landing site
apply to other ground taxiing and ATC procedures in such as the scene of an accident, a construction site,
the AIM. or the roof of a building. The terms used to describe
designated areas from which helicopters operate are:
1. The phraseology taxi is used when it is movement area, landing/takeoff area, apron/ramp,
intended or expected that the helicopter will taxi on heliport and helipad (See Pilot/Controller Glossary).
the airport surface, either via taxiways or other These areas may be improved or unimproved and
prescribed routes. Taxi is used primarily for may be separate from or located on an airport/
helicopters equipped with wheels or in response to a heliport. ATC will issue takeoff clearances from
pilot request. Preference should be given to this movement areas other than active runways, or in
procedure whenever it is necessary to minimize diverse directions from active runways, with
effects of rotor downwash. additional instructions as necessary. Whenever
2. Pilots may request a hover taxi when slow possible, takeoff clearance will be issued in lieu of
forward movement is desired or when it may be extended hover/air taxi operations. Phraseology will
appropriate to move very short distances. Pilots be CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF FROM (taxiway,
should avoid this procedure if rotor downwash is helipad, runway number, etc.), MAKE RIGHT/
likely to cause damage to parked aircraft or if blowing LEFT TURN FOR (direction, heading, NAVAID
dust/snow could obscure visibility. If it is necessary radial) DEPARTURE/DEPARTURE ROUTE (num-
to operate above 25 feet AGL when hover taxiing, the ber, name, etc.). Unless requested by the pilot,
pilot should initiate a request to ATC. downwind takeoffs will not be issued if the tailwind
exceeds 5 knots.
3. Air taxi is the preferred method for helicopter
ground movements on airports provided ground 2. Pilots should be alert to wind information as
operations and conditions permit. Unless otherwise well as to wind indications in the vicinity of the
requested or instructed, pilots are expected to remain helicopter. ATC should be advised of the intended
below 100 feet AGL. However, if a higher than method of departing. A pilot request to takeoff in a
normal airspeed or altitude is desired, the request given direction indicates that the pilot is willing to
should be made prior to liftoff. The pilot is solely accept the wind condition and controllers will honor
responsible for selecting a safe airspeed for the the request if traffic permits. Departure points could
altitude/operation being conducted. Use of air taxi be a significant distance from the control tower and
enables the pilot to proceed at an optimum it may be difficult or impossible for the controller to
airspeed/altitude, minimize downwash effect, con- determine the helicopters relative position to the
serve fuel, and expedite movement from one point to wind.

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3. If takeoff is requested from nonmovement does not authorize the aircraft to enter or cross
areas, an area not authorized for helicopter use, an the assigned departure runway at any point. In order
area not visible from the tower, an unlighted area at to preclude misunderstandings in radio communica-
night, or an area off the airport, the phraseology tions, ATC will not use the word cleared in
DEPARTURE FROM (requested location) WILL conjunction with authorization for aircraft to taxi.
BE AT YOUR OWN RISK (additional instructions,
as necessary). USE CAUTION (if applicable). The 7. When issuing taxi instructions to any point
pilot is responsible for operating in a safe manner and other than an assigned takeoff runway, ATC will
should exercise due caution. specify the point to taxi to, issue taxi instructions, and
state any hold short instructions or runway crossing
4. Similar phraseology is used for helicopter clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway.
landing operations. Every effort will be made to
permit helicopters to proceed direct and land as near NOTE
ATC is required to obtain a readback from the pilot of all
as possible to their final destination on the airport. runway hold short instructions.
Traffic density, the need for detailed taxiing
instructions, frequency congestion, or other factors 8. If a pilot is expected to hold short of a runway
may affect the extent to which service can be approach (APPCH) area or ILS holding position
expedited. As with ground movement operations, a (see FIG 2315, Taxiways Located in Runway
high degree of pilot/controller cooperation and Approach Area), ATC will issue instructions.
communication is necessary to achieve safe and
efficient operations. 9. When taxi instructions are received from the
controller, pilots should always read back:
4318. Taxiing (a) The runway assignment.
a. General. Approval must be obtained prior to (b) Any clearance to enter a specific runway.
moving an aircraft or vehicle onto the movement area
(c) Any instruction to hold short of a specific
during the hours an Airport Traffic Control Tower is
runway or line up and wait.
in operation.
1. Always state your position on the airport Controllers are required to request a readback of
when calling the tower for taxi instructions. runway hold short assignment when it is not received
from the pilot/vehicle.
2. The movement area is normally described in
local bulletins issued by the airport manager or b. ATC clearances or instructions pertaining to
control tower. These bulletins may be found in FSSs, taxiing are predicated on known traffic and known
fixed base operators offices, air carrier offices, and physical airport conditions. Therefore, it is important
operations offices. that pilots clearly understand the clearance or
instruction. Although an ATC clearance is issued for
3. The control tower also issues bulletins taxiing purposes, when operating in accordance with
describing areas where they cannot provide ATC the CFRs, it is the responsibility of the pilot to avoid
service due to nonvisibility or other reasons. collision with other aircraft. Since the pilotincom-
4. A clearance must be obtained prior to taxiing mand of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is
on a runway, taking off, or landing during the hours the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft
an Airport Traffic Control Tower is in operation. the pilot should obtain clarification of any clearance
or instruction which is not understood.
5. A clearance must be obtained prior to REFERENCE
crossing any runway. ATC will issue an explicit AIM, General, Paragraph 731.
clearance for all runway crossings.
1. Good operating practice dictates that pilots
6. When assigned a takeoff runway, ATC will acknowledge all runway crossing, hold short, or
first specify the runway, issue taxi instructions, and takeoff clearances unless there is some misunder-
state any hold short instructions or runway crossing standing, at which time the pilot should query the
clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway. This controller until the clearance is understood.

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NOTE Aircraft: Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, hold

Air traffic controllers are required to obtain from the pilot short of runway three three left.
a readback of all runway hold short instructions.
2. Receipt of ATC clearance. ARTCC clear-
2. Pilots operating a single pilot aircraft should ances are relayed to pilots by airport traffic
monitor only assigned ATC communications after controllers in the following manner.
being cleared onto the active runway for departure. EXAMPLE
Single pilot aircraft should not monitor other than Tower: Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to
ATC communications until flight from Class B, the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain
Class C, or Class D surface area is completed. This eight thousand.
same procedure should be practiced from after receipt
of the clearance for landing until the landing and taxi
activities are complete. Proper effective scanning for Aircraft: Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared
to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain
other aircraft, surface vehicles, or other objects
eight thousand.
should be continuously exercised in all cases.
NOTE
3. If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or for Normally, an ATC IFR clearance is relayed to a pilot by the
any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi ground controller. At busy locations, however, pilots may
routing, a request may be made for progressive taxi be instructed by the ground controller to contact
clearance delivery on a frequency designated for this
instructions which include stepbystep routing
purpose. No surveillance or control over the movement of
directions. Progressive instructions may also be traffic is exercised by this position of operation.
issued if the controller deems it necessary due to
traffic or field conditions (for example, construction 3. Request for taxi instructions after landing.
or closed taxiways). State your aircraft identification, location, and that
you request taxi instructions.
c. At those airports where the U.S. Government EXAMPLE
operates the control tower and ATC has authorized Aircraft: Dulles ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six
noncompliance with the requirement for twoway One clearing runway one right on taxiway echo three,
radio communications while operating within the request clearance to Page.
Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, or at those
airports where the U.S. Government does not operate Tower: Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Dulles
the control tower and radio communications cannot ground, taxi to Page via taxiways echo three, echo one, and
be established, pilots must obtain a clearance by echo niner.
visual light signal prior to taxiing on a runway and
or
prior to takeoff and landing.
d. The following phraseologies and procedures Aircraft: Orlando ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six
One clearing runway one eight left at taxiway bravo three,
are used in radiotelephone communications with
request clearance to Page.
aeronautical ground stations.
Tower: Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Orlando
1. Request for taxi instructions prior to
ground, hold short of runway one eight right.
departure. State your aircraft identification, loca-
tion, type of operation planned (VFR or IFR), and the Aircraft: Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, hold short
point of first intended landing. of runway one eight right.
EXAMPLE
Aircraft: Washington ground, Beechcraft One Three One 4319. Taxi During Low Visibility
Five Niner at hangar eight, ready to taxi, IFR to
a. Pilots and aircraft operators should be constant-
Chicago.
ly aware that during certain low visibility conditions
Tower: Beechcraft one three one five niner, Washington the movement of aircraft and vehicles on airports may
ground, runway two seven, taxi via taxiways Charlie and not be visible to the tower controller. This may
Delta, hold short of runway three three left. prevent visual confirmation of an aircrafts adherence
to taxi instructions.

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b. Of vital importance is the need for pilots to runway, even if that requires the aircraft to protrude
notify the controller when difficulties are encoun- into or cross another taxiway or ramp area. Once all
tered or at the first indication of becoming parts of the aircraft have crossed the runway holding
disoriented. Pilots should proceed with extreme position markings, the pilot must hold unless further
caution when taxiing toward the sun. When vision instructions have been issued by ATC.
difficulties are encountered pilots should NOTE
immediately inform the controller. 1. The tower will issue the pilot instructions which will
permit the aircraft to enter another taxiway, runway, or
c. Advisory Circular 12057, Surface Movement
ramp area when required.
Guidance and Control System, commonly known as
SMGCS (pronounced SMIGS) requires a low 2. Guidance contained in subparagraphs a and b above is
visibility taxi plan for any airport which has takeoff considered an integral part of the landing clearance and
satisfies the requirement of 14 CFR Section 91.129.
or landing operations in less than 1,200 feet runway
visual range (RVR) visibility conditions. These plans, c. Immediately change to ground control fre-
which affect aircrew and vehicle operators, may quency when advised by the tower and obtain a taxi
incorporate additional lighting, markings, and clearance.
procedures to control airport surface traffic. They NOTE
will be addressed at two levels; operations less than 1. The tower will issue instructions required to resolve any
1,200 feet RVR to 600 feet RVR and operations less potential conflictions with other ground traffic prior to
than 600 feet RVR. advising the pilot to contact ground control.
NOTE 2. Ground control will issue taxi clearance to parking.
Specific lighting systems and surface markings may be That clearance does not authorize the aircraft to enter
found in paragraph 2111, Taxiway Lights, and or cross any runways. Pilots not familiar with the taxi
paragraph 234, Taxiway Markings. route should request specific taxi instructions from ATC.
d. When low visibility conditions exist, pilots
should focus their entire attention on the safe 4321. Practice Instrument Approaches
operation of the aircraft while it is moving. Checklists a. Various air traffic incidents have indicated the
and nonessential communication should be withheld necessity for adoption of measures to achieve more
until the aircraft is stopped and the brakes set. organized and controlled operations where practice
instrument approaches are conducted. Practice
4320. Exiting the Runway After Landing instrument approaches are considered to be instru-
ment approaches made by either a VFR aircraft not on
The following procedures must be followed after an IFR flight plan or an aircraft on an IFR flight plan.
landing and reaching taxi speed. To achieve this and thereby enhance air safety, it is
Air Traffics policy to provide for separation of such
a. Exit the runway without delay at the first
operations at locations where approach control
available taxiway or on a taxiway as instructed by
facilities are located and, as resources permit, at
ATC. Pilots must not exit the landing runway onto
certain other locations served by ARTCCs or parent
another runway unless authorized by ATC. At
approach control facilities. Pilot requests to practice
airports with an operating control tower, pilots should
instrument approaches may be approved by ATC
not stop or reverse course on the runway without first
subject to traffic and workload conditions. Pilots
obtaining ATC approval.
should anticipate that in some instances the controller
b. Taxi clear of the runway unless otherwise may find it necessary to deny approval or withdraw
directed by ATC. An aircraft is considered clear of the previous approval when traffic conditions warrant. It
runway when all parts of the aircraft are past the must be clearly understood, however, that even
runway edge and there are no restrictions to its though the controller may be providing separation,
continued movement beyond the runway holding pilots on VFR flight plans are required to comply with
position markings. In the absence of ATC instruc- basic VFR weather minimums (14 CFR Sec-
tions, the pilot is expected to taxi clear of the landing tion 91.155). Application of ATC procedures or any
runway by taxiing beyond the runway holding action taken by the controller to avoid traffic
position markings associated with the landing conflictions does not relieve IFR and VFR pilots of

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their responsibility to seeandavoid other traffic d. The controller will provide approved separation
while operating in VFR conditions (14 CFR between both VFR and IFR aircraft when authoriza-
Section 91.113). In addition to the normal IFR tion is granted to make practice approaches to airports
separation minimums (which includes visual separa- where an approach control facility is located and to
tion) during VFR conditions, 500 feet vertical certain other airports served by approach control or
separation may be applied between VFR aircraft and an ARTCC. Controller responsibility for separation
between a VFR aircraft and the IFR aircraft. Pilots not of VFR aircraft begins at the point where the
on IFR flight plans desiring practice instrument approach clearance becomes effective, or when the
approaches should always state practice when aircraft enters Class B or Class C airspace, or a TRSA,
making requests to ATC. Controllers will instruct whichever comes first.
VFR aircraft requesting an instrument approach to e. VFR aircraft practicing instrument approaches
maintain VFR. This is to preclude misunderstandings are not automatically authorized to execute the
between the pilot and controller as to the status of the missed approach procedure. This authorization must
aircraft. If pilots wish to proceed in accordance with be specifically requested by the pilot and approved by
instrument flight rules, they must specifically request the controller. Separation will not be provided unless
and obtain, an IFR clearance. the missed approach has been approved by ATC.
b. Before practicing an instrument approach, f. Except in an emergency, aircraft cleared to
pilots should inform the approach control facility or practice instrument approaches must not deviate from
the tower of the type of practice approach they desire the approved procedure until cleared to do so by the
to make and how they intend to terminate it, controller.
i.e., fullstop landing, touchandgo, or missed or
g. At radar approach control locations when a full
low approach maneuver. This information may be
approach procedure (procedure turn, etc.,) cannot be
furnished progressively when conducting a series of
approved, pilots should expect to be vectored to a
approaches. Pilots on an IFR flight plan, who have
final approach course for a practice instrument
made a series of instrument approaches to full stop
approach which is compatible with the general
landings should inform ATC when they make their
direction of traffic at that airport.
final landing. The controller will control flights
practicing instrument approaches so as to ensure that h. When granting approval for a practice
they do not disrupt the flow of arriving and departing instrument approach, the controller will usually ask
itinerant IFR or VFR aircraft. The priority afforded the pilot to report to the tower prior to or over the final
itinerant aircraft over practice instrument approaches approach fix inbound (nonprecision approaches) or
is not intended to be so rigidly applied that it causes over the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer
grossly inefficient application of services. A marker inbound (precision approaches).
minimum delay to itinerant traffic may be appropriate i. When authorization is granted to conduct
to allow an aircraft practicing an approach to practice instrument approaches to an airport with a
complete that approach. tower, but where approved standard separation is not
NOTE provided to aircraft conducting practice instrument
A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on approaches, the tower will approve the practice
the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance approach, instruct the aircraft to maintain VFR and
does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any issue traffic information, as required.
previously issued restriction.
j. When an aircraft notifies a FSS providing Local
c. At airports without a tower, pilots wishing to Airport Advisory to the airport concerned of the
make practice instrument approaches should notify intent to conduct a practice instrument approach and
the facility having control jurisdiction of the desired whether or not separation is to be provided, the pilot
approach as indicated on the approach chart. All will be instructed to contact the appropriate facility
approach control facilities and ARTCCs are required on a specified frequency prior to initiating the
to publish a Letter to Airmen depicting those airports approach. At airports where separation is not
where they provide standard separation to both VFR provided, the FSS will acknowledge the message and
and IFR aircraft conducting practice instrument issue known traffic information but will neither
approaches. approve or disapprove the approach.

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k. Pilots conducting practice instrument c. The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program,
approaches should be particularly alert for other Operation Lights On, to enhance the seeandavoid
aircraft operating in the local traffic pattern or in concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing
proximity to the airport. lights during takeoff; i.e., either after takeoff
clearance has been received or when beginning
4322. Option Approach takeoff roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on
their landing lights when operating below
The Cleared for the Option procedure will permit 10,000 feet, day or night, especially when operating
an instructor, flight examiner or pilot the option to within 10 miles of any airport, or in conditions of
make a touchandgo, low approach, missed reduced visibility and in areas where flocks of birds
approach, stopandgo, or full stop landing. This may be expected, i.e., coastal areas, lake areas,
procedure can be very beneficial in a training around refuse dumps, etc. Although turning on
situation in that neither the student pilot nor examinee aircraft lights does enhance the seeandavoid
would know what maneuver would be accomplished. concept, pilots should not become complacent about
The pilot should make a request for this procedure keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft. Not all
passing the final approach fix inbound on an aircraft are equipped with lights and some pilots may
instrument approach or entering downwind for a VFR not have their lights turned on. Aircraft manufactur-
traffic pattern. The advantages of this procedure as a ers recommendations for operation of landing lights
training aid are that it enables an instructor or and electrical systems should be observed.
examiner to obtain the reaction of a trainee or
d. Prop and jet blast forces generated by large
examinee under changing conditions, the pilot would
aircraft have overturned or damaged several smaller
not have to discontinue an approach in the middle of
aircraft taxiing behind them. To avoid similar results,
the procedure due to student error or pilot proficiency
and in the interest of preventing upsets and injuries to
requirements, and finally it allows more flexibility
ground personnel from such forces, the FAA
and economy in training programs. This procedure
recommends that air carriers and commercial
will only be used at those locations with an
operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their
operational control tower and will be subject to ATC
aircraft engines are in operation. General aviation
approval.
pilots using rotating beacon equipped aircraft are also
encouraged to participate in this program which is
4323. Use of Aircraft Lights designed to alert others to the potential hazard. Since
a. Aircraft position lights are required to be lighted this is a voluntary program, exercise caution and do
on aircraft operated on the surface and in flight from not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an indication
sunset to sunrise. In addition, aircraft equipped with that aircraft engines are in operation.
an anticollision light system are required to operate e. Prior to commencing taxi, it is recommended to
that light system during all types of operations (day turn on navigation, position, anti-collision, and logo
and night). However, during any adverse meteorolog- lights (if equipped). To signal intent to other pilots,
ical conditions, the pilotincommand may consider turning on the taxi light when the aircraft is
determine that the anticollision lights should be moving or intending to move on the ground, and
turned off when their light output would constitute a turning it off when stopped or yielding to other
hazard to safety (14 CFR Section 91.209). ground traffic. Strobe lights should not be illuminated
Supplementary strobe lights should be turned off on during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of
the ground when they adversely affect ground other pilots or ground personnel.
personnel or other pilots, and in flight when there are
f. At the discretion of the pilot-in-command, all
adverse reflection from clouds.
exterior lights should be illuminated when taxiing on
b. An aircraft anticollision light system can use or across any runway. This increases the conspicu-
one or more rotating beacons and/or strobe lights, be ousness of the aircraft to controllers and other pilots
colored either red or white, and have different (higher approaching to land, taxiing, or crossing the runway.
than minimum) intensities when compared to other Pilots should comply with any equipment operating
aircraft. Many aircraft have both a rotating beacon limitations and consider the effects of landing and
and a strobe light system. strobe lights on other aircraft in their vicinity.

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g. When entering the departure runway for takeoff 4325. Hand Signals
or to line up and wait, all lights, except for landing
lights, should be illuminated to make the aircraft
conspicuous to ATC and other aircraft on approach. FIG 4310
Landing lights should be turned on when takeoff Signalman Directs Towing
clearance is received or when commencing takeoff
roll at an airport without an operating control tower.
4324. Flight Inspection/Flight Check

Aircraft in Terminal Areas
a. Flight check is a call sign used to alert pilots and
air traffic controllers when a FAA aircraft is engaged
in flight inspection/certification of NAVAIDs and
flight procedures. Flight check aircraft fly preplanned
high/low altitude flight patterns such as grids, orbits,
DME arcs, and tracks, including low passes along the
full length of the runway to verify NAVAID
performance.
b. Pilots should be especially watchful and avoid
the flight paths of any aircraft using the call sign
Flight Check. These flights will normally receive
special handling from ATC. Pilot patience and
cooperation in allowing uninterrupted recordings can SIGNALMAN
significantly help expedite flight inspections, mini-
mize costly, repetitive runs, and reduce the burden on
the U.S. taxpayer.

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FIG 4311 FIG 4313

Signalmans Position Start Engine
POINT
TO
ENGINE
TO BE
STARTED
SIGNALMAN
FIG 4312
FIG 4314
All Clear
(O.K.) Pull Chocks

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FIG 4315 FIG 4317

Proceed Straight Ahead Right Turn
FIG 4316 FIG 4318

Left Turn Slow Down

7110.65R
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FIG 4319 FIG 4321

Flagman Directs Pilot Cut Engines
FIG 4320 FIG 4322

Insert Chocks Night Operation
Use same hand movements

as day operation

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FIG 4323 b. At uncontrolled airports that are equipped with

Stop ASOS/AWSS/AWOS with groundtoair broadcast
capability, the oneminute updated airport weather
should be available to you within approximately 25
NM of the airport below 10,000 feet. The frequency
for the weather broadcast will be published on
sectional charts and in the Airport/Facility Directory.
Some parttime towered airports may also broadcast
the automated weather on their ATIS frequency
during the hours that the tower is closed.
c. Controllers issue SVFR or IFR clearances

based on pilot request, known traffic and reported
weather, i.e., METAR/Nonroutine (Special) Aviation
Weather Report (SPECI) observations, when they are
available. Pilots have access to more current weather
at uncontrolled ASOS/AWSS/AWOS airports than
do the controllers who may be located several miles
away. Controllers will rely on the pilot to determine
the current airport weather from the ASOS/AWSS/
AWOS. All aircraft arriving or departing an
ASOS/AWSS/AWOS equipped uncontrolled airport
4326. Operations at Uncontrolled should monitor the airport weather frequency to
Airports With Automated Surface ascertain the status of the airspace. Pilots in Class E
Observing System (ASOS)/Automated airspace must be alert for changing weather
Weather Sensor System(AWSS)/Automated conditions which may effect the status of the airspace
Weather Observing System (AWOS) from IFR/VFR. If ATC service is required for
a. Many airports throughout the National Air- IFR/SVFR approach/departure or requested for VFR
space System are equipped with either ASOS, service, the pilot should advise the controller that
AWSS, or AWOS. At most airports with an operating he/she has received the oneminute weather and state
control tower or human observer, the weather will be his/her intentions.
available to you in an Aviation Routine Weather EXAMPLE
Report (METAR) hourly or special observation I have the (airport) oneminute weather, request an ILS
format on the Automatic Terminal Information Runway 14 approach.
Service (ATIS) or directly transmitted from the REFERENCE
controller/observer. AIM, Weather Observing Programs, Paragraph 7112.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 4. ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation
441. Clearance provide standard separation only between IFR

flights.
a. A clearance issued by ATC is predicated on
known traffic and known physical airport conditions. 442. Clearance Prefix
An ATC clearance means an authorization by ATC,
for the purpose of preventing collision between A clearance, control information, or a response to a
known aircraft, for an aircraft to proceed under request for information originated by an ATC facility
specified conditions within controlled airspace. IT IS and relayed to the pilot through an airtoground
NOT AUTHORIZATION FOR A PILOT TO communication station will be prefixed by ATC
DEVIATE FROM ANY RULE, REGULATION, OR clears, ATC advises, or ATC requests.
MINIMUM ALTITUDE NOR TO CONDUCT
UNSAFE OPERATION OF THE AIRCRAFT. 443. Clearance Items
b. 14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: The pilotin ATC clearances normally contain the following:
command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, a. Clearance Limit. The traffic clearance issued
and is the final authority as to, the operation of that prior to departure will normally authorize flight to the
aircraft. If ATC issues a clearance that would cause airport of intended landing. Many airports and
a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or in the associated NAVAIDs are collocated with the same
pilots opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy, name and/or identifier, so care should be exercised to
IT IS THE PILOTS RESPONSIBILITY TO ensure a clear understanding of the clearance limit.
REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE. Simi- When the clearance limit is the airport of intended
larly, if a pilot prefers to follow a different course of landing, the clearance should contain the airport
action, such as make a 360 degree turn for spacing to name followed by the word airport. Under certain
follow traffic when established in a landing or conditions, a clearance limit may be a NAVAID or
approach sequence, land on a different runway, other fix. When the clearance limit is a NAVAID,
takeoff from a different intersection, takeoff from the intersection, or waypoint and the type is known, the
threshold instead of an intersection, or delay clearance should contain type. Under certain
operation, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO conditions, at some locations a shortrange clearance
INFORM ATC ACCORDINGLY. When the pilot procedure is utilized whereby a clearance is issued to
requests a different course of action, however, the a fix within or just outside of the terminal area and
pilot is expected to cooperate so as to preclude pilots are advised of the frequency on which they will
disruption of traffic flow or creation of conflicting receive the longrange clearance direct from the
patterns. The pilot is also expected to use center controller.
the appropriate aircraft call sign to acknowledge all
b. Departure Procedure. Headings to fly and
ATC clearances, frequency changes, or advisory
altitude restrictions may be issued to separate a
information.
departure from other air traffic in the terminal area.
c. Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance Where the volume of traffic warrants, DPs have been
in response to a Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance developed.
System resolution advisory must notify ATC of that REFERENCE
deviation as soon as possible. AIM, Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance (Cleared. . .as Filed)
Procedures, Paragraph 525.
REFERENCE AIM, Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) Obstacle Departure
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Procedures (ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures (SID),
System. Paragraph 528.
d. When weather conditions permit, during the c. Route of Flight.

time an IFR flight is operating, it is the direct 1. Clearances are normally issued for the
responsibility of the pilot to avoid other aircraft since altitude or flight level and route filed by the pilot.
VFR flights may be operating in the same area However, due to traffic conditions, it is frequently
without the knowledge of ATC. Traffic clearances necessary for ATC to specify an altitude or flight level
ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 441

AIM 4/3/14
or route different from that requested by the pilot. In pattern is charted), an EFC time, and a best estimate
addition, flow patterns have been established in of any additional en route/terminal delay.
certain congested areas or between congested areas
2. If the holding pattern is charted and the
whereby traffic capacity is increased by routing all
controller doesnt issue complete holding instruc-
traffic on preferred routes. Information on these flow
tions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the
patterns is available in offices where preflight
appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the
briefing is furnished or where flight plans are
controller may omit all holding instructions except
accepted.
the charted holding direction and the statement
2. When required, air traffic clearances include AS PUBLISHED, e.g., HOLD EAST AS
data to assist pilots in identifying radio reporting PUBLISHED. Controllers must always issue
points. It is the responsibility of pilots to notify ATC complete holding instructions when pilots request
immediately if their radio equipment cannot receive them.
the type of signals they must utilize to comply with NOTE
their clearance. Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government
d. Altitude Data. or commercially produced charts which meet FAA
requirements should be used.
1. The altitude or flight level instructions in an
3. If no holding pattern is charted and holding
ATC clearance normally require that a pilot
instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask
MAINTAIN the altitude or flight level at which the
ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix.
flight will operate when in controlled airspace.
This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an
Altitude or flight level changes while en route should
aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that
be requested prior to the time the change is desired.
desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding
2. When possible, if the altitude assigned is instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to
different from the altitude requested by the pilot, ATC frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), hold
will inform the pilot when to expect climb or descent in a standard pattern on the course on which you
clearance or to request altitude change from another approached the fix and request further clearance as
facility. If this has not been received prior to crossing soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level
the boundary of the ATC facilitys area and of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be protected
assignment at a different altitude is still desired, the so that separation will be provided as required.
pilot should reinitiate the request with the next 4. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a
facility. clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not
3. The term cruise may be used instead of been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed
MAINTAIN to assign a block of airspace to a pilot reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix,
from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The pilot 5. When no delay is expected, the controller
may level off at any intermediate altitude within this should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as
block of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes
to be made at the discretion of the pilot. However, before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.
once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports
leaving an altitude in the block, the pilot may not 6. Pilots should report to ATC the time and
return to that altitude without additional ATC altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the
clearance. clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit.
REFERENCE NOTE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Cruise. In the event of twoway communications failure, pilots are
e. Holding Instructions. required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185.
1. Whenever an aircraft has been cleared to a fix

444. Amended Clearances
other than the destination airport and delay is
expected, it is the responsibility of the ATC controller a. Amendments to the initial clearance will be
to issue complete holding instructions (unless the issued at any time an air traffic controller deems such
442 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation

4/3/14 AIM
action necessary to avoid possible confliction the program may now enter CDR Capable in the
between aircraft. Clearances will require that a flight remarks section of their flight plan.
hold or change altitude prior to reaching the point e. When CDR Capable is entered into the
where standard separation from other IFR traffic remarks section of the flight plan the general aviation
would no longer exist. customer communicates to ATC the ability to decode
NOTE the current CDR into a flight plan route and the
Some pilots have questioned this action and requested willingness to fly a different route than that which
traffic information and were at a loss when the reply was filed.
indicated no traffic report. In such cases the controller
has taken action to prevent a traffic confliction which
would have occurred at a distant point. 446. Special VFR Clearances
b. A pilot may wish an explanation of the handling a. An ATC clearance must be obtained prior to
of the flight at the time of occurrence; however, operating within a Class B, Class C, Class D, or
controllers are not able to take time from their Class E surface area when the weather is less than that
immediate control duties nor can they afford to required for VFR flight. A VFR pilot may request and
overload the ATC communications channels to be given a clearance to enter, leave, or operate within
furnish explanations. Pilots may obtain an explana- most Class D and Class E surface areas and some
tion by directing a letter or telephone call to the chief Class B and Class C surface areas in special VFR
controller of the facility involved. conditions, traffic permitting, and providing such
flight will not delay IFR operations. All special VFR
c. Pilots have the privilege of requesting a flights must remain clear of clouds. The visibility
different clearance from that which has been issued requirements for special VFR aircraft (other than
by ATC if they feel that they have information which helicopters) are:
would make another course of action more
practicable or if aircraft equipment limitations or 1. At least 1 statute mile flight visibility for
company procedures forbid compliance with the operations within Class B, Class C, Class D, and
clearance issued. Class E surface areas.
2. At least 1 statute mile ground visibility if
445. Coded Departure Route (CDR) taking off or landing. If ground visibility is not
reported at that airport, the flight visibility must be at
a. CDRs provide air traffic control a rapid means least 1 statute mile.
to reroute departing aircraft when the filed route is
constrained by either weather or congestion. 3. The restrictions in subparagraphs 1 and 2 do
not apply to helicopters. Helicopters must remain
b. CDRs consist of an eightcharacter designator clear of clouds and may operate in Class B, Class C,
that represents a route of flight. The first three Class D, and Class E surface areas with less than
alphanumeric characters represent the departure 1 statute mile visibility.
airport, characters four through six represent the
b. When a control tower is located within the
arrival airport, and the last two characters are chosen
Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, requests for
by the overlying ARTCC. For example, PITORDN1
clearances should be to the tower. In a Class E surface
is an alternate route from Pittsburgh to Chicago.
area, a clearance may be obtained from the nearest
Participating aircrews may then be recleared by air
tower, FSS, or center.
traffic control via the CDR abbreviated clearance,
PITORDN1. c. It is not necessary to file a complete flight plan
with the request for clearance, but pilots should state
c. CDRs are updated on the 56 day charting cycle.
their intentions in sufficient detail to permit ATC to
Participating aircrews must ensure that their CDR is
fit their flight into the traffic flow. The clearance will
current.
not contain a specific altitude as the pilot must remain
d. Traditionally, CDRs have been used by air clear of clouds. The controller may require the pilot
transport companies that have signed a Memorandum to fly at or below a certain altitude due to other traffic,
of Agreement with the local air traffic control facility. but the altitude specified will permit flight at or above
General aviation customers who wish to participate in the minimum safe altitude. In addition, at radar

AIM 4/3/14
locations, flights may be vectored if necessary for b. ATC Clearance/Instruction Readback.

control purposes or on pilot request. Pilots of airborne aircraft should read back
those parts of ATC clearances and instructions
NOTE
The pilot is responsible for obstacle or terrain clearance.
containing altitude assignments, vectors, or runway
assignments as a means of mutual verification. The
REFERENCE
14 CFR Section 91.119, Minimum safe altitudes: General.
read back of the numbers serves as a double check
between pilots and controllers and reduces the kinds
d. Special VFR clearances are effective within of communications errors that occur when a number
Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas is either misheard or is incorrect.
only. ATC does not provide separation after an
1. Include the aircraft identification in all
aircraft leaves the Class B, Class C, Class D, or
readbacks and acknowledgments. This aids control-
Class E surface area on a special VFR clearance.
lers in determining that the correct aircraft received
e. Special VFR operations by fixedwing aircraft the clearance or instruction. The requirement to
are prohibited in some Class B and Class C surface include aircraft identification in all readbacks and
areas due to the volume of IFR traffic. A list of these acknowledgements becomes more important as
Class B and Class C surface areas is contained in frequency congestion increases and when aircraft
14 CFR Part 91, Appendix D, Section 3. They are with similar call signs are on the same frequency.
also depicted on sectional aeronautical charts. EXAMPLE
Climbing to Flight Level three three zero, United Twelve
f. ATC provides separation between Special VFR or November Five Charlie Tango, roger, cleared to land
flights and between these flights and other IFR runway nine left.
flights.
2. Read back altitudes, altitude restrictions, and
g. Special VFR operations by fixedwing aircraft vectors in the same sequence as they are given in the
are prohibited between sunset and sunrise unless the clearance or instruction.
pilot is instrument rated and the aircraft is equipped 3. Altitudes contained in charted procedures,
for IFR flight. such as DPs, instrument approaches, etc., should not
h. Pilots arriving or departing an uncontrolled be read back unless they are specifically stated by the
airport that has automated weather broadcast controller.
capability (ASOS/AWSS/AWOS) should monitor 4. Initial read back of a taxi, departure or landing
the broadcast frequency, advise the controller that clearance should include the runway assignment,
they have the oneminute weather and state including left, right, center, etc. if applicable.
intentions prior to operating within the Class B, Class
c. It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or
C, Class D, or Class E surface areas.
refuse the clearance issued.
REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Oneminute Weather.
448. IFR Clearance VFRontop
a. A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR
447. Pilot Responsibility upon Clearance weather conditions, may request VFRontop in lieu
Issuance of an assigned altitude. This permits a pilot to select
a. Record ATC clearance. When conducting an an altitude or flight level of their choice (subject to
IFR operation, make a written record of your any ATC restrictions.)
clearance. The specified conditions which are a part b. Pilots desiring to climb through a cloud, haze,
of your air traffic clearance may be somewhat smoke, or other meteorological formation and then
different from those included in your flight plan. either cancel their IFR flight plan or operate
Additionally, ATC may find it necessary to ADD VFR-on-top may request a climb to VFR-on-top. The
conditions, such as particular departure route. The ATC authorization must contain either a top report or
very fact that ATC specifies different or additional a statement that no top report is available, and a
conditions means that other aircraft are involved in request to report reaching VFR-on-top. Additionally,
the traffic situation. the ATC authorization may contain a clearance limit,

4/3/14 AIM
routing and an alternative clearance if VFRontop h. ATC will not authorize VFR or VFRontop
is not reached by a specified altitude. operations in Class A airspace.
REFERENCE
c. A pilot on an IFR flight plan, operating in VFR AIM, Class A Airspace, Paragraph 322.
conditions, may request to climb/descend in VFR
conditions.
449. VFR/IFR Flights
d. ATC may not authorize VFRontop/VFR A pilot departing VFR, either intending to or needing
conditions operations unless the pilot requests the to obtain an IFR clearance en route, must be aware of
VFR operation or a clearance to operate in VFR the position of the aircraft and the relative
conditions will result in noise abatement benefits terrain/obstructions. When accepting a clearance
where part of the IFR departure route does not below the MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA, pilots are
conform to an FAA approved noise abatement route responsible for their own terrain/obstruction clear-
or altitude. ance until reaching the MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA. If
e. When operating in VFR conditions with an ATC pilots are unable to maintain terrain/obstruction
authorization to maintain VFRontop/maintain clearance, the controller should be advised and pilots
VFR conditions pilots on IFR flight plans must: should state their intentions.
NOTE
1. Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as
OROCA is an offroute altitude which provides obstruc-
prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159. tion clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in nonmountainous
2. Comply with the VFR visibility and distance terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in designated
from cloud criteria in 14 CFR Section 91.155 (Basic mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not
provide signal coverage from groundbased navigational
VFR Weather Minimums). aids, air traffic control radar, or communications
3. Comply with instrument flight rules that are coverage.
applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR altitudes,
position reporting, radio communications, course to 4410. Adherence to Clearance
be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.
a. When air traffic clearance has been obtained
NOTE under either visual or instrument flight rules, the
Pilots should advise ATC prior to any altitude change to pilotincommand of the aircraft must not deviate
ensure the exchange of accurate traffic information. from the provisions thereof unless an amended
f. ATC authorization to maintain VFRontop clearance is obtained. When ATC issues a clearance
is not intended to restrict pilots so that they must or instruction, pilots are expected to execute its
operate only above an obscuring meteorological provisions upon receipt. ATC, in certain situations,
formation (layer). Instead, it permits operation above, will include the word IMMEDIATELY in a
below, between layers, or in areas where there is no clearance or instruction to impress urgency of an
meteorological obscuration. It is imperative, howev- imminent situation and expeditious compliance by
er, that pilots understand that clearance to operate the pilot is expected and necessary for safety. The
VFRontop/VFR conditions does not imply addition of a VFR or other restriction; i.e., climb or
cancellation of the IFR flight plan. descent point or time, crossing altitude, etc., does not
authorize a pilot to deviate from the route of flight or
g. Pilots operating VFRontop/VFR conditions any other provision of the ATC clearance.
may receive traffic information from ATC on other
pertinent IFR or VFR aircraft. However, aircraft b. When a heading is assigned or a turn is
operating in Class B airspace/TRSAs must be requested by ATC, pilots are expected to promptly
separated as required by FAA Order JO 7110.65, initiate the turn, to complete the turn, and maintain the
Air Traffic Control. new heading unless issued additional instructions.
NOTE c. The term AT PILOTS DISCRETION

When operating in VFR weather conditions, it is the pilots included in the altitude information of an ATC
responsibility to be vigilant so as to seeandavoid other clearance means that ATC has offered the pilot the
aircraft. option to start climb or descent when the pilot wishes,

AIM 4/3/14
is authorized to conduct the climb or descent at any NOTE

rate, and to temporarily level off at any intermediate 1. The pilot is expected to commence descent upon receipt
altitude as desired. However, once the aircraft has of the clearance and to descend at the suggested rates until
vacated an altitude, it may not return to that altitude. reaching the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet.
EXAMPLE
d. When ATC has not used the term AT PILOTS 2. United Four Seventeen, descend at pilots discretion,
DISCRETION nor imposed any climb or descent maintain six thousand.
restrictions, pilots should initiate climb or descent NOTE
promptly on acknowledgement of the clearance. 2. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent within the
Descend or climb at an optimum rate consistent with context of the term at pilots discretion as described above.
the operating characteristics of the aircraft to EXAMPLE
1,000 feet above or below the assigned altitude, and 3. United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview VOR at or
then attempt to descend or climb at a rate of between above Flight Level two zero zero, descend and maintain
six thousand.
500 and 1,500 fpm until the assigned altitude is
reached. If at anytime the pilot is unable to climb or NOTE
3. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilots
descend at a rate of at least 500 feet a minute, advise
discretion until reaching Lakeview VOR and must comply
ATC. If it is necessary to level off at an intermediate with the clearance provision to cross the Lakeview VOR at
altitude during climb or descent, advise ATC, except or above FL 200. After passing Lakeview VOR, the pilot is
when leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent, or expected to descend at the suggested rates until reaching
2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering a the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet.
Class C or Class D surface area), when required for EXAMPLE
speed reduction. 4. United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview VOR at
six thousand, maintain six thousand.
REFERENCE
14 CFR Section 91.117. NOTE
4. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilots
NOTE discretion, however, must comply with the clearance
Leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent or 2,500 feet provision to cross the Lakeview VOR at 6,000 feet.
above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class C or
Class D surface area) to comply with 14 CFR EXAMPLE
Section 91.117 airspeed restrictions is commonplace. 5. United Four Seventeen, descend now to Flight
Controllers anticipate this action and plan accordingly. Level two seven zero, cross Lakeview VOR at or below
Leveling off at any other time on climb or descent may one zero thousand, descend and maintain six thousand.
seriously affect air traffic handling by ATC. Consequently, NOTE
it is imperative that pilots make every effort to fulfill the 5. The pilot is expected to promptly execute and complete
above expected actions to aid ATC in safely handling and descent to FL 270 upon receipt of the clearance. After
expediting traffic. reaching FL 270 the pilot is authorized to descend at
pilots discretion until reaching Lakeview VOR. The pilot
e. If the altitude information of an ATC must comply with the clearance provision to cross
DESCENT clearance includes a provision to Lakeview VOR at or below 10,000 feet. After Lakeview
CROSS (fix) AT or AT OR ABOVE/BELOW VOR the pilot is expected to descend at the suggested rates
(altitude), the manner in which the descent is until reaching 6,000 feet.
executed to comply with the crossing altitude is at the EXAMPLE
pilots discretion. This authorization to descend at 6. United Three Ten, descend now and maintain Flight
pilots discretion is only applicable to that portion of Level two four zero, pilots discretion after reaching Flight
Level two eight zero.
the flight to which the crossing altitude restriction
applies, and the pilot is expected to comply with the NOTE
crossing altitude as a provision of the clearance. Any 6. The pilot is expected to commence descent upon receipt
of the clearance and to descend at the suggested rates until
other clearance in which pilot execution is optional
reaching FL 280. At that point, the pilot is authorized to
will so state AT PILOTS DISCRETION. continue descent to FL 240 within the context of the term
at pilots discretion as described above.
EXAMPLE
1. United Four Seventeen, descend and maintain f. In case emergency authority is used to deviate
six thousand. from provisions of an ATC clearance, the pilotin

4/3/14 AIM
command must notify ATC as soon as possible and may be able to plan traffic to accommodate a high
obtain an amended clearance. In an emergency performance climb and allow the aircraft to climb to
situation which does not result in a deviation from the the planned altitude without restriction.
rules prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91 but which requires i. If an expedite climb or descent clearance is
ATC to give priority to an aircraft, the pilot of such issued by ATC, and the altitude to maintain is
aircraft must, when requested by ATC, make a report subsequently changed or restated without an expedite
within 48 hours of such emergency situation to the instruction, the expedite instruction is canceled.
manager of that ATC facility. Expedite climb/descent normally indicates to the
g. The guiding principle is that the last ATC pilot that the approximate best rate of climb/descent
clearance has precedence over the previous ATC should be used without requiring an exceptional
clearance. When the route or altitude in a previously change in aircraft handling characteristics. Normally
issued clearance is amended, the controller will controllers will inform pilots of the reason for an
restate applicable altitude restrictions. If altitude to instruction to expedite.
maintain is changed or restated, whether prior to
departure or while airborne, and previously issued 4411. IFR Separation Standards
altitude restrictions are omitted, those altitude a. ATC effects separation of aircraft vertically by
restrictions are canceled, including departure proce- assigning different altitudes; longitudinally by
dures and STAR altitude restrictions. providing an interval expressed in time or distance
EXAMPLE between aircraft on the same, converging, or crossing
1. A departure flight receives a clearance to destination courses, and laterally by assigning different flight
airport to maintain FL 290. The clearance incorporates a paths.
DP which has certain altitude crossing restrictions. Shortly b. Separation will be provided between all aircraft
after takeoff, the flight receives a new clearance changing operating on IFR flight plans except during that part
the maintaining FL from 290 to 250. If the altitude of the flight (outside Class B airspace or a TRSA)
restrictions are still applicable, the controller restates being conducted on a VFRontop/VFR conditions
them.
clearance. Under these conditions, ATC may issue
2. A departing aircraft is cleared to cross Fluky traffic advisories, but it is the sole responsibility of the
Intersection at or above 3,000 feet, Gordonville VOR at or pilot to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other aircraft.
above 12,000 feet, maintain FL 200. Shortly after
departure, the altitude to be maintained is changed to
c. When radar is employed in the separation of
FL 240. If the altitude restrictions are still applicable, the aircraft at the same altitude, a minimum of 3 miles
controller issues an amended clearance as follows: cross separation is provided between aircraft operating
Fluky Intersection at or above three thousand, cross within 40 miles of the radar antenna site, and 5 miles
Gordonville VOR at or above one two thousand, between aircraft operating beyond 40 miles from the
maintain Flight Level two four zero. antenna site. These minima may be increased or
decreased in certain specific situations.
3. An arriving aircraft is cleared to the destination airport
via V45 Delta VOR direct; the aircraft is cleared to cross NOTE
Delta VOR at 10,000 feet, and then to maintain 6,000 feet. Certain separation standards are increased in the terminal
Prior to Delta VOR, the controller issues an amended environment when CENRAP is being utilized.
clearance as follows: turn right heading one eight zero
for vector to runway three six ILS approach, maintain 4412. Speed Adjustments
six thousand. a. ATC will issue speed adjustments to pilots of
NOTE radarcontrolled aircraft to achieve or maintain
Because the altitude restriction cross Delta VOR at required or desire spacing.
10,000 feet was omitted from the amended clearance, it is b. ATC will express all speed adjustments in
no longer in effect.
terms of knots based on indicated airspeed (IAS) in
h. Pilots of turbojet aircraft equipped with 10 knot increments except that at or above FL 240
afterburner engines should advise ATC prior to speeds may be expressed in terms of Mach numbers
takeoff if they intend to use afterburning during their in 0.01 increments. The use of Mach numbers is
climb to the en route altitude. Often, the controller restricted to turbojet aircraft with Mach meters.

AIM 4/3/14
c. Pilots complying with speed adjustments are concerning the manner in which such a clearance is to be
expected to maintain a speed within plus or minus executed, request clarification from ATC.
10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the specified speed. f. If ATC determines (before an approach
d. When ATC assigns speed adjustments, it will clearance is issued) that it is no longer necessary to
be in accordance with the following recommended apply speed adjustment procedures, they will:
minimums: 1. Advise the pilot to resume normal speed.
1. To aircraft operating between FL 280 and Normal speed is used to terminate ATC assigned
10,000 feet, a speed not less than 250 knots or the speed adjustments on segments where no published
equivalent Mach number. speed restrictions apply. It does not cancel published
restrictions on upcoming procedures. This does not
NOTE relieve the pilot of those speed restrictions which are
1. On a standard day the Mach numbers equivalent to
applicable to 14 CFR Section 91.117.
250 knots CAS (subject to minor variations) are:
FL 2400.6 EXAMPLE
FL 2500.61 (An aircraft is flying a SID with no published speed
FL 2600.62 restrictions. ATC issues a speed adjustment and instructs
FL 2700.64 the aircraft where the adjustment ends): Maintain two two
FL 2800.65 zero knots until BALTR then resume normal speed.
FL 2900.66. NOTE
2. When an operational advantage will be realized, speeds The ATC assigned speed assignment of two two zero knots
lower than the recommended minima may be applied. would apply until BALTR. The aircraft would then resume
a normal operating speed while remaining in compliance
2. To arriving turbojet aircraft operating below with 14 CFR Section 91.117.
10,000 feet:
2. Instruct pilots to comply with speed
(a) A speed not less than 210 knots, except; restrictions when the aircraft is joining or resuming
(b) Within 20 flying miles of the airport of a charted procedure or route with published speed
intended landing, a speed not less than 170 knots. restrictions.
EXAMPLE
3. To arriving reciprocating engine or turboprop
(ATC vectors an aircraft off of a SID to rejoin the procedure
aircraft within 20 flying miles of the runway at a subsequent waypoint. When instructing the aircraft to
threshold of the airport of intended landing, a speed resume the procedure, ATC also wants the aircraft to
not less than 150 knots. comply with the published procedure speed restrictions):
4. To departing aircraft: Resume the SALTY ONE departure. Comply with speed
restrictions.
(a) Turbojet aircraft, a speed not less than CAUTION
230 knots. The phraseology comply with restrictions requires
(b) Reciprocating engine aircraft, a speed not compliance with all altitude and/or speed restrictions
less than 150 knots. depicted on the procedure.
e. When ATC combines a speed adjustment with 3. Instruct the pilot to resume published
a descent clearance, the sequence of delivery, with the speed. Resume published speed is issued to
word then between, indicates the expected order of terminate a speed adjustment where speed restric-
execution. tions are published on a charted procedure.
EXAMPLE NOTE
1. Descend and maintain (altitude); then, reduce speed to When instructed to comply with speed restrictions or to
(speed). resume published speed, ATC anticipates pilots will
begin adjusting speed the minimum distance necessary
2. Reduce speed to (speed); then, descend and maintain prior to a published speed restriction so as to cross the
(altitude). waypoint/fix at the published speed. Once at the published
NOTE speed, ATC expects pilots will maintain the published
The maximum speeds below 10,000 feet as established in speed until additional adjustment is required to comply
14 CFR Section 91.117 still apply. If there is any doubt with further published or ATC assigned speed restrictions

4/3/14 AIM
or as required to ensure compliance with 14 CFR if, in their opinion, it will cause them to exceed the
Section 91.117. maximum indicated airspeed prescribed by 14 CFR
EXAMPLE Section 91.117(a), (c) and (d). IN SUCH CASES,
(An aircraft is flying a SID/STAR with published speed THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO SO INFORM ATC.
restrictions. ATC issues a speed adjustment and instructs Pilots operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL who are
the aircraft where the adjustment ends): Maintain two two issued speed adjustments which exceed 250 knots
zero knots until BALTR then resume published speed. IAS and are subsequently cleared below 10,000 feet
NOTE MSL are expected to comply with 14 CFR
The ATC assigned speed assignment of two two zero knots Section 91.117(a).
would apply until BALTR. The aircraft would then comply
with the published speed restrictions. j. Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to
U.S. registered aircraft operating beyond 12 nautical
4. Advise the pilot to delete speed restrictions miles from the coastline within the U.S. Flight
when either ATC assigned or published speed Information Region, in Class E airspace below
restrictions on a charted procedure are no longer 10,000 feet MSL. However, in airspace underlying a
required. Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in
EXAMPLE a VFR corridor designated through such as a Class B
(An aircraft is flying a SID with published speed airspace area, pilots are expected to comply with the
restrictions designed to prevent aircraft overtake on 200 knot speed limit specified in 14 CFR
departure. ATC determines there is no conflicting traffic Section 91.117(c).
and deletes the speed restriction): Delete speed
restrictions. k. For operations in a Class C and Class D surface
NOTE area, ATC is authorized to request or approve a speed
When deleting published restrictions, ATC must ensure greater than the maximum indicated airspeeds
obstacle clearance until aircraft are established on a route prescribed for operation within that airspace (14 CFR
where no published restrictions apply. This does not relieve Section 91.117(b)).
the pilot of those speed restrictions which are applicable to
NOTE
14 CFR Section 91.117.
Pilots are expected to comply with the maximum speed of
g. Approach clearances supersede any prior speed 200 knots when operating beneath Class B airspace or in
adjustment assignments, and pilots are expected to a Class B VFR corridor (14 CFR Section 91.117(c)
make their own speed adjustments as necessary to and (d)).
complete the approach. However, under certain l. When in communications with the ARTCC or
circumstances, it may be necessary for ATC to issue approach control facility, pilots should, as a good
further speed adjustments after approach clearance is operating practice, state any ATC assigned speed
issued to maintain separation between successive restriction on initial radio contact associated with an
arrivals. Under such circumstances, previously ATC communications frequency change.
issued speed adjustments will be restated if that speed
is to be maintained or additional speed adjustments
4413. Runway Separation
are requested. Speed adjustments should not be
assigned inside the final approach fix on final or a Tower controllers establish the sequence of arriving
point 5 miles from the runway, whichever is closer to and departing aircraft by requiring them to adjust
the runway. flight or ground operation as necessary to achieve
proper spacing. They may HOLD an aircraft short
h. The pilots retain the prerogative of rejecting the
of the runway to achieve spacing between it and an
application of speed adjustment by ATC if the
arriving aircraft; the controller may instruct a pilot to
minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is
EXTEND DOWNWIND in order to establish
greater than the speed adjustment.
spacing from an arriving or departing aircraft. At
NOTE times a clearance may include the word IMMEDI-
In such cases, pilots are expected to advise ATC of the ATE. For example: CLEARED FOR
speed that will be used. IMMEDIATE TAKEOFF. In such cases IMMEDI-
i. Pilots are reminded that they are responsible for ATE is used for purposes of air traffic separation. It
rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC is up to the pilot to refuse the clearance if, in the pilots

AIM 4/3/14
opinion, compliance would adversely affect the surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments
operation. as well.
REFERENCE d. Since the eye can focus only on a narrow
AIM, Gate Holding due to Departure Delays, Paragraph 4315.
viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished
with a series of short, regularly spaced eye
4414. Visual Separation movements that bring successive areas of the sky into
a. Visual separation is a means employed by ATC the central visual field. Each movement should not
to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route exceed ten degrees, and each area should be observed
airspace in the NAS. There are two methods for at least one second to enable collision detection.
employed to effect this separation: Although many pilots seem to prefer the method of
horizontal backandforth scanning every pilot
1. The tower controller sees the aircraft should develop a scanning pattern that is not only
involved and issues instructions, as necessary, to comfortable but assures optimum effectiveness.
ensure that the aircraft avoid each other. Pilots should remember, however, that they have a
2. A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and regulatory responsibility (14 CFR Section 91.113(a))
upon instructions from the controller provides to see and avoid other aircraft when weather
separation by maneuvering the aircraft to avoid it. conditions permit.
When pilots accept responsibility to maintain visual
separation, they must maintain constant visual 4415. Use of Visual Clearing Procedures
surveillance and not pass the other aircraft until it is a. Before Takeoff. Prior to taxiing onto a runway
no longer a factor. or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots
NOTE should scan the approach areas for possible landing
Traffic is no longer a factor when during approach phase traffic and execute the appropriate clearing maneu-
the other aircraft is in the landing phase of flight or vers to provide them a clear view of the approach
executes a missed approach; and during departure or areas.
en route, when the other aircraft turns away or is on a
diverging course. b. Climbs and Descents. During climbs and
descents in flight conditions which permit visual
b. A pilots acceptance of instructions to follow detection of other traffic, pilots should execute gentle
another aircraft or provide visual separation from it is banks, left and right at a frequency which permits
an acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the continuous visual scanning of the airspace about
aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to them.
maintain intrail separation. In operations conducted
behind heavy jet aircraft, it is also an acknowledg- c. Straight and Level. Sustained periods of
ment that the pilot accepts the responsibility for wake straight and level flight in conditions which permit
turbulence separation. visual detection of other traffic should be broken at
intervals with appropriate clearing procedures to
NOTE
provide effective visual scanning.
When a pilot has been told to follow another aircraft or to
provide visual separation from it, the pilot should promptly d. Traffic Pattern. Entries into traffic patterns
notify the controller if visual contact with the other aircraft while descending create specific collision hazards
is lost or cannot be maintained or if the pilot cannot accept and should be avoided.
the responsibility for the separation for any reason.
e. Traffic at VOR Sites. All operators should
c. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor emphasize the need for sustained vigilance in the
in collision avoidance. Pilots and copilots (or the right vicinity of VORs and airway intersections due to the
seat passenger) should continuously scan to cover all convergence of traffic.
areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Pilots must
develop an effective scanning technique which f. Training Operations. Operators of pilot train-
maximizes ones visual capabilities. Spotting a ing programs are urged to adopt the following
potential collision threat increases directly as more practices:
time is spent looking outside the aircraft. One must 1. Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all
use timesharing techniques to effectively scan the levels should be requested to verbalize clearing

4/3/14 AIM
procedures (call out clear left, right, above, or separation to an aircraft after a TCAS II RA maneuver
below) to instill and sustain the habit of vigilance until one of the following conditions exists:
during maneuvering.
(a) The aircraft has returned to its assigned
2. Highwing airplane. Momentarily raise the altitude and course.
wing in the direction of the intended turn and look.
(b) Alternate ATC instructions have been
3. Lowwing airplane. Momentarily lower issued.
the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look.
c. TCAS does not alter or diminish the pilots basic
4. Appropriate clearing procedures should
authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight.
precede the execution of all turns including
Since TCAS does not respond to aircraft which are
chandelles, lazy eights, stalls, slow flight, climbs,
not transponder equipped or aircraft with a
straight and level, spins, and other combination
transponder failure, TCAS alone does not ensure safe
maneuvers.
separation in every case.
4416. Traffic Alert and Collision d. At this time, no air traffic service nor handling
Avoidance System (TCAS I & II) is predicated on the availability of TCAS equipment
in the aircraft.
a. TCAS I provides proximity warning only, to
assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder
aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are 4417. Traffic Information Service (TIS)
provided nor authorized as a direct result of a TCAS I
warning. It is intended for use by smaller commuter a. TIS provides proximity warning only, to assist
aircraft holding 10 to 30 passenger seats, and general the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft.
aviation aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided
nor authorized as a direct result of a TIS intruder
b. TCAS II provides traffic advisories (TAs) and
display or TIS alert. It is intended for use by aircraft
resolution advisories (RAs). Resolution advisories
in which TCAS is not required.
provide recommended maneuvers in a vertical
direction (climb or descend only) to avoid conflicting b. TIS does not alter or diminish the pilots basic
traffic. Airline aircraft, and larger commuter and authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight.
business aircraft holding 31 passenger seats or more, Since TIS does not respond to aircraft which are not
use TCAS II equipment. transponder equipped, aircraft with a transponder
1. Each pilot who deviates from an ATC failure, or aircraft out of radar coverage, TIS alone
clearance in response to a TCAS II RA must notify does not ensure safe separation in every case.
ATC of that deviation as soon as practicable and c. At this time, no air traffic service nor handling
expeditiously return to the current ATC clearance is predicated on the availability of TIS equipment in
when the traffic conflict is resolved. the aircraft.
2. Deviations from rules, policies, or clearances
d. Presently, no air traffic services or handling is
should be kept to the minimum necessary to satisfy a
predicated on the availability of an ADSB cockpit
TCAS II RA.
display. A trafficinsight reply to ATC must be
3. The serving IFR air traffic facility is not based on seeing an aircraft outthewindow, NOT on
responsible to provide approved standard IFR the cockpit display.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 5. Surveillance Systems
451. Radar (a) The characteristics of radio waves are

such that they normally travel in a continuous straight
a. Capabilities line unless they are:
1. Radar is a method whereby radio waves are (1) Bent by abnormal atmospheric phe-
transmitted into the air and are then received when nomena such as temperature inversions;
they have been reflected by an object in the path of the (2) Reflected or attenuated by dense
beam. Range is determined by measuring the time it objects such as heavy clouds, precipitation, ground
takes (at the speed of light) for the radio wave to go obstacles, mountains, etc.; or
out to the object and then return to the receiving
antenna. The direction of a detected object from a (3) Screened by high terrain features.
radar site is determined by the position of the rotating (b) The bending of radar pulses, often called
antenna when the reflected portion of the radio wave anomalous propagation or ducting, may cause many
is received. extraneous blips to appear on the radar operators
display if the beam has been bent toward the ground
2. More reliable maintenance and improved or may decrease the detection range if the wave is
equipment have reduced radar system failures to a bent upward. It is difficult to solve the effects of
negligible factor. Most facilities actually have some anomalous propagation, but using beacon radar and
components duplicated, one operating and another electronically eliminating stationary and slow
which immediately takes over when a malfunction moving targets by a method called moving target
occurs to the primary component. indicator (MTI) usually negate the problem.
b. Limitations (c) Radar energy that strikes dense objects
will be reflected and displayed on the operators
1. It is very important for the aviation scope thereby blocking out aircraft at the same range
community to recognize the fact that there are and greatly weakening or completely eliminating the
limitations to radar service and that ATC controllers display of targets at a greater range. Again, radar
may not always be able to issue traffic advisories beacon and MTI are very effectively used to combat
concerning aircraft which are not under ATC control ground clutter and weather phenomena, and a method
and cannot be seen on radar. (See FIG 451.) of circularly polarizing the radar beam will eliminate
some weather returns. A negative characteristic of
FIG 451 MTI is that an aircraft flying a speed that coincides
Limitations to Radar Service with the canceling signal of the MTI (tangential or
blind speed) may not be displayed to the radar
controller.
Precipitation Attenuation
(d) Relatively low altitude aircraft will not be
seen if they are screened by mountains or are below
AREA BLACKED OUT
the radar beam due to earth curvature. The only
BY ATTENUATION
solution to screening is the installation of strategi-
NOT OBSERVED
cally placed multiple radars which has been done in
some areas.
OBSERVED
ECHO
(e) There are several other factors which
affect radar control. The amount of reflective surface
of an aircraft will determine the size of the radar
The nearby target absorbs and scatters so much of the out-going and returning
return. Therefore, a small light airplane or a sleek jet
energy that the radar does not detect the distant target. fighter will be more difficult to see on radar than a
large commercial jet or military bomber. Here again,
the use of radar beacon is invaluable if the aircraft is
Surveillance Systems 451

AIM 4/3/14
equipped with an airborne transponder. All ARTCCs from an object (such as an aircraft). This reflected
radars in the conterminous U.S. and many airport signal is then displayed as a target on the
surveillance radars have the capability to interrogate controllers radarscope. In the ATCRBS, the
Mode C and display altitude information to the Interrogator, a ground based radar beacon transmit-
controller from appropriately equipped aircraft. terreceiver, scans in synchronism with the primary
However, there are a number of airport surveillance radar and transmits discrete radio signals which
radars that dont have Mode C display capability and; repetitiously request all transponders, on the mode
therefore, altitude information must be obtained from being used, to reply. The replies received are then
the pilot. mixed with the primary returns and both are
displayed on the same radarscope.
(f) At some locations within the ATC en route
environment, secondaryradaronly (no primary 2. Transponder. This airborne radar beacon
radar) gap filler radar systems are used to give lower transmitterreceiver automatically receives the sig-
altitude radar coverage between two larger radar nals from the interrogator and selectively replies with
systems, each of which provides both primary and a specific pulse group (code) only to those
secondary radar coverage. In those geographical interrogations being received on the mode to which
areas served by secondaryradar only, aircraft it is set. These replies are independent of, and much
without transponders cannot be provided with radar stronger than a primary radar return.
service. Additionally, transponder equipped aircraft 3. Radarscope. The radarscope used by the
cannot be provided with radar advisories concerning controller displays returns from both the primary
primary targets and weather. radar system and the ATCRBS. These returns, called
REFERENCE targets, are what the controller refers to in the control
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Radar. and separation of traffic.
(g) The controllers ability to advise a pilot b. The job of identifying and maintaining
flying on instruments or in visual conditions of the identification of primary radar targets is a long and
aircrafts proximity to another aircraft will be limited tedious task for the controller. Some of the
if the unknown aircraft is not observed on radar, if no advantages of ATCRBS over primary radar are:
flight plan information is available, or if the volume 1. Reinforcement of radar targets.
of traffic and workload prevent issuing traffic
information. The controllers first priority is given to 2. Rapid target identification.
establishing vertical, lateral, or longitudinal separa- 3. Unique display of selected codes.
tion between aircraft flying IFR under the control of c. A part of the ATCRBS ground equipment is the
ATC. decoder. This equipment enables a controller to
c. FAA radar units operate continuously at the assign discrete transponder codes to each aircraft
locations shown in the Airport/Facility Directory, and under his/her control. Normally only one code will be
their services are available to all pilots, both civil and assigned for the entire flight. Assignments are made
military. Contact the associated FAA control tower or by the ARTCC computer on the basis of the National
ARTCC on any frequency guarded for initial Beacon Code Allocation Plan. The equipment is also
instructions, or in an emergency, any FAA facility for designed to receive Mode C altitude information
information on the nearest radar service. from the aircraft.
NOTE
Refer to figures with explanatory legends for an illustration
452. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon of the target symbology depicted on radar scopes in the
System (ATCRBS) NAS Stage A (en route), the ARTS III (terminal) Systems,
a. The ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as and other nonautomated (broadband) radar systems. (See
FIG 452 and FIG 453.)
secondary surveillance radar, consists of three main
components: d. It should be emphasized that aircraft transpond-
ers greatly improve the effectiveness of radar
1. Interrogator. Primary radar relies on a systems.
signal being transmitted from the radar antenna site REFERENCE
and for this signal to be reflected or bounced back AIM, Transponder Operation, Paragraph 4120.
452 Surveillance Systems

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 452
ARTS III Radar Scope With Alphanumeric Data
NOTE
A number of radar terminals do not have ARTS equipment. Those facilities and certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous U.S.
would have radar displays similar to the lower right hand subset. ARTS facilities and NAS Stage A ARTCCs, when operating
in the nonautomation mode, would also have similar displays and certain services based on automation may not be
available.

AIM 4/3/14
EXAMPLE
1. Areas of precipitation (can be reduced by CP) 25. Low ALT flashes to indicate when an aircrafts
predicted descent places the aircraft in an unsafe
2. Arrival/departure tabular list proximity to terrain.
(Note: this feature does not function if the aircraft is not
3. Trackball (control) position symbol (A) squawking Mode C. When a helicopter or aircraft is
known to be operating below the lower safe limit, the
4. Airway (lines are sometimes deleted in part)
low ALT can be changed to inhibit and flashing
5. Radar limit line for control ceases.)
6. Obstruction (video map) 26. NAVAIDs
7. Primary radar returns of obstacles or terrain (can be 27. Airways

removed by MTI)
28. Primary target only
8. Satellite airports
29. Nonmonitored. No Mode C (an asterisk would
9. Runway centerlines (marks and spaces indicate indicate nonmonitored with Mode C)
miles)
30. Beacon target only (secondary radar based on
10. Primary airport with parallel runways aircraft transponder)
11. Approach gates 31. Tracked target (primary and beacon target) control
position A
12. Tracked target (primary and beacon target)
32. Aircraft is squawking emergency Code 7700 and is
13. Control position symbol nonmonitored, untracked, Mode C
14. Untracked target select code (monitored) with 33. Controller assigned runway 36 right alternates with
Mode C readout of 5,000 Mode C readout
(Note: a three letter identifier could also indicate the
15. Untracked target without Mode C arrival is at specific airport)
16. Primary target 34. Ident flashes
17. Beacon target only (secondary radar) (transponder) 35. Identing target blossoms
18. Primary and beacon target 36. Untracked target identing on a selected code
19. Leader line 37. Range marks (10 and 15 miles) (can be
changed/offset)
20. Altitude Mode C readout is 6,000
(Note: readouts may not be displayed because of 38. Aircraft controlled by center
nonreceipt of beacon information, garbled beacon
signals, and flight plan data which is displayed 39. Targets in suspend status
alternately with the altitude readout)
40. Coast/suspend list (aircraft holding, temporary loss
21. Ground speed readout is 240 knots of beacon/target, etc.)
(Note: readouts may not be displayed because of a loss
of beacon signal, a controller alert that a pilot was 41. Radio failure (emergency information)
squawking emergency, radio failure, etc.)
42. Select beacon codes (being monitored)
22. Aircraft ID
43. General information (ATIS, runway, approach in
23. Asterisk indicates a controller entry in Mode C use)
block. In this case 5,000 is entered and 05 would
alternate with Mode C readout. 44. Altimeter setting
24. Indicates heavy 45. Time

46. System data area

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 453
NAS Stage A Controllers View Plan Display
This figure illustrates the controllers radar scope (PVD) when operating in the full automation (RDP) mode, which is
normally 20 hours per day.
(When not in automation mode, the display is similar to the broadband mode shown in the ARTS III radar scope figure.
Certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous U.S. also operate in broadband mode.)
RADAR SERVICES AND PROCEDURES

22 23 5
30
21
20 1200
19 10
85
AAL373 11
280C 12
191H-33
6
X
28 UAL33
100A 1200 VIG123
3 296 310N
7600 095
29 RDOF
7700
EMRG
X H H
H NWA258
H X
X
H H X 170 143 13
H X
7 X H
14
2
X
X
H H
X
N1467F H H
140 + 143 H
1 460
15
#
+ UAL712
310N
+++ 228CST
AAL353
70 231
2734
X 16
4
R15909
18 170C 17
290
2103 8
29
X
27 24
26 9
25

AIM 4/3/14
EXAMPLE
Target symbols: 16. Assigned altitude 7,000, aircraft is descending, last
Mode C readout (or last reported altitude) was 100 above
1. Uncorrelated primary radar target [] [+] FL 230
2. Correlated primary radar target [] 17. Transponder code shows in full data block only when
See note below. different than assigned code
3. Uncorrelated beacon target [ / ] 18. Aircraft is 300 above assigned altitude
4. Correlated beacon target [ \ ] 19. Reported altitude (no Mode C readout) same as
assigned. (An n would indicate no reported altitude.)
5. Identing beacon target []
20. Transponder set on emergency Code 7700 (EMRG
Note: in Number 2 correlated means the association of flashes to attract attention)
radar data with the computer projected track of an
identified aircraft. 21. Transponder Code 1200 (VFR) with no Mode C
Position symbols: 22. Code 1200 (VFR) with Mode C and last altitude
readout
6. Free track (no flight plan tracking) []
23. Transponder set on radio failure Code 7600 (RDOF
7. Flat track (flight plan tracking) [] flashes)
8. Coast (beacon target lost) [#] 24. Computer ID #228, CST indicates target is in coast
status
9. Present position hold [ ]
25. Assigned altitude FL 290, transponder code (these two
Data block information: items constitute a limited data block)
10. Aircraft ident Note: numbers 10, 11, and 12 constitute a full data
See note below. block
11. Assigned altitude FL 280, Mode C altitude same or Other symbols:

within 200 of assigned altitude. 26. Navigational aid
See note below.
27. Airway or jet route
12. Computer ID #191, handoff is to sector 33
(033 would mean handoff accepted) 28. Outline of weather returns based on primary radar.
See note below. H represents areas of high density precipitation which
might be thunderstorms. Radial lines indicated lower
13. Assigned altitude 17,000, aircraft is climbing, density precipitation.
Mode C readout was 14,300 when last beacon interroga-
tion was received. 29. Obstruction
14. Leader line connecting target symbol and data block 30. Airports
Major:
15. Track velocity and direction vector line (projected Small:
ahead of target)

4/3/14 AIM
453. Surveillance Radar horizontally. Since the range is limited to 10 miles,

azimuth to 20 degrees, and elevation to 7 degrees,
a. Surveillance radars are divided into two general
only the final approach area is covered. Each scope is
categories: Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) and
divided into two parts. The upper half presents
Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR).
altitude and distance information, and the lower half
1. ASR is designed to provide relatively presents azimuth and distance.
shortrange coverage in the general vicinity of an
airport and to serve as an expeditious means of
handling terminal area traffic through observation of 455. Airport Surface Detection
precise aircraft locations on a radarscope. The ASR Equipment Model X (ASDEX)
can also be used as an instrument approach aid.
a. The Airport Surface Detection Equipment
2. ARSR is a longrange radar system designed Model X (ASDEX) is a multisensor surface
primarily to provide a display of aircraft locations surveillance system the FAA is acquiring for airports
over large areas. in the United States. This system will provide high
resolution, shortrange, clutter free surveillance
3. Center Radar Automated Radar Terminal
information about aircraft and vehicles, both moving
Systems (ARTS) Processing (CENRAP) was devel-
and fixed, located on or near the surface of the
oped to provide an alternative to a nonradar
airports runways and taxiways under all weather and
environment at terminal facilities should an ASR fail
visibility conditions. The system consists of:
or malfunction. CENRAP sends aircraft radar beacon
target information to the ASR terminal facility 1. A Primary Radar System. ASDEX sys-
equipped with ARTS. Procedures used for the tem coverage includes the airport surface and the
separation of aircraft may increase under certain airspace up to 200 feet above the surface. Typically
conditions when a facility is utilizing CENRAP located on the control tower or other strategic
because radar target information updates at a slower location on the airport, the Primary Radar antenna is
rate than the normal ASR radar. Radar services for able to detect and display aircraft that are not
VFR aircraft are also limited during CENRAP equipped with or have malfunctioning transponders.
operations because of the additional workload
required to provide services to IFR aircraft. 2. Interfaces. ASDEX contains an automa-
tion interface for flight identification via all
b. Surveillance radars scan through 360 degrees of automation platforms and interfaces with the
azimuth and present target information on a radar terminal radar for position information.
display located in a tower or center. This information
is used independently or in conjunction with other 3. ASDEX Automation. A Multisensor
navigational aids in the control of air traffic. Data Processor (MSDP) combines all sensor reports
into a single target which is displayed to the air traffic
454. Precision Approach Radar (PAR) controller.
a. PAR is designed for use as a landing aid rather 4. Air Traffic Control Tower Display. A high
than an aid for sequencing and spacing aircraft. PAR resolution, color monitor in the control tower cab
equipment may be used as a primary landing aid (See provides controllers with a seamless picture of airport
Chapter 5, Air Traffic Procedures, for additional operations on the airport surface.
information), or it may be used to monitor other types
b. The combination of data collected from the
of approaches. It is designed to display range,
multiple sensors ensures that the most accurate
azimuth, and elevation information.
information about aircraft location is received in the
b. Two antennas are used in the PAR array, one tower, thereby increasing surface safety and
scanning a vertical plane, and the other scanning efficiency.

AIM 4/3/14
c. The following facilities have been projected to 456. Traffic Information Service (TIS)
receive ASDEX:
TBL 451 a. Introduction
STL LambertSt. Louis International The Traffic Information Service (TIS) provides
information to the cockpit via data link, that is similar
CLT Charlotte Douglas International to VFR radar traffic advisories normally received
SDF Louisville International Standiford over voice radio. Among the first FAAprovided data
DFW Dallas/Ft. Worth International services, TIS is intended to improve the safety and
ORD Chicago OHare International efficiency of see and avoid flight through an
LAX Los Angeles International automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby
traffic and potential conflict situations. This traffic
ATL Hartsfield Atlanta International display is intended to assist the pilot in visual
IAD Washington Dulles International acquisition of these aircraft. TIS employs an
SEA SeattleTacoma International enhanced capability of the terminal Mode S radar
MKE General Mitchell International system, which contains the surveillance data, as well
as the data link required to uplink this information
MCO Orlando International
to suitablyequipped aircraft (known as a TIS
PVD Theodore Francis Green State client). TIS provides estimated position, altitude,
PHX Phoenix Sky Harbor International altitude trend, and ground track information for up to
MEM Memphis International 8 intruder aircraft within 7 NM horizontally,
RDU RaleighDurham International +3,500 and 3,000 feet vertically of the client aircraft
(see FIG 454, TIS Proximity Coverage Volume).
HOU William P. Hobby (Houston, TX)
The range of a target reported at a distance greater
BDL Bradley International than 7 NM only indicates that this target will be a
SJC San Jose International threat within 34 seconds and does not display an
SAT San Antonio International precise distance. TIS will alert the pilot to aircraft
SMF Sacramento International (under surveillance of the Mode S radar) that are
estimated to be within 34 seconds of potential
FLL Ft. Lauderdale/Hollywood
collision, regardless of distance of altitude. TIS
HNL Honolulu International Hickam AFB surveillance data is derived from the same radar used
OAK Metropolitan Oakland International by ATC; this data is uplinked to the client aircraft on
IND Indianapolis International each radar scan (nominally every 5 seconds).
TPA Tampa International
BUR BurbankGlendalePasadena b. Requirements
CMH Port Columbus International
MDW Chicago Midway 1. In order to use TIS, the client and any intruder
aircraft must be equipped with the appropriate
COS Colorado Springs Municipal
cockpit equipment and fly within the radar coverage
SNA John Wayne Orange County of a Mode S radar capable of providing TIS.
ONT Ontario International Typically, this will be within 55 NM of the sites
AUS AustinBergstrom International depicted in FIG 455, Terminal Mode S Radar Sites.
RNO Reno/Tahoe International ATC communication is not a requirement to receive
TIS, although it may be required by the particular
ABQ Albuquerque International Sunport airspace or flight operations in which TIS is being
SJU San Juan International used.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 454
TIS Proximity Coverage Volume
FIG 455
Terminal Mode S Radar Sites

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 456
Traffic Information Service (TIS)
Avionics Block Diagram

4/3/14 AIM
2. The cockpit equipment functionality required TIS. A maximum of eight (8) intruder aircraft may be
by a TIS client aircraft to receive the service consists displayed; if more than eight aircraft match intruder
of the following (refer to FIG 456): parameters, the eight most significant intruders are
uplinked. These most significant intruders are
(a) Mode S data link transponder with
usually the ones in closest proximity and/or the
altitude encoder.
greatest threat to the TIS client.
(b) Data link applications processor with TIS 2. TIS, through the Mode S ground sensor,
software installed. provides the following data on each intruder aircraft:
(c) Controldisplay unit. (a) Relative bearing information in 6degree
(d) Optional equipment includes a digital increments.
heading source to correct display errors caused by (b) Relative range information in 1/8 NM to
crab angle and turning maneuvers. 1 NM increments (depending on range).
NOTE (c) Relative altitude in 100foot increments
Some of the above functions will likely be combined into (within 1,000 feet) or 500foot increments (from
single pieces of avionics, such as (a) and (b). 1,0003,500 feet) if the intruder aircraft has operating
3. To be visible to the TIS client, the intruder altitude reporting capability.
aircraft must, at a minimum, have an operating (d) Estimated intruder ground track in
transponder (Mode A, C or S). All altitude 45degree increments.
information provided by TIS from intruder aircraft is
derived from Mode C reports, if appropriately (e) Altitude trend data (level within 500 fpm
equipped. or climbing/descending >500 fpm) if the intruder
aircraft has operating altitude reporting capability.
4. TIS will initially be provided by the terminal
(f) Intruder priority as either an traffic
Mode S systems that are paired with ASR9 digital
advisory or proximate intruder.
primary radars. These systems are in locations with
the greatest traffic densities, thus will provide the 3. When flying from surveillance coverage of
greatest initial benefit. The remaining terminal one Mode S sensor to another, the transfer of TIS is
Mode S sensors, which are paired with ASR7 or an automatic function of the avionics system and
ASR8 analog primary radars, will provide TIS requires no action from the pilot.
pending modification or relocation of these sites. See 4. There are a variety of status messages that are
FIG 455, Terminal Mode S Radar Sites, for site provided by either the airborne system or ground
locations. There is no mechanism in place, such as equipment to alert the pilot of high priority intruders
NOTAMs, to provide status update on individual and data link system status. These messages include
radar sites since TIS is a nonessential, supplemental the following:
information service.
(a) Alert. Identifies a potential collision
The FAA also operates en route Mode S radars (not hazard within 34 seconds. This alert may be visual
illustrated) that rotate once every 12 seconds. These and/or audible, such as a flashing display symbol or
sites will require additional development of TIS a headset tone. A target is a threat if the time to the
before any possible implementation. There are no closest approach in vertical and horizontal coordi-
plans to implement TIS in the en route Mode S radars nates is less than 30 seconds and the closest approach
at the present time. is expected to be within 500 feet vertically and
c. Capabilities 0.5 nautical miles laterally.
1. TIS provides groundbased surveillance (b) TIS Traffic. TIS traffic data is displayed.
information over the Mode S data link to properly (c) Coasting. The TIS display is more than
equipped client aircraft to aid in visual acquisition of 6 seconds old. This indicates a missing uplink from
proximate air traffic. The actual avionics capability of the ground system. When the TIS display information
each installation will vary and the supplemental is more than 12 seconds old, the No Traffic status
handbook material must be consulted prior to using will be indicated.

AIM 4/3/14
(d) No Traffic. No intruders meet proximate (b) The intruder ground track diverges to the
or alert criteria. This condition may exist when the right of the client aircraft, indicated by the small
TIS system is fully functional or may indicate arrow.
coasting between 12 and 59 seconds old (see (c)
(c) The intruder altitude is 700 feet less than
above).
or below the client aircraft, indicated by the 07
(e) TIS Unavailable. The pilot has relocated under the symbol.
quested TIS, but no ground system is available. This (d) The intruder is descending >500 fpm,
condition will also be displayed when TIS uplinks are indicated by the downward arrow next to the 07
missing for 60 seconds or more. relative altitude information. The absence of this
arrow when an altitude tag is present indicates level
(f) TIS Disabled. The pilot has not requested flight or a climb/descent rate less than 500 fpm.
TIS or has disconnected from TIS.
NOTE
(g) Goodbye. The client aircraft has flown If the intruder did not have an operating altitude encoder
(Mode C), the altitude and altitude trend tags would
outside of TIS coverage.
have been omitted.
NOTE d. Limitations
Depending on the avionics manufacturer implementation,
it is possible that some of these messages will not be directly 1. TIS is NOT intended to be used as a collision
available to the pilot. avoidance system and does not relieve the pilot
responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft (see
5. Depending on avionics system design, TIS paragraph 558, See and Avoid). TIS must not be for
may be presented to the pilot in a variety of different avoidance maneuvers during IMC or other times
displays, including text and/or graphics. Voice when there is no visual contact with the intruder
annunciation may also be used, either alone or in aircraft. TIS is intended only to assist in visual
combination with a visual display. FIG 456, acquisition of other aircraft in VMC. No recom-
Traffic Information Service (TIS), Avionics Block mended avoidance maneuvers are provided for,
Diagram, shows an example of a TIS display using nor authorized, as a direct result of a TIS intruder
symbology similar to the Traffic Alert and Collision display or TIS alert.
Avoidance System (TCAS) installed on most
passenger air carrier/commuter aircraft in the U.S. 2. While TIS is a useful aid to visual traffic
The small symbol in the center represents the client avoidance, it has some system limitations that must
aircraft and the display is oriented track up, with the be fully understood to ensure proper use. Many of
12 oclock position at the top. The range rings these limitations are inherent in secondary radar
indicate 2 and 5 NM. Each intruder is depicted by a surveillance. In other words, the information
symbol positioned at the approximate relative provided by TIS will be no better than that provided
bearing and range from the client aircraft. The to ATC. Other limitations and anomalies are
circular symbol near the center indicates an alert associated with the TIS predictive algorithm.
intruder and the diamond symbols indicate proxi- (a) Intruder Display Limitations. TIS will
mate intruders. only display aircraft with operating transponders
installed. TIS relies on surveillance of the Mode S
6. The inset in the lower right corner of radar, which is a secondary surveillance radar
FIG 456, Traffic Information Service (TIS), similar to the ATCRBS described in para-
Avionics Block Diagram, shows a possible TIS data graph 452.
block display. The following information is con-
tained in this data block: (b) TIS Client Altitude Reporting Require-
ment. Altitude reporting is required by the TIS client
(a) The intruder, located approximately aircraft in order to receive TIS. If the altitude encoder
four oclock, three miles, is a proximate aircraft is inoperative or disabled, TIS will be unavailable, as
and currently not a collision threat to the client TIS requests will not be honored by the ground
aircraft. This is indicated by the diamond symbol system. As such, TIS requires altitude reporting to
used in this example. determine the Proximity Coverage Volume as

4/3/14 AIM
indicated in FIG 454. TIS users must be alert to multiple radar coverage since an adjacent radar will
altitude encoder malfunctions, as TIS has no provide TIS. If no other TIScapable radar is
mechanism to determine if client altitude reporting is available, the Goodbye message will be received
correct. A failure of this nature will cause erroneous and TIS terminated until coverage is resumed.
and possibly unpredictable TIS operation. If this (e) Intermittent Operations. TIS operation
malfunction is suspected, confirmation of altitude may be intermittent during turns or other maneuver-
reporting with ATC is suggested. ing, particularly if the transponder system does not
(c) Intruder Altitude Reporting. Intruders include antenna diversity (antenna mounted on the
without altitude reporting capability will be dis- top and bottom of the aircraft). As in (d) above, TIS
played without the accompanying altitude tag. is dependent on twoway, line of sight communica-
Additionally, nonaltitude reporting intruders are tions between the aircraft and the Mode S radar.
assumed to be at the same altitude as the TIS client for Whenever the structure of the client aircraft comes
alert computations. This helps to ensure that the pilot between the transponder antenna (usually located on
will be alerted to all traffic under radar coverage, but the underside of the aircraft) and the groundbased
the actual altitude difference may be substantial. radar antenna, the signal may be temporarily
Therefore, visual acquisition may be difficult in this interrupted.
instance. (f) TIS Predictive Algorithm. TIS informa-
tion is collected one radar scan prior to the scan
(d) Coverage Limitations. Since TIS is
during which the uplink occurs. Therefore, the
provided by groundbased, secondary surveillance
surveillance information is approximately 5 seconds
radar, it is subject to all limitations of that radar. If an
old. In order to present the intruders in a real time
aircraft is not detected by the radar, it cannot be
position, TIS uses a predictive algorithm in its
displayed on TIS. Examples of these limitations are
tracking software. This algorithm uses track history
as follows:
data to extrapolate intruders to their expected
(1) TIS will typically be provided within positions consistent with the time of display in the
55 NM of the radars depicted in FIG 455, Terminal cockpit. Occasionally, aircraft maneuvering will
Mode S Radar Sites. This maximum range can vary cause this algorithm to induce errors in the TIS
by radar site and is always subject to line of sight display. These errors primarily affect relative bearing
limitations; the radar and data link signals will be information; intruder distance and altitude will
blocked by obstructions, terrain, and curvature of the remain relatively accurate and may be used to assist
earth. in see and avoid. Some of the more common
examples of these errors are as follows:
(2) TIS will be unavailable at low altitudes
in many areas of the country, particularly in (1) When client or intruder aircraft maneu-
mountainous regions. Also, when flying near the ver excessively or abruptly, the tracking algorithm
floor of radar coverage in a particular area, will report incorrect horizontal position until the
intruders below the client aircraft may not be detected maneuvering aircraft stabilizes.
by TIS. (2) When a rapidly closing intruder is on a
course that crosses the client at a shallow angle (either
(3) TIS will be temporarily disrupted when overtaking or head on) and either aircraft abruptly
flying directly over the radar site providing coverage changes course within NM, TIS will display the
if no adjacent site assumes the service. A intruder on the opposite side of the client than it
groundbased radar, like a VOR or NDB, has a zenith actually is.
cone, sometimes referred to as the cone of confusion
or cone of silence. This is the area of ambiguity These are relatively rare occurrences and will be
directly above the station where bearing information corrected in a few radar scans once the course has
is unreliable. The zenith cone setting for TIS is stabilized.
34 degrees: Any aircraft above that angle with (g) Heading/Course Reference. Not all TIS
respect to the radar horizon will lose TIS coverage aircraft installations will have onboard heading
from that radar until it is below this 34 degree angle. reference information. In these installations, aircraft
The aircraft may not actually lose service in areas of course reference to the TIS display is provided by the

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
7/24/14
4/3/14
Mode S radar. The radar only determines ground e. Reports of TIS Malfunctions
track information and has no indication of the client
1. Users of TIS can render valuable assistance in
aircraft heading. In these installations, all intruder
the early correction of malfunctions by reporting their
bearing information is referenced to ground track and
observations of undesirable performance. Reporters
does not account for wind correction. Additionally,
should identify the time of observation, location, type
since groundbased radar will require several scans
and identity of aircraft, and describe the condition
to determine aircraft course following a course
observed; the type of transponder processor, and
change, a lag in TIS display orientation (intruder
software in use can also be useful information. Since
aircraft bearing) will occur. As in (f) above, intruder
TIS performance is monitored by maintenance
distance and altitude are still usable.
personnel rather than ATC, it is suggested that
malfunctions be reported by radio or telephone to the
(h) CloselySpaced Intruder Errors. nearest Flight Service Station (FSS) facility.
When operating more than 30 NM from the Mode S
sensor, TIS forces any intruder within 3/8 NM of the
TIS client to appear at the same horizontal position as 457. Automatic Dependent
the client aircraft. Without this feature, TIS could SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) Services
display intruders in a manner confusing to the pilot in a. Introduction
critical situations (e.g., a closelyspaced intruder that
is actually to the right of the client may appear on the 1. Automatic Dependent SurveillanceBroad-
TIS display to the left). At longer distances from the cast (ADSB) is a surveillance technology being
radar, TIS cannot accurately determine relative deployed throughout the NAS (see FIG 457). The
bearing/distance information on intruder aircraft that ADSB system is composed of aircraft avionics and
are in close proximity to the client. a ground infrastructure. Onboard avionics determine
the position of the aircraft by using the GNSS and
transmit its position along with additional informa-
Because TIS uses a groundbased, rotating radar for
tion about the aircraft to ground stations for use by
surveillance information, the accuracy of TIS data is
ATC and other ADSB services. This information is
dependent on the distance from the sensor (radar)
transmitted at a rate of approximately once per
providing the service. This is much the same
second.
phenomenon as experienced with groundbased
navigational aids, such as VOR or NDB. As distance 2. In the United States, ADSB equipped
from the radar increases, the accuracy of surveillance aircraft exchange information is on one of two
decreases. Since TIS does not inform the pilot of frequencies: 978 or 1090 MHz. The 1090 MHz
distance from the Mode S radar, the pilot must assume frequency is associated with Mode A, C, and S
that any intruder appearing at the same position as the transponder operations. 1090 MHz transponders
client aircraft may actually be up to 3/8 NM away in with integrated ADSB functionality extend the
any direction. Consistent with the operation of TIS, transponder message sets with additional ADSB
an alert on the display (regardless of distance from the information. This additional information is known
radar) should stimulate an outside visual scan, as an extended squitter message and referred to as
intruder acquisition, and traffic avoidance based on 1090ES. ADSB equipment operating on 978 MHz
outside reference. is known as the Universal Access Transceiver (UAT).

1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 457
ADSB, TISB, and FISB:
Broadcast Services Architecture
3. ADS B avionics can have the ability to both ADSB Out. ADSB equipment may also be
transmit and receive information. The transmission certified for use with ADSB In advisory services
of ADSB information from an aircraft is known as that enable appropriately equipped aircraft to
ADSB Out. The receipt of ADSB information by display traffic and flight information. Refer to the
an aircraft is known as ADSB In. On January 1, aircrafts flight manual supplement or Pilot
2020, all aircraft operating within the airspace Operating Handbook for the capabilities of a specific
defined in 14 CFR part 91, 91.225 will be required aircraft installation.
to transmit the information defined in 91.227 c. ADSB Capabilities and Procedures
using ADSB Out avionics.
1. ADSB enables improved surveillance ser-
4. In general, operators flying at 18,000 feet and vices, both airtoair and airtoground, especially
above will require equipment which uses 1090 ES. in areas where radar is ineffective due to terrain or
Those that do not fly above 18,000 may use either where it is impractical or cost prohibitive. Initial NAS
UAT or 1090ES equipment. (Refer to 14 CFR 91.225 applications of airtoair ADSB are for advisory
and 91.227.) While the regulation will not require it, use only, enhancing a pilots visual acquisition of
operators equipped with ADSB In will realize other nearby equipped aircraft either when airborne
additional benefits from ADSB broadcast services: or on the airport surface. Additionally, ADSB will
Traffic Information Service Broadcast (TISB) enable ATC and fleet operators to monitor aircraft
(paragraph 458) and Flight Information Service throughout the available ground station coverage
Broadcast (FISB) (paragraph 459). area.
b. ADSB Certification and Performance 2. An aircrafts Flight Identification (FLT ID),
Requirements also known as registration number or airline flight
number, is transmitted by the ADS-B Out avionics.
ADSB equipment may be certified as a surveillance The FLT ID is comprised of a maximum of seven
source for air traffic separation services using alphanumeric characters and also corresponds to the

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aircraft identification annotated on the ATC flight 1. Preflight:

plan. The FLT ID for airline and commuter aircraft is If a request for ATC services is predicated on ADSB
associated with the company name and flight number and such services are anticipated when either a VFR
(for example, AAL3342). The FLT ID is typically or IFR flight plan is filed, the aircrafts N number
entered by the flightcrew during preflight through or callsign as filed in Block 2 of the Flight Plan
either a Flight Management System (FMS) interface must be entered in the ADSB avionics as the
(Control Display Unit/CDU) or transponder control aircrafts flight ID.
panel. The FLT ID for General Aviation (GA) aircraft
is associated with the aircrafts registration number. 2. Inflight:
The aircraft owner can preset the FLT ID to the When requesting ADSB services while airborne,
aircrafts registration number (for example, pilots should ensure that their ADSB equipment is
N235RA), since it is a fixed value, or the pilot can transmitting their aircrafts N number or call sign
enter it into the ADS-B Out system prior to flight. prior to contacting ATC. To accomplish this, the pilot
must select the ADSB broadcast flight ID
ATC systems use transmitted FLT IDs to uniquely function.
identify each aircraft within a given airspace and NOTE
correlate them to a filed flight plan for the provision The broadcast VFR or Standby mode built into some
of surveillance and separation services. If the FLT ID ADSB systems will not provide ATC with the appropriate
is not entered correctly, ATC automation systems aircraft identification information. This function should
may not associate surveillance tracks for the aircraft first be disabled before contacting ATC.
to its filed flight plan. Therefore, Air Traffic services 3. Aircraft with an Inoperative/Malfunctioning
may be delayed or unavailable until this is corrected. ADSB Transmitter or in the Event of an Inoperative
Consequently, it is imperative that flightcrews and Ground Broadcast Transceiver (GBT).
GA pilots ensure the FLT ID entry correctly matches
the aircraft identification annotated in the filed ATC (a) ATC will inform the flight crew when the
flight plan. aircrafts ADSB transmitter appears to be inopera-
tive or malfunctioning:
3. ADSB systems integrated with the PHRASEOLOGY
transponder will automatically set the applicable YOUR ADSB TRANSMITTER APPEARS TO BE
emergency status when 7500, 7600, or 7700 are INOPERATIVE/MALFUNCTIONING. STOP ADSB
entered into the transponder. ADS B systems not TRANSMISSIONS.
integrated with the transponder, or systems with (b) ATC will inform the flight crew when the
optional emergency codes, will require that the GBT transceiver becomes inoperative or malfunc-
appropriate emergency code is entered through a pilot tioning, as follows:
interface. ADSB is intended for inflight and PHRASEOLOGY
airport surface use. ADSB systems should be (Name of facility) GROUND BASED TRANSCEIVER
turned on and remain on whenever INOPERATIVE/MALFUNCTIONING.
operating in the air and moving on the airport (And if appropriate) RADAR CONTACT LOST.
surface. Civil and military Mode A/C transpon- NOTE
ders and ADSB systems should be adjusted to the An inoperative or malfunctioning GBT may also cause a
on or normal operating position as soon as loss of ATC surveillance services.
practical, unless the change to standby has been (c) ATC will inform the flight crew if it
accomplished previously at the request of ATC. becomes necessary to turn off the aircrafts ADSB
transmitter.
d. ATC Surveillance Services using ADSB
PHRASEOLOGY
Procedures and Recommended Phraseology STOP ADSB TRANSMISSIONS.
For Use In Alaska Only
(d) Other malfunctions and considerations:
Radar procedures, with the exceptions found in this Loss of automatic altitude reporting capabilities
paragraph, are identical to those procedures pre- (encoder failure) will result in loss of ATC altitude
scribed for radar in AIM Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. advisory services.

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e. ADSB Limitations sensors available as TISB sources and the

timeliness of the reported data.
1. The ADSB cockpit display of traffic is NOT
intended to be used as a collision avoidance system a. TISB Requirements.
and does not relieve the pilots responsibility to see
and avoid other aircraft. (See paragraph 558, See In order to receive TISB service, the following
and Avoid). ADSB must not be used for avoidance conditions must exist:
maneuvers during IMC or other times when there is 1. Aircraft must be equipped with an ADSB
no visual contact with the intruder aircraft. ADSB is transmitter/receiver or transceiver, and a cockpit
intended only to assist in visual acquisition of other display of traffic information (CDTI).
aircraft. No avoidance maneuvers are provided nor
authorized, as a direct result of an ADSB target 2. Aircraft must fly within the coverage volume
being displayed in the cockpit. of a compatible ground radio station that is
configured for TISB uplinks. (Not all ground radio
2. Use of ADSB radar services is limited to the stations provide TISB due to a lack of radar
service volume of the GBT. coverage or because a radar feed is not available).
NOTE 3. Aircraft must be within the coverage of and
The coverage volume of GBTs are limited to lineofsight.
detected by at least one ATC radar serving the ground
f. Reports of ADSB Malfunctions radio station in use.
Users of ADSB can provide valuable assistance in b. TISB Capabilities.
the correction of malfunctions by reporting instances
1. TISB is intended to provide ADSB
of undesirable system performance. Reports should
equipped aircraft with a more complete traffic picture
identify the time of observation, location, type and
in situations where not all nearby aircraft are
identity of aircraft, and describe the condition
equipped with ADSB Out. This advisoryonly
observed; the type of avionics system and its software
application is intended to enhance a pilots visual
version in use should also be included. Since ADSB
acquisition of other traffic.
performance is monitored by maintenance personnel
rather than ATC, it is suggested that malfunctions be 2. Only transponderequipped targets
reported in any one of the following ways: (i.e., Mode A/C or Mode S transponders) are
transmitted through the ATC ground system
1. By radio or telephone to the nearest Flight
architecture. Current radar siting may result in
Service Station (FSS) facility.
limited radar surveillance coverage at lower
2. By reporting the failure directly to the FAA altitudes near some airports, with subsequently
Safe Flight 21 program at 1877FLYADSB or limited TISB service volume coverage. If there is
http://www.adsb.gov. no radar coverage in a given area, then there will be
no TISB coverage in that area.
458. Traffic Information Service c. TISB Limitations.
Broadcast (TISB)
1. TISB is NOT intended to be used as a
TISB is the broadcast of ATC derived traffic collision avoidance system and does not relieve the
information to ADSB equipped (1090ES or UAT) pilots responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft,
aircraft from ground radio stations. The source of this in accordance with 14CFR 91.113b. TISB must
traffic information is derived from groundbased air not be used for avoidance maneuvers during times
traffic surveillance radar sensors. TISB service when there is no visual contact with the intruder
will be available throughout the NAS where there are aircraft. TISB is intended only to assist in the visual
both adequate surveillance coverage (radar) from acquisition of other aircraft.
ground sensors and adequate broadcast coverage NOTE
from ADSB ground radio stations. The quality level No aircraft avoidance maneuvers are authorized as a
of traffic information provided by TISB is direct result of a TISB target being displayed in the
dependent upon the number and type of ground cockpit.

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2. While TISB is a useful aid to visual traffic undesirable system performance. Reporters should
avoidance, its inherent system limitations must be identify the time of observation, location, type and
understood to ensure proper use. identity of the aircraft, and describe the condition
observed; the type of avionics system and its software
(a) A pilot may receive an intermittent TISB
version used. Since TISB performance is monitored
target of themselves, typically when maneuvering
by maintenance personnel rather than ATC, it is
(e.g., climbing turns) due to the radar not tracking
suggested that malfunctions be reported in anyone of
the aircraft as quickly as ADSB.
the following ways:
(b) The ADSBtoradar association pro-
1. By radio or telephone to the nearest Flight
cess within the ground system may at times have
Service Station (FSS) facility.
difficulty correlating an ADSB report with
corresponding radar returns from the same aircraft. 2. By reporting the failure directly to the FAA
When this happens the pilot may see duplicate traffic Surveillance and Broadcast Services Program Office
symbols (i.e., TISB shadows) on the cockpit at 1877FLYADSB or http://www.adsb.gov.
display.
(c) Updates of TISB traffic reports will 459. Flight Information Service
occur less often than ADSB traffic updates. TISB Broadcast (FISB)
position updates will occur approximately once a. FISB is a ground broadcast service provided
every 313 seconds depending on the type of radar through the ADSB Services network over the
system in use within the coverage area. In 978 MHz UAT data link. The FAA FISB system
comparison, the update rate for ADSB is nominally provides pilots and flight crews of properly equipped
once per second. aircraft with a cockpit display of certain aviation
(d) The TISB system only uplinks data weather and aeronautical information. FISB service
pertaining to transponderequipped aircraft. Aircraft availability is expected across the NAS in 2013 and
without a transponder will not be displayed as TISB is currently available within certain regions.
traffic. b. The weather products provided by FISB are
for information only. Therefore, these products do
(e) There is no indication provided when any
not meet the safety and regulatory requirements of
aircraft is operating inside or outside the TISB
official weather products. The weather products
service volume, therefore it is difficult to know if one
displayed on FISB should not be used as primary
is receiving uplinked TISB traffic information.
weather products, i.e., aviation weather to meet
3. Pilots and operators are reminded that the operational and safety requirements. Official
airborne equipment that displays TISB targets is for weather products (primary products) can be obtained
pilot situational awareness only and is not approved from a variety of sources including ATC, FSSs, and,
as a collision avoidance tool. Unless there is an if applicable, AOCC VHF/HF voice, which can
imminent emergency requiring immediate action, transmit aviation weather, NOTAMS, and other
any deviation from an air traffic control clearance in operational aeronautical information to aircraft in
response to perceived converging traffic appearing flight. FISB augments the traditional ATC/FSS/
on a TISB display must be approved by the AOCC services by providing additional information
controlling ATC facility before commencing the and, for some products, offers the advantage of being
maneuver, except as permitted under certain displayed graphically. By using FISB for orientation
conditions in 14CFR 91.123. Uncoordinated and information, the usefulness of information
deviations may place an aircraft in close proximity to received from official sources may be enhanced, but
other aircraft under ATC control not seen on the the user should be alert and understand any
airborne equipment and may result in a pilot limitations associated with individual products.
deviation or other incident. FISB provides the initial basic products listed below
at nocharge to the user. Additional products are
d. Reports of TISB Malfunctions
envisioned, but may incur subscription charges to the
Users of TISB can provide valuable assistance in the user. FISB reception is lineofsight within the
correction of malfunctions by reporting instances of service volume of the ground infrastructure.

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1. Airmens Meteorological Conditions TFR text and graphic reports, prescribes procedures
(AIRMET) Text/graphical report A concise used to obtain, format, and disseminate information
description of expected occurrence of specified on unanticipated or temporary changes to compon-
en route weather phenomena. ents of or hazards in the NAS until the associated
REFERENCE aeronautical charts and related publications have
Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services. been amended.
2. Convective Significant Meteorological REFERENCE
FAA Order JO 7930.2, Notices to Airmen (NOTAM).
Conditions (SIGMET) Text report/graphical
Convective SIGMETs (also known internationally 7. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP) Text report
as SIGMET for Convection) are issued for the Pilots report observations to assist other pilots with
contiguous U.S. Each bulletin includes one or more flight planning and preparation, help NWS verify
Convective SIGMETs for a specific region of the forecast products, and create more accurate products
CONUS. Convective SIGMETs issued for thunder- for aviation community.
storms and related phenomena do not include REFERENCE
references to all weather associated with thunder- Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services.
storms such as turbulence, icing, lowlevel wind 8. Significant Meteorological Information
shear and IFR conditions. (SIGMET) Text/graphical report Potentially
REFERENCE hazardous en route phenomena such as thunder-
Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services. storms and hail, turbulence, icing, sand and dust
3. Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METAR) storms, tropical cyclones, and volcanic ash in an area
Text reports Surface meteorological data. The affecting 3,000 square miles or an area deemed to
body of the report includes airport identifier, time of have a significant effect on safety of aircraft
observation, wind, visibility, runway visual range, operations.
present weather phenomena, sky conditions, temper- REFERENCE
ature, dew point, and altimeter setting. Remarks may Advisory Circular AC0045, AviationWeather Services.
be appended to the end. 9. Special Use Airspace (SUA) Status

REFERENCE Text/graphical report Establishes/designates
Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services. airspace in the interest of National Defense, security
4. Special Aviation Reports (SPECI) Text and/or welfare. Charted SUA identifies to other
reports Non routine, unscheduled report when any airspace users where these activities occur. SUA is
of SPECI criteria have been met.Contains all data airspace of defined dimensions wherein activities
elements found in METAR plus additional informa- must be confined because of their nature, or wherein
tion which elaborates on data. limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations
that are not a part of those activities.
REFERENCE
Reference Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services. REFERENCE
FAA Order JO 7400.2G, Procedures for Handling Airspace Matters.
5. Next Generation Radar (NEXRAD)
10. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and
(CONUS and Regional) Derived from Next
their amendments (AMEND) Text report Routine
Generation Weather Radar (WSR88D). Radar
forecast that gives a concise statement of expected
mosaic consists of multiple single site radar images
meteorological conditions for a specified time period
combined to produce a graphical image on a regional
within five statute miles (SM) of the center of the
or national scale. Regional and national radar
airports runway complex (terminal). TAFs are
mosaics can be found at the National Weather Service
amended whenever they become, in the forecasters
(NWS) Doppler Radar Images web site:
judgment, unrepresentative of existing or expected
http://radar.weather.gov/ridge/.
conditions, particularly regarding those elements and
REFERENCE events significant to aircraft and airports. An
Advisory Circular AC0045, AviationWeather Services.
amended forecast is identified by TAF AMD (in place
6. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) Distant and of TAF) on the first line of the forecast text.
Flight Data Center (D/FDC) Text/graphical reports REFERENCE
includes Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services.

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11. Temperature Aloft Text report Computer prepared forecasts, based on North American
prepared forecasts, based on North American Mesoscale (NAM) forecast model run, of wind
Mesoscale (NAM) forecast model run, of temperat- direction and wind speed at specified times, altitudes,
ure at specified times, altitudes, and locations. and locations.
REFERENCE REFERENCE
Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services. Advisory Circular AC0045, Aviation Weather Services.
12. Winds Aloft Text report Computer-
TBL 452
FISB Basic Product Update and Transmission Intervals
FISB Service FISB Service

Product Update Interval1 Transmission Interval2
AIRMET As available 5 minutes
Convective SIGMET As available 5 minutes
METAR/SPECI Hourly/as available 5 minutes
NEXRAD Reflectivity (CONUS) 5 minutes 15 minutes
NEXRAD Reflectivity (Regional) 5 minutes 2.5 minutes
NOTAMD/FDC As available 10 minutes
PIREP As available 10 minutes
SIGMET As available 5 minutes
SUA Status As available 10 minutes
TAF/AMEND 8 hours/as available 10 minutes
Temperature Aloft 6 hours 10 minutes
Winds Aloft 6 hours 10 minutes
1The Update Interval is the rate at which the product data is available from the source.
2The Transmission Interval is the amount of time within which a new or updated product transmission must be
completed and the rate or repetition interval at which the product is rebroadcast.
NOTE
Details concerning the content, format, and symbols of the various data link products provided should be obtained from
the specific avionics manufacturer.
4510. Automatic Dependent information for rebroadcast and use on the other frequency.
SurveillanceRebroadcast (ADSR) This allows ADSB In equipped aircraft to see nearby
ADSB Out traffic regardless of the operating link of the
ADSR is a datalink translation function of the ADSB other aircraft. Aircraft operating on the same ADSB
ground system required to accommodate the two separate frequency exchange information directly and do not
operating frequencies (978 MHz and 1090 ES). The require the ADSR translation function.
ADSB system receives the ADSB messages transmitted
on one frequency and ADSR translates and reformats the

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Section 6. Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced

Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the Domestic
U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
461. Applicability and RVSM Mandate (MEDEVAC) operators, foreign State governments
(Date/Time and Area) and aircraft flown for certification and development.
Paragraph 4611, NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting
a. Applicability. The policies, guidance and Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels Above
direction in this section apply to RVSM operations in RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off,
the airspace over the lower 48 states, Alaska, Atlantic contains policies for nonRVSM aircraft climbing
and Gulf of Mexico High Offshore Airspace and and descending through RVSM airspace to/from
airspace in the San Juan FIR where VHF or UHF flight levels above RVSM airspace.
voice direct controllerpilot communication (DCPC)
is normally available. Policies, guidance and d. Benefits. RVSM enhances ATC flexibility,
direction for RVSM operations in oceanic airspace mitigates conflict points, enhances sector throughput,
where VHF or UHF voice DCPC is not available and reduces controller workload and enables crossing
the airspace of other countries are posted on the FAA traffic. Operators gain fuel savings and operating
RVSM Documentation Webpage described in efficiency benefits by flying at more fuel efficient
Paragraph 463, Aircraft and Operator Approval flight levels and on more user preferred routings.
Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and Data-
bases for Aircraft and Operator Approval. 462. Flight Level Orientation Scheme
b. Mandate. At 0901 UTC on January 20, 2005, Altitude assignments for direction of flight follow a
the FAA implemented RVSM between flight scheme of odd altitude assignment for magnetic
level (FL) 290410 (inclusive) in the following courses 000179 degrees and even altitudes for
airspace: the airspace of the lower 48 states of the magnetic courses 180359 degrees for flights up to
United States, Alaska, Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico and including FL 410, as indicated in FIG 461.
High Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR. (A FIG 461
chart showing the location of offshore airspace is Flight Level Orientation Scheme
posted on the Domestic U.S. RVSM (DRVSM)
Webpage. See paragraph 463.) On the same time
and date, RVSM was also introduced into the
adjoining airspace of Canada and Mexico to provide
a seamless environment for aircraft traversing those
borders. In addition, RVSM was implemented on the
same date in the Caribbean and South American
regions.
c. RVSM Authorization. In accordance with
14 CFR Section 91.180, with only limited excep-
tions, prior to operating in RVSM airspace, operators
and aircraft must have received RVSM authorization
from the responsible civil aviation authority. (See
Paragraph 4610, Procedures for Accommodation
of NonRVSM Aircraft.) If the operator or aircraft or
both have not been authorized for RVSM operations,
the aircraft will be referred to as a nonRVSM
aircraft. Paragraph 4610 discusses ATC policies NOTE
for accommodation of nonRVSM aircraft flown by Odd Flight Levels: Magnetic Course 000179 Degrees
the Department of Defense, Air Ambulance Even Flight Levels: Magnetic Course 180359 Degrees.
Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the 461
Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
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463. Aircraft and Operator Approval conduct RVSM operations in an area where they have
Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and not previously conducted RVSM operations, such as
Databases for Aircraft and Operator the U.S.
Approval
c. TCAS Equipage. TCAS equipage require-
a. RVSM Authority. 14 CFR Section 91.180 ments are contained in 14 CFR Sections 121.356,
applies to RVSM operations within the U.S. 14 CFR 125.224, 129.18 and 135.189. Part 91 Appendix G
Section 91.706 applies to RVSM operations outside does not contain TCAS equipage requirements
the U.S. Both sections require that the operator obtain specific to RVSM, however, Appendix G does
authorization prior to operating in RVSM airspace. require that aircraft equipped with TCAS II and flown
14 CFR Section 91.180 requires that, prior to in RVSM airspace be modified to incorporate
conducting RVSM operations within the U.S., the TCAS II Version 7.0 or a later version.
operator obtain authorization from the FAA or from d. Aircraft Monitoring. Operators are required
the responsible authority, as appropriate. In addition, to participate in the RVSM aircraft monitoring
it requires that the operator and the operators aircraft program. The Monitoring Requirements and
comply with the standards of 14 CFR Part 91 Procedures section of the RVSM Documentation
Appendix G (Operations in RVSM Airspace). Webpage contains policies and procedures for
participation in the monitoring program. Ground
b. Sources of Information. The FAA
based and GPSbased monitoring systems are
RVSM Website Homepage can be accessed at:
available for the Domestic RVSM program.
h t t p : / / w w w. f a a . g o v / a b o u t / o f f i c e _ o r g /
Monitoring is a quality control program that enables
headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/enroute/
the FAA and other civil aviation authorities to assess
rvsm/. The RVSM Documentation and Domestic
the inservice altitudekeeping performance of
RVSM webpages are linked to the RVSM
aircraft and operators.
Homepage. RVSM Documentation contains guid-
ance and direction for an operator to obtain aircraft e. Registration on RVSM Approvals Data-
and operator approval to conduct RVSM operations. bases. The Registration on RVSM Approvals
It provides information for DRVSM and oceanic and Database section of the RVSM Documentation
international RVSM airspace. It is recommended that Webpage provides policies/procedures for operator
operators planning to operate in Domestic U.S. and aircraft registration on RVSM approvals
RVSM airspace first review the following documents databases.
to orient themselves to the approval process.
1. Purpose of RVSM Approvals Databases.
1. Under Area of Operations Specific Informa- ATC does not use RVSM approvals databases to
tion, the document, Basic Operator Information on determine whether or not a clearance can be issued
DRVSM Programs, provides an overview of the into RVSM airspace. RVSM program managers do
DRVSM program and the related aircraft and regularly review the operators and aircraft that
operator approval programs. operate in RVSM airspace to identify and investigate
those aircraft and operators flying in RVSM airspace,
2. In the Getting Started section, review the but not listed on the RVSM approvals databases.
RVSM Approval Checklist U.S. Operators or
RVSM Approval Checklist NonU.S. Operators 2. Registration of U.S. Operators. When U.S.
(as applicable). These are job aids or checklists that operators and aircraft are granted RVSM authority,
show aircraft/operator approval process events with the FAA Flight Standards office makes an input to the
references to related RVSM documents published on FAA Program Tracking and Reporting Subsystem
the website. (PTRS). The Separation Standards Group at the FAA
Technical Center obtains PTRS operator and aircraft
3. Under Documents Applicable to All RVSM information to update the FAA maintained U.S.
Approvals, review RVSM Area New to the Operator/Aircraft RVSM Approvals Database. Basic
Operator. This document provides a guide for database operator and aircraft information can be
operators that are conducting RVSM operations in viewed on the RVSM Documentation Webpage by
one or more areas of operation, but are planning to clicking on the appropriate database icon.
462 Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the
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3. Registration of NonU.S. Operators. TBL 513 are for use only in an FAA Flight Plan
NonU.S. operators can find policy/procedures for (FAA Form 72331).
registration on the North American Approvals
2. Operators/aircraft that file ICAO flight plans
Registry and Monitoring Organization (NAARMO)
that include flight in Domestic U.S. RVSM airspace
database in the Registration on RVSM Approvals
must file /W in block 10 to indicate RVSM
Database section of RVSM Documentation.
authorization.
e. Importance of Flight Plan Equipment Suffixes.
464. Flight Planning into RVSM Airspace
The operator must file the appropriate equipment
a. Operators that do not file the correct aircraft suffix in the equipment block of the FAA Flight Plan
equipment suffix on the FAA or ICAO Flight Plan (FAA Form 72331) or the ICAO Flight Plan. The
may be denied clearance into RVSM airspace. equipment suffix informs ATC:
Policies for the FAA Flight Plan are detailed in 1. Whether or not the operator and aircraft are
subparagraph c below. Policies for the ICAO Flight authorized to fly in RVSM airspace.
Plan are detailed in subparagraph d.
2. The navigation and/or transponder capability
b. The operator will annotate the equipment block of the aircraft (e.g., advanced RNAV, transponder
of the FAA or ICAO Flight Plan with an aircraft with Mode C).
equipment suffix indicating RVSM capability only
after the responsible civil aviation authority has f. Significant ATC uses of the flight plan
determined that both the operator and its aircraft are equipment suffix information are:
RVSMcompliant and has issued RVSM authoriza- 1. To issue or deny clearance into RVSM
tion to the operator. airspace.
c. General Policies for FAA Flight Plan Equip- 2. To apply a 2,000 foot vertical separation
ment Suffix. TBL 513, Aircraft Suffixes, allows minimum in RVSM airspace to aircraft that are not
operators to indicate that the aircraft has both RVSM authorized for RVSM, but are in one of the limited
and Advanced Area Navigation (RNAV) capabilities categories that the FAA has agreed to accommodate.
or has only RVSM capability. (See Paragraphs 4610, Procedures for Accom-
modation of NonRVSM Aircraft, and 4611,
1. The operator will annotate the equipment
NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting Climb to and
block of the FAA Flight Plan with the appropriate
Descent from Flight Levels Above RVSM Airspace
aircraft equipment suffix from TBL 513.
Without Intermediate Level Off, for policy on limited
2. Operators can only file one equipment suffix operation of unapproved aircraft in RVSM airspace).
in block 3 of the FAA Flight Plan. Only this 3. To determine if the aircraft has Advanced
equipment suffix is displayed directly to the RNAV capabilities and can be cleared to fly
controller. procedures for which that capability is required.
3. Aircraft with RNAV Capability. For flight in
RVSM airspace, aircraft with RNAV capability, but 465. Pilot RVSM Operating Practices and
not Advanced RNAV capability, will file /W. Filing Procedures
/W will not preclude such aircraft from filing and
flying direct routes in en route airspace. a. RVSM Mandate. If either the operator or the
aircraft or both have not received RVSM authoriza-
d. Policy for ICAO Flight Plan Equipment tion (nonRVSM aircraft), the pilot will neither
Suffixes. request nor accept a clearance into RVSM airspace
unless:
1. Operators/aircraft that are RVSMcompliant
and that file ICAO flight plans will file /W in 1. The flight is conducted by a nonRVSM
block 10 (Equipment) to indicate RVSM authoriza- DOD, MEDEVAC, certification/development or
tion and will also file the appropriate ICAO Flight foreign State (government) aircraft in accordance
Plan suffixes to indicate navigation and communica- with Paragraph 4610, Procedures for Accom-
tion capabilities. The equipment suffixes in modation of NonRVSM Aircraft.
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2. The pilot intends to climb to or descend from up and down or wave motions in the atmosphere.
FL 430 or above in accordance with Para- Wave action can produce altitude excursions and
graph 4611, NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting airspeed fluctuations accompanied by only light
Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels Above turbulence. With sufficient amplitude, however,
RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off. wave action can induce altitude and airspeed
fluctuations accompanied by severe turbulence.
3. An emergency situation exists.
MWA is difficult to forecast and can be highly
b. Basic RVSM Operating Practices and localized and short lived.
Procedures. Appendix 4 of AC 9185, Authoriza- (b) Wave activity is not necessarily limited to
tion of Aircraft and Operators for Flight in Reduced the vicinity of mountain ranges. Pilots experiencing
Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace contains pilot wave activity anywhere that significantly affects
practices and procedures for RVSM. Operators must altitudekeeping can follow the guidance provided
incorporate Appendix 4 practices and procedures, as below.
supplemented by the applicable paragraphs of this
section, into operator training or pilot knowledge (c) Inflight MWA Indicators (Including Tur-
programs and operator documents containing RVSM bulence). Indicators that the aircraft is being
operational policies. subjected to MWA are:
c. Appendix 4 contains practices and procedures (1) Altitude excursions and/or airspeed
for flight planning, preflight procedures at the fluctuations with or without associated turbulence.
aircraft, procedures prior to RVSM airspace entry, (2) Pitch and trim changes required to
inflight (en route) procedures, contingency proce- maintain altitude with accompanying airspeed
dures and post flight. fluctuations.
d. The following paragraphs either clarify or (3) Light to severe turbulence depending
supplement Appendix 4 practices and procedures. on the magnitude of the MWA.
4. Priority for Controller Application of
466. Guidance on Severe Turbulence Merging Target Procedures
and Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) (a) Explanation of Merging Target Proce-
a. Introduction/Explanation dures. As described in subparagraph c3 below, ATC
will use merging target procedures to mitigate the
1. The information and practices in this effects of both severe turbulence and MWA. The
paragraph are provided to emphasize to pilots and procedures in subparagraph c3 have been adapted
controllers the importance of taking appropriate from existing procedures published in FAA Order JO
action in RVSM airspace when aircraft experience 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Paragraph 518,
severe turbulence and/or MWA that is of sufficient Merging Target Procedures. Paragraph 518 calls
magnitude to significantly affect altitudekeeping. for en route controllers to advise pilots of potential
2. Severe Turbulence. Severe turbulence traffic that they perceive may fly directly above or
causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or below his/her aircraft at minimum vertical separa-
attitude usually accompanied by large variations in tion. In response, pilots are given the option of
indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be momentarily out requesting a radar vector to ensure their radar target
of control. Encounters with severe turbulence must will not merge or overlap with the traffics radar
be remedied immediately in any phase of flight. target.
Severe turbulence may be associated with MWA. (b) The provision of merging target proce-
dures to mitigate the effects of severe turbulence
3. Mountain Wave Activity (MWA)
and/or MWA is not optional for the controller, but
(a) Significant MWA occurs both below and rather is a priority responsibility. Pilot requests for
above the floor of RVSM airspace, FL 290. MWA vectors for traffic avoidance when encountering
often occurs in western states in the vicinity of MWA or pilot reports of Unable RVSM due
mountain ranges. It may occur when strong winds turbulence or MWA are considered first priority
blow perpendicular to mountain ranges resulting in aircraft separation and sequencing responsibilities.
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(FAA Order JO 7110.65, Paragraph 212, Duty vectors to one or both passing aircraft to prevent their
Priority, states that the controllers first priority is to targets from merging:
separate aircraft and issue safety alerts). EXAMPLE
(c) Explanation of the term traffic permit- Yankee 123, FL 310, unable RVSM due severe
turbulence.
ting. The contingency actions for MWA and severe
turbulence detailed in Paragraph 469, Contingency Yankee 123, fly heading 290; traffic twelve oclock,
Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft System 10 miles, opposite direction; eastbound MD80 at
Failures that Occur After Entry into RVSM Airspace, FL 320 (or the controller may issue a vector to the
state that the controller will vector aircraft to avoid MD80 traffic to avoid Yankee 123).
merging targets with traffic at adjacent flight levels, 3. MWA. When pilots encounter MWA, they
traffic permitting. The term traffic permitting is should contact ATC and report the magnitude and
not intended to imply that merging target procedures location of the wave activity. When a controller
are not a priority duty. The term is intended to makes a merging targets traffic call, the pilot may
recognize that, as stated in FAA Order JO 7110.65, request a vector to avoid flying directly over or under
Paragraph 212, Duty Priority, there are circum- the traffic. In situations where the pilot is
stances when the controller is required to perform experiencing altitude deviations of 200 feet or
more than one action and must exercise their best greater, the pilot will request a vector to avoid traffic.
judgment based on the facts and circumstances Until the pilot reports clear of MWA, the controller
known to them to prioritize their actions. Further will apply merging target vectors to one or both
direction given is: That action which is most critical passing aircraft to prevent their targets from merging:
from a safety standpoint is performed first.
EXAMPLE
5. TCAS Sensitivity. For both MWA and Yankee 123, FL 310, unable RVSM due mountain wave.
severe turbulence encounters in RVSM airspace, an
additional concern is the sensitivity of collision Yankee 123, fly heading 290; traffic twelve oclock,
avoidance systems when one or both aircraft 10 miles, opposite direction; eastbound MD80 at
operating in close proximity receive TCAS adviso- FL 320 (or the controller may issue a vector to the
MD80 traffic to avoid Yankee 123).
ries in response to disruptions in altitude hold
capability. 4. FL Change or Reroute. To leave airspace
where MWA or severe turbulence is being
b. Preflight tools. Sources of observed and encountered, the pilot may request a FL change
forecast information that can help the pilot ascertain and/or reroute, if necessary.
the possibility of MWA or severe turbulence are:
Forecast Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FD), Area 467. Guidance on Wake Turbulence
Forecast (FA), Graphical Turbulence Guidance
(GTG), SIGMETs and PIREPs. a. Pilots should be aware of the potential for wake
turbulence encounters in RVSM airspace. Experience
c. Pilot Actions When Encountering Weather gained since 1997 has shown that such encounters in
(e.g., Severe Turbulence or MWA) RVSM airspace are generally moderate or less in
1. Weather Encounters Inducing Altitude magnitude.
Deviations of Approximately 200 feet. When the b. Prior to DRVSM implementation, the FAA
pilot experiences weather induced altitude deviations established provisions for pilots to report wake
of approximately 200 feet, the pilot will contact ATC turbulence events in RVSM airspace using the NASA
and state Unable RVSM Due (state reason) Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). A
(e.g., turbulence, mountain wave). See contingency Safety Reporting section established on the FAA
actions in paragraph 469. RVSM Documentation webpage provides contacts,
2. Severe Turbulence (including that associ- forms, and reporting procedures.
ated with MWA). When pilots encounter severe c. To date, wake turbulence has not been reported
turbulence, they should contact ATC and report the as a significant factor in DRVSM operations.
situation. Until the pilot reports clear of severe European authorities also found that reports of wake
turbulence, the controller will apply merging target turbulence encounters did not increase significantly
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after RVSM implementation (eight versus seven NOTE

reports in a tenmonth period). In addition, they 1. Offsets of approximately a wing span upwind generally
found that reported wake turbulence was generally can move the aircraft out of the immediate vicinity of
similar to moderate clear air turbulence. another aircrafts wake vortex.
2. In domestic U.S. airspace, pilots must request clearance
d. Pilot Action to Mitigate Wake Turbulence to fly a lateral offset. Strategic lateral offsets flown in
Encounters oceanic airspace do not apply.
1. Pilots should be alert for wake turbulence e. The FAA will track wake turbulence events as
when operating: an element of its post implementation program. The
FAA will advertise wake turbulence reporting
(a) In the vicinity of aircraft climbing or procedures to the operator community and publish
descending through their altitude. reporting procedures on the RVSM Documentation
Webpage (See address in Paragraph 463, Aircraft
(b) Approximately 1030 miles after passing
and Operator Approval Policy/Procedures, RVSM
1,000 feet below oppositedirection traffic.
Monitoring and Databases for Aircraft and Operator
(c) Approximately 1030 miles behind and Approval.
1,000 feet below samedirection traffic.
468. Pilot/Controller Phraseology
2. Pilots encountering or anticipating wake
turbulence in DRVSM airspace have the option of TBL 461 shows standard phraseology that pilots
requesting a vector, FL change, or if capable, a lateral and controllers will use to communicate in DRVSM
offset. operations.
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TBL 461
Pilot/Controller Phraseology
Message Phraseology
For a controller to ascertain the RVSM approval status of (call sign) confirm RVSM approved
an aircraft:
Pilot indication that flight is RVSM approved Affirm RVSM
Pilot report of lack of RVSM approval (nonRVSM status). Negative RVSM, (supplementary information,
Pilot will report nonRVSM status, as follows: e.g., Certification flight).
a. On the initial call on any frequency in the RVSM
airspace and . . ..
b. In all requests for flight level changes pertaining to
flight levels within the RVSM airspace and . . ..
c. In all read backs to flight level clearances pertaining
to flight levels within the RVSM airspace and . . ..
d. In read back of flight level clearances involving
climb and descent through RVSM airspace
(FL 290 410).
Pilot report of one of the following after entry into RVSM Unable RVSM Due Equipment
airspace: all primary altimeters, automatic altitude control
systems or altitude alerters have failed.
(See Paragraph 469, Contingency Actions: Weather
Encounters and Aircraft System Failures that Occur After
Entry into RVSM Airspace.)
NOTE
This phrase is to be used to convey both the initial indication of
RVSM aircraft system failure and on initial contact on all
frequencies in RVSM airspace until the problem ceases to exist
or the aircraft has exited RVSM airspace.
ATC denial of clearance into RVSM airspace Unable issue clearance into RVSM airspace, maintain FL
*Pilot reporting inability to maintain cleared flight level *Unable RVSM due (state reason) (e.g., turbulence,
due to weather encounter. mountain wave)
(See Paragraph 469, Contingency Actions: Weather
Encounters and Aircraft System Failures that Occur After
Entry into RVSM Airspace.).
ATC requesting pilot to confirm that an aircraft has Confirm able to resume RVSM
regained RVSMapproved status or a pilot is ready to
resume RVSM
Pilot ready to resume RVSM after aircraft system or Ready to resume RVSM
weather contingency
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469. Contingency Actions: Weather failure that occur after entry into RVSM airspace
Encounters and Aircraft System Failures and weather encounters. It also describes the
that Occur After Entry into RVSM Airspace expected ATC controller actions in these situations. It
is recognized that the pilot and controller will use
TBL 462 provides pilot guidance on actions to judgment to determine the action most appropriate to
take under certain conditions of aircraft system any given situation.
TBL 462
Contingency Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft System Failures that Occur After Entry into RVSM
Airspace
Initial Pilot Actions in Contingency Situations

Initial pilot actions when unable to maintain flight level (FL) or unsure of aircraft altitudekeeping
capability:
SNotify ATC and request assistance as detailed below.
SMaintain cleared flight level, to the extent possible, while evaluating the situation.
SWatch for conflicting traffic both visually and by reference to TCAS, if equipped.
SAlert nearby aircraft by illuminating exterior lights (commensurate with aircraft limitations).
Severe Turbulence and/or Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) Induced

Altitude Deviations of Approximately 200 feet
Pilot will: Controller will:
SWhen experiencing severe turbulence and/or SVector aircraft to avoid merging target with
MWA induced altitude deviations of traffic at adjacent flight levels, traffic permitting
approximately 200 feet or greater, pilot will
contact ATC and state Unable RVSM Due (state SAdvise pilot of conflicting traffic
reason) (e.g., turbulence, mountain wave)
SIssue FL change or reroute, traffic permitting
SIf not issued by the controller, request vector
clear of traffic at adjacent FLs SIssue PIREP to other aircraft
SIf desired, request FL change or reroute
SReport location and magnitude of turbulence or

MWA to ATC
See Paragraph 466, Guidance on Severe Paragraph 466 explains traffic permitting.
Turbulence and Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) for
detailed guidance.
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Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) Encounters General

Pilot actions: Controller actions:
Contact ATC and report experiencing MWA Advise pilot of conflicting traffic at adjacent FL
If so desired, pilot may request a FL change or If pilot requests, vector aircraft to avoid merging
reroute target with traffic at adjacent RVSM flight levels,
traffic permitting
Report location and magnitude of MWA to ATC
Issue FL change or reroute, traffic permitting
Issue PIREP to other aircraft

See paragraph 466 for guidance on MWA. Paragraph 466 explains traffic permitting.
NOTE
MWA encounters do not necessarily result in altitude deviations on the order of 200 feet. The guidance below is
intended to address less significant MWA encounters.
Wake Turbulence Encounters

Pilot should: Controller should:
Contact ATC and request vector, FL change or, Issue vector, FL change or lateral offset
if capable, a lateral offset clearance, traffic permitting
See Paragraph 467, Guidance on Wake Paragraph 466 explains traffic permitting.
Turbulence.
Unable RVSM Due Equipment

Failure of Automatic Altitude Control System, Altitude Alerter or All Primary Altimeters
Contact ATC and state Unable RVSM Due Provide 2,000 feet vertical separation or
Equipment appropriate horizontal separation
Request clearance out of RVSM airspace unless Clear aircraft out of RVSM airspace unless
operational situation dictates otherwise operational situation dictates otherwise
One Primary Altimeter Remains Operational

Cross check standby altimeter Acknowledge operation with single primary
altimeter
Notify ATC of operation with single primary
altimeter
If unable to confirm primary altimeter accuracy,

follow actions for failure of all primary altimeters
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Transponder Failure
Contact ATC and request authority to continue Consider request to continue to operate at
to operate at cleared flight level cleared flight level
Comply with revised ATC clearance, if issued Issue revised clearance, if necessary
NOTE
14 CFR Section 91.215 (ATC transponder and altitude
reporting equipment and use) regulates operation with the
transponder inoperative.
4610. Procedures for Accommodation of b. Categories of NonRVSM Aircraft that may

NonRVSM Aircraft be Accommodated
a. General Policies for Accommodation of Subject to FAA approval and clearance, the following
NonRVSM Aircraft categories of nonRVSM aircraft may operate in
1. The RVSM mandate calls for only RVSM domestic U.S. RVSM airspace provided they have an
authorized aircraft/operators to fly in designated operational transponder.
RVSM airspace with limited exceptions. The policies 1. Department of Defense (DOD) aircraft.
detailed below are intended exclusively for use by
aircraft that the FAA has agreed to accommodate. 2. Flights conducted for aircraft certification
They are not intended to provide other operators a and development purposes.
means to circumvent the normal RVSM approval 3. Active air ambulance flights utilizing a
process. MEDEVAC call sign.
2. If either the operator or aircraft or both have 4. Aircraft climbing/descending through
not been authorized to conduct RVSM operations, the RVSM flight levels (without intermediate level off)
aircraft will be referred to as a nonRVSM aircraft. to/from FLs above RVSM airspace (Policies for these
14 CFR Section 91.180 and Part 91 Appendix G flights are detailed in Paragraph 4611, NonRVSM
enable the FAA to authorize a deviation to operate a Aircraft Requesting Climb to and Descent from
nonRVSM aircraft in RVSM airspace. Flight Levels Above RVSM Airspace Without
3. NonRVSM aircraft flights will be handled Intermediate Level Off.
on a workload permitting basis. The vertical 5. Foreign State (government) aircraft.
separation standard applied between aircraft not
approved for RVSM and all other aircraft must be c. Methods for operators of nonRVSM aircraft to
2,000 feet. request access to RVSM Airspace. Operators may:
4. Required Pilot Calls. The pilot of non 1. LOA/MOU. Enter into a Letter of Agree-
RVSM aircraft will inform the controller of the lack ment (LOA)/Memorandum of Understanding
of RVSM approval in accordance with the direction (MOU) with the RVSM facility (the Air Traffic
provided in Paragraph 468, Pilot/Controller facility that provides air traffic services in RVSM
Phraseology. airspace). Operators must comply with LOA/MOU.
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2. FileandFly. File a flight plan to notify the b. NonRVSM aircraft climbing to and descend-
FAA of their intention to request access to RVSM ing from flight levels above RVSM airspace will be
airspace. handled on a workload permitting basis. The vertical
NOTE separation standard applied in RVSM airspace
Priority for access to RVSM airspace will be afforded to between nonRVSM aircraft and all other aircraft
RVSM compliant aircraft, then FileandFly flights. must be 2,000 feet.
d. Center Phone Numbers. Center phone num- c. NonRVSM aircraft climbing to/descending
bers are posted on the RVSM Documentation from RVSM airspace can only be considered for
Webpage, North American RVSM, Domestic U.S. accommodation provided:
RVSM section. This address provides direct access to
the phone number listing: 1. Aircraft is capable of a continuous climb/
descent and does not need to level off at an
h t t p : / / w w w. f a a . g o v / a t s / a t o / 1 5 0 _ d o c s / intermediate altitude for any operational consider-
Center_Phone_No._NonRVSM_Acft.doc ations and
4611. NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting 2. Aircraft is capable of climb/descent at the

Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels normal rate for the aircraft.
Above RVSM Airspace Without
d. Required Pilot Calls. The pilot of nonRVSM
Intermediate Level Off
aircraft will inform the controller of the lack of
a. FileandFly. Operators of NonRVSM air- RVSM approval in accordance with the direction
craft climbing to and descending from RVSM flight provided in Paragraph 468, Pilot/Controller
levels should just file a flight plan. Phraseology.
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Section 7. Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of

Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative
471. Introduction and Background 4. Accommodate the operation of the small

percentage of flights not authorized RNP 10.
a. Introduction. On 20 October 2011 at 0900
UTC, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 5. Establish a policy that aircraft equipped with
Servicis a la Navegacion en el Espacio Areo a Single Long-Range Navigation System (S-LRNS)
Mexicano (SENEAM) and the Direccion General de can qualify for RNP 10 operations in the Gulf of
Aeronautica Civil (DGAC) Mexico implemented 50 Mexico in accordance with the ICAO PBN Manual
Nautical Mile (NM) lateral separation between and the appropriate FAA and DGAC documents. (See
aircraft authorized Required Navigation Perform- paragraph 477 e.)
ance 10 (RNP 10) or RNP 4 operating in the Gulf of e. Control Areas (CTA) Affected. 50 NM lateral
Mexico (GoMex) Oceanic Control Areas (CTA). separation is implemented in the following CTAs/
Existing Air Traffic Services (ATS) routes and route FIRs/Upper Control Areas (UTA).
operating policies did not change for this implement-
ation. 1 The Houston Oceanic CTA/FIR and the
Gulf of Mexico portion of the Miami Oceanic
b. RNP 10 Versus RNAV 10 Terminology. RNP CTA/FIR.
10 has the same meaning and application as RNAV
(a) The Monterrey CTA and Merida High
10. The ICAO Performance-based Navigation
CTA within the Mexico FIR/UTA
(PBN) Manual (ICAO Doc 9613), Volume II, Part B,
Chapter 1 (Implementing RNAV 10, Designated and f. Policy and Procedures Coordination with
Authorized as RNP 10) explains that the term RNP SENEAM and the DGAC. The policies and
10 was in use before the publication of the ICAO procedures were coordinated with SENEAM and the
PBN Manual and the manual has grandfathered in Mexico DGAC. They are applied in the GoMex
its continued use when implementing an RNAV 10 CTAs where the FAA and SENEAM provide Air
navigation specification. Traffic Control.
c. Background. 50 NM lateral separation was 472. Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral
first applied between aircraft authorized for RNP 10 Separation Initiative Web Page: Policy,
operations on the North Pacific Route System in Procedures and Guidance for Operators
April 1998. Since that time, 50 NM lateral separation and Regulators
has been expanded throughout the Pacific Flight
Information Regions (FIRs) and is currently applied Information on plans, policies and procedures for 50
in other airspaces, including, starting in June 2008, NM lateral separation is posted on the Gulf of
the West Atlantic Route System. GoMex 50 NM Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Web Page:
lateral separation implementation will apply the http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquar-
experience gained in those operations. ters_offices/ato/service_units/enroute/oceanic/gome
d. Project Objectives. The project objectives x/
were to: The web page contains detailed guidance on operator
and aircraft authorization for RNP 10 or RNP 4 and
1. Reduce lateral separation to 50 NM between
includes Job Aids with FAA and ICAO document
aircraft authorized RNP 10 or RNP 4.
references.
2. Leave existing ATS routes and operating
policies in place. 473. Lateral Separation Minima Applied
3. Have approximately 90% of flights conduc- a. 50 NM lateral separation is applied in the
ted by operators/aircraft over the Gulf of Mexico GoMex CTAs between aircraft authorized RNP 10 or
authorized for RNP 10 or RNP 4 operations by the RNP 4 at all altitudes above the floor of controlled
appropriate State authority. airspace.
Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative 471
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b. The current lateral separation minima of 100 e. NonRNP10 aircraft are encouraged to operate at
NM in the Houston, Monterrey and Merida CTAs, altitudes above those where traffic is most dense (i.e.,
and 90 NM in the Miami Oceanic CTA will continues at/above FL 380), if possible. NonRNP10 aircraft
to be applied between aircraft not authorized RNP 10 should plan on completing their climb to or descent
or RNP 4. from higher FLs within radar coverage, if possible.
474. Operation on Routes on the 476. Operator Action

periphery of the Gulf of Mexico CTAs In order to maximize operational flexibility provided
Operations on certain routes that fall within the by 50 NM lateral separation, operators capable of
boundaries of affected CTAs are not affected by the meeting RNP 10 or RNP 4 that operate on oceanic
introduction of 50 NM lateral separation. Operation routes or areas in the GoMex CTAs should obtain
on the following routes is not affected: authorization for RNP 10 or RNP 4 and annotate the
ICAO flight plan accordingly.
a. Routes that are flown by reference to ICAO NOTE
standard ground-based navigation aids (VOR, 1. RNP 10 is the minimum Navigation Specification
VOR/DME, NDB). (NavSpec) required for the application of 50 NM lateral
separation. RNP 4 is an operator option. Operators/air-
b. Special Area Navigation (RNAV) routes Q100,
craft authorized RNP 4 are not required to also obtain
Q102 and Q105 in the Houston, Jacksonville and RNP 10 authorization.
Miami CTAs.
2. RNP navigation specification (e.g., RNP 10) is the
term adopted in the ICAO Performance-based Navigation
475. Provisions for Accommodation of (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613). It replaces the term RNP
NonRNP10 Aircraft (Aircraft Not Authorized type.
RNP 10 or RNP 4)
477. RNP 10 or RNP 4 Authorization:
a. Operators of NonRNP10 aircraft must annotate
Policy and Procedures for Aircraft and
ICAO flight plan Item 18 as follows:
Operators
STS/NONRNP10 (no space between letters and a. RNP NavSpecs Applicable To Oceanic Opera-
numbers). tions. In accordance with ICAO guidance, RNP 10
b. Pilots of NonRNP10 aircraft that operate in and RNP 4 are the only NavSpecs applicable to
GoMex CTAs must report the lack of authorization oceanic and remote area operations. Other RNAV and
by stating Negative RNP 10: RNP NavSpecs are applicable to continental en route,
terminal area and approach operations.
1. On initial call to ATC in a GoMex CTA:
b. FAA Documents. The guidance and direction
2. In read back of a clearance to climb to or of FAA Order 8400.12 (as amended) (RNP 10
descend from cruise altitude. (See paragraph Operational Authorization) is used to grant RNP 10
475 e); and authorization to operators and aircraft for which the
3. When approval status is requested by the FAA is responsible. FAA Order 8400.33 (as
controller. (See paragraph 479 e.) amended) (Procedures for Obtaining Authorization
for RNP 4 Oceanic/Remote Area Operations) is used
c. Operators of NonRNP10 aircraft must not to authorize RNP 4. The FAA RNP 10 and RNP 4
annotate ICAO flight plan Item 18 (Other orders are consistent with the ICAO PBN Manual
Information) with PBN/A1 or PBN/L1 if they have guidance discussed below. FAA and ICAO docu-
not obtained RNP 10 or RNP 4 authorization. ments are posted on the FAA Gulf of Mexico 50 NM
Lateral Separation Initiative Web Page.
d. NonRNP10 operators/aircraft may file any
route at any altitude in a GoMex CTA. They will be c. ICAO Performance-based Navigation (PBN)
cleared to operate on their preferred routes and Manual (ICAO Doc 9613). Guidance for authoriza-
altitudes as traffic permits. 50 NM lateral separation tion of RNP 10 and RNP 4 is provided in ICAO Doc
will not be applied to NonRNP10 aircraft. 9613. RNP 10 is addressed in Volume II, Part B;
472 Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative
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Chapter 1. RNP 4 is addressed in Volume II, Part C; navigation aids, the availability of radar and VHF
Chapter 1. coverage in a large portion of GoMex airspace and the
absence of events attributed to S-LRNS in GoMex
d. RNP 10 and RNP 4 Job Aids. Operators and operations.
authorities are encouraged to use the RNP 10 or RNP
4 Job Aids posted on the FAA Gulf of Mexico 50 NM 4. Document Revision. The following docu-
Lateral Separation Initiative Web Page. For U.S. ments were revised or created to enable
operators, one set of RNP 10 and RNP 4 Job Aids implementation of the S-LRNS/RNP 10 qualifica-
provides references to FAA documents. For tion policy:
international operators, a second set of Job Aids
(a) FAA Order 8400.12
provide references to the ICAO PBN Manual. These
Job Aids address the operational and airworthiness (b) FAA Order 8900.1 (Flight Standards
elements of aircraft and operator authorization and Information Management System (FSIMS))
provide references to appropriate document para-
graphs. The Job Aids provide a method for operators (c) Paragraph B054 of FAA Operations
to develop and authorities to track the operator/air- Specifications and Management Specifications
craft program elements required for RNP 10 or RNP (Class II Navigation Using Single Long-Range
4 authorization. Navigation System)
e. Qualification of Aircraft Equipped With a (d) LOA B054 (Class II Navigation Using
Single Long-Range Navigation System (S-LRNS) Single Long-Range Navigation System (S-LRNS)
For RNP 10 Operations In GoMex CTAs. Equipped Airplane Authorized RNP 10) (LOAs are
applicable to International General Aviation operat-
1. Background. S-LRNS operations in the Gulf ors.)
of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the other
designated areas have been conducted for at least 25 (e) FAA RNP 10 Job Aid with FAA Order
years. Provisions allowing aircraft equipage with a 8400.12 references
S-LRNS for operations in specified oceanic and (f) RNP 10 Job Aid with ICAO PBN Manual
off-shore areas are contained in the following references
sections of 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR):
91.511, 121.351, 125.203 and 135.165. 5. S-LRNS/RNP 10 Authorization Limited To
GoMex. At this time, S-LRNS qualification for RNP
2. ICAO PBN Manual Reference. In reference 10 only applies to GoMex operations. Any expansion
to RNP 10 authorization, the ICAO PBN Manual, of this provision will require assessment and
Volume II, Part B, Chapter 1, paragraph 1.3.6.2 states agreement by the appropriate State authorities.
that: A State authority may approve the use of a
single LRNS in specific circumstances (e.g., North f. RNP 10 Time Limit for INS or IRU Only
Atlantic MNPS and 14 CFR 121.351 (c) refer). An Equipped Aircraft. Operators should review their
RNP 10 approval is still required. Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), AFM Supplement or
other appropriate documents and/or contact the
3. Policy Development. The FAA worked with airplane or avionics manufacturer to determine the
the ICAO NACC Office (North American, Central RNP 10 time limit applicable to their aircraft. They
American and Caribbean), State regulators and ATS will then need to determine its effect, if any, on their
providers in the GoMex and Caribbean areas to operation. Unless otherwise approved, the basic RNP
implement a policy for S-LRNS equipped aircraft to 10 time limit is 6.2 hours between position updates
qualify for RNP 10 for GoMex operations. Allowing for aircraft on which Inertial Navigation Systems
S-LRNS equipped aircraft to qualify for RNP 10 (INS) or Inertial Reference Units (IRU) provide the
enables more operator aircraft to be authorized RNP only source of long range navigation. Extended RNP
10, thereby creating a more uniform operating 10 time limits of 10 hours and greater are already
environment for the application of 50 NM lateral approved for many IRU systems. FAA Order 8400.12
separation. The factors considered were: the contains provisions for extending RNP 10 time
shortness of the legs outside the range of ground limits.
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478. Flight Planning Requirements operators should indicate their PBN capability per
paragraph 519 b 8 items 18 (c) and 18 (d).
Operators must make ICAO flight plan annotations
in accordance with this paragraph and, if applicable, 3. Multiple NAV/ Entries. Operators should be
Paragraph 475, Provisions for Accommodation of aware that if they make multiple NAV/ entries in a
NonRNP10 Aircraft (Aircraft Not Authorized RNP flight plan filed with EUROCONTROL, only the last
10 or RNP 4). NAV/ entry will be forwarded to the next ATC
facility. For example, if NAV/RNVD1E2A1 and
a. ICAO Flight Plan Requirement. ICAO flight NAV/RNP10 are entered, only NAV/RNP10 will
plans must be filed for operation on oceanic routes be forwarded. Multiple NAV/ entries should,
and areas in the Houston Oceanic CTA/FIR, the Gulf therefore, be consolidated following a single NAV/
of Mexico portion of the Miami CTA/FIR, the indicator.
Monterrey CTA and Merida High CTA.
4. Recommendation. Item 18 entries made in
b. To inform ATC that they have obtained RNP 10 accordance with paragraph 4-7-8 e 2. above will limit
or RNP 4 authorization and are eligible for 50 NM the number of characters needed to show domestic
lateral separation, operators must: U.S. RNAV and oceanic RNP capabilities and
mitigate the chance that one or the other will not be
1. Annotate ICAO Flight Plan Item 10 forwarded for use by FAA domestic and oceanic
(Equipment) with the letter R and automation systems.
2. Annotate Item 18 (Other Information) with, f. Implementation of ICAO Doc 4444, Revised
as appropriate, PBN/A1 (for RNP10) or PBN/L1 Appendix 2 (Flight Plan). ICAO Doc 4444,
(for RNP4). Amendment 1 revises Appendix 2 (Flight Plan).
NOTE Specifically, Amendment 1 revises the flight plan
1. See paragraph 478e. It provides recommended annotations in Item 10 (Equipment) and Item 18
filing practices for domestic U.S. RNAV operations and (Other Information) that show aircraft communica-
filing with EUROCONTROL. tions, navigation and surveillance capabilities. The
2. On the ICAO Flight Plan, the letter R in Item 10 new Appendix 2 flight plan annotations will be
indicates that the flight is authorized for PBN operations. required on 15 November 2012. The following
Item 18 PBN/ indicates the types of PBN capabilities that Websites provide information on implementation
are authorized. planning:
c. 50 NM lateral separation will only be applied to 1. FAA Website: http://www.faa.gov/go/
operators/aircraft that annotate the ICAO flight plan fpl2012.
in accordance with this policy. (See 478 b.) 2. ICAO Flight Plan Implementation Tracking
System (FITS): http://www2.icao.int/en/FITS/
d. Operators that have not obtained RNP 10 or
Pages/home.aspx.
RNP 4 authorization must not annotate ICAO flight
plan Item 18 (Other information) with PBN/A1 or
PBN/L1, but must follow the practices detailed in 479. Pilot and Dispatcher Procedures:
paragraph 475. Basic and In-flight Contingency
Procedures
e. Recommendation for Filing to Show Domestic a. Basic Pilot Procedures. The RNP 10 and RNP
U.S. RNAV and Oceanic RNP Capabilities. 4 Job Aids contain references to pilot and, if
1. Explanation. The FAA program that allows applicable, dispatcher procedures contained in:
operators to communicate their domestic U.S. RNAV 1. FAA Order 8400.12C (RNP 10), Appendix D
capabilities to ATC. It is explained in paragraph (Training Programs and Operating Practices and
519 b 8 items 18 (c) and 18 (d). Procedures)
2. Recommendation. It is recommended that 2. FAA Order 8400.33 (RNP 4): Paragraph 9
operators provide their PBN capability for oceanic (Operational Requirements) and Paragraph 10
operations by filing: PBN/A1 (for RNP10) or (Training Programs, Operating Practices and Proced-
PBN/L1 (for RNP4). For domestic operations, ures)
474 Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative
1/8/15
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3. ICAO PBN Manual, Volume II, Part B, d. Pilot Report of NonRNP10 Status. The pilot
Chapter 1 (RNP 10) must report the lack of RNP 10 or RNP 4 status in
accordance with the following:
4. ICAO PBN Manual, Volume II, Part C,
Chapter 1 (RNP 4) 1. When the operator/aircraft is not authorized
RNP 10 or RNP 4. See paragraph 475.
b. ICAO Doc 4444, Chapter 15, In-flight
Contingency Procedures. Doc 4444 Chapter 15 2. If approval status is requested by the
contains important guidance for pilot training controller in accordance with paragraph 479 e.
programs. For ease of reference, significant Chapter e. Pilot Statement of RNP 10 or RNP 4
15 paragraphs are posted on the Gulf of Mexico 50 Approval Status, If Requested. If requested by the
NM Lateral Separation Web Page. Chapter 15 controller, the pilot must communicate approval
paragraphs posted on the website include: status using the following phraseology:
1. Paragraph 15.2 (Special Procedures for
In-Flight Contingencies in Oceanic Airspace). Controller Request:
Paragraph 15.2.2 (General Procedures) provides (Call sign) confirm RNP 10 or 4 approved
guidance for in-flight diversions, turn-backs and for
loss of, or significant reduction in, required Pilot Response:
navigation capability when operating in an airspace Affirm RNP 10 approved or Affirm RNP 4
where the navigation performance accuracy is a approved, as appropriate, or
prerequisite to the safe conduct of flight operations.
Negative RNP 10 (See paragraph 475 for
2. Paragraph 15.2.3 (Weather Deviation Pro- NonRNP10 aircraft procedures.)
cedures). Paragraph 15.2.3 provides guidance for
events where the pilot is able to obtain a clearance f. Pilot action when navigation system mal-
prior to deviating from track to avoid convective functions. In addition to the actions suggested in
weather and for events where the pilot is unable to ICAO Doc. 4444, Chapter 15, when pilots suspect a
obtain clearance prior to deviating. navigation system malfunction, the following actions
c. Strategic Lateral Offset Procedures (SLOP). should be taken:
Pilots should use SLOP procedures in the course of 1. Immediately inform ATC of navigation
regular oceanic operations. SLOP procedures are system malfunction or failure.
published in ICAO Document 4444, 15th Edition,
2. Accounting for wind drift, fly magnetic
Amendment 2, paragraph 16.5 and FAA Notices.
compass heading to maintain track.
They are posted on the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral
Separation Web Page and are addressed in the RNP 3. Request radar vectors from ATC, when
10 and RNP 4 Job Aids. available.
1/8/15
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Chapter 5. Air Traffic Procedures

Section 1. Preflight
511. Preflight Preparation and including the number indicated in the FDC NOTAM
legend. Printed NOTAMs are not provided during a
a. Every pilot is urged to receive a preflight briefing unless specifically requested by the pilot since the
briefing and to file a flight plan. This briefing should FSS specialist has no way of knowing whether the pilot has
consist of the latest or most current weather, airport, already checked the Notices to Airmen Publication prior to
and en route NAVAID information. Briefing service calling. Remember to ask for NOTAMs in the Notices to
may be obtained from an FSS either by telephone, by Airmen Publication. This information is not normally
radio when airborne, or by a personal visit to the furnished during your briefing.
station. Pilots with a current medical certificate in the REFERENCE
AIM, Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System, Paragraph 513.
48 contiguous States may access Lockheed Martin
Flight Services or the Direct User Access Terminal e. Pilots are urged to use only the latest issue of
System (DUATS) via the internet. Lockheed Martin aeronautical charts in planning and conducting flight
Flight Services and DUATS will provide preflight operations. Aeronautical charts are revised and
weather data and allow pilots to file domestic VFR or reissued on a regular scheduled basis to ensure that
IFR flight plans. depicted data are current and reliable. In the
conterminous U.S., Sectional Charts are updated
REFERENCE
AIM, FAA Weather Services, Paragraph 712, lists DUATS vendors.
every 6 months, IFR En Route Charts every 56 days,
and amendments to civil IFR Approach Charts are
NOTE
accomplished on a 56day cycle with a change notice
Pilots filing flight plans via fast file who desire to have
their briefing recorded, should include a statement at the volume issued on the 28day midcycle. Charts that
end of the recording as to the source of their weather have been superseded by those of a more recent date
briefing. may contain obsolete or incomplete flight
information.
b. The information required by the FAA to process
REFERENCE
flight plans is contained on FAA Form 72331, Flight AIM, General Description of Each Chart Series, Paragraph 914.
Plan, or FAA Form 72334, International Flight Plan.
f. When requesting a preflight briefing, identify
The forms are available at all flight service stations.
yourself as a pilot and provide the following:
Additional copies will be provided on request.
REFERENCE
1. Type of flight planned; e.g., VFR or IFR.
AIM, Flight Plan VFR Flights, Paragraph 514
AIM, Flight Plan IFR Flights, Paragraph 518
2. Aircrafts number or pilots name.
AIM, International Flight Plan IFR Flights, Paragraph 519 3. Aircraft type.
c. Consult an FSS, Lockheed Martin Flight 4. Departure Airport.
Services, or DUATS for preflight weather briefing.
5. Route of flight.
d. FSSs are required to advise of pertinent
NOTAMs if a standard briefing is requested, but if 6. Destination.
they are overlooked, dont hesitate to remind the 7. Flight altitude(s).
specialist that you have not received NOTAM
8. ETD and ETE.
information.
g. Prior to conducting a briefing, briefers are
NOTE
required to have the background information listed
NOTAMs which are known in sufficient time for
publication and are of 7 days duration or longer are above so that they may tailor the briefing to the needs
normally incorporated into the Notices to Airmen of the proposed flight. The objective is to
Publication and carried there until cancellation time. FDC communicate a picture of meteorological and
NOTAMs, which apply to instrument flight procedures, are aeronautical information necessary for the conduct of
also included in the Notices to Airmen Publication up to a safe and efficient flight. Briefers use all available
Preflight 511
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weather and aeronautical information to summarize 2. File a flight plan. This is an excellent low cost
data applicable to the proposed flight. They do not insurance policy. The cost is the time it takes to fill it
read weather reports and forecasts verbatim unless out. The insurance includes the knowledge that
specifically requested by the pilot. FSS briefers do someone will be looking for you if you become
not provide FDC NOTAM information for special overdue at your destination.
instrument approach procedures unless specifically 3. Use current charts.
asked. Pilots authorized by the FAA to use special
instrument approach procedures must specifically 4. Use the navigation aids. Practice maintaining
request FDC NOTAM information for these a good coursekeep the needle centered.
procedures. Pilots who receive the information 5. Maintain a constant altitude which is
electronically will receive NOTAMs for special IAPs appropriate for the direction of flight.
automatically.
6. Estimate en route position times.
REFERENCE
AIM, Preflight Briefings, Paragraph 714, contains those items of a 7. Make accurate and frequent position reports
weather briefing that should be expected or requested. to the FSSs along your route of flight.
h. FAA by 14 CFR Part 93, Subpart K, has b. Simulated IFR flight is recommended (under
designated High Density Traffic Airports (HDTAs) the hood); however, pilots are cautioned to review
and has prescribed air traffic rules and requirements and adhere to the requirements specified in 14 CFR
for operating aircraft (excluding helicopter opera- Section 91.109 before and during such flight.
tions) to and from these airports.
c. When flying VFR at night, in addition to the
REFERENCE altitude appropriate for the direction of flight, pilots
Airport/Facility Directory, Special Notices Section.
AIM, Airport Reservation Operations and Special Traffic Management should maintain an altitude which is at or above the
Programs, Paragraph 4122. minimum en route altitude as shown on charts. This
i. In addition to the filing of a flight plan, if the is especially true in mountainous terrain, where there
flight will traverse or land in one or more foreign is usually very little ground reference. Do not depend
countries, it is particularly important that pilots leave on your eyes alone to avoid rising unlighted terrain,
a complete itinerary with someone directly concerned or even lighted obstructions such as TV towers.
and keep that person advised of the flights progress.
If serious doubt arises as to the safety of the flight, that 513. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System
person should first contact the FSS. a. Time-critical aeronautical information which
REFERENCE is of either a temporary nature or not sufficiently
AIM, Flights Outside the U.S. and U.S. Territories, Paragraph 511 1 known in advance to permit publication on
j. Pilots operating under provisions of 14 CFR aeronautical charts or in other operational publica-
Part 135 on a domestic flight and not having an FAA tions receives immediate dissemination via the
assigned 3letter designator, are urged to prefix the National NOTAM System.
normal registration (N) number with the letter T on NOTE
flight plan filing; e.g., TN1234B. 1. NOTAM information is that aeronautical information
that could affect a pilots decision to make a flight. It
REFERENCE
AIM, Aircraft Call Signs, Paragraph 424 includes such information as airport or aerodrome
primary runway closures, taxiways, ramps, obstructions,
communications, airspace, changes in the status of
512. Follow IFR Procedures Even When navigational aids, ILSs, radar service availability, and
Operating VFR other information essential to planned en route, terminal,
or landing operations.
a. To maintain IFR proficiency, pilots are urged to 2. NOTAM information is transmitted using standard
practice IFR procedures whenever possible, even contractions to reduce transmission time. See TBL 512
when operating VFR. Some suggested practices for a listing of the most commonly used contractions. For
include: a complete listing, see FAA Order 7340.2, Contractions.
1. Obtain a complete preflight and weather b. NOTAM information is classified into five
briefing. Check the NOTAMs. categories. These are NOTAM (D) or distant, Flight
512 Preflight
1/8/15
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Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs, Pointer NOTAMs, NOTAM, such as an FDC or NOTAM (D) NOTAM.
Special Activity Airspace (SAA) NOTAMs, and This type of NOTAM will assist users in
Military NOTAMs. crossreferencing important information that may
not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier.
1. NOTAM (D) information is disseminated for Keywords in pointer NOTAMs must match the
all navigational facilities that are part of the National keywords in the NOTAM that is being pointed out.
Airspace System (NAS), all public use airports, The keyword in pointer NOTAMs related to
seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Airport/ Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) must be
Facility Directory (A/FD). The complete file of all AIRSPACE.
NOTAM (D) information is maintained in a computer
database at the Weather Message Switching Center 4. SAA NOTAMs. These NOTAMs are issued
(WMSC), located in Atlanta, Georgia. This category when Special Activity Airspace will be active outside
of information is distributed automatically via the published schedule times and when required by
Service A telecommunications system. Air traffic the published schedule. Pilots and other users are still
facilities, primarily FSSs, with Service A capability responsible to check published schedule times for
have access to the entire WMSC database of Special Activity Airspace as well as any NOTAMs
NOTAMs. These NOTAMs remain available via for that airspace.
Service A for the duration of their validity or until
published. Once published, the NOTAM data is 5. Military NOTAMs. NOTAMs pertaining
deleted from the system. NOTAM (D) information to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy
includes such data as taxiway closures, personnel navigational aids/airports that are part of the NAS.
and equipment near or crossing runways, and airport c. Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP). The
lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach NTAP is published by Mission Support Services,
criteria, such as VASI. ATC Products and Publications, every 28 days. Data
All NOTAM Ds must have one of the keywords listed of a permanent nature can be published in the NTAP
in TBL 511 as the first part of the text after the as an interim step between publication cycles of the
location identifier. A/FD and aeronautical charts. The NTAP is divided
into four parts:
2. FDC NOTAMs. On those occasions when
it becomes necessary to disseminate information 1. Notices in part 1 are provided by ATC
which is regulatory in nature, the National Flight Data Products and Publications. This part contains
Center (NFDC), in Washington, DC, will issue an selected FDC NOTAMs that are expected to be in
FDC NOTAM. FDC NOTAMs contain such things as effect on the effective date of the publication. This
amendments to published IAPs and other current part is divided into three sections:
aeronautical charts. They are also used to advertise (a) Section 1, Airway NOTAMs, reflects
temporary flight restrictions caused by such things as airway changes that fall within an ARTCCs
natural disasters or large-scale public events that may airspace.
generate a congestion of air traffic over a site.
(b) Section 2, Procedural NOTAMs.
NOTE
1. DUATS vendors will provide FDC NOTAMs only upon (c) Section 3, General NOTAMs, contains
site-specific requests using a location identifier. NOTAMs that are general in nature and not tied to a
2. NOTAM data may not always be current due to the specific airport/facility (for example, flight advisor-
changeable nature of national airspace system compo- ies and restrictions, open duration special security
nents, delays inherent in processing information, and instructions, and special flight rules area).
occasional temporary outages of the U.S. NOTAM system.
While en route, pilots should contact FSSs and obtain 2. Part 2, provided by NFDC, contains Part 95
updated information for their route of flight and Revisions, Revisions to Minimum En Route IFR
destination. Altitudes and Changeover Points.
3. Pointer NOTAMs. NOTAMs issued by a 3. Part 3, International NOTAMs, is divided into
flight service station to highlight or point out another two sections:
Preflight 513
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(a) Section 1, International Flight Prohibi- contains special notices and graphics pertaining to
tions, Potential Hostile Situations, and Foreign almost every aspect of aviation such as: military
Notices. training areas, large scale sporting events, air show
information, Special Traffic Management Programs
(b) Section 2, International Oceanic Airspace
(STMP), and airport-specific information. This part
Notices.
is comprised of 6 sections: General, Special Military
4. Part 4, Graphic Notices, compiled by ATC Operations, Airport and Facility Notices, Major
Products and Publications from data provided by Sporting and Entertainment Events, Airshows, and
FAA service area offices and other lines of business, Special Notices.
TBL 511
NOTAM Keywords
Keyword Definition
RWY . . . . . . . Runway
Example !BNA BNA RWY 36 CLSD 13091313001309132000EST
TWY . . . . . . . Taxiway
Example !BTV BTV TWY C EDGE LGT OBSC 13101313001310141300EST
APRON . . . . . Apron/Ramp
Example !BNA BNA APRON NORTH APRON EAST SIDE CLSD 13111221500-1312220700
AD . . . . . . . . . Aerodrome
Example !BET BET AD ELK NEAR MVMT AREAS 1309251300-1309262200EST
OBST . . . . . . . Obstruction
Example !SJT SJT OBST MOORED BALLOON WITHIN AREA DEFINED AS 1NM RADIUS OF SJT 2430FT
(510FT AGL) FLAGGED 13092514001309261400EST
NAV . . . . . . . . Navigation Aids
Example !SHV SHV NAV ILS RWY 32 110.3 COMMISSIONED 1311251600-PERM
COM . . . . . . . Communications
Example !INW INW COM REMOTE COM OUTLET 122.6 OUT OF SERVICE 1307121330-1307151930EST
SVC . . . . . . . . Services
Example !ROA ROA SVC TWR COMMISSIONED 1301050001-PERM
AIRSPACE . . Airspace
Example !MIV MIV AIRSPACE AIRSHOW ACFT WITHIN AREA DEFINED AS 5NM RADIUS OF MIV
SFC-10000FT AVOIDANCE ADVISED 1308122100-1308122300
OPD . . . . . . . . Obstacle Departure Procedure
Example !FDC 2/9700 DIK ODP DICKINSON - THEODORE ROOSEVELT RGNL, DICKINSON, ND.
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES AMDT 1...
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: RWY 25, CLIMB HEADING 250 TO 3500 BEFORE TURNING LEFT. ALL
OTHER DATA REMAINS AS PUBLISHED.
THIS IS TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES, AMDT 1A.
1305011200-PERM
SID . . . . . . . . . Standard Instrument Departure
Example !FDC x/xxxx DFW SID DALLAS/FORT WORTH INTL, DALLAS, TX.
PODDE THREE DEPARTURE...
CHANGE NOTES TO READ: RWYS 17C/R, 18L/R: DO NOT EXCEED 240KT UNTIL LARRN. RWYS
35L/C, 36L/R: DONOT EXCEED 240KT UNTIL KMART 1305011200-1312111200EST
STAR . . . . . . . Standard Terminal Arrival
Example !FDC x/xxxx DCA STAR RONALD REAGAN WASHINGTON NATIONAL,WASHINGTON, DC.
WZRRD TWO ARRIVAL...
SHAAR TRANSITION: ROUTE FROM DRUZZ INT TO WZRRD INT NOT AUTHORIZED. AFTER
DRUZZ INT EXPECT RADAR VECTORS TO AML VORTAC 1305011200-1312111200ES
514 Preflight
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Keyword Definition
CHART . . . . . Chart
Example !FDC 2/9997 DAL IAP DALLAS LOVE FIELD, DALLAS, TX.
ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5...
CHART NOTE: SIMULTANEOUS APPROACH AUTHORIZED WITH RWY 31L. MISSED APPROACH:
CLIMB TO 1000 THEN CLIMBING RIGHT TURN TO 5000 ON HEADING 330 AND CVE R-046 TO
FINGR INT/CVE 36.4 DME AND HOLD. CHART LOC RWY 31L.
THIS IS ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5A. 1305011200-PERM
DATA . . . . . . . Data
Example !FDC 2/9700 DIK ODP DICKINSON - THEODORE ROOSEVELT RGNL, DICKINSON, ND.
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES AMDT 1...
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: RWY 25, CLIMB HEADING 250 TO 3500 BEFORE TURNING LEFT. ALL
OTHER DATA REMAINS AS PUBLISHED.
THIS IS TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES, AMDT 1A.
1305011200-PERM
IAP . . . . . . . . . Instrument Approach Procedure
Example !FDC 2/9997 DAL IAP DALLAS LOVE FIELD, DALLAS, TX.
ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5...
CHART NOTE: SIMULTANEOUS APPROACH AUTHORIZED WITH RWY 31L. MISSED APPROACH:
CLIMB TO 1000 THEN CLIMBING RIGHT TURN TO 5000 ON HEADING 330 AND CVE R-046 TO
FINGR INT/CVE 36.4 DME AND HOLD. CHART LOC RWY 31L.
THIS IS ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5A. 1305011200-PERM
VFP . . . . . . . . Visual Flight Procedures
Example !FDC X/XXXX JFK VFP JOHN F KENNEDY INTL, NEW YORK, NY.
PARKWAY VISUAL RWY 13L/R, ORIG...WEATHER MINIMUMS 3000 FOOT CEILING AND 3 MILES
VISIBILITY. 1303011200-1308011400EST
ROUTE . . . . . Route
Example !FDC x/xxxx ZFW OK..ROUTE ZFW ZKC.
V140 SAYRE (SYO) VORTAC, OK TO TULSA (TUL) VORTAC, OK MEA 4300.
1305041000-1306302359EST
SPECIAL . . . Special
Example !FDC x/xxxx PAJN SPECIAL JUNEAU INTERNATIONAL, JUNEAU, AK.
LDA-2 RWY 8 AMDT 9
PROCEDURE TURN NA. 1305011200-1312111200EST
SECURITY . . Security
Example !FDC ZZZ SECURITY..SPECIAL NOTICE..THIS NOTICE IS TO EMPHASIZE THAT BEFORE
OPERATING IN OR ADJACENT TO IRANIAN AIRSPACE ALL U.S. AIRMEN AND OPERATORS
SHOULD BE FAMILIAR WITH CURRENT CONDITIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST. THE U.S. DEPART-
MENT OF STATE HAS ISSUED A TRAVEL WARNING FOR IRAN ADVISING, IN PART, THAT THE U.S.
GOVERNMENT DOES NOT CURRENTLY MAINTAIN DIPLOMATIC OR CONSULAR RELATIONS
WITH THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN. ANY U.S. OPERATOR PLANNING A FLIGHT THROUGH
IRANIAN AIRSPACE SHOULD PLAN IN ADVANCE AND HAVE ALL CURRENT NOTAMS AND
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION FOR ANY PLANNED FLIGHT 1311011200-1403301800EST
U........... Unverified Aeronautical Information
(for use only where authorized by Letter of Agreement)*
O .......... Other Aeronautical Information**
NOTE
1. * Unverified Aeronautical Information can be movement area or other information received that meets NOTAM criteria
and has not been confirmed by the Airport Manager (AMGR) or their designee. If Flight Service is unable to contact airport
management, Flight Service must forward (U) NOTAM information to the United States NOTAM System (USNS).
Subsequent to USNS distribution of a (U) NOTAM, Flight Service will inform airport management of the action taken as
soon as practical. Any such NOTAM will be prefaced with (U) as the keyword and followed by the appropriate keyword
contraction, following the location identifier.
2. ** Other Aeronautical Information is that which is received from any authorized source that may be beneficial
to aircraft operations and does not meet defined NOTAM criteria. Any such NOTAM will be prefaced with (O) as the
keyword following the location identifier.
Preflight 515
AIM 4/3/14
TBL 512 FSS . . . . . . . . . . . Flight Service Station

Contractions Commonly Found in NOTAMs FT . . . . . . . . . . . . Feet
A G
GCA . . . . . . . . . . Ground Controlled Approach
ABN . . . . . . . . . . Aerodrome Beacon GP . . . . . . . . . . . Glide Path
ABV . . . . . . . . . . Above GPS . . . . . . . . . . Global Positioning System
ACFT . . . . . . . . . Aircraft GRVL . . . . . . . . . Gravel
ACT . . . . . . . . . . Active
H
ADJ . . . . . . . . . . Adjacent
HEL . . . . . . . . . . Helicopter
AGL . . . . . . . . . . Above Ground Level
HIRL . . . . . . . . . High Intensity Runway Lights
ALS . . . . . . . . . . Approach Light System
HR . . . . . . . . . . . Hour
ALT . . . . . . . . . . Altitude
ALTN/ALTNLY . Alternate/Alternately I
AMDT . . . . . . . . Amendment ID . . . . . . . . . . . . Identify/Identifier
APCH . . . . . . . . . Approach IFR . . . . . . . . . . . Instrument Flight Rules
ARFF . . . . . . . . . Aircraft Rescue & Fire Fighting ILS . . . . . . . . . . . Instrument Landing System
ASDA . . . . . . . . . Accelerate Stop Distance Available IM . . . . . . . . . . . . Inner Marker
ASOS . . . . . . . . . Automated Surface Observing System IN . . . . . . . . . . . . Inch/Inches
ASPH . . . . . . . . . Asphalt INOP . . . . . . . . . Inoperative
ATC . . . . . . . . . . Air Traffic Control INST . . . . . . . . . . Instrument
ATIS . . . . . . . . . . Automated Terminal Information INT . . . . . . . . . . . Intersection
Service INTST . . . . . . . . Intensity
AVBL . . . . . . . . . Available L
AWOS . . . . . . . . Automatic Weather Observing System L ............. Left
AWSS . . . . . . . . . Automated Weather Sensor System LB . . . . . . . . . . . Pound/Pounds
AZM . . . . . . . . . . Azimuth LDA . . . . . . . . . . Landing Distance Available
B LDG . . . . . . . . . . Landing
BTN . . . . . . . . . . Between LGT/LGTD . . . . Light/Lighted
C LIRL . . . . . . . . . . Low Intensity Runway Edge Lights
CAT . . . . . . . . . . Category LNDG . . . . . . . . Landing
CH . . . . . . . . . . . Channel LOC . . . . . . . . . . Localizer
CL . . . . . . . . . . . Centerline M
CLSD . . . . . . . . . Closed MALS . . . . . . . . Medium Intensity Approach Lighting
COM . . . . . . . . . Communication System
CONC . . . . . . . . Concrete MALSF . . . . . . . Medium Intensity Approach Lighting
CONT . . . . . . . . . Continue/Continuously System with Sequenced Flashers
CTL . . . . . . . . . . Control MALSR . . . . . . . Medium Intensity Approach Lighting
D System with Runway Alignment
Indicator Lights
DCT . . . . . . . . . . Direct
MCA . . . . . . . . . Minimum Crossing Altitude
DEP . . . . . . . . . . Depart/Departure
MDA . . . . . . . . . Minimum Descent Altitude
DH . . . . . . . . . . . Decision Height
MEA . . . . . . . . . . Minimum En Route Altitude
DLA/DLAD . . . . Delay/Delayed
MIRL . . . . . . . . . Medium Intensity Runway Edge Lights
DME . . . . . . . . . . Distance Measuring Equipment
MKR . . . . . . . . . Marker
DWPNT . . . . . . . Dew Point Temperature
MM . . . . . . . . . . Middle Marker
E MNM . . . . . . . . . Minimum
E ............. East MOA . . . . . . . . . Military Operations Area
EB . . . . . . . . . . . Eastbound MOCA . . . . . . . . Minimum Obstruction Clearance
ELEV . . . . . . . . . Elevate/Elevation Altitude
ENG . . . . . . . . . . Engine MSG . . . . . . . . . . Message
EST . . . . . . . . . . Estimated MSL . . . . . . . . . . Mean Sea Level
EXC . . . . . . . . . . Except MU . . . . . . . . . . . Designate a Friction Value Representing
F Runway Surface Conditions
FAC . . . . . . . . . . Facility N
FAF . . . . . . . . . . . Final Approach Fix N............. North
FDC . . . . . . . . . . Flight Data Center NDB . . . . . . . . . . Nondirectional Radio Beacon
FICON . . . . . . . . Field Condition NE . . . . . . . . . . . Northeast
FREQ . . . . . . . . . Frequency NM . . . . . . . . . . . Nautical Mile/s
516 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
NTAP . . . . . . . . . Notice To Airmen Publication THR . . . . . . . . . . Threshold

NW . . . . . . . . . . . Northwest TKOF . . . . . . . . . Takeoff
O TODA . . . . . . . . . Takeoff Distance Available
OBSC . . . . . . . . . Obscured TORA . . . . . . . . . Takeoff Run Available
OM . . . . . . . . . . . Outer Marker TWR . . . . . . . . . . Aerodrome Control Tower
OPR . . . . . . . . . . Operate TWY . . . . . . . . . Taxiway
ORIG . . . . . . . . . Original U
P UNL . . . . . . . . . . Unlimited
PAPI . . . . . . . . . . Precision Approach Path Indicator UNREL . . . . . . . Unreliable
PARL . . . . . . . . . Parallel V
PAX . . . . . . . . . . Passenger/s VASI . . . . . . . . . .Visual Approach Slope Indicator
PCL . . . . . . . . . . Pilot Controlled Lighting VFR . . . . . . . . . . Visual Flight Rules
PERM . . . . . . . . . Permanent VHF . . . . . . . . . . Very High Frequency
PJE . . . . . . . . . . . Parachute Jumping Activities VIS . . . . . . . . . . .
Visibility
PLA . . . . . . . . . . Practice Low Approach VMC . . . . . . . . . Visual Meteorological Conditions
PN . . . . . . . . . . . Prior Notice Required VOLMET . . . . . . Meteorlogical Information for Aircraft
PPR . . . . . . . . . . Prior Permission Required in Flight
PT . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedure Turn VOR . . . . . . . . . . VHF Omni-Directional Radio Range
R VORTAC . . . . . . VOR and TACAN (collocated)
RAI . . . . . . . . . . . Runway Alignment Indicator VOT . . . . . . . . . . VOR Test Facility
RCL . . . . . . . . . . Runway Centerline W
RCLL . . . . . . . . . Runway Centerline Light W ............ West
REC . . . . . . . . . . Receive/Receiver WAAS . . . . . . . . Wide Area Augmentation System
RLLS . . . . . . . . . Runway Leadin Light System WDI . . . Wind Direction Indicator
RNAV . . . . . . . . . Area Navigation WPT . . . . . . . . . . Waypoint
RVR . . . . . . . . . . Runway Visual Range WX . . . . . . . . . . . Weather
RVRM . . . . . . . . RVR Midpoint
RVRR . . . . . . . . . RVR Rollout 514. Flight Plan VFR Flights
RVRT . . . . . . . . . RVR Touchdown
RWY . . . . . . . . . Runway a. Except for operations in or penetrating a Coastal
S or Domestic ADIZ or DEWIZ a flight plan is not
S ............. South required for VFR flight.
SAA . . . . . . . . . . Special Activity Airspace REFERENCE
SE . . . . . . . . . . . . Southeast AIM, National Security, Paragraph 561.
SFC . . . . . . . . . . Surface b. It is strongly recommended that a flight plan
SKED . . . . . . . . . Scheduled
(for a VFR flight) be filed with an FAA FSS. This will
SN . . . . . . . . . . . Snow
SR . . . . . . . . . . . . Sunrise ensure that you receive VFR Search and Rescue
SS . . . . . . . . . . . . Sunset Protection.
SSALF . . . . . . . . Simplified Short Approach Lighting REFERENCE
System with Sequenced Flashers AIM, Search and Rescue, Paragraph 626gives the proper method of
SSALR . . . . . . . . Simplified Short Approach Lighting filing a VFR flight plan.
System with Runway Alignment c. To obtain maximum benefits from the flight
Indicator Lights
SSALS . . . . . . . . Simplified Short Approach Lighting
plan program, flight plans should be filed directly
System with the nearest FSS. For your convenience, FSSs
STAR . . . . . . . . . Standard Terminal Arrival provide aeronautical and meteorological briefings
STD . . . . . . . . . . Standard while accepting flight plans. Radio may be used to
SW . . . . . . . . . . . Southwest file if no other means are available.
T NOTE
TACAN . . . . . . . Tactical Air Navigational Aid Some states operate aeronautical communications facili-
TDZ . . . . . . . . . . Touchdown Zone
ties which will accept and forward flight plans to the FSS
TEMPO . . . . . . . Temporary
for further handling.
TFC . . . . . . . . . . Traffic
TFR . . . . . . . . . . Temporary Flight Restriction d. When a stopover flight is anticipated, it is
TGL . . . . . . . . . . Touch and Go Landings recommended that a separate flight plan be filed for
Preflight 517
AIM 4/3/14
each leg when the stop is expected to be more than the route are good practice. Such contacts permit
1 hour duration. significant information to be passed to the transiting
aircraft and also serve to check the progress of the
e. Pilots are encouraged to give their departure
flight should it be necessary for any reason to locate
times directly to the FSS serving the departure airport
the aircraft.
or as otherwise indicated by the FSS when the flight
plan is filed. This will ensure more efficient flight EXAMPLE
plan service and permit the FSS to advise you of 1. Bonanza 314K, over Kingfisher at (time), VFR flight
significant changes in aeronautical facilities or plan, Tulsa to Amarillo.
meteorological conditions. When a VFR flight plan 2. Cherokee 5133J, over Oklahoma City at (time),
is filed, it will be held by the FSS until 1 hour after the Shreveport to Denver, no flight plan.
proposed departure time unless:
h. Pilots not operating on an IFR flight plan and
1. The actual departure time is received. when in level cruising flight, are cautioned to
conform with VFR cruising altitudes appropriate to
2. A revised proposed departure time is
the direction of flight.
received.
3. At a time of filing, the FSS is informed that i. When filing VFR flight plans, indicate aircraft
the proposed departure time will be met, but actual equipment capabilities by appending the appropriate
time cannot be given because of inadequate suffix to aircraft type in the same manner as that
communications (assumed departures). prescribed for IFR flight.
REFERENCE
f. On pilots request, at a location having an active AIM, Flight Plan Domestic IFR Flights, Paragraph 518.
tower, the aircraft identification will be forwarded by
j. Under some circumstances, ATC computer
the tower to the FSS for reporting the actual departure
tapes can be useful in constructing the radar history
time. This procedure should be avoided at busy
of a downed or crashed aircraft. In each case,
airports.
knowledge of the aircrafts transponder equipment is
g. Although position reports are not required for necessary in determining whether or not such
VFR flight plans, periodic reports to FAA FSSs along computer tapes might prove effective.
518 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 511
FAA Flight Plan
Form 72331 (882)
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA USE ONLY) PILOT BRIEFING VNR TIME STARTED SPECIALIST
INITIALS
FLIGHT PLAN STOPOVER
1. TYPE 2. AIRCRAFT 3. AIRCRAFT TYPE/ 4. TRUE 5. DEPARTURE POINT 6. DEPARTURE TIME 7. CRUISING
VFR IDENTIFICATION SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AIRSPEED ALTITUDE
PROPOSED (Z) ACTUAL (Z)
IFR
DVFR KTS
8. ROUTE OF FLIGHT
9. DESTINATION (Name of airport 10. EST. TIME ENROUTE 11. REMARKS

and city) HOURS MINUTES
12. FUEL ON BOARD 13. ALTERNATE AIRPORT(S) 14. PILOTS NAME, ADDRESS & TELEPHONE NUMBER & AIRCRAFT HOME BASE 15. NUMBER
HOURS ABOARD
MINUTES
17. DESTINATION CONTACT/TELEPHONE (OPTIONAL)
16. COLOR OF AIRCRAFT CIVIL AIRCRAFT PILOTS, FAR 91 requires you file an IFR flight plan to operate under instrument flight rules in
controlled airspace. Failure to file could result in a civil penalty not to exceed $1,000 for each violation (Section 901 of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as amended). Filing of a VFR flight plan is recommended as a good operating practice. See also
Part 99 for requirements concerning DVFR flight plans.
FAA Form 7233-1 (8-82) CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN WITH _________________ FSS ON ARRIVAL
k. Flight Plan Form (See FIG 511). 8. Block 8. Define the route of flight by using
NAVAID identifier codes and airways.
l. Explanation of VFR Flight Plan Items.
1. Block 1. Check the type flight plan. Check 9. Block 9. Enter the destination airport
both the VFR and IFR blocks if composite VFR/IFR. identifier code, or if unknown, the airport name.
2. Block 2. Enter your complete aircraft NOTE
identification including the prefix N if applicable. Include the city name (or even the state name) if needed for
clarity.
3. Block 3. Enter the designator for the aircraft,
or if unknown, consult an FSS briefer. 10. Block 10. Enter your estimated time
4. Block 4. Enter your true airspeed (TAS). en route in hours and minutes.
5. Block 5. Enter the departure airport identifi- 11. Block 11. Enter only those remarks that
er code, or if unknown, the name of the airport. may aid in VFR search and rescue, such as planned
stops en route or student cross country, or remarks
6. Block 6. Enter the proposed departure time
pertinent to the clarification of other flight plan
in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) (Z). If
information, such as the radiotelephony (call sign)
airborne, specify the actual or proposed departure
associated with a designator filed in Block 2, if the
time as appropriate.
radiotelephony is new, has changed within the last 60
7. Block 7. Enter the appropriate VFR altitude days, or is a special FAA-assigned temporary
(to assist the briefer in providing weather and wind radiotelephony. Items of a personal nature are not
information). accepted.
Preflight 519
AIM 4/3/14
12. Block 12. Specify the fuel on board in (c) Route Information.
hours and minutes.
(d) Plan of Operations.
13. Block 13. Specify an alternate airport if
desired. (e) Facility Outages and Scheduled Facility
Outages.
14. Block 14. Enter your complete name,
address, and telephone number. Enter sufficient (f) Volcanic Ash Activity Bulletins.
information to identify home base, airport, or (g) Special Traffic Management Programs.
operator.
NOTE
2. This list is not allinclusive. Any time there
This information is essential in the event of search and is information that may be beneficial to a large
rescue operations. number of people, an advisory may be sent.
Additionally, there may be times when an advisory is
15. Block 15. Enter total number of persons on not sent due to workload or the short length of time of
board (POB) including crew. the activity.
16. Block 16. Enter the predominant colors. 3. Route information is available on the web site
and in specific advisories. Some route information,
17. Block 17. Record the FSS name for closing
subject to the 56day publishing cycle, is located on
the flight plan. If the flight plan is closed with a
the OIS under Products, Route Management
different FSS or facility, state the recorded FSS name
Tool (RMT), and Whats New Playbook. The RMT
that would normally have closed your flight plan.
and Playbook contain routings for use by Air Traffic
NOTE and NAS operators when they are coordinated
1. Optional record a destination telephone number to realtime and are then published in an ATCSCC
assist search and rescue contact should you fail to report advisory.
or cancel your flight plan within 1/2 hour after your
estimated time of arrival (ETA). 4. Route advisories are identified by the word
2. The information transmitted to the destination FSS will Route in the header; the associated action is
consist only of flight plan blocks 2, 3, 9, and 10. Estimated required (RQD), recommended (RMD), planned
time en route (ETE) will be converted to the correct ETA. (PLN), or for your information (FYI). Operators are
expected to file flight plans consistent with the Route
RQD advisories.
515. Operational Information System
(OIS) 5. Electronic System Impact Reports are on the
intranet at http://www.atcscc.faa.gov/ois/ under
a. The FAAs Air Traffic Control System System Impact Reports. This page lists scheduled
Command Center (ATCSCC) maintains a web site outages/events/projects that significantly impact
with near realtime National Airspace System (NAS) the NAS; for example, runway closures, air shows,
status information. NAS operators are encouraged to and construction projects. Information includes
access the web site at http://www.fly.faa.gov prior to anticipated delays and traffic management initiat-
filing their flight plan. ives (TMI) that may be implemented.
b. The web site consolidates information from
advisories. An advisory is a message that is 516. Flight Plan Defense VFR (DVFR)
disseminated electronically by the ATCSCC that Flights
contains information pertinent to the NAS.
VFR flights (except DOD or law enforcement flights)
1. Advisories are normally issued for the into a Coastal or Domestic ADIZ/DEWIZ are
following items: required to file DVFR flight plans for security
(a) Ground Stops. purposes. Detailed ADIZ procedures are found in
Section 6, National Security and Interception Proce-
(b) Ground Delay Programs. dures, of this chapter. (See 14 CFR Part 99.)
5110 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
517. Composite Flight Plan (VFR/IFR 72334 (International Flight Plan), as described in
Flights) paragraph 519.
a. General
a. Flight plans which specify VFR operation for
one portion of a flight, and IFR for another portion, 1. Prior to departure from within, or prior to
will be accepted by the FSS at the point of departure. entering controlled airspace, a pilot must submit a
If VFR flight is conducted for the first portion of the complete flight plan and receive an air traffic
flight, pilots should report their departure time to the clearance, if weather conditions are below VFR
FSS with whom the VFR/IFR flight plan was filed; minimums. Instrument flight plans may be submitted
and, subsequently, close the VFR portion and request to the nearest FSS or ATCT either in person or by
ATC clearance from the FSS nearest the point at telephone (or by radio if no other means are
which change from VFR to IFR is proposed. available). Pilots should file IFR flight plans at least
Regardless of the type facility you are communicat- 30 minutes prior to estimated time of departure to
ing with (FSS, center, or tower), it is the pilots preclude possible delay in receiving a departure
responsibility to request that facility to CLOSE VFR clearance from ATC. In order to provide FAA traffic
FLIGHT PLAN. The pilot must remain in VFR management units strategic route planning capabili-
weather conditions until operating in accordance with ties, nonscheduled operators conducting IFR
the IFR clearance. operations above FL 230 are requested to voluntarily
file IFR flight plans at least 4 hours prior to estimated
b. When a flight plan indicates IFR for the first time of departure (ETD). To minimize your delay in
portion of flight and VFR for the latter portion, the entering Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E
pilot will normally be cleared to the point at which the surface areas at destination when IFR weather
change is proposed. After reporting over the conditions exist or are forecast at that airport, an IFR
clearance limit and not desiring further IFR flight plan should be filed before departure.
clearance, the pilot should advise ATC to cancel the Otherwise, a 30 minute delay is not unusual in
IFR portion of the flight plan. Then, the pilot should receiving an ATC clearance because of time spent in
contact the nearest FSS to activate the VFR portion of processing flight plan data. Traffic saturation
the flight plan. If the pilot desires to continue the IFR frequently prevents control personnel from accepting
flight plan beyond the clearance limit, the pilot should flight plans by radio. In such cases, the pilot is advised
contact ATC at least 5 minutes prior to the clearance to contact the nearest FSS for the purpose of filing the
limit and request further IFR clearance. If the flight plan.
requested clearance is not received prior to reaching
the clearance limit fix, the pilot will be expected to NOTE
1. There are several methods of obtaining IFR clearances
enter into a standard holding pattern on the radial or
at nontower, nonFSS, and outlying airports. The
course to the fix unless a holding pattern for the procedure may vary due to geographical features, weather
clearance limit fix is depicted on a U.S. Government conditions, and the complexity of the ATC system. To
or commercially produced (meeting FAA require- determine the most effective means of receiving an IFR
ments) low or high altitude enroute, area or STAR clearance, pilots should ask the nearest FSS the most
chart. In this case the pilot will hold according to the appropriate means of obtaining the IFR clearance.
depicted pattern. 2. When requesting an IFR clearance, it is highly
recommended that the departure airport be identified by
stating the city name and state and/or the airport location
518. Flight Plan (FAA Form 72331) identifier in order to clarify to ATC the exact location of the
Domestic IFR Flights intended airport of departure.
NOTE 2. When filing an IFR flight plan, include as a

1. Procedures outlined in this section apply to operators prefix to the aircraft type, the number of aircraft when
filing FAA Form 72331 (Flight Plan) and to flights that more than one and/or heavy aircraft indicator H/ if
will be conducted entirely within U.S. domestic airspace. appropriate.
2. Filers utilizing FAA Form 72331 may not be eligible EXAMPLE
for assignment of RNAV SIDs and STARs. Filers desiring H/DC10/A
assignment of these procedures should file using FAA Form 2/F15/A
Preflight 5111
AIM 4/3/14
3. When filing an IFR flight plan, identify the identification.

equipment capability by adding a suffix, preceded by 4. It is recommended that pilots file the
a slant, to the AIRCRAFT TYPE, as shown in maximum transponder or navigation capability of
TBL 513, Aircraft Suffixes. their aircraft in the equipment suffix. This will
NOTE provide ATC with the necessary information to utilize
1. ATC issues clearances based on filed suffixes. Pilots all facets of navigational equipment and transponder
should determine the appropriate suffix based upon capabilities available.
desired services and/or routing. For example, if a desired
5. When filing an IFR flight plan via telephone
route/procedure requires GPS, a pilot should file /G even
if the aircraft also qualifies for other suffixes. or radio, it is highly recommended that the departure
airport be clearly identified by stating the city name
2. For procedures requiring GPS, if the navigation system and state and/or airport location identifier. With cell
does not automatically alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, phone use and flight service specialists covering
the operator must develop procedures to verify correct GPS larger areas of the country, clearly identifying the
operation. departure airport can prevent confusing your airport
3. The suffix is not to be added to the aircraft identification of departure with those of identical or similar names
or be transmitted by radio as part of the aircraft in other states.
TBL 513
Aircraft Equipment Suffixes
Navigation Capability Transponder Capability Suffix

RVSM No GNSS, No RNAV Transponder with Mode C /W
RNAV, No GNSS Transponder with Mode C /Z
GNSS Transponder with Mode C /L
No RVSM No Transponder /X
No DME
Transponder with no Mode C /T
Transponder with Mode C /U
No Transponder /D
DME
Transponder with no Mode C /B
Transponder with Mode C /A
No Transponder /M
TACAN
Transponder with no Mode C /N
Transponder with Mode C /P
No Transponder /Y
RNAV, no GNSS
Transponder with no Mode C /C
Transponder with Mode C /I
No Transponder /V
GNSS
Transponder with no Mode C /S
Transponder with Mode C /G
5112 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
b. Airways and Jet Routes Depiction on Flight EXAMPLE

Plan LAX J5 LKV J3 GEG YXC FL 330 J500 VLR J515 YWG
Spelled out: from Los Angeles International via Jet Route 5
1. It is vitally important that the route of flight Lakeview, Jet Route 3 Spokane, direct Cranbrook, British
be accurately and completely described in the flight Columbia VOR/DME, Flight Level 330 Jet Route 500 to
plan. To simplify definition of the proposed route, Langruth, Manitoba VORTAC, Jet Route 515 to Winnepeg,
and to facilitate ATC, pilots are requested to file via Manitoba.
airways or jet routes established for use at the altitude 5. When filing IFR, it is to the pilots advantage
or flight level planned. to file a preferred route.
REFERENCE
2. If flight is to be conducted via designated Preferred IFR Routes are described and tabulated in the Airport/Facility
airways or jet routes, describe the route by indicating Directory.
the type and number designators of the airway(s) or 6. ATC may issue a SID or a STAR, as
jet route(s) requested. If more than one airway or jet appropriate.
route is to be used, clearly indicate points of REFERENCE
transition. If the transition is made at an unnamed AIM, Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) Obstacle Departure
intersection, show the next succeeding NAVAID or Procedures (ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures (SID),
Paragraph 528.
named intersection on the intended route and the AIM, Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR), Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR,
complete route from that point. Reporting points may and Flight Management System Procedures (FMSP) for Arrivals,
Paragraph 541.
be identified by using authorized name/code as
depicted on appropriate aeronautical charts. The NOTE
Pilots not desiring a SID or STAR should so indicate in the
following two examples illustrate the need to specify
remarks section of the flight plan as no SID or no
the transition point when two routes share more than STAR.
one transition fix.
c. Direct Flights
EXAMPLE
1. All or any portions of the route which will not
1. ALB J37 BUMPY J14 BHM
Spelled out: from Albany, New York, via Jet Route 37
be flown on the radials or courses of established
transitioning to Jet Route 14 at BUMPY intersection, airways or routes, such as direct route flights, must be
thence via Jet Route 14 to Birmingham, Alabama. defined by indicating the radio fixes over which the
flight will pass. Fixes selected to define the route
must be those over which the position of the aircraft
2. ALB J37 ENO J14 BHM
can be accurately determined. Such fixes automati-
Spelled out: from Albany, New York, via Jet Route 37
transitioning to Jet Route 14 at Smyrna VORTAC (ENO)
cally become compulsory reporting points for the
thence via Jet Route 14 to Birmingham, Alabama. flight, unless advised otherwise by ATC. Only those
navigational aids established for use in a particular
3. The route of flight may also be described by structure; i.e., in the low or high structures, may be
naming the reporting points or NAVAIDs over which used to define the en route phase of a direct flight
the flight will pass, provided the points named are within that altitude structure.
established for use at the altitude or flight level
2. The azimuth feature of VOR aids and that
planned.
azimuth and distance (DME) features of VORTAC
EXAMPLE and TACAN aids are assigned certain frequency
BWI V44 SWANN V433 DQO protected areas of airspace which are intended for
Spelled out: from Baltimore-Washington International, via application to established airway and route use, and
Victor 44 to Swann intersection, transitioning to Victor 433
to provide guidance for planning flights outside of
at Swann, thence via Victor 433 to Dupont.
established airways or routes. These areas of airspace
4. When the route of flight is defined by named are expressed in terms of cylindrical service volumes
reporting points, whether alone or in combination of specified dimensions called class limits or
with airways or jet routes, and the navigational aids categories.
(VOR, VORTAC, TACAN, NDB) to be used for the REFERENCE
flight are a combination of different types of aids, AIM, Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes, Paragraph 118.
enough information should be included to clearly 3. An operational service volume has been
indicate the route requested. established for each class in which adequate signal
Preflight 5113
AIM 4/3/14
coverage and frequency protection can be assured. To will be expected to fly a direct course between the points
facilitate use of VOR, VORTAC, or TACAN aids, named.
consistent with their operational service volume 7. Pilots are reminded that they are responsible
limits, pilot use of such aids for defining a direct route for adhering to obstruction clearance requirements on
of flight in controlled airspace should not exceed the those segments of direct routes that are outside of
following: controlled airspace. The MEAs and other altitudes
shown on low altitude IFR enroute charts pertain to
(a) Operations above FL 450 Use aids not
those route segments within controlled airspace, and
more than 200 NM apart. These aids are depicted on
those altitudes may not meet obstruction clearance
enroute high altitude charts.
criteria when operating off those routes.
(b) Operation off established routes from d. Area Navigation (RNAV)
18,000 feet MSL to FL 450 Use aids not more than
260 NM apart. These aids are depicted on enroute 1. Random impromptu routes can only be
high altitude charts. approved in a radar environment. Factors that will be
considered by ATC in approving random impromptu
(c) Operation off established airways below routes include the capability to provide radar
18,000 feet MSL Use aids not more than 80 NM monitoring and compatibility with traffic volume and
apart. These aids are depicted on enroute low altitude flow. ATC will radar monitor each flight, however,
charts. navigation on the random impromptu route is the
responsibility of the pilot.
(d) Operation off established airways be-
tween 14,500 feet MSL and 17,999 feet MSL in the 2. Pilots of aircraft equipped with approved area
conterminous U.S. (H) facilities not more than navigation equipment may file for RNAV routes
200 NM apart may be used. throughout the National Airspace System and may be
filed for in accordance with the following procedures.
4. Increasing use of self-contained airborne
navigational systems which do not rely on the (a) File airport-to-airport flight plans.
VOR/VORTAC/TACAN system has resulted in pilot (b) File the appropriate RNAV capability
requests for direct routes which exceed NAVAID certification suffix in the flight plan.
service volume limits. These direct route requests
will be approved only in a radar environment, with (c) Plan the random route portion of the flight
approval based on pilot responsibility for navigation plan to begin and end over appropriate arrival and
on the authorized direct route. Radar flight following departure transition fixes or appropriate navigation
will be provided by ATC for ATC purposes. aids for the altitude stratum within which the flight
will be conducted. The use of normal preferred
5. At times, ATC will initiate a direct route in a departure and arrival routes (DP/STAR), where
radar environment which exceeds NAVAID service established, is recommended.
volume limits. In such cases ATC will provide radar
(d) File route structure transitions to and from
monitoring and navigational assistance as necessary.
the random route portion of the flight.
6. Airway or jet route numbers, appropriate to (e) Define the random route by waypoints.
the stratum in which operation will be conducted, File route description waypoints by using degree-
may also be included to describe portions of the route distance fixes based on navigational aids which are
to be flown. appropriate for the altitude stratum.
EXAMPLE (f) File a minimum of one route description
MDW V262 BDF V10 BRL STJ SLN GCK
waypoint for each ARTCC through whose area the
Spelled out: from Chicago Midway Airport via Victor 262
to Bradford, Victor 10 to Burlington, Iowa, direct
random route will be flown. These waypoints must be
St. Joseph, Missouri, direct Salina, Kansas, direct located within 200 NM of the preceding centers
Garden City, Kansas. boundary.
NOTE (g) File an additional route description
When route of flight is described by radio fixes, the pilot waypoint for each turnpoint in the route.
5114 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
(h) Plan additional route description way- Reference System (NRS) waypoints. For latitude/
points as required to ensure accurate navigation via longitude filing the arrival fix must be identified by
the filed route of flight. Navigation is the pilots both the latitude/longitude coordinates and a fix
responsibility unless ATC assistance is requested. identifier.
(i) Plan the route of flight so as to avoid EXAMPLE
prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 NM unless MIA 1 SRQ 2 3407/10615 3 3407/11546 TNP 4 LAX 5
permission has been obtained to operate in that 1 Departure airport.

airspace and the appropriate ATC facilities are 2 Departure fix.
advised. 3 Intermediate fix (turning point).
NOTE 4 Arrival fix.
To be approved for use in the National Airspace System, 5 Destination airport.
RNAV equipment must meet the appropriate system or
availability, accuracy, and airworthiness standards. For
additional guidance on equipment requirements see ORD 1 IOW 2 KP49G 3 KD34U 4 KL16O 5 OAL 6 MOD2 7
AC 20130, Airworthiness Approval of Vertical Naviga- SFO 8
tion (VNAV) Systems for use in the U.S. NAS and Alaska,
or AC 20138, Airworthiness Approval of Global 1 Departure airport.
Positioning System (GPS) Navigation Equipment for Use 2 Transition fix (pitch point).
as a VFR and IFR Supplemental Navigation System. For 3 Minneapolis ARTCC waypoint.
airborne navigation database, see AC 9094, Guidelines 4 Denver ARTCC Waypoint.
for Using GPS Equipment for IFR En Route and Terminal 5 Los Angeles ARTCC waypoint (catch point).
Operations and for Nonprecision Instrument Approaches 6 Transition fix.
in the U.S. National Airspace System, Section 2. 7 Arrival.
8 Destination airport.
3. Pilots of aircraft equipped with latitude/
longitude coordinate navigation capability, (f) Record latitude/longitude coordinates by
independent of VOR/TACAN references, may file four figures describing latitude in degrees and
for random RNAV routes at and above FL 390 within minutes followed by a solidus and five figures
the conterminous U.S. using the following describing longitude in degrees and minutes.
procedures.
(g) File at FL 390 or above for the random
(a) File airport-to-airport flight plans prior to RNAV portion of the flight.
departure.
(h) Fly all routes/route segments on Great
(b) File the appropriate RNAV capability Circle tracks.
certification suffix in the flight plan.
(i) Make any inflight requests for random
(c) Plan the random route portion of the flight RNAV clearances or route amendments to an en route
to begin and end over published departure/arrival ATC facility.
transition fixes or appropriate navigation aids for
airports without published transition procedures. The e. Flight Plan Form See FIG 512.
use of preferred departure and arrival routes, such as f. Explanation of IFR Flight Plan Items.
DP and STAR where established, is recommended.
1. Block 1. Check the type flight plan. Check
(d) Plan the route of flight so as to avoid both the VFR and IFR blocks if composite VFR/IFR.
prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 NM unless
permission has been obtained to operate in that 2. Block 2. Enter your complete aircraft
airspace and the appropriate ATC facility is advised. identification including the prefix N if applicable.
(e) Define the route of flight after the 3. Block 3. Enter the designator for the aircraft,
departure fix, including each intermediate fix followed by a slant(/), and the transponder or DME
(turnpoint) and the arrival fix for the destination equipment code letter; e.g., C182/U. Heavy aircraft,
airport in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates add prefix H to aircraft type; example: H/DC10/U.
plotted to the nearest minute or in terms of Navigation Consult an FSS briefer for any unknown elements.
Preflight 5115
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 512
FAA Flight Plan
Form 72331 (882)
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA USE ONLY) PILOT BRIEFING VNR TIME STARTED SPECIALIST
INITIALS
FLIGHT PLAN STOPOVER
1. TYPE 2. AIRCRAFT 3. AIRCRAFT TYPE/ 4. TRUE 5. DEPARTURE POINT 6. DEPARTURE TIME 7. CRUISING
VFR IDENTIFICATION SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AIRSPEED ALTITUDE
PROPOSED (Z) ACTUAL (Z)
IFR
DVFR KTS
8. ROUTE OF FLIGHT
9. DESTINATION (Name of airport 10. EST. TIME ENROUTE 11. REMARKS

and city) HOURS MINUTES
12. FUEL ON BOARD 13. ALTERNATE AIRPORT(S) 14. PILOTS NAME, ADDRESS & TELEPHONE NUMBER & AIRCRAFT HOME BASE 15. NUMBER
HOURS ABOARD
MINUTES
17. DESTINATION CONTACT/TELEPHONE (OPTIONAL)
16. COLOR OF AIRCRAFT CIVIL AIRCRAFT PILOTS, FAR 91 requires you file an IFR flight plan to operate under instrument flight rules in
controlled airspace. Failure to file could result in a civil penalty not to exceed $1,000 for each violation (Section 901 of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as amended). Filing of a VFR flight plan is recommended as a good operating practice. See also
Part 99 for requirements concerning DVFR flight plans.
FAA Form 7233-1 (8-82) CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN WITH _________________ FSS ON ARRIVAL
4. Block 4. Enter your computed true airspeed NOTE

(TAS). Enter only the initial requested altitude in this block. When
more than one IFR altitude or flight level is desired along
NOTE the route of flight, it is best to make a subsequent request
If the average TAS changes plus or minus 5 percent or direct to the controller.
10 knots, whichever is greater, advise ATC.
5. Block 5. Enter the departure airport identifi- 8. Block 8. Define the route of flight by using
er code (or the airport name, city and state, if the NAVAID identifier codes (or names if the code is
identifier is unknown). unknown), airways, jet routes, and waypoints (for
RNAV).
NOTE
Use of identifier codes will expedite the processing of your NOTE
flight plan. Use NAVAIDs or waypoints to define direct routes and
6. Block 6. Enter the proposed departure time in radials/bearings to define other unpublished routes.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) (Z). If airborne,
9. Block 9. Enter the destination airport
specify the actual or proposed departure time as
identifier code (or name if the identifier is unknown).
appropriate.
7. Block 7. Enter the requested en route altitude 10. Block 10. Enter your estimated time en
or flight level. route based on latest forecast winds.
5116 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
11. Block 11. Enter only those remarks pertin- g. The information transmitted to the ARTCC for
ent to ATC or to the clarification of other flight plan IFR flight plans will consist of only flight plan
information, such as the appropriate radiotelephony blocks 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11.
(call sign) associated with the FAA-assigned
h. A description of the International Flight Plan
three-letter company designator filed in Block 2, if
Form is contained in the International Flight
the radiotelephony is new or has changed within the
Information Manual (IFIM).
last 60 days. In cases where there is no three-letter
designator but only an assigned radiotelephony or an
assigned three-letter designator is used in a medical 519. International Flight Plan (FAA Form
emergency, the radiotelephony must be included in 72334) IFR Flights (For Domestic or
the remarks field. Items of a personal nature are not International Flights)
accepted. a. General
NOTE Use of FAA Form 72334 is recommended for
1. The pilot is responsible for knowing when it is domestic IFR flights and is mandatory for all IFR
appropriate to file the radiotelephony in remarks under the flights that will depart U.S. domestic airspace.
60-day rule or when using FAA special radiotelephony
assignments. NOTE
1. An abbreviated description of FAA Form 72334
2. DVRSN should be placed in Block 11 only if the (International Flight Plan) may be found in this section. A
pilot/company is requesting priority handling to their detailed description of FAA Form 72334 may be found on
original destination from ATC as a result of a diversion as the FAA website at:
defined in the Pilot/Controller Glossary. h t t p : / / w w w. f a a . g o v / a b o u t / o f f i c e _ o rg /
headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/enroute/flight_pl
3. Do not assume that remarks will be automatically an_filing/
transmitted to every controller. Specific ATC or en route
requests should be made directly to the appropriate 2. Filers utilizing FAA Form 72331 (Flight Plan) may not
controller. be eligible for assignment of RNAV SIDs and STARs. Filers
desiring assignment of these procedures should file using
12. Block 12. Specify the fuel on board, FAA Form 72334, as described in this section.
computed from the departure point. 3. When filing an IFR flight plan using FAA Form 72334,
it is recommended that filers include all operable
13. Block 13. Specify an alternate airport if navigation, communication, and surveillance equipment
desired or required, but do not include routing to the capabilities by adding appropriate equipment qualifiers as
alternate airport. shown in Tables 513 and 514. These equipment
qualifiers should be filed in Item 10 of FAA Form 72334.
14. Block 14. Enter the complete name,
4. ATC issues clearances based on equipment qualifiers
address, and telephone number of pilot-in-command,
filed in Items 10 and aircraft capabilities filed in Item 18
or in the case of a formation flight, the formation (NAV/) of FAA Form 72334. Operators should file all
commander. Enter sufficient information to identify equipment qualifiers for which the aircraft is certified and
home base, airport, or operator. capable. They should also file aircraft capabilities in
NOTE Item 18 as described below.
This information would be essential in the event of search b. Explanation of Items Filed in FAA Form
and rescue operation. 72334
15. Block 15. Enter the total number of persons Procedures and other information provided in this
on board including crew. section are designed to assist operators using FAA
Form 72334 to file IFR flight plans for flights that
16. Block 16. Enter the predominant colors. will be conducted entirely within U.S. domestic
NOTE airspace. Requirements and procedures for operating
Close IFR flight plans with tower, approach control, or outside U.S. domestic airspace may vary signific-
ARTCC, or if unable, with FSS. When landing at an airport antly from country to country. It is, therefore,
with a functioning control tower, IFR flight plans are recommended that operators planning flights out-
automatically canceled. side U.S. domestic airspace become familiar with
Preflight 5117
AIM 4/3/14
applicable international documents, including 3. Item 9. Number, Type of Aircraft, and

Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP); Inter- Wake Turbulence Category.
national Flight Information Manuals (IFIM); and
ICAO Document 4444, Procedures for Air Naviga- (a) Number. Insert the number of aircraft, if
tion Services/Air Traffic Management, Appendix 2. more than 1 (maximum 99).
NOTE
FAA Form 72334 is shown in FIG 513. The filer is (b) Type of Aircraft.
normally responsible for providing the information
required in Items 3 through 19. (1) Insert the appropriate designator as
specified in ICAO Doc 8643, Aircraft Type
1. Item 7. Aircraft Identification. Insert the Designators;
full registration number of the aircraft, or the
approved FAA/ICAO company or organizational (2) Or, if no such designator has been
designator, followed by the flight number. assigned, or in the case of formation flights consisting
EXAMPLE of more than one type;
N235RA, AAL3342, BONGO33
NOTE (3) Insert ZZZZ, and specify in Item 18, the
Callsigns filed in this item must begin with a letter followed (numbers and) type(s) of aircraft preceded by TYP/.
by 16 additional alphanumeric characters.
2. Item 8. Flight Rules and Type of Flight. (c) Wake Turbulence Category. Insert an
oblique stroke followed by one of the following
(a) Flight Rules. Insert the character I to letters to indicate the wake turbulence category of
indicate IFR the aircraft:
(b) Type of Flight. Insert one of the
following letters to denote the type of flight: (1) H HEAVY, to indicate an aircraft
type with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of
(1) S if scheduled air service 300,000 pounds (136 000 kg), or more;
(2) N if nonscheduled air transport
operation (2) M MEDIUM, to indicate an aircraft
type with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of
(3) G if general aviation less than 300,000 pounds (136,000 kg), but more than
(4) M if military 15,500 pounds (7,000 kg);
(5) X if other than any of the defined (3) L LIGHT, to indicate an aircraft type
categories above. with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of
NOTE 15,500 pounds (7,000 kg) or less.
Type of flight is optional for flights that will be conducted
entirely within U.S. domestic airspace. 4. Item 10. Equipment
5118 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 513
FAA International Flight Plan Form 72334 (906)
Preflight 5119
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5120 Preflight
6/25/15
4/3/14 AIM
TBL 514
Aircraft COM, NAV, and Approach Equipment Qualifiers
INSERT one letter as follows:
N if no COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is carried, or the equipment
is unserviceable,
(OR)
S if standard COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is carried and
serviceable (see Note 1),
(AND/OR)
INSERT one or more of the following letters to indicate the COM/NAV/approach aid equipment available
and serviceable:
NOTE
The capabilities described below comprise the following elements:
a. Presence of relevant serviceable equipment on board the aircraft.
b. Equipment and capabilities commensurate with flight crew qualifications.
c. Where applicable, authorization from the appropriate authority.
A GBAS landing system J6 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (MTSAT)

B LPV (APV with SBAS) J7 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (Iridium)
C LORAN C L ILS
D DME M1 ATC RTF SATCOM (INMARSAT)
E1 FMC WPR ACARS M2 ATC RTF (MTSAT)
E2 D-FIS ACARS M3 ATC RTF (Iridium)
E3 PDC ACARS O VOR
F ADF P1 Reserved for RCP
P9
G (GNSS) see Note 2 R PBN approved - see Note 4
H HF RTF T TACAN
I Inertial navigation U UHF RTF
J1 CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 see Note 3 V VHF RTF
J2 CPDLC FANS 1/A HFDL W RVSM approved
J3 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 4 X MNPS approved
J4 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 2 Y VHF with 8.33 kHz channel spacing capability
J5 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (INMARSAT) Z Other equipment carried or other capabilities
- see Note 5
NOTE
1. If the letter S is used, standard equipment is considered to be VHF RTF, VOR, and ILS within U.S. domestic airspace.
2. If the letter G is used, the types of external GNSS augmentation, if any, are specified in Item 18 following the indicator
NAV/ and separated by a space.
3. See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements Standard For ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP Standard
DO-280B/ED-110B) for data link services air traffic control clearance and information/air traffic control communications
management/air traffic control microphone check.
4. If the letter R is used, the performancebased navigation levels that are authorized must be specified in Item 18 following
the indicator PBN/. For further details, see Paragraph 519 b 8, Item 18 (c) and (d).
5. If the letter Z is used, specify in Item 18 the other equipment carried, preceded by COM/, DAT/, and/or NAV/, as
appropriate.
6. Information on navigation capability is provided to ATC for clearance and routing purposes.
Preflight 5121
7110.65R
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AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
1/8/15
4/3/14
TBL 515
Aircraft Surveillance Equipment, Including Designators for Transponder, ADSB, ADSC, and Capabilities
INSERT N if no surveillance equipment for the route to be flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable,
OR
INSERT one or more of the following descriptors, to a maximum of 20 characters, to describe the serviceable surveillance equip-
ment and/or capabilities on board:
SSR Modes A and C

A Transponder - Mode A (4 digits 4096 codes)
C Transponder - Mode A (4 digits 4096 codes) and Mode C
SSR Mode S
E Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft identification, pressure-altitude and extended squitter (ADS-B) capability
H Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft identification, pressure-altitude and enhanced surveillance capability
I Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft identification, but no pressure-altitude capability
L Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft identification, pressure-altitude, extended squitter (ADS B) and enhanced surveil-
lance capability
P Transponder - Mode S, including pressure-altitude, but no aircraft identification capability
S Transponder - Mode S, including both pressure-altitude and aircraft identification capability
X Transponder - Mode S with neither aircraft identification nor pressure-altitude capability
NOTE
Enhanced surveillance capability is the ability of the aircraft to down-link aircraft derived data via a Mode S transponder.
Followed by one or more of the following codes if the aircraft has ADS-B capability:
B1 ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B out capability
B2 ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B out and in capability
U1 ADS-B out capability using UAT
U2 ADS-B out and in capability using UAT
V1 ADS-B out capability using VDL Mode 4
V2 ADS-B out and in capability using VDL Mode 4
NOTE
File no more than one code for each type of capability; for example, file B1 or B2,but not both.
Followed by one or more of the following codes if the aircraft has ADS-C capability:
D1 ADS-C with FANS 1/A capabilities
G1 ADS-C with ATN capabilities
EXAMPLE
1. SDGW/SB1U1 {VOR, ILS, VHF, DME, GNSS, RVSM, Mode S transponder, ADS-B 1090 Extended Squitter out, ADS-B
UAT out}
2. S/C {VOR, ILS, VHF, Mode C transponder}
5122 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
5. Item 13. Departure Aerodrome/Time (1) Consecutive fixes, navaids and waypo-
ints should be separated by the characters DCT,
(a) Insert the ICAO fourletter location meaning direct.
indicator of the departure aerodrome, or
EXAMPLE
NOTE FLACK DCT IRW DCT IRW125023
ICAO location indicators must consist of 4 letters. Airport NOTE
identifiers such as 5IA7, 39LL and Z40 are not in ICAO IRW125023 identifies the fix located on the Will Rogers
standard format. VORTAC 125 radial at 23 DME.
(b) If no fourletter location indicator has (2) Combinations of published routes, and
been assigned to the departure aerodrome, insert fixes, navaids or waypoints should be separated by a
ZZZZ and specify the nonICAO location identifier, single space.
or fix/radial/distance from a nearby navaid, followed EXAMPLE
by the name of the aerodrome, in Item 18, following WORTH5 MQP V66 ABI V385
characters DEP/, (3) Although it is recommended that filed
airway junctions be identified using a named junction
(c) Then, without a space, insert the estimated
fix when possible, there may be cases where it is
offblock time.
necessary to file junctioning airways without a named
EXAMPLE fix. In these cases, separate consecutive airways with
1. KSMF2215 a space.
2. ZZZZ0330 EXAMPLE
V325 V49
6. Item 15. Cruise Speed, Level and Route NOTE
This method of filing an airway junction may result in a
(a) Cruise Speed (maximum 5 characters). processing ambiguity. This might cause the flight plan to be
Insert the true airspeed for the first or the whole rejected in some cases.
cruising portion of the flight, in terms of knots,
7. Item 16. Destination Aerodrome, Total
expressed as N followed by 4 digits (e.g. N0485), or
EET, Alternate and 2nd Alternate Aerodrome
Mach number to the nearest hundredth of unit Mach,
expressed as M followed by 3 digits (for example, (a) Destination Aerodrome and Total Estim-
M082). ated Elapsed Time (EET).
(1) Insert the ICAO fourletter location
(b) Cruising level (maximum 5 characters).
identifier for the destination aerodrome; or, if no
Insert the planned cruising level for the first or the
ICAO location identifier has been assigned,
whole portion of the route to be flown, in terms of
(Location identifiers, such as WY66, A08, and 5B1,
flight level, expressed as F followed by 3 figures (for
are not an ICAO standard format),
example, F180; F330), or altitude in hundreds of feet,
expressed as A followed by 3 figures (for example, (2) Insert ZZZZ and specify the nonICAO
A040; A170). location identifier, or fix/radial/distance from a
nearby navaid, followed the name of the aerodrome,
(c) Route. Insert the requested route of flight in Item 18, following characters DEST/,
in accordance with guidance below.
(3) Then, without a space, insert the total
NOTE estimated time en route to the destination.
Speed and/or altitude changes en route will be accepted by EXAMPLE
FAA computer systems, but will not be processed or
1. KOKC0200
forwarded to controllers. Pilots are expected to maintain
the last assigned altitude and request revised altitude 2. ZZZZ0330
clearances directly from ATC. (b) Alternate and 2nd Alternate Aerodrome
(d) Insert the desired route of flight using a (Optional).
combination of published routes and/or fixes in the (1) Following the intended destination,
following formats: insert the ICAO fourletter location identifier(s) of
Preflight 5123
AIM 4/3/14
alternate aerodromes; or, if no location identifier(s) (7) HOSP: For a medical flight declared by
have been assigned; medical authorities.
(2) Insert ZZZZ and specify the name of the (8) HUM: For a flight operating on a
aerodrome in Item 18, following the characters humanitarian mission.
ALTN/. (9) MARSA: For a flight for which a
EXAMPLE military entity assumes responsibility for separation
1. KDFW0234 KPWA of military aircraft.
2. KBOS0304 ZZZZ (10) MEDEVAC: For a life critical medical
NOTE
emergency evacuation.
Although alternate airport information filed in an FPL will (11) NONRVSM: For a non-RVSM
be accepted by air traffic computer systems, it will not be capable flight intending to operate in RVSM airspace.
presented to controllers. If diversion to an alternate airport
becomes necessary, pilots are expected to notify ATC and (12) SAR: For a flight engaged in a search
request an amended clearance. and rescue mission.
8. Item 18. Other Information (13) STATE: For a flight engaged in
military, customs, or police services.
(a) Insert 0 (zero) if no other information; or,
NOTE
any other necessary information in the sequence Other reasons for special handling by ATS are denoted
shown below, in the form of the appropriate indicator under the designator RMK/.
followed by an oblique stroke and the information to
be recorded: (c) PBN/ Indication of RNAV and/or RNP
capabilities. Include as many of the descriptors below
NOTE as apply to the flight, up to a maximum of 8 entries;
1. Operators are warned that the use of indicators not that is a total of not more than 16 characters.
included in the provisions may result in data being rejected,
processed incorrectly, or lost. TBL 516
2. Hyphens - or oblique strokes / should only be used PBN/RNAV Specifications

as described. PBN/ RNAV SPECIFICATIONS
3. Avoid use of any other special characters in Field 18 A1 RNAV 10 (RNP 10)
information- use only letters and numbers.
4. An indicator without any associated information will B1 RNAV 5 all permitted sensors
result in flight plan rejection.
B2 RNAV 5 GNSS
(b) STS/ Reason for special handling by ATS B3 RNAV 5 DME/DME
as follows:
B4 RNAV 5 VOR/DME
(1) ALTRV: For a flight operated in B5 RNAV 5 INS or IRS
accordance with an altitude reservation.
B6 RNAV 5 LORAN C
(2) ATFMX: For a flight approved for
exemption from ATFM measures by the appropriate C1 RNAV 2 all permitted sensors
ATS authority.
C2 RNAV 2 GNSS
(3) FFR: Fire-fighting. C3 RNAV 2 DME/DME
(4) FLTCK: Flight check for calibration of C4 RNAV 2 DME/DME/IRU
navaids.
D1 RNAV 1 all permitted sensors
(5) HAZMAT: For a flight carrying hazard-
ous material. D2 RNAV 1 GNSS
D3 RNAV 1 DME/DME
(6) HEAD: A flight with Head of State
status. D4 RNAV 1 DME/DME/IRU
5124 Preflight
1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
RNP SPECIFICATIONS 5. NAV/RNVD1E2A1

L1 RNP 4 NOTE
1. Route assignments are predicated on NAV/ data over
PBN/ data in ERAS.
O1 Basic RNP 1 all permitted sensors
2. Aircraft certification requirements for RNAV opera-
O2 Basic RNP 1 GNSS tions within U.S. airspace are defined in AC 90-45A,
O3 Basic RNP 1 DME/DME Approval of Area Navigation Systems for Use in the U.S.
National Airspace System, and AC 90100A, U.S.
O4 Basic RNP 1 DME/DME/IRU
Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV)
Operations, as amended.
S1 RNP APCH
(2) Operators should file their maximum
S2 RNP APCH with BARO-VNAV
capabilities in order to qualify for the most advanced
procedures.
T1 RNP AR APCH with RF
(special authorization required) (e) COM/ Indicate communications capabil-
ities not specified in Item 10a, when requested by an
T2 RNP AR APCH without RF
(special authorization required) air navigation service provider.
(f) DAT/ Indicate data applications or capab-
NOTE ilities not specified in Item 10a, when requested by an
Combinations of alphanumeric characters not indicated Air Navigation Service Provider.
above are reserved.
(g) SUR/ Indicate surveillance capabilities
(d) NAV/ Significant data related to naviga- not specified in Item 10b, when requested by an Air
tion equipment, other than as specified in PBN/. Navigation Service Provider. If ADS-B capability
(1) When Performance Based Navigation filed in Item 10 is compliant with RTCA DO-260B,
Capability has been filed in PBN/, if PBN routing is include the item 260B in SUR/. If ADS-B
desired for only some segment(s) of the flight then capability filed in Item 10 is compliant with RTCA
that information can be conveyed by inserting the DO-282B, include the item 282B in SUR/.
character Z in Item 10 and NAV/RNV in field 18 EXAMPLE
followed by the appropriate RNAV accuracy value(s) 1. SUR/260B
per the following: 2. SUR/260B 282B
[a] To be assigned an RNAV 1 SID, (h) DEP/ Insert the nonICAO identifier, or
insert the characters D1. fix/radial/distance from navaid, or latitude/longitude,
if ZZZZ is inserted in Item 13. Optionally, append the
[b] To be assigned an RNAV 1 STAR,
name of the departure point.
insert the characters A1.
EXAMPLE
[c] To be assigned en route extensions 1. DEP/T23 ALBANY MUNI
and/or RNAV PTP, insert the characters E2. 2. DEP/T23
[d] To prevent assignment of an RNAV 3. DEP/UKW197011 TICK HOLLR RANCH
route or procedure, insert a numeric value of 0 for 4. DEP/4620N07805W
the segment of the flight. Alternatively, you may
simply remove the segment of the flight indicator and (i) DEST/ Insert the nonICAO identifier, or
numeric value from the character string. fix/radial/distance from navaid, or latitude/longitude,
if ZZZZ is inserted in Item 16. Optionally, append the
EXAMPLE name of the destination point.
1. NAV/RNVD1 or NAV/RNVD1E0A0 (Same meaning)
EXAMPLE
2. NAV/RNVA1 or NAV/RNVD0E0A1 (Same meaning) 1. DEST/T23 ALBANY MUNI
3. NAV/RNVE2 or NAV/RNVD0E2A0 (Same meaning) 2. DEST/PIE335033 LEXI DUNES
4. NAV/RNVD1A1 or NAV/RNVD1E0A1 (Same meaning) 3. DEST/4620N07805W
Preflight 5125
AIM 4/3/14
(j) DOF/ The date of flight departure in a six NOTE

figure format (YYMMDD, where YY equals the In some areas, flight plan reception centers may insert the
year, MM equals the month, and DD equals the day). ORGN/ identifier and originators AFTN address
The FAA will not accept flight plans filed with Date automatically.
of Flight resulting in more than a day in advance. (s) PER/ Aircraft performance data, indic-
ated by a single letter as specified in the Procedures
(k) REG/ The registration markings of the for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations
aircraft, if different from the aircraft identification in (PANS-OPS, Doc 8168), Volume I - Flight
Item 7. Note that the FAA uses this information in Procedures, if so prescribed by the appropriate ATS
monitoring of RVSM and ADS-B performance. authority. Note that the FAA does not require PER/
information.
(l) EET/ Significant points or FIR boundary
designators and accumulated estimated elapsed times (t) ALTN/ Name of destination alternate
to such points or FIR boundaries. aerodrome(s), if ZZZZ is inserted in Item 16.
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
EET/KZLA0745 KZAB0830 1. ALTN/F35 POSSUM KINGDOM
2. ALTN/TCC233016 LAZY S RANCH
(m) SEL/ SELCAL code.
(u) RALT/ ICAO 4-letter indicator(s) for
(n) TYP/ Insert the type of aircraft if ZZZZ en-route alternate(s), as specified in Doc 7910,
was entered in Item 9. If necessary, insert the number Location Indicators, or name(s) of en-route alternate
and type(s) of aircraft in a formation. aerodrome(s), if no indicator is allocated. For
aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical
EXAMPLE Information Publication, indicate location in LAT/
1. TYP/Homebuilt LONG or bearing and distance from the nearest
2. TYP/2 P51 B17 B24 significant point, as described in DEP/ above.
(o) CODE/ Aircraft address (expressed in (v) TALT/ ICAO 4-letter indicator(s) for
the form of an alphanumerical code of six take-off alternate, as specified in Doc 7910, Location
hexadecimal characters) when required by the Indicators, or name of take-off alternate aerodrome,
appropriate ATS authority. Include CODE/ when if no indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed
ADS-B capability is filed in Item 10. in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication,
indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and
EXAMPLE distance from the nearest significant point, as
F00001 is the lowest aircraft address contained in the described in DEP/ above.
specific block administered by ICAO.
(w) RIF/ The route details to the revised
(p) DLE/ En route delay or holding, insert destination aerodrome, followed by the ICAO
the significant point(s) on the route where a delay is four-letter location indicator of the aerodrome. The
planned to occur, followed by the length of delay revised route is subject to reclearance in flight.
using four figure time in hours and minutes (hhmm).
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1. RIF/DTA HEC KLAX
DLE/MDG0030 2. RIF/ESP G94 CLA YPPH
(q) OPR/ Name of the operator, if not (x) RMK/ Any other plainlanguage re-
obvious from the aircraft identification in Item 7. marks when required by the ATC or deemed
necessary.
(r) ORGN/ The originators 8-letter AFTN EXAMPLE
address or other appropriate contact details, in cases 1. RMK/NRP
where the originator of the flight plan may not be
readily identified, as required by the appropriate ATS 2. RMK/DRVSN
authority. The FAA does not require ORGN/ (y) RVR/ The minimum RVR requirement of
information. the flight in meters. This item is defined by
5126 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
Eurocontrol, not ICAO. The FAA does not require or (3) J/ (JACKETS).
use this item, but will accept it in a flight plan. [a] Cross out LIGHT if life jackets are
NOTE not equipped with lights.
This provision is detailed in the European Regional
[b] Cross out FLUORES if life jackets
Supplementary Procedures (EUR SUPPs, Doc 7030),
Chapter 2.
are not equipped with fluorescein.
[c] Cross out UHF or VHF or both as
(z) RFP/ Q followed by a digit to indicate the
in R/ above to indicate radio capability of jackets, if
sequence of the replacement flight plan being
any.
submitted. This item is defined by Eurocontrol, not
ICAO. The FAA will not use this item, but will accept (4) D/ (DINGHIES).
it in a flight plan. [a] NUMBER. Cross out indicators
NOTE NUMBER and CAPACITY if no dinghies are
This provision is detailed in the European Regional carried, or insert number of dinghies carried; and
Supplementary Procedures (EUR SUPPs, Doc 7030),
[b] CAPACITY. Insert total capacity, in
chapter 2.
persons, of all dinghies carried; and
9. Item 19. Supplementary Information
[c] COVER. Cross out indicator
NOTE COVER if dinghies are not covered; and
Item 19 data must be included when completing FAA Form
72334. This information will be retained by the [d] COLOR. Insert color of dinghies if
facility/organization that transmits the flight plan to Air carried.
Traffic Control (ATC), for Search and Rescue purposes, but (5) A/ (AIRCRAFT COLOR AND
it will not be transmitted to ATC as part of the FPL. MARKINGS). Insert color of aircraft and significant
(a) E/ (ENDURANCE). Insert 4digits group markings.
giving the fuel endurance in hours and minutes. (6) N/ (REMARKS). Cross out indicator N
(b) P/ (PERSONS ON BOARD). Insert the if no remarks, or indicate any other survival
total number of persons (passengers and crew) on equipment carried and any other remarks regarding
board. survival equipment.
(7) C/ (PILOT). Insert name of pilotin
(c) Emergency and survival equipment
command.
(1) R/ (RADIO).
5110. IFR Operations to High Altitude
[a] Cross out UHF if frequency 243.0 Destinations
MHz is not available.
a. Pilots planning IFR flights to airports located in
[b] Cross out VHF frequency 121.5 mountainous terrain are cautioned to consider the
MHz is not available. necessity for an alternate airport even when the
[c] Cross out ELBA if emergency forecast weather conditions would technically relieve
locator transmitter (ELT) is not available. them from the requirement to file one.
REFERENCE
(2) S/ (SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT). 14 CFR Section 91.167.
AIM, Tower En Route Control (TEC), Paragraph 4119.
[a] Cross out POLAR if polar survival
equipment is not carried. b. The FAA has identified three possible situations
[b] Cross out DESERT if desert where the failure to plan for an alternate airport when
survival equipment is not carried. flying IFR to such a destination airport could result in
a critical situation if the weather is less than forecast
[c] Cross out MARITIME if maritime and sufficient fuel is not available to proceed to a
survival equipment is not carried. suitable airport.
[d] Cross out J if JUNGLE survival 1. An IFR flight to an airport where the
equipment is not carried. Minimum Descent Altitudes (MDAs) or landing
Preflight 5127
AIM 4/3/14
visibility minimums for all instrument approaches b. Pilots should remember that there is a need to
are higher than the forecast weather minimums continuously guard the VHF emergency frequency
specified in 14 CFR Section 91.167(b). For example, 121.5 MHz when on long over-water flights, except
there are 3 high altitude airports in the U.S. with when communications on other VHF channels,
approved instrument approach procedures where all equipment limitations, or cockpit duties prevent
of the MDAs are greater than 2,000 feet and/or the simultaneous guarding of two channels. Guarding of
landing visibility minimums are greater than 3 miles 121.5 MHz is particularly critical when operating in
(Bishop, California; South Lake Tahoe, California; proximity to Flight Information Region (FIR)
and AspenPitkin Co./Sardy Field, Colorado). In the boundaries, for example, operations on Route R220
case of these airports, it is possible for a pilot to elect, between Anchorage and Tokyo, since it serves to
on the basis of forecasts, not to carry sufficient fuel to facilitate communications with regard to aircraft
get to an alternate when the ceiling and/or visibility which may experience in-flight emergencies, com-
is actually lower than that necessary to complete the munications, or navigational difficulties.
approach. REFERENCE
ICAO Annex 10, Vol II, Paras 5.2.2.1.1.1 and 5.2.2.1.1.2.
2. A small number of other airports in
c. The filing of a flight plan, always good practice,
mountainous terrain have MDAs which are slightly
takes on added significance for extended flights
(100 to 300 feet) below 2,000 feet AGL. In situations
outside U.S. airspace and is, in fact, usually required
where there is an option as to whether to plan for an
by the laws of the countries being visited or
alternate, pilots should bear in mind that just a slight
overflown. It is also particularly important in the case
worsening of the weather conditions from those
of such flights that pilots leave a complete itinerary
forecast could place the airport below the published
and schedule of the flight with someone directly
IFR landing minimums.
concerned and keep that person advised of the flights
3. An IFR flight to an airport which requires progress. If serious doubt arises as to the safety of the
special equipment; i.e., DME, glide slope, etc., in flight, that person should first contact the appropriate
order to make the available approaches to the lowest FSS. Round Robin Flight Plans to Mexico are not
minimums. Pilots should be aware that all other accepted.
minimums on the approach charts may require d. All pilots should review the foreign airspace
weather conditions better than those specified in and entry restrictions published in the IFIM during
14 CFR Section 91.167(b). An inflight equipment the flight planning process. Foreign airspace
malfunction could result in the inability to comply penetration without official authorization can involve
with the published approach procedures or, again, in both danger to the aircraft and the imposition of
the position of having the airport below the published severe penalties and inconvenience to both passen-
IFR landing minimums for all remaining instrument gers and crew. A flight plan on file with ATC
approach alternatives. authorities does not necessarily constitute the prior
permission required by certain other authorities. The
possibility of fatal consequences cannot be ignored in
5111. Flights Outside the U.S. and U.S. some areas of the world.
Territories e. Current NOTAMs for foreign locations must
also be reviewed. The publication Notices to Airmen,
a. When conducting flights, particularly extended
Domestic/International, published biweekly, con-
flights, outside the U.S. and its territories, full
tains considerable information pertinent to foreign
account should be taken of the amount and quality of
flight. Current foreign NOTAMs are also available
air navigation services available in the airspace to be
from the U.S. International NOTAM Office in
traversed. Every effort should be made to secure
Washington, D.C., through any local FSS.
information on the location and range of navigational
aids, availability of communications and meteoro- f. When customs notification is required, it is the
logical services, the provision of air traffic services, responsibility of the pilot to arrange for customs
including alerting service, and the existence of search notification in a timely manner. The following
and rescue services. guidelines are applicable:
5128 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
1. When customs notification is required on (c) This notice will be valid as long as actual
flights to Canada and Mexico and a predeparture arrival is within 15 minutes of the original ETA,
flight plan cannot be filed or an advise customs otherwise a new notice must be given to Customs.
message (ADCUS) cannot be included in a Notices will be accepted up to 23 hours in advance.
predeparture flight plan, call the nearest en route Unless an exemption has been granted by Customs,
domestic or International FSS as soon as radio private aircraft are required to make first landing in
communication can be established and file a VFR or the U.S. at one of the following designated airports
DVFR flight plan, as required, and include as the last nearest to the point of border of coastline crossing:
item the advise customs information. The station with Designated Airports
which such a flight plan is filed will forward it to the
appropriate FSS who will notify the customs office ARIZONA
responsible for the destination airport. Bisbee Douglas Intl Airport
2. If the pilot fails to include ADCUS in the Douglas Municipal Airport
radioed flight plan, it will be assumed that other Nogales Intl Airport
arrangements have been made and FAA will not Tucson Intl Airport
advise customs. Yuma MCASYuma Intl Airport
3. The FAA assumes no responsibility for any CALIFORNIA
delays in advising customs if the flight plan is given Calexico Intl Airport
too late for delivery to customs before arrival of the Brown Field Municipal Airport (San Diego)
aircraft. It is still the pilots responsibility to give
timely notice even though a flight plan is given to FLORIDA
FAA. Fort Lauderdale Executive Airport
Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood Intl Airport
4. Air Commerce Regulations of the Treasury
Departments Customs Service require all private Key West Intl Airport (Miami Intl Airport)
aircraft arriving in the U.S. via: Opa Locka Airport (Miami)
KendallTamiami Executive Airport (Miami)
(a) The U.S./Mexican border or the Pacific St. Lucie County Intl Airport (Fort Pierce)
Coast from a foreign place in the Western Tampa Intl Airport
Hemisphere south of 33 degrees north latitude and Palm Beach Intl Airport (West Palm Beach)
between 97 degrees and 120 degrees west longitude;
or LOUISANA
(b) The Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Coasts New Orleans Intl Airport (Moisant Field)
from a foreign place in the Western Hemisphere south New Orleans Lakefront Airport
of 30 degrees north latitude, must furnish a notice of NEW MEXICO
arrival to the Customs service at the nearest
Las Cruces Intl Airport
designated airport. This notice may be furnished
directly to Customs by: NORTH CAROLINA
(1) Radio through the appropriate FAA New Hanover Intl Airport (Wilmington)
Flight Service Station. TEXAS
(2) Normal FAA flight plan notification Brownsville/South Padre Island Intl Airport
procedures (a flight plan filed in Mexico does not Corpus Christi Intl Airport
meet this requirement due to unreliable relay of data); Del Rio Intl Airport
or Eagle Pass Municipal Airport
(3) Directly to the district Director of El Paso Intl Airport
Customs or other Customs officer at place of first William P. Hobby Airport (Houston)
intended landing but must be furnished at least 1 hour Laredo Intl Airport
prior to crossing the U.S./Mexican border or the U.S. McAllen Miller Intl Airport
coastline. Presidio Lely Intl Airport
Preflight 5129
AIM 4/3/14
5112. Change in Flight Plan b. An IFR flight plan may be canceled at any time
the flight is operating in VFR conditions outside
In addition to altitude or flight level, destination
Class A airspace by pilots stating CANCEL MY IFR
and/or route changes, increasing or decreasing the
FLIGHT PLAN to the controller or air/ground
speed of an aircraft constitutes a change in a flight
station with which they are communicating.
plan. Therefore, at any time the average true airspeed
Immediately after canceling an IFR flight plan, a pilot
at cruising altitude between reporting points varies or
should take the necessary action to change to the
is expected to vary from that given in the flight plan
appropriate air/ground frequency, VFR radar beacon
by plus or minus 5 percent, or 10 knots, whichever is
code and VFR altitude or flight level.
greater, ATC should be advised.
c. ATC separation and information services will
5113. Change in Proposed Departure be discontinued, including radar services (where
Time applicable). Consequently, if the canceling flight
desires VFR radar advisory service, the pilot must
a. To prevent computer saturation in the en route specifically request it.
environment, parameters have been established to NOTE
delete proposed departure flight plans which have not Pilots must be aware that other procedures may be
been activated. Most centers have this parameter set applicable to a flight that cancels an IFR flight plan within
so as to delete these flight plans a minimum of 1 hour an area where a special program, such as a designated
after the proposed departure time. To ensure that a TRSA, Class C airspace, or Class B airspace, has been
flight plan remains active, pilots whose actual established.
departure time will be delayed 1 hour or more beyond d. If a DVFR flight plan requirement exists, the
their filed departure time, are requested to notify ATC pilot is responsible for filing this flight plan to replace
of their departure time. the canceled IFR flight plan. If a subsequent IFR
b. Due to traffic saturation, control personnel operation becomes necessary, a new IFR flight plan
frequently will be unable to accept these revisions via must be filed and an ATC clearance obtained before
radio. It is recommended that you forward these operating in IFR conditions.
revisions to the nearest FSS. e. If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport
with a functioning control tower, the flight plan is
5114. Closing VFR/DVFR Flight Plans automatically closed upon landing.
A pilot is responsible for ensuring that his/her VFR or f. If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport
DVFR flight plan is canceled. You should close your where there is no functioning control tower, the pilot
flight plan with the nearest FSS, or if one is not must initiate cancellation of the IFR flight plan. This
available, you may request any ATC facility to relay can be done after landing if there is a functioning FSS
your cancellation to the FSS. Control towers do not or other means of direct communications with ATC.
automatically close VFR or DVFR flight plans since In the event there is no FSS and/or air/ground
they do not know if a particular VFR aircraft is on a communications with ATC is not possible below a
flight plan. If you fail to report or cancel your flight certain altitude, the pilot should, weather conditions
plan within 1/2 hour after your ETA, search and rescue permitting, cancel the IFR flight plan while still
procedures are started. airborne and able to communicate with ATC by radio.
This will not only save the time and expense of
REFERENCE
14 CFR Section 91.153. canceling the flight plan by telephone but will quickly
14 CFR Section 91.169. release the airspace for use by other aircraft.
5115. Canceling IFR Flight Plan 5116. RNAV and RNP Operations
a. 14 CFR Sections 91.153 and 91.169 include the a. During the preflight planning phase the
statement When a flight plan has been activated, the availability of the navigation infrastructure required
pilot-in-command, upon canceling or completing the for the intended operation, including any nonRNAV
flight under the flight plan, must notify an FAA Flight contingencies, must be confirmed for the period of
Service Station or ATC facility. intended operation. Availability of the onboard
5130 Preflight
4/3/14 AIM
navigation equipment necessary for the route to be 2. Operators may use the FAA en route and
flown must be confirmed. terminal RAIM prediction website:
b. If a pilot determines a specified RNP level www.raimprediction.net;
cannot be achieved, revise the route or delay the 3. Operators may contact a Flight Service
operation until appropriate RNP level can be ensured. Station (not DUATS) to obtain nonprecision
c. The onboard navigation database must be approach RAIM;
current and appropriate for the region of intended
4. Operators may use a third party interface,
operation and must include the navigation aids,
incorporating FAA/VOLPE RAIM prediction data
waypoints, and coded terminal airspace procedures
without altering performance values, to predict
for the departure, arrival and alternate airfields.
RAIM outages for the aircrafts predicted flight path
d. During system initialization, pilots of aircraft and times;
equipped with a Flight Management System or other
RNAVcertified system, must confirm that the 5. Operators may use the receivers installed
navigation database is current, and verify that the RAIM prediction capability (for TSOC129a/Class
aircraft position has been entered correctly. Flight A1/B1/C1 equipment) to provide nonprecision
crews should crosscheck the cleared flight plan approach RAIM, accounting for the latest GPS
against charts or other applicable resources, as well as constellation status (e.g., NOTAMs or NANUs).
the navigation system textual display and the aircraft Receiver nonprecision approach RAIM should be
map display. This process includes confirmation of checked at airports spaced at intervals not to exceed
the waypoints sequence, reasonableness of track 60 NM along the RNAV 1 procedures flight track.
angles and distances, any altitude or speed Terminal or Approach RAIM must be available
constraints, and identification of flyby or flyover at the ETA over each airport checked; or,
waypoints. A procedure must not be used if validity 6. Operators not using modelspecific software
of the navigation database is in doubt. or FAA/VOLPE RAIM data will need FAA
e. Prior to commencing takeoff, the flight crew operational approval.
must verify that the RNAV system is operating NOTE
correctly and the correct airport and runway data have If TSOC145/C146 equipment is used to satisfy the RNAV
been loaded. and RNP requirement, the pilot/operator need not perform
f. During the preflight planning phase RAIM the prediction if WAAS coverage is confirmed to be
prediction must be performed if TSOC129() available along the entire route of flight. Outside the U.S.
or in areas where WAAS coverage is not available,
equipment is used to solely satisfy the RNAV and
operators using TSOC145/C146 receivers are required to
RNP requirement. GPS RAIM availability must be check GPS RAIM availability.
confirmed for the intended route of flight (route and
time) using current GPS satellite information. In the
event of a predicted, continuous loss of RAIM of
more than five (5) minutes for any part of the intended
flight, the flight should be delayed, canceled, or
rerouted where RAIM requirements can be met.
Operators may satisfy the predictive RAIM require-
ment through any one of the following methods:
1. Operators may monitor the status of each
satellite in its plane/slot position, by accounting for
the latest GPS constellation status (e.g., NOTAMs or
NANUs), and compute RAIM availability using
modelspecific RAIM prediction software;
Preflight 5131
4/3/14 AIM
Section 2. Departure Procedures
521. Pre-taxi Clearance Procedures then deliver the clearance via the Aircraft Commu-
nications Addressing and Reporting System
a. Certain airports have established pre-taxi clear- (ACARS) or a similar data link system or, for nondata
ance programs whereby pilots of departing
link equipped aircraft, via a printer located at the de-
instrument flight rules (IFR) aircraft may elect to re-
parture gate. PDC reduces frequency congestion,
ceive their IFR clearances before they start taxiing for controller workload and is intended to mitigate deliv-
takeoff. The following provisions are included in
ery/readback errors. Also, information from
such procedures:
participating users indicates a reduction in pilot
1. Pilot participation is not mandatory. workload.
2. Participating pilots call clearance delivery or b. PDC is available only to participating aircraft
ground control not more than 10 minutes before pro- that have subscribed to the service through an ap-
posed taxi time. proved service provider.
3. IFR clearance (or delay information, if clear- c. Due to technical reasons, the following limita-
ance cannot be obtained) is issued at the time of this tions currently exist in the PDC program:
initial call-up. 1. Aircraft filing multiple flight plans are limit-
ed to one PDC clearance per departure airport within
4. When the IFR clearance is received on clear- a 24hour period. Additional clearances will be de-
ance delivery frequency, pilots call ground control livered verbally.
when ready to taxi.
2. If the clearance is revised or modified prior to
5. Normally, pilots need not inform ground con- delivery, it will be rejected from PDC and the clear-
trol that they have received IFR clearance on ance will need to be delivered verbally.
clearance delivery frequency. Certain locations may,
however, require that the pilot inform ground control d. No acknowledgment of receipt or readback is
of a portion of the routing or that the IFR clearance required for a PDC.
has been received. e. In all situations, the pilot is encouraged to con-
tact clearance delivery if a question or concern exists
6. If a pilot cannot establish contact on clearance
regarding an automated clearance.
delivery frequency or has not received an IFR clear-
ance before ready to taxi, the pilot should contact 523. Taxi Clearance
ground control and inform the controller accordingly.
Pilots on IFR flight plans should communicate with
b. Locations where these procedures are in effect the control tower on the appropriate ground control or
are indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory. clearance delivery frequency, prior to starting en-
gines, to receive engine start time, taxi and/or
522. Predeparture Clearance Proce- clearance information.
dures
524. Line Up and Wait (LUAW)
a. Many airports in the National Airspace System
are equipped with the Tower Data Link System a. Line up and wait is an air traffic control (ATC)
(TDLS) that includes the Predeparture Clearance procedure designed to position an aircraft onto the
(PDC) function. The PDC function automates the runway for an imminent departure. The ATC
Clearance Delivery operations in the ATCT for par- instruction LINE UP AND WAIT is used to instruct
ticipating users. The PDC function displays IFR a pilot to taxi onto the departure runway and line up
clearances from the ARTCC to the ATCT. The Clear- and wait.
ance Delivery controller in the ATCT can append EXAMPLE
local departure information and transmit the clear- Tower: N234AR Runway 24L, line up and wait.
ance via data link to participating airline/service b. This ATC instruction is not an authorization to
provider computers. The airline/service provider will takeoff. In instances where the pilot has been
Departure Procedures 521

AIM 4/3/14
instructed to line up and wait and has been advised of are being conducted, it is important to listen closely
a reason/condition (wake turbulence, traffic on an for your call sign and runway. Be alert for similar
intersecting runway, etc.) or the reason/condition is sounding call signs and acknowledge all instructions
clearly visible (another aircraft that has landed on or with your call sign. When you are holding in position
is taking off on the same runway), and the reason/ and are not sure if the takeoff clearance was for you,
condition is satisfied, the pilot should expect an ask ATC before you begin takeoff roll. ATC prefers
imminent takeoff clearance, unless advised of a that you confirm a takeoff clearance rather than
delay. If you are uncertain about any ATC instruction mistake another aircrafts clearance for your own.
or clearance, contact ATC immediately. g. When ATC issues intersection line up and
c. If a takeoff clearance is not received within a wait and takeoff clearances, the intersection
reasonable amount of time after clearance to line up designator will be used. If ATC omits the intersection
and wait, ATC should be contacted. designator, call ATC for clarification.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE Aircraft: Cherokee 234AR, Runway 24L at November 4,
Aircraft: Cessna 234AR holding in position Runway 24L. line up and wait.
Aircraft: Cessna 234AR holding in position Runway 24L h. If landing traffic is a factor during line up and
at Bravo. wait operations, ATC will inform the aircraft in
position of the closest traffic that has requested a full
NOTE
FAA analysis of accidents and incidents involving aircraft stop, touchandgo, stopandgo, or an unrestricted
holding in position indicate that two minutes or more low approach to the same runway. Pilots should take
elapsed between the time the instruction was issued to line care to note the position of landing traffic. ATC will
up and wait and the resulting event (for example, landover also advise the landing traffic when an aircraft is
or goaround). Pilots should consider the length of time authorized to line up and wait on the same runway.
that they have been holding in position whenever they EXAMPLE
HAVE NOT been advised of any expected delay to Tower: Cessna 234AR, Runway 24L, line up and wait.
determine when it is appropriate to query the controller. Traffic a Boeing 737, six mile final.
REFERENCE Tower: Delta 1011, continue, traffic a Cessna 210
Advisory Circulars 9173A, Part 91 and Part 135 SinglePilot Proced- holding in position Runway 24L.
ures during Taxi Operations, and 12074A, Parts 91, 121, 125, and 135
Flightcrew Procedures during Taxi Operations NOTE
ATC will normally withhold landing clearance to arrival
d. Situational awareness during line up and wait aircraft when another aircraft is in position and holding on
operations is enhanced by monitoring ATC the runway.
instructions/clearances issued to other aircraft. Pilots i. Never land on a runway that is occupied by
should listen carefully if another aircraft is on another aircraft, even if a landing clearance was
frequency that has a similar call sign and pay close issued. Do not hesitate to ask the controller about the
attention to communications between ATC and other traffic on the runway and be prepared to execute a go
aircraft. If you are uncertain of an ATC instruction or around.
clearance, query ATC immediately. Care should be
NOTE
taken to not inadvertently execute a clearance/ Always clarify any misunderstanding or confusion
instruction for another aircraft. concerning ATC instructions or clearances. ATC should be
e. Pilots should be especially vigilant when advised immediately if there is any uncertainty about the
ability to comply with any of their instructions.
conducting line up and wait operations at night or
during reduced visibility conditions. They should 525. Abbreviated IFR Departure Clear-
scan the full length of the runway and look for aircraft ance (Cleared. . .as Filed) Procedures
on final approach or landing roll out when taxiing
onto a runway. ATC should be contacted anytime a. ATC facilities will issue an abbreviated IFR de-
there is a concern about a potential conflict. parture clearance based on the ROUTE of flight filed
in the IFR flight plan, provided the filed route can be
f. When two or more runways are active, aircraft approved with little or no revision. These abbreviated
may be instructed to LINE UP AND WAIT on two clearance procedures are based on the following
or more runways. When multiple runway operations conditions:
522 Departure Procedures

4/3/14 AIM
1. The aircraft is on the ground or it has departed An en route altitude will be stated in the clearance or
visual flight rules (VFR) and the pilot is requesting the pilot will be advised to expect an assigned or filed
IFR clearance while airborne. altitude within a given time frame or at a certain point
after departure. This may be done verbally in the de-
2. That a pilot will not accept an abbreviated
parture instructions or stated in the DP.
clearance if the route or destination of a flight plan
filed with ATC has been changed by the pilot or the g. In both radar and nonradar environments, the
company or the operations officer before departure. controller will state Cleared to (destination) airport
3. That it is the responsibility of the company or as filed or:
operations office to inform the pilot when they make 1. If a DP or DP transition is to be flown, specify
a change to the filed flight plan. the DP name, the current DP number, the DP transi-
4. That it is the responsibility of the pilot to in- tion name, the assigned altitude/flight level, and any
form ATC in the initial call-up (for clearance) when additional instructions (departure control frequency,
the filed flight plan has been either: beacon code assignment, etc.) necessary to clear a de-
parting aircraft via the DP or DP transition and the
(a) Amended, or route filed.
(b) Canceled and replaced with a new filed EXAMPLE
flight plan. National Seven Twenty cleared to Miami Airport Intercon-
NOTE tinental one departure, Lake Charles transition then as
The facility issuing a clearance may not have received the filed, maintain Flight Level two seven zero.
revised route or the revised flight plan by the time a pilot re-
quests clearance.
2. When there is no DP or when the pilot cannot
accept a DP, the controller will specify the assigned
b. Controllers will issue a detailed clearance when altitude or flight level, and any additional instructions
they know that the original filed flight plan has been necessary to clear a departing aircraft via an appropri-
changed or when the pilot requests a full route clear- ate departure routing and the route filed.
ance.
NOTE
c. The clearance as issued will include the destina- A detailed departure route description or a radar vector
tion airport filed in the flight plan. may be used to achieve the desired departure routing.
d. ATC procedures now require the controller to 3. If it is necessary to make a minor revision to
state the DP name, the current number and the DP the filed route, the controller will specify the assigned
transition name after the phrase Cleared to (destina- DP or DP transition (or departure routing), the revi-
tion) airport and prior to the phrase, then as filed, sion to the filed route, the assigned altitude or flight
for ALL departure clearances when the DP or DP level and any additional instructions necessary to
transition is to be flown. The procedures apply wheth- clear a departing aircraft.
er or not the DP is filed in the flight plan.
EXAMPLE
e. STARs, when filed in a flight plan, are consid- Jet Star One Four Two Four cleared to Atlanta Airport,
ered a part of the filed route of flight and will not South Boston two departure then as filed except change
normally be stated in an initial departure clearance. If route to read South Boston Victor 20 Greensboro, maintain
the ARTCCs jurisdictional airspace includes both one seven thousand.
the departure airport and the fix where a STAR or 4. Additionally, in a nonradar environment, the
STAR transition begins, the STAR name, the current controller will specify one or more fixes, as neces-
number and the STAR transition name MAY be stated sary, to identify the initial route of flight.
in the initial clearance.
EXAMPLE
f. Cleared to (destination) airport as filed does Cessna Three One Six Zero Foxtrot cleared to Charlotte
NOT include the en route altitude filed in a flight plan. Airport as filed via Brooke, maintain seven thousand.

AIM 4/3/14
h. To ensure success of the program, pilots should: part prior to the clearance void time. This time cannot
exceed 30 minutes. Failure of an aircraft to contact
1. Avoid making changes to a filed flight plan
ATC within 30 minutes after the clearance void time
just prior to departure.
will result in the aircraft being considered overdue
2. State the following information in the initial and search and rescue procedures initiated.
call-up to the facility when no change has been made
NOTE
to the filed flight plan: Aircraft call sign, location, 1. Other IFR traffic for the airport where the clearance is
type operation (IFR) and the name of the airport (or issued is suspended until the aircraft has contacted ATC or
fix) to which you expect clearance. until 30 minutes after the clearance void time or 30 minutes
EXAMPLE after the clearance release time if no clearance void time
Washington clearance delivery (or ground control if ap- is issued.
propriate) American Seventy Six at gate one, IFR 2. Pilots who depart at or after their clearance void time
Los Angeles. are not afforded IFR separation and may be in violation of
3. If the flight plan has been changed, state the 14 CFR Section 91.173 which requires that pilots receive
change and request a full route clearance. an appropriate ATC clearance before operating IFR in
controlled airspace.
EXAMPLE
Washington clearance delivery, American Seventy Six at EXAMPLE
gate one. IFR San Francisco. My flight plan route has been Clearance void if not off by (clearance void time) and, if re-
amended (or destination changed). Request full route quired, if not off by (clearance void time) advise (facility)
clearance. not later than (time) of intentions.
4. Request verification or clarification from 2. Hold for Release. ATC may issue hold for
ATC if ANY portion of the clearance is not clearly un- release instructions in a clearance to delay an air-
derstood. crafts departure for traffic management reasons (i.e.,
weather, traffic volume, etc.). When ATC states in the
5. When requesting clearance for the IFR por-
clearance, hold for release, the pilot may not depart
tion of a VFR/IFR flight, request such clearance prior
utilizing that IFR clearance until a release time or
to the fix where IFR operation is proposed to com-
additional instructions are issued by ATC. In addi-
mence in sufficient time to avoid delay. Use the
tion, ATC will include departure delay information in
following phraseology:
conjunction with hold for release instructions. The
EXAMPLE ATC instruction, hold for release, applies to the IFR
Los Angeles center, Apache Six One Papa, VFR estimat- clearance and does not prevent the pilot from depart-
ing Paso Robles VOR at three two, one thousand five ing under VFR. However, prior to takeoff the pilot
hundred, request IFR to Bakersfield. should cancel the IFR flight plan and operate the
transponder on the appropriate VFR code. An IFR
526. Departure Restrictions, Clearance clearance may not be available after departure.
Void Times, Hold for Release, and Release
EXAMPLE
Times
(Aircraft identification) cleared to (destination) airport as
a. ATC may assign departure restrictions, clear- filed, maintain (altitude), and, if required (additional in-
ance void times, hold for release, and release times, structions or information), hold for release, expect (time in
when necessary, to separate departures from other hours and/or minutes) departure delay.
traffic or to restrict or regulate the departure flow. 3. Release Times. A release time is a depar-
1. Clearance Void Times. A pilot may receive ture restriction issued to a pilot by ATC, specifying
a clearance, when operating from an airport without the earliest time an aircraft may depart. ATC will use
a control tower, which contains a provision for the release times in conjunction with traffic manage-
clearance to be void if not airborne by a specific time. ment procedures and/or to separate a departing
A pilot who does not depart prior to the clearance void aircraft from other traffic.
time must advise ATC as soon as possible of their EXAMPLE
intentions. ATC will normally advise the pilot of the (Aircraft identification) released for departure at (time in
time allotted to notify ATC that the aircraft did not de- hours and/or minutes).

4/3/14 AIM
4. Expect Departure Clearance Time 2. Aircraft cleared via RNAV SIDs designed to begin with
(EDCT). The EDCT is the runway release time a vector to the initial waypoint are assigned a heading be-
assigned to an aircraft included in traffic management fore departure.
programs. Aircraft are expected to depart no earlier 3. Pilots operating in a radar environment are
than 5 minutes before, and no later than 5 minutes af- expected to associate departure headings or an RNAV
ter the EDCT. departure advisory with vectors or the flight path to
their planned route or flight. When given a vector tak-
b. If practical, pilots departing uncontrolled air-
ing the aircraft off a previously assigned nonradar
ports should obtain IFR clearances prior to becoming
route, the pilot will be advised briefly what the vector
airborne when two-way communications with the
is to achieve. Thereafter, radar service will be pro-
controlling ATC facility is available.
vided until the aircraft has been reestablished
on-course using an appropriate navigation aid and
527. Departure Control the pilot has been advised of the aircrafts position or
a handoff is made to another radar controller with fur-
a. Departure Control is an approach control func- ther surveillance capabilities.
tion responsible for ensuring separation between
departures. So as to expedite the handling of depar- c. Controllers will inform pilots of the departure
tures, Departure Control may suggest a takeoff control frequencies and, if appropriate, the transpon-
direction other than that which may normally have der code before takeoff. Pilots must ensure their
been used under VFR handling. Many times it is pre- transponder is adjusted to the on or normal operat-
ferred to offer the pilot a runway that will require the ing position as soon as practical and remain on during
fewest turns after takeoff to place the pilot on course all operations unless otherwise requested to change to
or selected departure route as quickly as possible. At standby by ATC. Pilots should not change to the de-
many locations particular attention is paid to the use parture control frequency until requested. Controllers
of preferential runways for local noise abatement pro- may omit the departure control frequency if a DP has
grams, and route departures away from congested or will be assigned and the departure control fre-
areas. quency is published on the DP.
b. Departure Control utilizing radar will normally 528. Instrument Departure Procedures
clear aircraft out of the terminal area using DPs via ra- (DP) Obstacle Departure Procedures
dio navigation aids. (ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures
(SID)
1. When a departure is to be vectored immedi-
ately following takeoff, the pilot will be advised prior Instrument departure procedures are preplanned in-
to takeoff of the initial heading to be flown but may strument flight rule (IFR) procedures which provide
not be advised of the purpose of the heading. obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the
appropriate en route structure. There are two types of
2. At some airports when a departure will fly an DPs, Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs), printed
RNAV SID that begins at the runway, ATC may ad- either textually or graphically, and Standard Instru-
vise aircraft of the initial fix/waypoint on the RNAV ment Departures (SIDs), always printed graphically.
route. The purpose of the advisory is to remind pilots All DPs, either textual or graphic may be designed us-
to verify the correct procedure is programmed in the ing either conventional or RNAV criteria. RNAV
FMS before takeoff. Pilots must immediately advise procedures will have RNAV printed in the title,
ATC if a different RNAV SID is entered in the air- e.g., SHEAD TWO DEPARTURE (RNAV). ODPs
crafts FMC. When this advisory is absent, pilots are provide obstruction clearance via the least onerous
still required to fly the assigned SID as published. route from the terminal area to the appropriate en
EXAMPLE route structure. ODPs are recommended for obstruc-
Delta 345 RNAV to MPASS, Runway26L, cleared for tion clearance and may be flown without ATC
takeoff. clearance unless an alternate departure procedure
NOTE (SID or radar vector) has been specifically assigned
1. The SID transition is not restated as it is contained in the by ATC. Graphic ODPs will have (OBSTACLE)
ATC clearance. printed in the procedure title, e.g., GEYSR THREE

AIM 4/3/14
DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE), or, CROWN ONE b. What criteria is used to provide obstruction
DEPARTURE (RNAV) (OBSTACLE). Standard In- clearance during departure?
strument Departures are air traffic control (ATC) 1. Unless specified otherwise, required obstacle
procedures printed for pilot/controller use in graphic clearance for all departures, including diverse, is
form to provide obstruction clearance and a transition based on the pilot crossing the departure end of the
from the terminal area to the appropriate en route runway at least 35 feet above the departure end of run-
structure. SIDs are primarily designed for system en- way elevation, climbing to 400 feet above the
hancement and to reduce pilot/controller workload. departure end of runway elevation before making the
ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID. initial turn, and maintaining a minimum climb gradi-
All DPs provide the pilot with a way to depart the air- ent of 200 feet per nautical mile (FPNM), unless
port and transition to the en route structure safely. required to level off by a crossing restriction, until the
Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are strongly minimum IFR altitude. A greater climb gradient may
encouraged to file and fly a DP at night, during mar- be specified in the DP to clear obstacles or to achieve
ginal Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) and an ATC crossing restriction. If an initial turn higher
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), when than 400 feet above the departure end of runway
one is available. The following paragraphs will pro- elevation is specified in the DP, the turn should be
vide an overview of the DP program, why DPs are commenced at the higher altitude. If a turn is speci-
developed, what criteria are used, where to find them, fied at a fix, the turn must be made at that fix. Fixes
how they are to be flown, and finally pilot and ATC may have minimum and/or maximum crossing alti-
responsibilities. tudes that must be adhered to prior to passing the fix.
In rare instances, obstacles that exist on the extended
a. Why are DPs necessary? The primary reason is
runway centerline may make an early turn more de-
to provide obstacle clearance protection information
sirable than proceeding straight ahead. In these cases,
to pilots. A secondary reason, at busier airports, is to
the published departure instructions will include the
increase efficiency and reduce communications and
language turn left(right) as soon as practicable.
departure delays through the use of SIDs. When an in-
These departures will also include a ceiling and visi-
strument approach is initially developed for an
bility minimum of at least 300 and 1. Pilots
airport, the need for DPs is assessed. The procedure
encountering one of these DPs should preplan the
designer conducts an obstacle analysis to support de-
climb out to gain altitude and begin the turn as quickly
parture operations. If an aircraft may turn in any
as possible within the bounds of safe operating prac-
direction from a runway within the limits of the as-
tices and operating limitations. This type of departure
sessment area (see paragraph 528b3) and remain
procedure is being phased out.
clear of obstacles, that runway passes what is called
a diverse departure assessment and no ODP will be NOTE
published. A SID may be published if needed for air Practical or feasible may exist in some existing de-
traffic control purposes. However, if an obstacle pen- parture text instead of practicable.
etrates what is called the 40:1 obstacle identification 2. ODPs and SIDs assume normal aircraft per-
surface, then the procedure designer chooses whether formance, and that all engines are operating.
to: Development of contingency procedures, required
to cover the case of an engine failure or other
1. Establish a steeper than normal climb gradi- emergency in flight that may occur after liftoff, is
ent; or the responsibility of the operator. (More detailed
information on this subject is available in Advisory
2. Establish a steeper than normal climb gradi- Circular AC 12091, Airport Obstacle Analysis, and
ent with an alternative that increases takeoff minima in the Departure Procedures section of chapter 2 in
to allow the pilot to visually remain clear of the ob- the Instrument Procedures Handbook,
stacle(s); or FAAH82611.)
3. Design and publish a specific departure route; 3. The 40:1 obstacle identification surface
or (OIS) begins at the departure end of runway (DER)
and slopes upward at 152 FPNM until reaching the
4. A combination or all of the above. minimum IFR altitude or entering the en route struc-

4/3/14 AIM
ture. This assessment area is limited to 25 NM from CFR 91.177 for further information on en route alti-
the airport in nonmountainous areas and 46 NM in tudes.)
designated mountainous areas. Beyond this distance, NOTE
the pilot is responsible for obstacle clearance if not ODPs are normally designed to terminate within these dis-
operating on a published route, if below (having not tance limitations, however, some ODPs will contain routes
reached) the MEA or MOCA of a published route, or that may exceed 25/46 NM; these routes will ensure
an ATC assigned altitude. See FIG 521. (Ref 14 obstacle protection until reaching the end of the ODP.
FIG 521
Diverse Departure Obstacle Assessment to 25/46 NM
4. Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the 5. Climb gradients greater than 200 FPNM are
DER and penetrate the 40:1 OCS are referred to as specified when required to support procedure design
low, closein obstacles. The standard required constraints, obstacle clearance, and/or airspace re-
obstacle clearance (ROC) of 48 feet per NM to clear strictions. Compliance with a climb gradient for these
these obstacles would require a climb gradient greater purposes is mandatory when the procedure is part of
than 200 feet per NM for a very short distance, only the ATC clearance, unless increased takeoff minim-
until the aircraft was 200 feet above the DER. To ums are provided and weather conditions allow
eliminate publishing an excessive climb gradient, the compliance with these minimums. Additionally, ATC
obstacle AGL/MSL height and location relative to the required crossing restrictions may also require climb
DER is noted in the Takeoff Minimums and gradients greater than 200 FPNM. These climb gradi-
(OBSTACLE) Departure Procedures section of a ents may be amended or canceled at ATCs discretion.
given Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) book- Multiple ATC climb gradients are permitted. An ATC
let. The purpose of this note is to identify the climb gradient will not be used on an ODP.
obstacle(s) and alert the pilot to the height and loca-
EXAMPLE
tion of the obstacle(s) so they can be avoided. This Cross ALPHA intersection at or below 4000; maintain
can be accomplished in a variety of ways, e.g., the 6000. The pilot climbs at least 200 FPNM to 6000. If 4000
pilot may be able to see the obstruction and maneuver is reached before ALPHA, the pilot levels off at 4000 until
around the obstacle(s) if necessary; early liftoff/climb passing ALPHA; then immediately resumes at least 200
performance may allow the aircraft to cross well FPNM climb.
above the obstacle(s); or if the obstacle(s) cannot be EXAMPLE
visually acquired during departure, preflight plan- TAKEOFF MINIMUMS: RWY 27, Standard with a min-
ning should take into account what turns or other imum climb of 280 per NM to 2500, ATC climb of 310 per
maneuver may be necessary immediately after NM to 4000 ft. A climb of at least 280 FPNM is required
takeoff to avoid the obstruction(s). to 2500 and is mandatory when the departure procedure is

7110.65R
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included in the ATC clearance. ATC requires a climb gradi- clearance from these obstacles. That segment of the
ent of 310 FPNM to 4000, however, this ATC climb procedure that requires the pilot to see and avoid ob-
gradient may be amended or canceled. stacles ends when the aircraft crosses the specified
6. Climb gradients may be specified only to an point at the required altitude. In all cases continued
altitude/fix, above which the normal gradient applies. obstacle clearance is based on having climbed a mini-
mum of 200 feet per nautical mile to the specified
EXAMPLE point and then continuing to climb at least 200 foot
Minimum climb 340 FPNM to ALPHA. The pilot climbs
per nautical mile during the departure until reaching
at least 340 FPNM to ALPHA, then at least 200 FPNM to
MIA.
the minimum enroute altitude, unless specified other-
wise.
7. Some DPs established solely for obstacle
avoidance require a climb in visual conditions to 2. ATC may assume responsibility for obstacle
cross the airport or an onairport NAVAID in a speci- clearance by vectoring the aircraft prior to reaching
fied direction, at or above a specified altitude. These the minimum vectoring altitude by using a Diverse
procedures are called Visual Climb Over the Airport Vector Area (DVA). The DVA may be established be-
(VCOA). low the Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA) or
Minimum IFR Altitude (MIA) in a radar environment
EXAMPLE at the request of Air Traffic. This type of DP meets the
Climb in visual conditions so as to cross the McElory Air- TERPS criteria for diverse departures, obstacles, and
port southbound, at or above 6000, then climb via
terrain avoidance in which random radar vectors be-
Keemmling radial zero three three to Keemmling VOR-
TAC. low the MVA/MIA may be issued to departing
aircraft. The DVA has been assessed for departures
c. Who is responsible for obstacle clearance? DPs which do not follow a specific ground track, but will
are designed so that adherence to the procedure by the remain within the specified area.
pilot will ensure obstacle protection. Additionally:
(a) The existence of a DVA will be noted in
1. Obstacle clearance responsibility also rests the Takeoff Minimums and Obstacle Departure Pro-
with the pilot when he/she chooses to climb in visual cedure section of the U.S. Terminal Procedures
conditions in lieu of flying a DP and/or depart under Publication (TPP). The Takeoff Departure procedure
increased takeoff minima rather than fly the climb will be listed first, followed by any applicable DVA.
gradient. Standard takeoff minima are one statute
EXAMPLE
mile for aircraft having two engines or less and one
DIVERSE VECTOR AREA (RADAR VECTORS)
half statute mile for aircraft having more than two
AMDT 1 14289 (FAA)
engines. Specified ceiling and visibility minima
Rwy 6R, headings as assigned by ATC; requires
(VCOA or increased takeoff minima) will allow visu-
minimum climb of 290 per NM to 400.
al avoidance of obstacles until the pilot enters the
Rwys 6L, 7L, 7R, 24R, 25R, headings as
standard obstacle protection area. Obstacle avoid-
assigned by ATC.
ance is not guaranteed if the pilot maneuvers farther
from the airport than the specified visibility minimum (b) Pilots should be aware that Air Traffic fa-
prior to reaching the specified altitude. DPs may also cilities may utilize a climb gradient greater than the
contain what are called Low Close in Obstacles. standard 200 FPNM in a DVA. This information will
These obstacles are less than 200 feet above the de- be identified in the DVA text for pilot evaluation
parture end of runway elevation and within one NM against the aircrafts available climb performance. Pi-
of the runway end, and do not require increased take- lots should note that the DVA has been assessed for
off minimums. These obstacles are identified on the departures which do not follow a specific ground
SID chart or in the Takeoff Minimums and (Ob- track. ATC may also vector an aircraft off a previ-
stacle) Departure Procedures section of the U. S. ously assigned DP. In all cases, the minimum 200
Terminal Procedure booklet. These obstacles are es- FPNM climb gradient is assumed unless a higher
pecially critical to aircraft that do not lift off until climb gradient is specified on the departure, and
close to the departure end of the runway or which obstacle clearance is not provided by ATC until the
climb at the minimum rate. Pilots should also consid- controller begins to provide navigational guidance in
er drift following liftoff to ensure sufficient the form of radar vectors.

6/25/15
4/3/14 AIM
NOTE DPs will have all the information printed on the

As is always the case, when used by the controller during graphic depiction. As a general rule, ATC will only
departure, the term radar contact should not be inter- assign an ODP from a nontowered airport when com-
preted as relieving pilots of their responsibility to maintain pliance with the ODP is necessary for aircraft to
appropriate terrain and obstruction clearance which may
aircraft separation. Pilots may use the ODP to help
include flying the obstacle DP.
ensure separation from terrain and obstacles.
3. Pilots must preplan to determine if the aircraft e. Responsibilities
can meet the climb gradient (expressed in feet per
nautical mile) required by the departure procedure, 1. Each pilot, prior to departing an airport on an
and be aware that flying at a higher than anticipated IFR flight should:
ground speed increases the climb rate requirement in (a) Consider the type of terrain and other ob-
feet per minute. Higher than standard climb gradients stacles on or in the vicinity of the departure airport;
are specified by a note on the departure procedure
chart for graphic DPs, or in the TakeOff Minimums (b) Determine whether an ODP is available;
and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures section of the (c) Determine if obstacle avoidance can be
U.S. Terminal Procedures booklet for textual ODPs. maintained visually or if the ODP should be flown;
The required climb gradient, or higher, must be main- and
tained to the specified altitude or fix, then the
standard climb gradient of 200 ft/NM can be re- (d) Consider the effect of degraded climb per-
sumed. A table for the conversion of climb gradient formance and the actions to take in the event of an
(feet per nautical mile) to climb rate (feet per minute), engine loss during the departure. Pilots should notify
at a given ground speed, is included on the inside of ATC as soon as possible of reduced climb capability
the back cover of the U.S. Terminal Procedures book- in that circumstance.
lets. NOTE
Guidance concerning contingency procedures that
d. Where are DPs located? DPs will be listed by address an engine failure on takeoff after V1 speed on a
airport in the IFR Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) large or turbinepowered transport category airplane
Departure Procedures Section, Section L, of the Ter- may be found in AC 12091, Airport Obstacle Analysis.
minal Procedures Publications (TPPs). If the DP is 2. Pilots should not exceed a published speed re-
textual, it will be described in TPP Section L. SIDs striction associated with a SID waypoint until passing
and complex ODPs will be published graphically and that waypoint.
named. The name will be listed by airport name and
runway in Section L. Graphic ODPs will also have the 3. After an aircraft is established on an SID and
term (OBSTACLE) printed in the charted proce- subsequently vectored or cleared off of the SID or
dure title, differentiating them from SIDs. SID transition, pilots must consider the SID canceled,
unless the controller adds expect to resume SID; pi-
1. An ODP that has been developed solely for lots should then be prepared to rejoin the SID at a
obstacle avoidance will be indicated with the symbol subsequent fix or procedure leg. ATC may also inter-
T on appropriate Instrument Approach Procedure rupt the vertical navigation of a SID and provide
(IAP) charts and DP charts for that airport. The T alternate altitude instructions while the aircraft re-
symbol will continue to refer users to TPP Section C. mains established on the published lateral path.
In the case of a graphic ODP, the TPP Section C will Aircraft may not be vectored off of an ODP or issued
only contain the name of the ODP. Since there may be an altitude lower than a published altitude on an ODP
both a textual and a graphic DP, Section C should still until at or above the MVA/MIA, at which time the
be checked for additional information. The nonstan- ODP is canceled.
dard takeoff minimums and minimum climb
4. Aircraft instructed to resume a procedure
gradients found in TPP Section C also apply to
such as a DP or SID which contains speed and/or alti-
charted DPs and radar vector departures unless differ-
tude restrictions, must be:
ent minimums are specified on the charted DP.
Takeoff minimums and departure procedures apply to (a) Issued/reissued all applicable restrictions,
all runways unless otherwise specified. New graphic or

7110.65R
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AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
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(b) Advised to comply with restrictions or re- 5. SIDs will have a top altitude; the top altitude is the
sume published speed. charted maintain altitude contained in the procedure
description or assigned by ATC.
EXAMPLE
Resume the Solar One departure, comply with restric- REFERENCE
FAAJO 7110.65, Para 5-6-2, Methods
tions. PCG, Climb Via, Top Altitude
Proceed direct CIROS, resume the Solar One departure,
comply with restrictions. EXAMPLE
1. Lateral route clearance:
5. A clearance for a SID which contains pub- Cleared Loop Six departure.
lished altitude restrictions may be issued using the
NOTE
phraseology climb via. Climb via is an abbreviated The aircraft must comply with the SID lateral path, and any
clearance that requires compliance with the proced- published speed restrictions.
ure lateral path, associated speed and altitude
2. Routing with assigned altitude:
restrictions along the cleared route or procedure.
Cleared Loop Six departure, climb and maintain
Clearance to climb via authorizes the pilot to:
four thousand.
(a) When used in the IFR departure clearance, NOTE
in a PDC, DCL or when cleared to a waypoint depic- The aircraft must comply with the SID lateral path, and any
ted on a SID, to join the procedure after departure or published speed restriction while climbing unrestricted to
to resume the procedure. four thousand.
(b) When vertical navigation is interrupted 3. (A pilot filed a flight plan to the Johnston Airport using
and an altitude is assigned to maintain which is not the Scott One departure, Jonez transition, then Q-145. The
pilot filed for FL350. The Scott One includes altitude
contained on the published procedure, to climb from
restrictions, a top altitude and instructions to expect the
that previously-assigned altitude at pilots discretion
filed altitude ten minutes after departure). Before
to the altitude depicted for the next waypoint. departure ATC uses PDC, DCL or clearance delivery to
(c) Once established on the depicted depar- issue the clearance:
ture, to navigate laterally and climb to meet all Cleared to Johnston Airport, Scott One departure,
published or assigned altitude and speed restrictions. Jonez transition, Q-OneForty-five. Climb via SID.
NOTE
NOTE In Example 3, the aircraft must comply with the Scott One
1. When otherwise cleared along a route or procedure that departure lateral path and any published speed and alti-
contains published speed restrictions, the pilot must com- tude restrictions while climbing to the SID top altitude.
ply with those speed restrictions independent of a climb via
4. (Using the Example 3 flight plan, ATC determines the
clearance.
top altitude must be changed to FL180). The clearance will
2. ATC anticipates pilots will begin adjusting speed the read:
minimum distance necessary prior to a published speed re- Cleared to Johnston Airport, Scott One departure,
striction so as to cross the waypoint/fix at the published Jonez transition, Q-One Forty-five, Climb via SID except
speed. Once at the published speed ATC expects pilots will maintain flight level one eight zero.
maintain the published speed until additional adjustment
NOTE
is required to comply with further published or ATC as- In Example 4, the aircraft must comply with the Scott One
signed speed restrictions or as required to ensure departure lateral path and any published speed and alti-
compliance with 14 CFR Section 91.117. tude restrictions while climbing to FL180. The aircraft
3. If ATC interrupts lateral/vertical navigation while an must stop climb at FL180 until issued further clearance by
aircraft is flying a SID, ATC must ensure obstacle clear- ATC.
ance. When issuing a climb via clearance to join or 5. (An aircraft was issued the Suzan Two departure,
resume a procedure ATC must ensure obstacle clearance climb via SID in the IFR departure clearance. After
until the aircraft is established on the lateral and vertical departure ATC must change a waypoint crossing
path of the SID. restriction). The clearance will be:
4. ATC will assign an altitude to cross if no altitude is de- Climb via SID except cross Mkala at or above seven
picted at a waypoint/fix or when otherwise necessary/ thousand.
required, for an aircraft on a direct route to a waypoint/fix NOTE
where the SID will be joined or resumed. In Example 5, the aircraft will comply with the Suzan Two

6/25/15
4/3/14 AIM
departure lateral path and any published speed and alti- Proceed direct Dvine, Climb via the Suzan Two
tude restrictions and climb so as to cross Mkala at or above departure.
7,000; remainder of the departure must be flown as pub- NOTE
lished. In Example 9, the aircraft will join the Suzan Two departure
6. (An aircraft was issued the Teddd One departure, at Dvine, at the published altitude, and then comply with
climb via SID in the IFR departure clearance. An the published lateral path and any published speed or alti-
interim altitude of 10,000 was issued instead of the tude restrictions.
published top altitude of FL 230). After departure ATC is 6. Pilots cleared for vertical navigation using the
able to issue the published top altitude. The clearance will phraseology climb via must inform ATC, upon ini-
be: tial contact, of the altitude leaving and any assigned
Climb via SID. restrictions not published on the procedure.
NOTE EXAMPLE
In Example 6, the aircraft will track laterally and vertically 1. (Cactus 711 is cleared to climb via the Laura Two
on the Teddd One departure and initially climb to 10,000; departure. The Laura Two has a top altitude of FL190):
Once re-issued the climb via clearance the interim alti- Cactus Seven Eleven leaving two thousand, climbing via
tude is canceled aircraft will continue climb to FL230 the Laura Two departure.
while complying with published restrictions.
2. (Cactus 711 is cleared to climb via the Laura Two
7. (An aircraft was issued the Bbear Two departure, departure, but ATC changed the top altitude to16,000):
climb via SID in the IFR departure clearance. An Cactus Seven Eleven leaving two thousand for one-six
interim altitude of 16,000 was issued instead of the thousand, climbing via the Laura Two departure.
published top altitude of FL 190). After departure, ATC is 7. If prior to or after takeoff an altitude restric-
able to issue a top altitude of FL300 and still requires
tion is issued by ATC, all previously issued ATC
compliance with the published SID restrictions. The
altitude restrictions are canceled including those pub-
clearance will be:
Climb via SID except maintain flight level three zero
lished on a SID. Pilots must still comply with all
zero. speed restrictions and lateral path requirements pub-
lished on the SID unless canceled by ATC.
NOTE
EXAMPLE
In Example 7, the aircraft will track laterally and vertically
Prior to takeoff or after departure ATC issues an altitude
on the Bbear Two departure and initially climb to 16,000;
change clearance to an aircraft cleared to climb via a SID
Once re-issued the climb via clearance the interim alti-
but ATC no longer requires compliance with published alti-
tude is canceled and the aircraft will continue climb to
tude restrictions:
FL300 while complying with published restrictions.
Climb and maintain flight level two four zero.
8. (An aircraft was issued the Bizee Two departure, climb NOTE
via SID. After departure, ATC vectors the aircraft off of The published SID altitude restrictions are canceled; The
the SID, and then issues a direct routing to rejoin the SID aircraft should comply with the SID lateral path and begin
at Rockr waypoint which does not have a published altitude an unrestricted climb to FL240. Compliance with pub-
restriction. ATC wants the aircraft to cross at or above lished speed restrictions is still required unless specifically
10,000). The clearance will read: deleted by ATC.
Proceed direct Rockr, cross Rockr at or above 8. Altitude restrictions published on an ODP are
one-zero thousand, climb via the Bizee Two departure.
necessary for obstacle clearance and/or design con-
NOTE straints. Compliance with these restrictions is
In Example 8, the aircraft will join the Bizee Two SID at mandatory and CANNOT be lowered or cancelled by
Rockr at or above 10,000 and then comply with the pub- ATC.
lished lateral path and any published speed or altitude
restrictions while climbing to the SID top altitude. f. RNAV Departure Procedures
9. (An aircraft was issued the Suzan Two departure, All public RNAV SIDs and graphic ODPs are
climb via SID in the IFR departure clearance. After RNAV 1. These procedures generally start with an
departure ATC vectors the aircraft off of the SID, and then initial RNAV or heading leg near the departure end of
clears the aircraft to rejoin the SID at Dvine waypoint, runway (DER). In addition, these procedures require
which has a published crossing restriction). The clearance system performance currently met by GPS or DME/
will read: DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
6/25/15
4/3/14
discussed in AC 90100A, U.S. Terminal and En REFERENCE

AIM, Global Positioning System (GPS)
Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. Paragraph 1118l, Impact of magnetic Variation on RNAV Systems
RNAV 1 procedures must maintain a total system er-
ror of not more than 1 NM for 95% of the total flight
time.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 3. En Route Procedures
531. ARTCC Communications communications (TC), initial contact (IC), and menu
text messages (MT).
a. Direct Communications, Controllers and
Pilots. (1) Altimeter settings are usually trans-
1. ARTCCs are capable of direct communica- mitted automatically when a CPDLC session and
tions with IFR air traffic on certain frequencies. eligibility has been established with an aircraft. A
Maximum communications coverage is possible controller may also manually send an altimeter
through the use of Remote Center Air/Ground setting message.
(RCAG) sites comprised of both VHF and UHF NOTE
transmitters and receivers. These sites are located When conducting instrument approach procedures, pilots
throughout the U.S. Although they may be several are responsible to obtain and use the appropriate altimeter
hundred miles away from the ARTCC, they are setting in accordance with 14 CFR Section 97.20. CPDLC
remoted to the various ARTCCs by land lines or issued altimeter settings are excluded for this purpose.
microwave links. Since IFR operations are expedited
(2) Initial contact is a safety validation
through the use of direct communications, pilots are
transaction that compares a pilots initiated altitude
requested to use these frequencies strictly for
downlink message with an aircrafts ATC host
communications pertinent to the control of IFR
computer stored altitude. If an altitude mismatch is
aircraft. Flight plan filing, en route weather, weather
detected, the controller will verbally provide
forecasts, and similar data should be requested
corrective action.
through FSSs, company radio, or appropriate military
facilities capable of performing these services. (3) Transfer of communications automati-
2. An ARTCC is divided into sectors. Each cally establishes data link contact with a succeeding
sector is handled by one or a team of controllers and sector.
has its own sector discrete frequency. As a flight
(4) Menu text transmissions are scripted
progresses from one sector to another, the pilot is
nontrajectory altering uplink messages.
requested to change to the appropriate sector discrete
frequency. NOTE
Initial use of CPDLC will be at the Miami Air Route Traffic
3. Controller Pilot Data Link Communications Control Center (ARTCC). Air carriers will be the first
(CPDLC) is a system that supplements air/ground users. Subsequently, CPDLC will be made available to all
voice communications. As a result, it expands NAS users. Later versions will include trajectory altering
twoway air traffic control air/ground communica- services and expanded clearance and advisory message
tions capabilities. Consequently, the air traffic capabilities.
systems operational capacity is increased and any
associated air traffic delays become minimized. A b. ATC Frequency Change Procedures.
related safety benefit is that pilot/controller read 1. The following phraseology will be used by
back and hearback errors will be significantly controllers to effect a frequency change:
reduced. The CPDLCs principal operating criteria
are: EXAMPLE
(Aircraft identification) contact (facility name or location
(a) Voice remains the primary and controlling name and terminal function) (frequency) at (time, fix, or
air/ground communications means. altitude).
(b) Participating aircraft will need to have the NOTE
appropriate CPDLC avionics equipment in order to Pilots are expected to maintain a listening watch on the
receive uplink or transmit downlink messages. transferring controllers frequency until the time, fix, or
altitude specified. ATC will omit frequency change
(c) CPDLC Build 1 offers four ATC data link restrictions whenever pilot compliance is expected upon
services. These are altimeter setting (AS), transfer of receipt.
En Route Procedures 531

AIM 4/3/14
2. The following phraseology should be utilized stated by the controller or that the assigned altitude is
by pilots for establishing contact with the designated correct as stated. If this is not the case, they should
facility: inform the controller of the actual altitude being
maintained or the different assigned altitude.
(a) When operating in a radar environment:
On initial contact, the pilot should inform the CAUTION
controller of the aircrafts assigned altitude preceded Pilots should not take action to change their actual
by the words level, or climbing to, or altitude or different assigned altitude to the altitude stated
descending to, as appropriate; and the aircrafts in the controllers verification request unless the
controller specifically authorizes a change.
present vacating altitude, if applicable.
EXAMPLE
c. ARTCC Radio Frequency Outage. ARTCCs
1. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEVEL normally have at least one back-up radio receiver and
(altitude or flight level). transmitter system for each frequency, which can
usually be placed into service quickly with little or no
2. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEAVING
disruption of ATC service. Occasionally, technical
(exact altitude or flight level), CLIMBING TO OR
problems may cause a delay but switchover seldom
DESCENDING TO (altitude of flight level).
takes more than 60 seconds. When it appears that the
NOTE outage will not be quickly remedied, the ARTCC will
Exact altitude or flight level means to the nearest 100 foot usually request a nearby aircraft, if there is one, to
increment. Exact altitude or flight level reports on initial
switch to the affected frequency to broadcast
contact provide ATC with information required prior to
using Mode C altitude information for separation communications instructions. It is important, there-
purposes. fore, that the pilot wait at least 1 minute before
deciding that the ARTCC has actually experienced a
(b) When operating in a nonradar environ- radio frequency failure. When such an outage does
ment: occur, the pilot should, if workload and equipment
(1) On initial contact, the pilot should capability permit, maintain a listening watch on the
inform the controller of the aircrafts present position, affected frequency while attempting to comply with
altitude and time estimate for the next reporting point. the following recommended communications
procedures:
EXAMPLE
(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position), 1. If two-way communications cannot be
(altitude), ESTIMATING (reporting point) AT (time). established with the ARTCC after changing frequen-
(2) After initial contact, when a position cies, a pilot should attempt to recontact the
report will be made, the pilot should give the transferring controller for the assignment of an
controller a complete position report. alternative frequency or other instructions.
EXAMPLE 2. When an ARTCC radio frequency failure
(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position), occurs after two-way communications have been
(time), (altitude), (type of flight plan), (ETA and name of established, the pilot should attempt to reestablish
next reporting point), (the name of the next succeeding contact with the center on any other known ARTCC
reporting point), AND (remarks). frequency, preferably that of the next responsible
REFERENCE sector when practicable, and ask for instructions.
AIM, Position Reporting, Paragraph 532. However, when the next normal frequency change
3. At times controllers will ask pilots to verify along the route is known to involve another ATC
that they are at a particular altitude. The phraseology facility, the pilot should contact that facility, if
used will be: VERIFY AT (altitude). In climbing or feasible, for instructions. If communications cannot
descending situations, controllers may ask pilots to be reestablished by either method, the pilot is
VERIFY ASSIGNED ALTITUDE AS (altitude). expected to request communications instructions
Pilots should confirm that they are at the altitude from the FSS appropriate to the route of flight.
532 En Route Procedures

4/3/14 AIM
NOTE designated compulsory reporting point symbol is a

The exchange of information between an aircraft and an solid triangle and the on request reporting
ARTCC through an FSS is quicker than relay via company
radio because the FSS has direct interphone lines to the point symbol is the open triangle . Reports
responsible ARTCC sector. Accordingly, when circum- passing an on request reporting point are only
stances dictate a choice between the two, during an necessary when requested by ATC.
ARTCC frequency outage, relay via FSS radio is c. Position Reporting Requirements.
recommended.
1. Flights Along Airways or Routes. A
position report is required by all flights regardless of
532. Position Reporting
altitude, including those operating in accordance with
The safety and effectiveness of traffic control an ATC clearance specifying VFRontop,over
depends to a large extent on accurate position each designated compulsory reporting point along the
reporting. In order to provide the proper separation route being flown.
and expedite aircraft movements, ATC must be able 2. Flights Along a Direct Route. Regardless
to make accurate estimates of the progress of every of the altitude or flight level being flown, including
aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan. flights operating in accordance with an ATC
a. Position Identification. clearance specifying VFRontop, pilots must
report over each reporting point used in the flight plan
1. When a position report is to be made passing to define the route of flight.
a VOR radio facility, the time reported should be the
3. Flights in a Radar Environment. When
time at which the first complete reversal of the
informed by ATC that their aircraft are in Radar
to/from indicator is accomplished.
Contact, pilots should discontinue position reports
2. When a position report is made passing a over designated reporting points. They should
facility by means of an airborne ADF, the time resume normal position reporting when ATC advises
reported should be the time at which the indicator RADAR CONTACT LOST or RADAR SERVICE
makes a complete reversal. TERMINATED.
3. When an aural or a light panel indication is 4. Flights in an Oceanic (Non-radar) Envir-
used to determine the time passing a reporting point, onment. Pilots must report over each point used in
such as a fan marker, Z marker, cone of silence or the flight plan to define the route of flight, even if the
intersection of range courses, the time should be point is depicted on aeronautical charts as an on
noted when the signal is first received and again when request (non-compulsory) reporting point. For
it ceases. The mean of these two times should then be aircraft providing automatic position reporting via an
taken as the actual time over the fix. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Contract
(ADS-C) logon, pilots should discontinue voice
4. If a position is given with respect to distance position reports.
and direction from a reporting point, the distance and
NOTE
direction should be computed as accurately as ATC will inform pilots that they are in radar contact:
possible. (a) when their aircraft is initially identified in the ATC
5. Except for terminal area transition purposes, system; and
(b) when radar identification is reestablished after
position reports or navigation with reference to aids
radar service has been terminated or radar contact lost.
not established for use in the structure in which flight Subsequent to being advised that the controller has
is being conducted will not normally be required by established radar contact, this fact will not be repeated to
ATC. the pilot when handed off to another controller. At times,
the aircraft identity will be confirmed by the receiving
b. Position Reporting Points. CFRs require
controller; however, this should not be construed to mean
pilots to maintain a listening watch on the appropriate that radar contact has been lost. The identity of
frequency and, unless operating under the provisions transponder equipped aircraft will be confirmed by asking
of subparagraph c, to furnish position reports passing the pilot to ident, squawk standby, or to change codes.
certain reporting points. Reporting points are Aircraft without transponders will be advised of their
indicated by symbols on en route charts. The position to confirm identity. In this case, the pilot is

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
7/24/14
4/3/14
expected to advise the controller if in disagreement with the (g) When leaving any assigned holding fix or
position given. Any pilot who cannot confirm the accuracy point.
of the position given because of not being tuned to the
NAVAID referenced by the controller, should ask for NOTE
another radar position relative to the tuned in NAVAID. The reports in subparagraphs (f) and (g) may be omitted by
pilots of aircraft involved in instrument training at military
d. Position Report Items: terminal area facilities when radar service is being
1. Position reports should include the follow- provided.
ing items: (h) Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR,
(a) Identification; TACAN, ADF, low frequency navigation receiver
capability, GPS anomalies while using installed
(b) Position; IFRcertified GPS/GNSS receivers, complete or
(c) Time; partial loss of ILS receiver capability or impairment
of air/ground communications capability. Reports
(d) Altitude or flight level (include actual
should include aircraft identification, equipment
altitude or flight level when operating on a clearance
affected, degree to which the capability to operate
specifying VFRontop);
under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the
(e) Type of flight plan (not required in IFR nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.
position reports made directly to ARTCCs or
NOTE
approach control); 1. Other equipment installed in an aircraft may effectively
(f) ETA and name of next reporting point; impair safety and/or the ability to operate under IFR. If
such equipment (e.g., airborne weather radar) malfunc-
(g) The name only of the next succeeding tions and in the pilots judgment either safety or IFR
reporting point along the route of flight; and capabilities are affected, reports should be made as above.
(h) Pertinent remarks. 2. When reporting GPS anomalies, include the location
and altitude of the anomaly. Be specific when describing
533. Additional Reports the location and include duration of the anomaly if
necessary.
a. The following reports should be made to
ATC or FSS facilities without a specific ATC (i) Any information relating to the safety of
request: flight.
1. At all times. 2. When not in radar contact.

(a) When vacating any previously assigned (a) When leaving final approach fix inbound
altitude or flight level for a newly assigned altitude or on final approach (nonprecision approach) or when
flight level. leaving the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer
(b) When an altitude change will be made if marker inbound on final approach (precision
operating on a clearance specifying VFRontop. approach).
(c) When unable to climb/descend at a rate of (b) A corrected estimate at anytime it

a least 500 feet per minute. becomes apparent that an estimate as previously
submitted is in error in excess of 2 minutes. For
(d) When approach has been missed.
flights in the North Atlantic (NAT), a revised
(Request clearance for specific action; i.e., to
estimate is required if the error is 3 minutes or more.
alternative airport, another approach, etc.)
(e) Change in the average true airspeed (at b. Pilots encountering weather conditions which
cruising altitude) when it varies by 5 percent or have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions
10 knots (whichever is greater) from that filed in the which have been forecast, are expected to forward a
flight plan. report of such weather to ATC.
REFERENCE
(f) The time and altitude or flight level upon AIM, Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs), Paragraph 7120.
reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared. 14 CFR Section 91.183(B) and (C).

4/3/14 AIM
534. Airways and Route Systems This will be indicated in the route of flight portion of the
flight plan by specifying the type of facility to be used after
a. Three fixed route systems are established for air the location name in the following manner: Newark L/MF,
navigation purposes. They are the Federal airway Allentown VOR.
system (consisting of VOR and L/MF routes), the jet (2) With respect to position reporting,
route system, and the RNAV route system. To the reporting points are designated for VOR Airway
extent possible, these route systems are aligned in an Systems. Flights using Victor Airways will report
overlying manner to facilitate transition between over these points unless advised otherwise by ATC.
each.
(b) The L/MF airways (colored airways) are
1. The VOR and L/MF (nondirectional radio predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids and are
beacons) Airway System consists of airways depicted in brown on aeronautical charts and are
designated from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in identified by color name and number (e.g., Amber
some instances higher) up to but not including 18,000 One). Green and Red airways are plotted east and
feet MSL. These airways are depicted on IFR Enroute west. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and
Low Altitude Charts. south.
NOTE NOTE
The altitude limits of a victor airway should not be Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway
exceeded except to effect transition within or between route system exists only in the state of Alaska. All other such
structures. airways formerly so designated in the conterminous U.S.
have been rescinded.
(a) Except in Alaska, the VOR airways are:
predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation (c) The use of TSOC145 (as revised) or
aids; depicted in black on aeronautical charts; and TSOC146 (as revised) GPS/WAAS navigation
identified by a V (Victor) followed by the airway systems is allowed in Alaska as the only means of
number (for example, V12). navigation on published air traffic service (ATS)
routes, including those Victor, TRoutes, and colored
NOTE airway segments designated with a second minimum
Segments of VOR airways in Alaska are based on L/MF en route altitude (MEA) depicted in blue and
navigation aids and charted in brown instead of black on
followed by the letter G at those lower altitudes. The
en route charts.
altitudes so depicted are below the minimum
(1) A segment of an airway which is reception altitude (MRA) of the landbased
common to two or more routes carries the numbers of navigation facility defining the route segment, and
all the airways which coincide for that segment. guarantee standard en route obstacle clearance and
When such is the case, pilots filing a flight plan need twoway communications. Air carrier operators
to indicate only that airway number for the route filed. requiring operations specifications are authorized to
conduct operations on those routes in accordance
NOTE
with FAA operations specifications.
A pilot who intends to make an airway flight, using VOR
facilities, will simply specify the appropriate victor 2. The jet route system consists of jet routes
airway(s) in the flight plan. For example, if a flight is to be established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL 450
made from Chicago to New Orleans at 8,000 feet, using inclusive.
omniranges only, the route may be indicated as departing
from ChicagoMidway, cruising 8,000 feet via Victor 9 to (a) These routes are depicted on Enroute
Moisant International. If flight is to be conducted in part High Altitude Charts. Jet routes are depicted in black
by means of L/MF navigation aids and in part on on aeronautical charts and are identified by a J (Jet)
omniranges, specifications of the appropriate airways in followed by the airway number (e.g., J12). Jet routes,
the flight plan will indicate which types of facilities will be as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or
used along the described routes, and, for IFR flight, permit
VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska).
ATC to issue a traffic clearance accordingly. A route may
also be described by specifying the station over which the NOTE
flight will pass, but in this case since many VORs and L/MF Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF
aids have the same name, the pilot must be careful to navigation aids and are charted in brown color instead of
indicate which aid will be used at a particular location. black on en route charts.

AIM 4/3/14
(b) With respect to position reporting, (b) Unpublished RNAV routes are direct
reporting points are designated for jet route systems. routes, based on area navigation capability, between
Flights using jet routes will report over these points waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude
unless otherwise advised by ATC. coordinates, degreedistance fixes, or offsets from
established routes/airways at a specified distance and
3. Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes. direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all
unpublished RNAV routes, except for GNSS
(a) Published RNAV routes, including equipped aircraft cleared via filed published
QRoutes and TRoutes, can be flight planned for waypoints recallable from the aircrafts navigation
use by aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any database.
limitations or requirements noted on en route charts,
in applicable Advisory Circulars, or by NOTAM. (c) Magnetic Reference Bearing (MRB) is the
RNAV routes are depicted in blue on aeronautical published bearing between two waypoints on an
charts and are identified by the letter Q or T RNAV/GPS/GNSS route. The MRB is calculated by
followed by the airway number (for example, Q13, applying magnetic variation at the waypoint to the
T205). Published RNAV routes are RNAV2 except calculated true course between two waypoints. The
when specifically charted as RNAV1. These routes MRB enhances situational awareness by indicating a
require system performance currently met by GPS, reference bearing (nowind heading) that a pilot
GPS/WAAS, or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that should see on the compass/HSI/RMI, etc., when
satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90100A, U.S. turning prior to/over a waypoint en route to another
Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) waypoint. Pilots should use this bearing as a reference
Operations. only, because their RNAV/GPS/GNSS navigation
system will fly the true course between the
NOTE waypoints.
AC 90100A does not apply to over water RNAV routes
(reference 14 CFR 91.511, including the Qroutes in the b. Operation above FL 450 may be conducted on
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic routes) or Alaska a point-to-point basis. Navigational guidance is
VOR/DME RNAV routes (JxxxR). The AC does not apply provided on an area basis utilizing those facilities
to offroute RNAV operations, Alaska GPS routes or depicted on the enroute high altitude charts.
Caribbean routes.
c. Radar Vectors. Controllers may vector air-
(1) Qroutes are available for use by RNAV craft within controlled airspace for separation
equipped aircraft between 18,000 feet MSL and purposes, noise abatement considerations, when an
FL 450 inclusive. Qroutes are depicted on Enroute operational advantage will be realized by the pilot or
High Altitude Charts. the controller, or when requested by the pilot. Vectors
outside of controlled airspace will be provided only
NOTE on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the
Aircraft in Alaska may only operate on GNSS Q-routes vector is to achieve when the vector is controller
with GPS (TSO-C129 (as revised) or TSO-C196 (as initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously
revised)) equipment while the aircraft remains in Air assigned nonradar route. To the extent possible,
Traffic Control (ATC) radar surveillance or with
aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to
GPS/WAAS which does not require ATC radar surveil-
lance. remain on their own navigation.
d. When flying in Canadian airspace, pilots are
(2) Troutes are available for use by GPS or cautioned to review Canadian Air Regulations.
GPS/WAAS equipped aircraft from 1,200 feet above
the surface (or in some instances higher) up to but not 1. Special attention should be given to the parts
including 18,000 feet MSL. Troutes are depicted on which differ from U.S. CFRs.
Enroute Low Altitude Charts. (a) The Canadian Airways Class B airspace
NOTE restriction is an example. Class B airspace is all
Aircraft in Alaska may only operate on GNSS T-routes controlled low level airspace above 12,500 feet MSL
with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145 (as revised) or TSO-C146 (as or the MEA, whichever is higher, within which only
revised)) equipment. IFR and controlled VFR flights are permitted. (Low

4/3/14 AIM
level airspace means an airspace designated and airspace is a student pilot permit (under the guidance
defined as such in the Designated Airspace or control of a flight instructor).
Handbook.)
(d) VFR flight requires visual contact with
(b) Unless issued a VFR flight clearance by the ground or water at all times.
ATC, regardless of the weather conditions or the
2. Segments of VOR airways and high level
height of the terrain, no person may operate an
routes in Canada are based on L/MF navigation aids
aircraft under VMC within Class B airspace.
and are charted in brown color instead of blue on
(c) The requirement for entry into Class B en route charts.
FIG 531
Adhering to Airways or Routes
535. Airway or Route Course Changes instrumentation, such as Distance Measuring Equip-
ment, may be used by the pilot to lead the turn when
a. Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to
making course changes. This is consistent with the
airways or routes being flown. Special attention must
intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181, which requires
be given to this requirement during course changes.
pilots to operate along the centerline of an airway and
Each course change consists of variables that make
along the direct course between navigational aids or
the technique applicable in each case a matter only the
fixes.
pilot can resolve. Some variables which must be
considered are turn radius, wind effect, airspeed, b. Turns which begin at or after fix passage may
degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early exceed airway or route boundaries. FIG 531
turn, as illustrated below, is one method of adhering contains an example flight track depicting this,
to airways or routes. The use of any available cockpit together with an example of an early turn.

AIM 4/3/14
c. Without such actions as leading a turn, aircraft 537. Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA)
operating in excess of 290 knots true air speed (TAS) Due to increased airspeeds at 10,000 ft MSL or above,
can exceed the normal airway or route boundaries the published minimum enroute altitude (MEA) may
depending on the amount of course change required, not be sufficient for obstacle clearance when a turn is
wind direction and velocity, the character of the turn required over a fix, NAVAID, or waypoint. In these
fix (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection), instances, an expanded area in the vicinity of the turn
and the pilots technique in making a course change. point is examined to determine whether the published
For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL MEA is sufficient for obstacle clearance. In some
with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25 degree bank, and a locations (normally mountainous), terrain/obstacles
course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed in the expanded search area may necessitate a higher
the width of the airway or route; i.e., 4 nautical miles minimum altitude while conducting the turning
each side of centerline. However, in the airspace maneuver. Turning fixes requiring a higher minimum
below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of turning altitude (MTA) will be denoted on
290 knots TAS are not prevalent and the provision of government charts by the minimum crossing altitude
additional IFR separation in all course change (MCA) icon (x flag) and an accompanying note
situations for the occasional aircraft making a turn in describing the MTA restriction. An MTA restriction
excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable will normally consist of the air traffic service (ATS)
waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the route leading to the turn point, the ATS route leading
preponderance of traffic which operate at low speeds. from the turn point, and the required altitude; e.g.,
Consequently, the FAA expects pilots to lead turns MTA V330 E TO V520 W 16000. When an MTA is
and take other actions they consider necessary during applicable for the intended route of flight, pilots must
course changes to adhere as closely as possible to the ensure they are at or above the charted MTA not later
airways or route being flown. than the turn point and maintain at or above the MTA
until joining the centerline of the ATS route following
the turn point. Once established on the centerline
536. Changeover Points (COPs) following the turning fix, the MEA/MOCA determ-
ines the minimum altitude available for assignment.
a. COPs are prescribed for Federal airways, jet An MTA may also preclude the use of a specific
routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes altitude or a range of altitudes during a turn. For
for which an MEA is designated under 14 CFR example, the MTA may restrict the use of 10,000
Part 95. The COP is a point along the route or airway through 11,000 ft MSL. In this case, any altitude
segment between two adjacent navigation facilities or greater than 11,000 ft MSL is unrestricted, as are
waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance altitudes less than 10,000 ft MSL provided
should occur. At this point, the pilot should change MEA/MOCA requirements are satisfied.
navigation receiver frequency from the station
behind the aircraft to the station ahead. 538. Holding
b. The COP is normally located midway between a. Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other
the navigation facilities for straight route segments, than the destination airport and delay is expected, it
or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue
dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is
the COP is NOT located at the midway point, charted), an EFC time and best estimate of any
aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and additional en route/terminal delay.
give the mileage to the radio aids. NOTE
Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government
c. COPs are established for the purpose of or commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)
preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent low/high altitude enroute, and area or STAR charts should
frequency interference from other facilities, and to be used.
prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft b. If the holding pattern is charted and the
in the same airspace. Pilots are urged to observe COPs controller doesnt issue complete holding instruc-
to the fullest extent. tions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the

4/3/14 AIM
appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the h. Patterns at the most generally used holding
controller may omit all holding instructions except fixes are depicted (charted) on U.S. Government or
the charted holding direction and the statement AS commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)
PUBLISHED; e.g., HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED. Low or High Altitude Enroute, Area and STAR
Controllers must always issue complete holding Charts. Pilots are expected to hold in the pattern
instructions when pilots request them. depicted unless specifically advised otherwise by
ATC.
c. If no holding pattern is charted and holding
instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask NOTE
ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix. Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding
This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an airspeed other than the standard may be depicted by an
aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that icon, unless otherwise depicted. The icon is a standard
desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding holding pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed
restriction shown in the center. In other cases, the airspeed
instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to
restriction will be depicted next to the standard holding
frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), then pattern symbol.
enter a standard pattern on the course on which the
REFERENCE
aircraft approached the fix and request further AIM, Holding, Paragraph 538j2.
clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the
altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance i. An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold
limit will be protected so that separation will be at a fix where the pattern is not charted will include
provided as required. the following information: (See FIG 532.)
d. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a 1. Direction of holding from the fix in terms of
clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N, NE, E, SE,
been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed etc.).
reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix,
initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed. 2. Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if
included at the beginning of the transmission as the
e. When no delay is expected, the controller clearance limit).
should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as
possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes 3. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on
before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit. which the aircraft is to hold.
f. Pilots should report to ATC the time and 4. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be
altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the used (leg length will be specified in minutes on pilot
clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit. request or if the controller considers it necessary).
NOTE
In the event of two-way communications failure, pilots are
5. Direction of turn if left turns are to be made,
required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185. the pilot requests, or the controller considers it
necessary.
g. When holding at a VOR station, pilots should
begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of the 6. Time to expect further clearance and any
first complete reversal of the to/from indicator. pertinent additional delay information.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 532
Holding Patterns
EXAMPLES OF HOLDING
L OM MM
RUNWAY
TYPICAL PROCEDURE ON AN ILS OUTER MARKER
VOR
VOR
TYPICAL PROCEDURE AT INTERSECTION

OF VOR RADIALS
HOLDING COURSE HOLDING COURSE

AWAY FROM NAVAID TOWARD NAVAID
VORTAC
15 NM DME FIX 10 NM DME FIX

TYPICAL PROCEDURE AT DME FIX

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 533
Holding Pattern Descriptive Terms
ABEAM
HOLDING SIDE
OUTBOUND
OUTBOUND
FIX END END
INBOUND
RECIPROCAL
FIX NONHOLDING SIDE HOLDING
COURSE
j. Holding pattern airspace protection is based on (3) Holding patterns at USAF airfields
the following procedures. only 310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise
depicted.
1. Descriptive Terms.
(a) Standard Pattern. Right turns (4) Holding patterns at Navy fields only
(See FIG 533.) 230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
(b) Nonstandard Pattern. Left turns (5) When a climbin hold is specified by a
published procedure (e.g., Climbin holding
2. Airspeeds.
pattern to depart XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000.
(a) All aircraft may hold at the following or All aircraft climbin TRUCK holding pattern to
altitudes and maximum holding airspeeds: cross TRUCK Int at or above 11,500 before
proceeding on course.), additional obstacle protec-
TBL 531 tion area has been provided to allow for greater
airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft requiring
Altitude (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS) them. The holding pattern template for a maximum
MHA 6,000 200 airspeed of 310 KIAS has been used for the holding
6,001 14,000 230 pattern if there are no airspeed restrictions on the
14,001 and above 265 holding pattern as specified in subparagraph j2(b)(2)
of this paragraph. Where the holding pattern is
(b) The following are exceptions to the restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS, the
maximum holding airspeeds: 200 KIAS holding pattern template has been applied
for published climbin hold procedures for altitudes
(1) Holding patterns from 6,001 to
6,000 feet and below and the 230 KIAS holding
14,000 may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of
pattern template has been applied for altitudes above
210 KIAS. This nonstandard pattern will be depicted
6,000 feet. The airspeed limitations in 14 CFR
by an icon.
Section 91.117, Aircraft Speed, still apply.
(2) Holding patterns may be restricted to a
maximum speed. The speed restriction is depicted in (c) The following phraseology may be used
parenthesis inside the holding pattern on the chart: by an ATCS to advise a pilot of the maximum holding
e.g., (175). The aircraft should be at or below the airspeed for a holding pattern airspace area.
maximum speed prior to initially crossing the holding PHRASEOLOGY
fix to avoid exiting the protected airspace. Pilots (AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION) (holding instructions,
unable to comply with the maximum airspeed when needed) MAXIMUM HOLDING AIRSPEED IS
restriction should notify ATC. (speed in knots).

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 534
Holding Pattern Entry Procedures
3. Entry Procedures. (See FIG 534.) 4. Timing.

(a) Inbound Leg.
(a) Parallel Procedure. When approaching
the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the (1) At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.
parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading (2) Above 14,000 feet MSL: 11/2 minutes.
to parallel the holding course outbound on the NOTE
nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or
of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, 1 1/2 minutes (appropriate to altitude). Timing for
and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as
course inbound. necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may
use any navigational means available; i.e., DME, RNAV,
(b) Teardrop Procedure. When approach- etc., to ensure the appropriate inbound leg times.
ing the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the (b) Outbound leg timing begins over/abeam
teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop cannot be determined, start timing when turn to
entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a outbound is completed.
period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the
5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)/
holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding
GPS AlongTrack Distance (ATD). DME/GPS
course.
holding is subject to the same entry and holding
(c) Direct Entry Procedure. When ap- procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are
proaching the holding fix from anywhere in used in lieu of time values. The outbound course of
sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fly the DME/GPS holding pattern is called the outbound
directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding leg of the pattern. The controller or the instrument
pattern. approach procedure chart will specify the length of
the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is
(d) While other entry procedures may enable determined by the DME or ATD readout. The holding
the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain fix on conventional procedures, or controller defined
within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop and holding based on a conventional navigation aid with
direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding DME, is a specified course or radial and distances are
recommended by the FAA. from the DME station for both the inbound and

4/3/14 AIM
outbound ends of the holding pattern. When flying overlay and early stand alone procedures may have
published GPS overlay or stand alone procedures timing specified. (See FIG 535, FIG 536 and
with distance specified, the holding fix will be a FIG 537.) See paragraph 1118, Global Position-
waypoint in the database and the end of the outbound ing System (GPS), for requirements and restriction
leg will be determined by the ATD. Some GPS on using GPS for IFR operations.
FIG 535
Inbound Toward NAVAID
NOTE
When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID, the fix distance is 10 NM, and the leg length is 5 NM, then the end of the
outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 15 NM.
FIG 536
Inbound Leg Away from NAVAID
NOTE
When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28 NM, and the leg length is 8 NM, then the end
of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 20 NM.
FIG 537
GPS/RNAV Holding
NOTE
The inbound course is always toward the waypoint and the ATD is zero at the waypoint. The end of the outbound leg of the
holding pattern is reached when the ATD reads the specified distance.

AIM 4/3/14
6. Pilot Action. specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is associated
with an instrument approach and timed approaches
(a) Start speed reduction when 3 minutes or
are in effect, a procedure turn must not be executed
less from the holding fix. Cross the holding fix,
unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding
initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
are expected to proceed inbound on final approach
(b) Make all turns during entry and while directly from the holding pattern when approach
holding at: clearance is received.
(1) 3 degrees per second; or l. Radar surveillance of outer fix holding pattern
(2) 30 degree bank angle; or airspace areas.
(3) 25 degree bank provided a flight 1. Whenever aircraft are holding at an outer fix,
director system is used. ATC will usually provide radar surveillance of the
outer fix holding pattern airspace area, or any portion
NOTE of it, if it is shown on the controllers radar scope.
Use whichever requires the least bank angle.
2. The controller will attempt to detect any
(c) Compensate for wind effect primarily by
holding aircraft that stray outside the holding pattern
drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs.
airspace area and will assist any detected aircraft to
When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to
return to the assigned airspace area.
avoid major turning adjustments; e.g., if correcting
left by 8 degrees when inbound, correct right by NOTE
24 degrees when outbound. Many factors could prevent ATC from providing this
additional service, such as workload, number of targets,
(d) Determine entry turn from aircraft precipitation, ground clutter, and radar system capability.
heading upon arrival at the holding fix; +/5 degrees These circumstances may make it unfeasible to maintain
in heading is considered to be within allowable good radar identification of aircraft to detect aircraft straying
operating limits for determining entry. from the holding pattern. The provision of this service
depends entirely upon whether controllers believe they are
(e) Advise ATC immediately what increased in a position to provide it and does not relieve a pilot of their
airspeed is necessary, if any, due to turbulence, icing, responsibility to adhere to an accepted ATC clearance.
etc., or if unable to accomplish any part of the holding
3. If an aircraft is established in a published
procedures. When such higher speeds become no
holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the
longer necessary, operate according to the appro-
published minimum holding altitude and subsequent-
priate published holding speed and notify ATC.
ly cleared for the approach, the pilot may descend to
7. Nonstandard Holding Pattern. Fix end the published minimum holding altitude. The holding
and outbound end turns are made to the left. Entry pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is
procedures to a nonstandard pattern are oriented in published on the instrument procedure chart and is
relation to the 70 degree line on the holding side just used in lieu of a procedure turn.
as in the standard pattern.
m. For those holding patterns where there are no
k. When holding at a fix and instructions are published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon
received specifying the time of departure from the fix, receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the
the pilot should adjust the aircrafts flight path within last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern
the limits of the established holding pattern in order and established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the
to leave the fix at the exact time specified. After published minimum altitude of the route segment
departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be being flown will apply. It is expected that the pilot
resumed with respect to other governing speed will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a
requirements, such as terminal area speed limits, normal descent on the inbound course.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 4. Arrival Procedures
541. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) (3) Once established on the depicted ar-
Procedures rival, to descend and to meet all published or assigned
altitude and/or speed restrictions.
a. A STAR is an ATC coded IFR arrival route
NOTE
established for application to arriving IFR aircraft 1. When otherwise cleared along a route or procedure that
destined for certain airports. STARs simplify clear- contains published speed restrictions, the pilot must com-
ance delivery procedures, and also facilitate ply with those speed restrictions independent of any
transition between en route and instrument approach descend via clearance.
procedures. 2. ATC anticipates pilots will begin adjusting speed the
minimum distance necessary prior to a published speed re-
1. STAR procedures may have mandatory striction so as to cross the waypoint/fix at the published
speeds and/or crossing altitudes published. Other speed. Once at the published speed, ATC expects pilots will
STARs may have planning information depicted to maintain the published speed until additional adjustment
inform pilots what clearances or restrictions to ex- is required to comply with further published or ATC as-
pect. Expect altitudes/speeds are not considered signed speed restrictions or as required to ensure
STAR procedures crossing restrictions unless verbal- compliance with 14 CFR Section 91.117.
ly issued by ATC. Published speed restrictions are 3. The descend via is used in conjunction with STARs to
independent of altitude restrictions and are mandat- reduce phraseology by not requiring the controller to re-
ory unless modified by ATC. Pilots should plan to state the altitude at the next waypoint/fix to which the pilot
cross waypoints with a published speed restriction, at has been cleared.
the published speed, and should not exceed this speed 4. Air traffic will assign an altitude to cross the waypoint/
past the associated waypoint unless authorized by fix, if no altitude is depicted at the waypoint/fix, for aircraft
ATC or a published note to do so. on a direct routing to a STAR. Air traffic must ensure
NOTE obstacle clearance when issuing a descend via instruc-
The expect altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots tion to the pilot.
may have the information for planning purposes. These 5. Minimum en route altitudes (MEA) are not considered
altitudes/speeds must not be used in the event of lost restrictions; however, pilots must remain above all MEAs,
communications unless ATC has specifically advised the unless receiving an ATC instruction to descend below the
pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further MEA.
clearance. EXAMPLE
REFERENCE 1. Lateral/routing clearance only.
14 CFR Section 91.185(c)(2)(iii). Cleared Tyler One arrival.
2. Pilots navigating on STAR procedures must NOTE
maintain last assigned altitude until receiving autho- In Example 1, pilots are cleared to fly the lateral path of the
rization to descend so as to comply with all procedure. Compliance with any published speed restric-
published/issued restrictions. This authorization will tions is required. No descent is authorized.
contain the phraseology DESCEND VIA. 2. Routing with assigned altitude.
Cleared Tyler One arrival, descend and maintain
(a) Clearance to descend via authorizes flight level two four zero.
pilots to: Cleared Tyler One arrival, descend at pilots discre-
tion, maintain flight level two four zero.
(1) Descend at pilots discretion to meet NOTE
published restrictions and laterally navigate on a In Example 2, the first clearance requires the pilot to des-
STAR. cend to FL 240 as directed, comply with any published
speed restrictions, and maintain FL 240 until cleared for
(2) When cleared to a waypoint depicted on further vertical navigation with a newly assigned altitude
a STAR, to descend from a previously assigned alti- or adescend via clearance.
tude at pilots discretion to the altitude depicted at that
waypoint. The second clearance authorizes the pilot to descend to
Arrival Procedures 541

AIM 4/3/14
FL 240 at his discretion, to comply with any published ATC upon initial contact with a new frequency, of the
speed restrictions, and then maintain FL 240 until issued altitude leaving, descending via (procedure name),
further instructions. the runway transition or landing direction if assigned,
3. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance. and any assigned restrictions not published on the
Descend via the Eagul Five arrival. procedure.
Descend via the Eagul Five arrival, except, cross EXAMPLE
Vnnom at or above one two thousand. 1. Delta 121 is cleared to descend via the Eagul Five ar-
NOTE rival, runway 26 transition: Delta One Twenty One
In Example 3, the first clearance authorized the aircraft to leaving flight level one niner zero, descending via the
descend at pilots discretion on the Eagul Five arrival; the Eagul Five arrival runway two-six transition.
pilot must descend so as to comply with all published alti- 2. Delta 121 is cleared to descend via the Eagul Five ar-
tude and speed restrictions.
rival, but ATC has changed the bottom altitude to 12,000:
Delta One Twenty One leaving flight level one niner zero
The second clearance authorizes the same, but requires the
for one two thousand, descending via the Eagul Five ar-
pilot to descend so as to cross at Vnnom at or above 12,000.
rival, runway two-six transition.
4. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance
3. (JetBlue 602 is cleared to descend via the Ivane Two ar-
when assigning altitude not published on procedure.
rival, landing south): JetBlue six zero two leaving flight
Descend via the Eagul Five arrival, except after
level two one zero descending via the Ivane Two arrival
Geeno, maintain one zero thousand.
landing south.
Descend via the Eagul Five arrival, except cross
Geeno at one one thousand then maintain seven thou- b. Pilots of IFR aircraft destined to locations for
sand. which STARs have been published may be issued a
NOTE clearance containing a STAR whenever ATC deems
In Example 4, the first clearance authorized the aircraft to it appropriate.
track laterally on the Eagul Five Arrival and to descend at c. Use of STARs requires pilot possession of at
pilots discretion so as to comply with all altitude and speed
least the approved chart. RNAV STARs must be
restrictions until reaching Geeno and then maintain
10,000. Upon reaching 10,000, aircraft should maintain retrievable by the procedure name from the aircraft
10,000 until cleared by ATC to continue to descend. database and conform to charted procedure. As with
any ATC clearance or portion thereof, it is the
The second clearance requires the same, except the aircraft responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse an
must cross Geeno at 11,000 and is then authorized to con- issued STAR. Pilots should notify ATC if they do not
tinue descent to and maintain 7,000. wish to use a STAR by placing NO STAR in the
5. Direct routing to intercept a STAR and vertical navi- remarks section of the flight plan or by the less
gation clearance. desirable method of verbally stating the same to ATC.
Proceed direct Leoni, descend via the Leoni One ar- d. STAR charts are published in the Terminal
rival.
Procedures Publications (TPP) and are available on
Proceed direct Denis, cross Denis at or above flight
subscription from the National Aeronautical
level two zero zero, then descend via the Mmell One ar-
rival.
Charting Office.
NOTE e. RNAV STAR.

In Example 5, in the first clearance an altitude is published 1. All public RNAV STARs are RNAV1. These
at Leoni; the aircraft proceeds to Leoni, crosses Leoni at procedures require system performance currently
the published altitude and then descends via the arrival. If
met by GPS or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that
a speed restrictions is published at Leoni, the aircraft will
slow to comply with the published speed. satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90100A, U.S.
Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV)
In the second clearance, there is no altitude published at Operations. RNAV1 procedures must maintain a total
Denis; the aircraft must cross Denis at or above FL200, system error of not more than 1 NM for 95% of the
and then descends via the arrival. total flight time.
(b) Pilots cleared for vertical navigation 2. For procedures requiring GPS, if the
using the phraseology descend via must inform navigation system does not automatically alert the
542 Arrival Procedures

7/24/14
4/3/14 AIM
flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator must ADVISE ATC IF THEY DO NOT HAVE RUNWAY
develop procedures to verify correct GPS operation. PROFILE DESCENT CHARTS PUBLISHED FOR
REFERENCE
THAT AIRPORT OR ARE UNABLE TO COMPLY
AIM, Global Positioning System (GPS) WITH THE CLEARANCE.
Paragraph 1117l, Impact of Magnetic Variation on RNAV Sys-
tems
543. Approach Control
a. Approach control is responsible for controlling
542. Local Flow Traffic Management Pro- all instrument flight operating within its area of
gram responsibility. Approach control may serve one or
a. This program is a continuing effort by the FAA more airfields, and control is exercised primarily by
to enhance safety, minimize the impact of aircraft direct pilot and controller communications. Prior to
noise and conserve aviation fuel. The enhancement of arriving at the destination radio facility, instructions
safety and reduction of noise is achieved in this will be received from ARTCC to contact approach
program by minimizing low altitude maneuvering of control on a specified frequency.
arriving turbojet and turboprop aircraft weighing b. Radar Approach Control.
more than 12,500 pounds and, by permitting
1. Where radar is approved for approach control
departure aircraft to climb to higher altitudes sooner,
service, it is used not only for radar approaches
as arrivals are operating at higher altitudes at the
(Airport Surveillance Radar [ASR] and Precision
points where their flight paths cross. The application
Approach Radar [PAR]) but is also used to provide
of these procedures also reduces exposure time
vectors in conjunction with published nonradar
between controlled aircraft and uncontrolled aircraft
approaches based on radio NAVAIDs (ILS, VOR,
at the lower altitudes in and around the terminal NDB, TACAN). Radar vectors can provide course
environment. Fuel conservation is accomplished by guidance and expedite traffic to the final approach
absorbing any necessary arrival delays for aircraft course of any established IAP or to the traffic pattern
included in this program operating at the higher and for a visual approach. Approach control facilities that
more fuel efficient altitudes. provide this radar service will operate in the follow-
b. A fuel efficient descent is basically an ing manner:
uninterrupted descent (except where level flight is (a) Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an
required for speed adjustment) from cruising altitude outer fix most appropriate to the route being flown
to the point when level flight is necessary for the pilot with vertical separation and, if required, given
to stabilize the aircraft on final approach. The holding information or, when radar handoffs are
procedure for a fuel efficient descent is based on an effected between the ARTCC and approach control,
altitude loss which is most efficient for the majority or between two approach control facilities, aircraft
of aircraft being served. This will generally result in are cleared to the airport or to a fix so located that the
a descent gradient window of 250350 feet per handoff will be completed prior to the time the
nautical mile. aircraft reaches the fix. When radar handoffs are
c. When crossing altitudes and speed restrictions utilized, successive arriving flights may be handed
are issued verbally or are depicted on a chart, ATC off to approach control with radar separation in lieu
will expect the pilot to descend first to the crossing of vertical separation.
altitude and then reduce speed. Verbal clearances for (b) After release to approach control, aircraft
descent will normally permit an uninterrupted are vectored to the final approach course (ILS, RNAV,
descent in accordance with the procedure as GLS, VOR, ADF, etc.). Radar vectors and altitude or
described in paragraph b above. Acceptance of a flight levels will be issued as required for spacing and
charted fuel efficient descent (Runway Profile separating aircraft. Therefore, pilots must not deviate
Descent) clearance requires the pilot to adhere to the from the headings issued by approach control.
altitudes, speeds, and headings depicted on the charts Aircraft will normally be informed when it is
unless otherwise instructed by ATC. PILOTS necessary to vector across the final approach course
RECEIVING A CLEARANCE FOR A FUEL for spacing or other reasons. If approach course
EFFICIENT DESCENT ARE EXPECTED TO crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
7/24/14
4/3/14
informed that the aircraft will be vectored across the the type of approach to expect or that they may be
final approach course, the pilot should query the vectored for a visual approach. This information will
controller. be broadcast either by a controller or on ATIS. It will
not be furnished when the visibility is three miles or
(c) The pilot is not expected to turn inbound
better and the ceiling is at or above the highest initial
on the final approach course unless an approach
approach altitude established for any low altitude IAP
clearance has been issued. This clearance will
for the airport.
normally be issued with the final vector for
interception of the final approach course, and the b. The purpose of this information is to aid the
vector will be such as to enable the pilot to establish pilot in planning arrival actions; however, it is not an
the aircraft on the final approach course prior to ATC clearance or commitment and is subject to
reaching the final approach fix. change. Pilots should bear in mind that fluctuating
(d) In the case of aircraft already inbound on weather, shifting winds, blocked runway, etc., are
the final approach course, approach clearance will be conditions which may result in changes to approach
issued prior to the aircraft reaching the final approach information previously received. It is important that
fix. When established inbound on the final approach pilots advise ATC immediately they are unable to
course, radar separation will be maintained and the execute the approach ATC advised will be used, or if
pilot will be expected to complete the approach they prefer another type of approach.
utilizing the approach aid designated in the clearance c. Aircraft destined to uncontrolled airports,
(ILS, RNAV, GLS, VOR, radio beacons, etc.) as the which have automated weather data with broadcast
primary means of navigation. Therefore, once estab- capability, should monitor the ASOS/AWSS/AWOS
lished on the final approach course, pilots must not frequency to ascertain the current weather for the air-
deviate from it unless a clearance to do so is received port. The pilot must advise ATC when he/she has
from ATC. received the broadcast weather and state his/her
(e) After passing the final approach fix on intentions.
final approach, aircraft are expected to continue NOTE
inbound on the final approach course and complete 1. ASOS/AWSS/AWOS should be set to provide one
the approach or effect the missed approach procedure minute broadcast weather updates at uncontrolled airports
published for that airport. that are without weather broadcast capability by a human
observer.
2. ARTCCs are approved for and may provide 2. Controllers will consider the long line disseminated
approach control services to specific airports. The weather from an automated weather system at an
radar systems used by these centers do not provide the uncontrolled airport as trend and planning information
same precision as an ASR/PAR used by approach only and will rely on the pilot for current weather
control facilities and towers, and the update rate is not information for the airport. If the pilot is unable to receive
as fast. Therefore, pilots may be requested to report the current broadcast weather, the last long line
established on the final approach course. disseminated weather will be issued to the pilot. When
receiving IFR services, the pilot/aircraft operator is
3. Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropri- responsible for determining if weather/visibility is
ate final approach course or provide their own adequate for approach/landing.
navigation on published routes to it, radar service is
automatically terminated when the landing is d. When making an IFR approach to an airport not
completed or when instructed to change to advisory served by a tower or FSS, after ATC advises
frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs CHANGE TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY AP-
first. PROVED you should broadcast your intentions,
including the type of approach being executed, your
position, and when over the final approach fix
544. Advance Information on Instrument
inbound (nonprecision approach) or when over the
Approach
outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker
a. When landing at airports with approach control inbound (precision approach). Continue to monitor
services and where two or more IAPs are published, the appropriate frequency (UNICOM, etc.) for
pilots will be provided in advance of their arrival with reports from other pilots.

4/3/14 AIM
545. Instrument Approach Procedure (a) Straightin IAPs are identified by the
Charts navigational system providing the final approach
guidance and the runway to which the approach is
a. 14 CFR Section 91.175(a), Instrument ap- aligned (e.g., VOR RWY 13). Circling only
proaches to civil airports, requires the use of SIAPs approaches are identified by the navigational system
prescribed for the airport in 14 CFR Part 97 unless providing final approach guidance and a letter
otherwise authorized by the Administrator (including (e.g., VOR A). More than one navigational system
ATC). If there are military procedures published at a separated by a slash indicates that more than one type
civil airport, aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91 of equipment must be used to execute the final
must use the civil procedure(s). Civil procedures are approach (e.g., VOR/DME RWY 31). More than one
defined with FAA in parenthesis; e.g., (FAA), at the navigational system separated by the word or indi-
top, center of the procedure chart. DOD procedures cates either type of equipment may be used to execute
are defined using the abbreviation of the applicable the final approach (e.g., VOR or GPS RWY 15).
military service in parenthesis; e.g., (USAF), (USN),
(b) In some cases, other types of navigation
(USA). 14 CFR Section 91.175(g), Military airports,
systems including radar may be required to execute
requires civil pilots flying into or out of military
other portions of the approach or to navigate to the
airports to comply with the IAPs and takeoff and
IAF (e.g., an NDB procedure turn to an ILS, an NDB
landing minimums prescribed by the authority
in the missed approach, or radar required to join the
having jurisdiction at those airports. Unless an
procedure or identify a fix). When radar or other
emergency exists, civil aircraft operating at military
equipment is required for procedure entry from the
airports normally require advance authorization,
en route environment, a note will be charted in the
commonly referred to as Prior Permission
planview of the approach procedure chart
Required or PPR. Information on obtaining a PPR
(e.g., RADAR REQUIRED or ADF REQUIRED).
for a particular military airport can be found in the
When radar or other equipment is required on
Airport/Facility Directory.
portions of the procedure outside the final approach
NOTE segment, including the missed approach, a note will
Civil aircraft may conduct practice VFR approaches using be charted in the notes box of the pilot briefing
DOD instrument approach procedures when approved by portion of the approach chart (e.g., RADAR
the air traffic controller. REQUIRED or DME REQUIRED). Notes are not
1. IAPs (standard and special, civil and military) charted when VOR is required outside the final
are based on joint civil and military criteria contained approach segment. Pilots should ensure that the
in the U.S. Standard for TERPS. The design of IAPs aircraft is equipped with the required NAVAID(s) in
based on criteria contained in TERPS, takes into order to execute the approach, including the missed
account the interrelationship between airports, approach.
facilities, and the surrounding environment, terrain, NOTE
obstacles, noise sensitivity, etc. Appropriate Some military (i.e., U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy)
altitudes, courses, headings, distances, and other IAPs have these additional equipment required
limitations are specified and, once approved, the notes charted only in the planview of the approach
procedures are published and distributed by procedure and do not conform to the same application
government and commercial cartographers as standards used by the FAA.
instrument approach charts. (c) The FAA has initiated a program to
provide a new notation for LOC approaches when
2. Not all IAPs are published in chart form. charted on an ILS approach requiring other
Radar IAPs are established where requirements and navigational aids to fly the final approach course. The
facilities exist but they are printed in tabular form in LOC minimums will be annotated with the NAVAID
appropriate U.S. Government Flight Information required (e.g., DME Required or RADAR
Publications. Required). During the transition period, ILS
3. The navigation equipment required to join approaches will still exist without the annotation.
and fly an instrument approach procedure is indicated (d) Many ILS approaches having minima
by the title of the procedure and notes on the chart. based on RVR are eligible for a landing minimum of

AIM 4/3/14
RVR 1800. Some of these approaches are to runways altimeter setting, if not received, use Scottsbluff
that have touchdown zone and centerline lights. For altimeter setting. Approach minimums may be raised
many runways that do not have touchdown and when a nonlocal altimeter source is authorized. When
centerline lights, it is still possible to allow a landing more than one altimeter source is authorized, and the
minimum of RVR 1800. For these runways, the minima are different, they will be shown by separate
normal ILS minimum of RVR 2400 can be annotated lines in the approach minima box or a note; e.g., use
with a single or double asterisk or the dagger symbol Manhattan altimeter setting; when not available use
; for example ** 696/24 200 (200/1/2). A note Salina altimeter setting and increase all MDAs
is included on the chart stating **RVR 1800 40 feet. When the altimeter must be obtained from a
authorized with use of FD or AP or HUD to DA. The source other than air traffic a note will indicate the
pilot must use the flight director, or autopilot with an source; e.g., Obtain local altimeter setting on CTAF.
approved approach coupler, or head up display to When the altimeter setting(s) on which the approach
decision altitude or to the initiation of a missed is based is not available, the approach is not
approach. In the interest of safety, single pilot authorized. BaroVNAV must be flown using the
operators should not fly approaches to 1800 RVR local altimeter setting only. Where no local altimeter
minimums on runways without touchdown and is available, the LNAV/VNAV line will still be
centerline lights using only a flight director, unless published for use by WAAS receivers with a note that
accompanied by the use of an autopilot with an BaroVNAV is not authorized. When a local and at
approach coupler. least one other altimeter setting source is authorized
and the local altimeter is not available BaroVNAV
(e) The naming of multiple approaches of the is not authorized; however, the LNAV/VNAV
same type to the same runway is also changing. minima can still be used by WAAS receivers using the
Multiple approaches with the same guidance will be alternate altimeter setting source.
annotated with an alphabetical suffix beginning at the
NOTE
end of the alphabet and working backwards for
Barometric Vertical Navigation (baroVNAV). An RNAV
subsequent procedures (e.g., ILS Z RWY 28, ILS Y system function which uses barometric altitude informa-
RWY 28, etc.). The existing annotations such as tion from the aircrafts altimeter to compute and present
ILS 2 RWY 28 or Silver ILS RWY 28 will be phased a vertical guidance path to the pilot. The specified vertical
out and replaced with the new designation. The Cat II path is computed as a geometric path, typically computed
and Cat III designations are used to differentiate between two waypoints or an angle based computation
between multiple ILSs to the same runway unless from a single waypoint. Further guidance may be found in
there are multiples of the same type. Advisory Circular 90105.
5. A pilot adhering to the altitudes, flight paths,
(f) RNAV (GPS) approaches to LNAV, LP,
and weather minimums depicted on the IAP chart or
LNAV/VNAV and LPV lines of minima using WAAS
vectors and altitudes issued by the radar controller, is
and RNAV (GPS) approaches to LNAV and
assured of terrain and obstruction clearance and
LNAV/VNAV lines of minima using GPS are charted
runway or airport alignment during approach for
as RNAV (GPS) RWY (Number) (e.g., RNAV (GPS)
landing.
RWY 21). VOR/DME RNAV approaches will
continue to be identified as VOR/DME RNAV RWY 6. IAPs are designed to provide an IFR descent
(Number) (e.g., VOR/DME RNAV RWY 21). from the en route environment to a point where a safe
VOR/DME RNAV procedures which can be flown by landing can be made. They are prescribed and
GPS will be annotated with or GPS approved by appropriate civil or military authority to
(e.g., VOR/DME RNAV or GPS RWY 31). ensure a safe descent during instrument flight
conditions at a specific airport. It is important that
4. Approach minimums are based on the local pilots understand these procedures and their use prior
altimeter setting for that airport, unless annotated to attempting to fly instrument approaches.
otherwise; e.g., Oklahoma City/Will Rogers World
approaches are based on having a Will Rogers World 7. TERPS criteria are provided for the following
altimeter setting. When a different altimeter source is types of instrument approach procedures:
required, or more than one source is authorized, it will (a) Precision Approach (PA). An instrument
be annotated on the approach chart; e.g., use Sidney approach based on a navigation system that provides

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course and glidepath deviation information meeting 4. Recommended altitude will be depicted with
the precision standards of ICAO Annex 10. For no overscore or underscore. These altitudes are
example, PAR, ILS, and GLS are precision depicted for descent planning, e.g., 6000.
approaches.
NOTE
(b) Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV). 1. Pilots are cautioned to adhere to altitudes as prescribed
because, in certain instances, they may be used as the basis
An instrument approach based on a navigation
for vertical separation of aircraft by ATC. When a depicted
system that is not required to meet the precision altitude is specified in the ATC clearance, that altitude be-
approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides comes mandatory as defined above.
course and glidepath deviation information. For
example, BaroVNAV, LDA with glidepath, 2. The ILS glide slope is intended to be intercepted at the
LNAV/VNAV and LPV are APV approaches. published glide slope intercept altitude. This point marks
the PFAF and is depicted by the lightning bolt symbol
(c) Nonprecision Approach (NPA). An in- on U.S. Government charts. Intercepting the glide slope
at this altitude marks the beginning of the final
strument approach based on a navigation system
approach segment and ensures required obstacle
which provides course deviation information, but no
clearance during descent from the glide slope intercept
glidepath deviation information. For example, VOR, altitude to the lowest published decision altitude for
NDB and LNAV. As noted in subparagraph k, Vertical the approach. Interception and tracking of the glide slope
Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision Approaches, prior to the published glide slope interception altitude
some approach procedures may provide a Vertical does not necessarily ensure that minimum, maximum,
Descent Angle as an aid in flying a stabilized and/or mandatory altitudes published for any preceding
approach, without requiring its use in order to fly the fixes will be complied with during the descent. If the pilot
procedure. This does not make the approach an APV chooses to track the glide slope prior to the glide slope
procedure, since it must still be flown to an MDA and interception altitude, they remain responsible for
has not been evaluated with a glidepath. complying with published altitudes for any preceding
stepdown fixes encountered during the subsequent
b. The method used to depict prescribed altitudes descent.
on instrument approach charts differs according to
3. Approaches used for simultaneous (parallel)
techniques employed by different chart publishers. independent and simultaneous close parallel operations
Prescribed altitudes may be depicted in four different procedurally require descending on the glideslope from the
configurations: minimum, maximum, mandatory, altitude at which the approach clearance is issued (refer to
and recommended. The U.S. Government distributes 5-4-15 and 5-4-16). For simultaneous close parallel
charts produced by National GeospatialIntelligence (PRM) approaches, the Attention All Users Page (AAUP)
Agency (NGA) and FAA. Altitudes are depicted on may publish a note which indicates that descending on the
these charts in the profile view with underscore, glideslope/glidepath meets all crossing restrictions.
overscore, both or none to identify them as minimum, However, if no such note is published, and for simultaneous
maximum, mandatory or recommended. independent approaches (4300 and greater runway
separation) where an AAUP is not published, pilots are
1. Minimum altitude will be depicted with the cautioned to monitor their descent on the glideslope/path
altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to outside of the PFAF to ensure compliance with published
maintain altitude at or above the depicted value, crossing restrictions during simultaneous operations.
e.g., 3000. 4. When parallel approach courses are less than 2500 feet
apart and reduced in-trail spacing is authorized for
2. Maximum altitude will be depicted with the simultaneous dependent operations, a chart note will
altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to indicate that simultaneous operations require use of
maintain altitude at or below the depicted value, vertical guidance and that the pilot should maintain last
e.g., 4000. assigned altitude until established on glide slope. These
approaches procedurally require utilization of the ILS
3. Mandatory altitude will be depicted with the glide slope for wake turbulence mitigation. Pilots should
altitude value both underscored and overscored. not confuse these simultaneous dependent operations with
Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the (SOIA) simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches,
depicted value, e.g., 5000. where PRM appears in the approach title.

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c. Minimum Safe/Sector Altitudes (MSA) are equipped with Area Navigation (RNAV) systems. A
published for emergency use on IAP charts. For TAA provides minimum altitudes with standard
conventional navigation systems, the MSA is obstacle clearance when operating within the TAA
normally based on the primary omnidirectional boundaries. TAAs are primarily used on RNAV
facility on which the IAP is predicated. The MSA approaches but may be used on an ILS approach when
depiction on the approach chart contains the facility RNAV is the sole means for navigation to the IF;
identifier of the NAVAID used to determine the MSA however, they are not normally used in areas of heavy
altitudes. For RNAV approaches, the MSA is based concentration of air traffic.
on the runway waypoint (RWY WP) for straightin
2. The basic design of the RNAV procedure
approaches, or the airport waypoint (APT WP) for
underlying the TAA is normally the T design (also
circling approaches. For GPS approaches, the MSA
called the Basic T). The T design incorporates
center will be the missed approach waypoint
two IAFs plus a dual purpose IF/IAF that functions as
(MAWP). MSAs are expressed in feet above mean
both an intermediate fix and an initial approach fix.
sea level and normally have a 25 NM radius;
The T configuration continues from the IF/IAF to the
however, this radius may be expanded to 30 NM if
final approach fix (FAF) and then to the missed
necessary to encompass the airport landing surfaces.
approach point (MAP). The two base leg IAFs are
Ideally, a single sector altitude is established and
typically aligned in a straight-line perpendicular to
depicted on the plan view of approach charts;
the intermediate course connecting at the IF/IAF. A
however, when necessary to obtain relief from
Hold-in-Lieu-of Procedure Turn (HILPT) is
obstructions, the area may be further sectored and as
anchored at the IF/IAF and depicted on U.S.
many as four MSAs established. When established,
Government publications using the holdinlieu
sectors may be no less than 90_ in spread. MSAs
ofPT holding pattern symbol. When the HILPT is
provide 1,000 feet clearance over all obstructions but
necessary for course alignment and/or descent, the
do not necessarily assure acceptable navigation
dual purpose IF/IAF serves as an IAF during the entry
signal coverage. into the pattern. Following entry into the HILPT
d. Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) pattern and when flying a route or sector labeled
NoPT, the dual-purpose fix serves as an IF, marking
1. The TAA provides a transition from the en the beginning of the Intermediate Segment. See
route structure to the terminal environment with little FIG 541 and FIG 542 for the Basic T TAA
required pilot/air traffic control interface for aircraft configuration.

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FIG 541
Basic T Design
FIG 542
Basic T Design

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3. The standard TAA based on the T design shaped sectors with the boundaries identified by
consists of three areas defined by the Initial Approach magnetic courses TO the (IF/ IAF), and may contain
Fix (IAF) legs and the intermediate segment course stepdown sections defined by arcs based on RNAV
beginning at the IF/IAF. These areas are called the distances from the IF/IAF. (See FIG 544). The
straightin, leftbase, and rightbase areas. (See right/leftbase areas can only be subdivided using
FIG 543). TAA area lateral boundaries are identi- arcs based on RNAV distances from the IAFs for
fied by magnetic courses TO the IF/IAF. The those areas.
straightin area can be further divided into pie
FIG 543
TAA Area
4. Entry from the terminal area onto the proced- (b) ATC may clear aircraft direct to the fix
ure is normally accomplished via a no procedure turn labeled IF/IAF if the course to the IF/IAF is within the
(NoPT) routing or via a course reversal maneuver. straight-in sector labeled NoPT and the intercept
The published procedure will be annotated NoPT angle does not exceed 90 degrees. Pilots are expected
to indicate when the course reversal is not authorized to proceed direct to the IF/IAF and accomplish a
when flying within a particular TAA sector. Other- straight-in approach. Do not execute HILPT course
wise, the pilot is expected to execute the course reversal. Pilots are also expected to fly the straightin
reversal under the provisions of 14 CFR Section approach when ATC provides radar vectors and mon-
91.175. The pilot may elect to use the course reversal itoring to the IF/IAF and issues a straight-in
pattern when it is not required by the procedure, but approach clearance; otherwise, the pilot is expected to
must receive clearance from air traffic control before execute the HILPT course reversal.
beginning the procedure. REFERENCE
AIM Paragraph 546, Approach Clearance
(a) ATC should not clear an aircraft to the left (c) On rare occasions, ATC may clear the air-
base leg or right base leg IAF within a TAA at an inter- craft for an approach at the airport without specifying
cept angle exceeding 90 degrees. Pilots must not the approach procedure by name or by a specific ap-
execute the HILPT course reversal when the sector or proach (for example, cleared RNAV Runway 34
procedure segment is labeled NoPT. approach) without specifying a particular IAF. In

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either case, the pilot should proceed direct to the IAF authorize a pilot to descend to a lower TAA altitude.
or to the IF/IAF associated with the sector that the If a pilot desires a lower altitude without an approach
aircraft will enter the TAA and join the approach clearance, request the lower TAA altitude from ATC.
course from that point and if required by that sector Pilots not sure of the clearance should confirm their
(i.e., sector is not labeled NoPT), complete the clearance with ATC or request a specific clearance.
HILPT course reversal. Pilots entering the TAA with twoway radio commu-
NOTE nications failure (14 CFR Section 91.185, IFR
If approaching with a TO bearing that is on a sector bound- Operations: Twoway Radio Communications Fail-
ary, the pilot is expected to proceed in accordance with a ure), must maintain the highest altitude prescribed by
NoPT routing unless otherwise instructed by ATC. Section 91.185(c)(2) until arriving at the appropriate
IAF.
5. Altitudes published within the TAA replace
the MSA altitude. However, unlike MSA altitudes the
(b) Once cleared for the approach, pilots may
TAA altitudes are operationally usable altitudes.
descend in the TAA sector to the minimum altitude
These altitudes provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle
depicted within the defined area/subdivision, unless
clearance, more in mountainous areas. It is important
instructed otherwise by air traffic control. Pilots
that the pilot knows which area of the TAA the aircraft
should plan their descent within the TAA to permit a
will enter in order to comply with the minimum alti-
normal descent from the IF/IAF to the FAF. In
tude requirements. The pilot can determine which
FIG 544, pilots within the left or rightbase areas
area of the TAA the aircraft will enter by determining
are expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000
the magnetic bearing of the aircraft TO the fix labeled
feet until within 17 NM of the associated IAF. After
IF/IAF. The bearing should then be compared to the
crossing the 17 NM arc, descent is authorized to the
published lateral boundary bearings that define the
lower charted altitudes. Pilots approaching from the
TAA areas. Do not use magnetic bearing to the
northwest are expected to maintain a minimum alti-
right-base or left-base IAFs to determine position.
tude of 6,000 feet, and when within 22 NM of the
(a) An ATC clearance direct to an IAF or to IF/IAF, descend to a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet
the IF/IAF without an approach clearance does not MSL until crossing the IF/IAF.
FIG 544
Sectored TAA Areas

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6. U.S. Government charts depict TAAs using will show all TAA minimum altitudes and sector/ra-
icons located in the plan view outside the depiction of dius subdivisions. The IAF for each area of the TAA
the actual approach procedure. (See FIG 545). Use is included on the icon where it appears on the ap-
of icons is necessary to avoid obscuring any portion proach to help the pilot orient the icon to the approach
of the T procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum procedure. The IAF name and the distance of the TAA
altitudes, etc.). The icon for each TAA area will be area boundary from the IAF are included on the out-
located and oriented on the plan view with respect to side arc of the TAA area icon.
the direction of arrival to the approach procedure, and
FIG 545
RNAV (GPS) Approach Chart

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7. TAAs may be modified from the standard size (a) FIG 5-4-6 depicts a TAA without a left
and shape to accommodate operational or ATC re- base leg and right base leg. In this generalized ex-
quirements. Some areas may be eliminated, while the ample, pilots approaching on a bearing TO the IF/IAF
other areas are expanded. The T design may be from 271 clockwise to 089 are expected to execute a
modified by the procedure designers where required course reversal because the amount of turn required
by terrain or ATC considerations. For instance, the at the IF/IAF exceeds 90 degrees. The term NoPT
T design may appear more like a regularly or irreg- will be annotated on the boundary of the TAA icon for
ularly shaped Y, upside down L, or an I. the other portion of the TAA.
FIG 546
TAA with Left and Right Base Areas Eliminated
(b) FIG 547 depicts another TAA modific- bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct
ation that pilots may encounter. In this generalized to the right base IAF and not execute course reversal
example, the left base area and part of the straight-in maneuver. Aircraft cleared direct the IF/IAF by ATC
area have been eliminated. Pilots operating within the in this sector will be expected to accomplish HILTP.
TAA between 210 clockwise to 360 bearing TO the Aircraft operating in areas 091 clockwise to 209 bear-
IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to the IF/IAF ing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to
and then execute the course reversal in order to prop- the IF/IAF and not execute the course reversal. These
erly align the aircraft for entry onto the intermediate two areas are annotated NoPT at the TAA boundary
segment or to avoid an excessive descent rate. Air- of the icon in these areas when displayed on the ap-
craft operating in areas from 001 clockwise to 090 proach charts plan view.

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FIG 547
TAA with Left Base and Part of StraightIn Area Eliminated
(c) Fig 5-4-8 depicts a TAA with right base leg and part of the straight-in area eliminated.
FIG 548
TAA with Right Base Eliminated

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8. When an airway does not cross the lateral at the TAA boundary and will be aligned along a path
TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established pointing to the associated IAF. Pilots should descend
from an airway fix or NAVAID to the TAA boundary to the TAA altitude after crossing the TAA boundary
to provide a transition from the en route structure to and cleared for the approach by ATC.
the appropriate IAF. Each feeder route will terminate (See FIG 549).
FIG 549
Examples of a TAA with Feeders from an Airway
9. Each waypoint on the T is assigned a navigation products. The missed approach waypoint
pronounceable 5letter name, except the missed is assigned a pronounceable name when it is not
approach waypoint. These names are used for ATC located at the runway threshold.
communications, RNAV databases, and aeronautical

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FIG 5410
Minimum Vectoring Altitude Charts
N
013
348
5500
057
2500
5000
289 3000
277
1500 3000
3500
5
2000 102
250 10
3000
15
20
25
30 160
e. Minimum Vectoring Altitudes (MVAs) are NOTE

established for use by ATC when radar ATC is OROCA is an offroute altitude which provides obstruc-
exercised. MVA charts are prepared by air traffic tion clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in nonmountainous
facilities at locations where there are numerous terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in designated
mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not
different minimum IFR altitudes. Each MVA chart
provide signal coverage from groundbased navigational
has sectors large enough to accommodate vectoring aids, air traffic control radar, or communications
of aircraft within the sector at the MVA. Each sector coverage.
boundary is at least 3 miles from the obstruction
determining the MVA. To avoid a large sector with an 2. Because of differences in the areas consid-
excessively high MVA due to an isolated prominent ered for MVA, and those applied to other minimum
obstruction, the obstruction may be enclosed in a altitudes, and the ability to isolate specific obstacles,
buffer area whose boundaries are at least 3 miles from some MVAs may be lower than the nonradar
the obstruction. This is done to facilitate vectoring Minimum En Route Altitudes (MEAs), Minimum
around the obstruction. (See FIG 5410.) Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs) or other
minimum altitudes depicted on charts for a given
1. The minimum vectoring altitude in each location. While being radar vectored, IFR altitude
sector provides 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle assignments by ATC will be at or above MVA.
in nonmountainous areas and 2,000 feet above the
highest obstacle in designated mountainous areas. f. Circling. Circling minimums charted on an
Where lower MVAs are required in designated RNAV (GPS) approach chart may be lower than the
mountainous areas to achieve compatibility with LNAV/VNAV line of minima, but never lower than
terminal routes or to permit vectoring to an IAP, the LNAV line of minima (straight-in approach). Pi-
1,000 feet of obstacle clearance may be authorized lots may safely perform the circling maneuver at the
with the use of Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR). circling published line of minima if the approach and
The minimum vectoring altitude will provide at least circling maneuver is properly performed according to
300 feet above the floor of controlled airspace. aircraft category and operational limitations.

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FIG 5411
Example of LNAV and Circling Minima Lower Than LNAV/VNAV DA.
Harrisburgh International RNAV (GPS) RWY 13
CATEGORY A B C D
LPV DA 558/24 250 (300 )
LNAV/
1572 5 1264 (1300 5)
VNAV DA
1180 / 24 1180 / 40 1180 / 2 1180 / 2
LNAV MDA
872 (900 ) 872 (900 ) 872 (900 2) 872 (900 2 )
1180 1 1180 1 1180 2 1180 2
CIRCLING
870 (900 1) 870 (900 1 ) 870 (900 2 ) 870 (900 2 )
FIG 5412
Explanation of LNAV and/or Circling Minima Lower than LNAV/VNAV DA
g. FIG 5412 provides a visual representation of 2. Circling MDA. The circling MDA will
an obstacle evaluation and calculation of LNAV provide 300 foot obstacle clearance within the area
MDA, Circling MDA, LNAV/VNAV DA. considered for obstacle clearance and may be lower
1. No vertical guidance (LNAV). A line is than the LNAV/VNAV DA, but never lower than the
drawn horizontal at obstacle height and 250 feet ad- straight in LNAV MDA. This may occur when differ-
ded for Required Obstacle Clearance (ROC). The ent controlling obstacles are used or when other
controlling obstacle used to determine LNAV MDA controlling factors force the LNAV MDA to be higher
can be different than the controlling obstacle used in than 250 feet above the LNAV OCS. In FIG 5411,
determining ROC for circling MDA. Other factors the required obstacle clearance for both the LNAV
may force a number larger than 250 ft to be added to and Circle resulted in the same MDA, but lower than
the LNAV OCS. The number is rounded up to the next the LNAV/VNAV DA. FIG 5412 provides an illus-
higher 20 foot increment. tration of this type of situation.

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3. Vertical guidance (LNAV/VNAV). A line is profile and plan views with an approximate heading
drawn horizontal at obstacle height until reaching the and distance to the end of the runway. The depicted
obstacle clearance surface (OCS). At the OCS, a ver- ground track associated with the visual segment
tical line is drawn until reaching the glide path. This should be flown as a DR course. When executing
is the DA for the approach. This method places the of- the visual segment, the flight visibility must not be
fending obstacle in front of the LNAV/VNAV DA so less than that prescribed in the IAP, the pilot must re-
it can be seen and avoided. In some situations, this main clear of clouds and proceed to the airport
may result in the LNAV/VNAV DA being higher than maintaining visual contact with the ground. Altitude
the LNAV and/or Circling MDA. on the visual flight path is at the discretion of the pilot.
h. Visual Descent Points (VDPs) are being 2. Since missed approach obstacle clearance is
incorporated in nonprecision approach procedures. assured only if the missed approach is commenced at
The VDP is a defined point on the final approach the published MAP or above the DA/MDA, the pilot
course of a nonprecision straightin approach should have preplanned climb out options based on
procedure from which normal descent from the MDA aircraft performance and terrain features. Obstacle
to the runway touchdown point may be commenced, clearance is the sole responsibility of the pilot when
provided visual reference required by 14 CFR the approach is continued beyond the MAP.
Section 91.175(c)(3) is established. The VDP will NOTE
normally be identified by DME on VOR and LOC The FAA Administrator retains the authority to approve
procedures and by alongtrack distance to the next instrument approach procedures where the pilot may not
necessarily have one of the visual references specified in
waypoint for RNAV procedures. The VDP is
CFR 14, part 91.175 and related rules. It is not a function
identified on the profile view of the approach chart by of procedure design to ensure compliance with part
the symbol: V. 91.175. The annotation Fly Visual to Airport provides
relief from part 91.175 requirements that the pilot have dis-
1. VDPs are intended to provide additional
tinctly visible and identifiable visual references prior to
guidance where they are implemented. No special descent below MDA/DA.
technique is required to fly a procedure with a VDP.
The pilot should not descend below the MDA prior to j. Charting of Close in Obstacles on Instrument
reaching the VDP and acquiring the necessary visual Procedure Charts. Obstacles that are close to the air-
reference. port may be depicted in either the planview of the
instrument approach chart or the airport sketch.
2. Pilots not equipped to receive the VDP should Obstacles are charted in only one of the areas, based
fly the approach procedure as though no VDP had on space available and distance from the runway.
been provided. These obstacles could be in the visual segment of the
instrument approach procedure. On nonprecision
i. Visual Segment of a Published Instrument approaches, these obstacles should be considered
Approach Procedure. Instrument procedures de- when determining where to begin descent from the
signers perform a visual area obstruction evaluation MDA (see Pilot Operational Considerations When
off the approach end of each runway authorized for Flying Nonprecision Approaches in this paragraph).
instrument landing, straightin, or circling. Restric-
tions to instrument operations are imposed if k. Vertical Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonpreci-
penetrations of the obstruction clearance surfaces sion Approaches. FAA policy is to publish VDAs on
exist. These restrictions vary based on the severity of all nonprecision approaches. Published along with
the penetrations, and may include increasing required VDA is the threshold crossing height (TCH) that was
visibility, denying VDPs, prohibiting night instru- used to compute the angle. The descent angle may be
ment operations to the runway, and/or provide a Fly computed from either the final approach fix (FAF), or
Visual option to the landing surface. a stepdown fix, to the runway threshold at the
published TCH. A stepdown fix is only used as the
1. In isolated cases, due to procedure design start point when an angle computed from the FAF
peculiarities, an IAP may contain a published visual would place the aircraft below the stepdown fix
flight path. These procedures are annotated Fly altitude. The descent angle and TCH information are
Visual to Airport or Fly Visual. A dashed arrow charted on the profile view of the instrument
indicating the visual flight path will be included in the approach chart following the fix the angle was based

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on. The optimum descent angle is 3.00 degrees; and descent rate required to land straight in from the FAF
whenever possible the approach will be designed or step down fix to the threshold. This is not intended
using this angle. to imply that landing straight ahead is recommended,
or even possible, since the descent rate may exceed
1. The VDA provides the pilot with information
the capabilities of many aircraft. The pilot must
not previously available on nonprecision approaches.
determine how to best maneuver the aircraft within
It provides a means for the pilot to establish a
the circling obstacle clearance area in order to land.
stabilized descent from the FAF or stepdown fix to the
MDA. Stabilized descent is a key factor in the 5. In rare cases the LNAV minima may have a
reduction of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) lower HAT than minima with a glide path due to the
incidents. However, pilots should be aware that the location of the obstacles. This should be a clear indic-
published angle is for information only it is ation to the pilot that obstacles exist below the MDA
strictly advisory in nature. There is no implicit which the pilot must see in order to ensure adequate
additional obstacle protection below the MDA. Pilots clearance. In those cases, the glide path may be
must still respect the published minimum descent treated as a VDA and used to descend to the LNAV
altitude (MDA) unless the visual cues stated 14 CFR MDA as long as all the rules for a nonprecision
Section 91.175 are present and they can visually approach are applied at the MDA. However, the pilot
acquire and avoid obstacles once below the MDA. must keep in mind the information in this paragraph
The presence of a VDA does not guarantee obstacle and in paragraph 545l.
protection in the visual segment and does not change l. Pilot Operational Considerations When
any of the requirements for flying a nonprecision Flying Nonprecision Approaches. The missed
approach. approach point (MAP) on a nonprecision approach
is not designed with any consideration to where
2. Additional protection for the visual segment
the aircraft must begin descent to execute a safe
below the MDA is provided if a VDP is published and
landing. It is developed based on terrain, obstruc-
descent below the MDA is started at or after the VDP.
tions, NAVAID location and possibly air traffic
Protection is also provided if a Visual Glide Slope
considerations. Because the MAP may be located
Indicator (VGSI); e.g., VASI or PAPI, is installed and
anywhere from well prior to the runway threshold to
the aircraft remains on the VGSI glide path angle
past the opposite end of the runway, the descent from
from the MDA. In either case, a chart note will
the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) to the runway
indicate if the VDP or VGSI are not coincident with
threshold cannot be determined based on the MAP
the VDA. On RNAV approach charts, a small shaded
location. Descent from MDA at the MAP when the
arrowhead shaped symbol (see the legend of the U.S.
MAP is located close to the threshold would require
Terminal Procedures books, page H1) from the end of
an excessively steep descent gradient to land in the
the VDA to the runway indicates that the 34:1 visual
normal touchdown zone. Any turn from the final
surface is clear.
approach course to the runway heading may also be
3. Pilots may use the published angle and a factor in when to begin the descent.
estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of 1. Pilots are cautioned that descent to a
descent from the rate of descent table published in the straightin landing from the MDA at the MAP may
back of the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication. be inadvisable or impossible, on a nonprecision
This rate of descent can be flown with the Vertical approach, even if current weather conditions meet the
Velocity Indicator (VVI) in order to use the VDA as published ceiling and visibility. Aircraft speed, height
an aid to flying a stabilized descent. No special above the runway, descent rate, amount of turn and
equipment is required. runway length are some of the factors which must be
4. Since one of the reasons for publishing a circ- considered by the pilot to determine if a landing can
ling only instrument landing procedure is that the be accomplished.
descent rate required exceeds the maximum allowed 2. Visual descent points (VDPs) provide pilots
for a straight in approach, circling only procedures with a reference for the optimal location to begin
may have VDAs which are considerably steeper than descent from the MDA, based on the designed
the standard 3 degree angle on final. In this case, the vertical descent angle (VDA) for the approach
VDA provides the crew with information about the procedure, assuming required visual references are

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available. Approaches without VDPs have not been LPV and LNAV/VNAV are both APV procedures as
assessed for terrain clearance below the MDA, and described in paragraph 545a7. The original GPS
may not provide a clear vertical path to the runway at minima, titled SXX, for straight in runway XX, is
the normally expected descent angle. Therefore, retitled LNAV (lateral navigation). Circling minima
pilots must be especially vigilant when descending may also be published. A new type of nonprecision
below the MDA at locations without VDPs. This does WAAS minima will also be published on this chart
not necessarily prevent flying the normal angle; it and titled LP (localizer performance). LP will be
only means that obstacle clearance in the visual published in locations where vertically guided
segment could be less and greater care should be minima cannot be provided due to terrain and
exercised in looking for obstacles in the visual obstacles and therefore, no LPV or LNAV/VNAV
segment. Use of visual glide slope indicator (VGSI) minima will be published. GBAS procedures are pub-
systems can aid the pilot in determining if the aircraft lished on a separate chart and the GLS minima line is
is in a position to make the descent from the MDA. to be used only for GBAS. ATC clearance for the
However, when the visibility is close to minimums, RNAV procedure authorizes a properly certified pilot
the VGSI may not be visible at the start descent point to utilize any minimums for which the aircraft is certi-
for a normal glidepath, due to its location down the fied (for example, a WAAS equipped aircraft utilizes
runway. the LPV or LP minima but a GPS only aircraft may
not). The RNAV chart includes information format-
3. Accordingly, pilots are advised to carefully
ted for quick reference by the pilot or flight crew at the
review approach procedures, prior to initiating the
top of the chart. This portion of the chart, developed
approach, to identify the optimum position(s), and
based on a study by the Department of Transporta-
any unacceptable positions, from which a descent to
tion, Volpe National Transportation System Center, is
landing can be initiated (in accordance with 14 CFR
commonly referred to as the pilot briefing.
Section 91.175(c)).
1. The minima lines are:
m. Area Navigation (RNAV) Instrument
Approach Charts. Reliance on RNAV systems for (a) GLS. GLS is the acronym for GBAS
instrument operations is becoming more common- Landing System. The U.S. version of GBAS has
place as new systems such as GPS and augmented traditionally been referred to as LAAS. The
GPS such as the Wide Area Augmentation System worldwide community has adopted GBAS as the
(WAAS) are developed and deployed. In order to official term for this type of navigation system. To
support full integration of RNAV procedures into the coincide with international terminology, the FAA is
National Airspace System (NAS), the FAA also adopting the term GBAS to be consistent with the
developed a new charting format for IAPs (See international community. This line was originally
FIG 545). This format avoids unnecessary published as a placeholder for both WAAS and LAAS
duplication and proliferation of instrument approach minima and marked as N/A since no minima was
charts. The original stand alone GPS charts, titled published. As the concepts for GBAS and WAAS
simply GPS, are being converted to the newer procedure publication have evolved, GLS will now
format as the procedures are revised. One reason for be used only for GBAS minima, which will be on a
the revision is the addition of WAAS based minima separate approach chart. Most RNAV(GPS) approach
to the approach chart. The reformatted approach chart charts have had the GLS minima line replaced by a
is titled RNAV (GPS) RWY XX. Up to four lines WAAS LPV line of minima.
of minima are included on these charts. Ground (b) LPV. LPV is the acronym for localizer
Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing Sys- performance with vertical guidance. RNAV (GPS)
tem (GLS) was a placeholder for future WAAS and approaches to LPV lines of minima take advantage of
LAAS minima, and the minima was always listed as the improved accuracy of WAAS lateral and vertical
N/A. The GLS minima line has now been replaced by guidance to provide an approach that is very similar
the WAAS LPV (Localizer Performance with to a Category I Instrument Landing System (ILS).
Vertical Guidance) minima on most RNAV (GPS) The approach to LPV line of minima is designed for
charts. LNAV/VNAV (lateral navigation/vertical angular guidance with increasing sensitivity as the
navigation) was added to support both WAAS aircraft gets closer to the runway. The sensitivities are
electronic vertical guidance and Barometric VNAV. nearly identical to those of the ILS at similar

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distances. This was done intentionally to allow the a vertically guided procedure. WAAS avionics may
skills required to proficiently fly an ILS to readily provide GNSSbased advisory vertical guidance
transfer to flying RNAV (GPS) approaches to the during an approach to an LP line of minima.
LPV line of minima. Just as with an ILS, the LPV has Barometric altimeter information remains the
vertical guidance and is flown to a DA. Aircraft can primary altitude reference for complying with any
fly this minima line with a statement in the Aircraft altitude restrictions. WAAS equipment may not
Flight Manual that the installed equipment supports support LP, even if it supports LPV, if it was approved
LPV approaches. This includes Class 3 and 4 before TSOC145b and TSOC146b. Receivers
TSOC146 GPS/WAAS equipment. approved under previous TSOs may require an
upgrade by the manufacturer in order to be used to fly
(c) LNAV/VNAV. LNAV/VNAV identifies
to LP minima. Receivers approved for LP must have
APV minimums developed to accommodate an
a statement in the approved Flight Manual or
RNAV IAP with vertical guidance, usually provided
Supplemental Flight Manual including LP as one of
by approach certified BaroVNAV, but with lateral
the approved approach types.
and vertical integrity limits larger than a precision
approach or LPV. LNAV stands for Lateral (e) LNAV. This minima is for lateral
Navigation; VNAV stands for Vertical Navigation. navigation only, and the approach minimum altitude
This minima line can be flown by aircraft with a will be published as a minimum descent altitude
statement in the Aircraft Flight Manual that the (MDA). LNAV provides the same level of service as
installed equipment supports GPS approaches and the present GPS stand alone approaches. LNAV
has an approachapproved barometric VNAV, or if minimums support the following navigation systems:
the aircraft has been demonstrated to support WAAS, when the navigation solution will not support
LNAV/VNAV approaches. This includes Class 2, 3 vertical navigation; and, GPS navigation systems
and 4 TSOC146 GPS/WAAS equipment. Aircraft which are presently authorized to conduct GPS
using LNAV/VNAV minimums will descend to approaches.
landing via an internally generated descent path
based on satellite or other approach approved VNAV NOTE
GPS receivers approved for approach operations in
systems. Since electronic vertical guidance is
accordance with: AC 20138, Airworthiness Approval of
provided, the minima will be published as a DA. Positioning and Navigation Systems, qualify for this min-
Other navigation systems may be specifically ima. WAAS navigation equipment must be approved in
authorized to use this line of minima. (See Section A, accordance with the requirements specified in
Terms/Landing Minima Data, of the U.S. Terminal TSOC145() or TSOC146() and installed in accordance
Procedures books.) with Advisory Circular AC 20138.
(d) LP. LP is the acronym for localizer 2. Other systems may be authorized to utilize
performance. Approaches to LP lines of minima take these approaches. See the description in Section A of
advantage of the improved accuracy of WAAS to the U.S. Terminal Procedures books for details.
provide approaches, with lateral guidance and Operational approval must also be obtained for
angular guidance. Angular guidance does not refer to BaroVNAV systems to operate to the LNAV/VNAV
a glideslope angle but rather to the increased lateral minimums. BaroVNAV may not be authorized on
sensitivity as the aircraft gets closer to the runway, some approaches due to other factors, such as no local
similar to localizer approaches. However, the LP line altimeter source being available. BaroVNAV is not
of minima is a Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) authorized on LPV procedures. Pilots are directed to
rather than a DA (H). Procedures with LP lines of their local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)
minima will not be published with another approach for additional information.
that contains approved vertical guidance
NOTE
(LNAV/VNAV or LPV). It is possible to have LP and
RNAV and BaroVNAV systems must have a manufacturer
LNAV published on the same approach chart but LP supplied electronic database which must include the
will only be published if it provides lower minima waypoints, altitudes, and vertical data for the procedure to
than an LNAV line of minima. LP is not a faildown be flown. The system must be able to retrieve the procedure
mode for LPV. LP will only be published if terrain, by name from the aircraft navigation database, not just as
obstructions, or some other reason prevent publishing a manually entered series of waypoints.

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3. ILS or RNAV (GPS) charts. For those locations having an RNAV chart published
with LNAV/VNAV minimums, a procedure note may
(a) Some RNAV (GPS) charts will also con-
be provided such as DME/DME RNP0.3 NA.
tain an ILS line of minima to make use of the ILS
This means that RNP aircraft dependent on
precision final in conjunction with the RNAV GPS
DME/DME to achieve RNP0.3 are not authorized to
capabilities for the portions of the procedure prior to
conduct this approach. Where DME facility
the final approach segment and for the missed ap-
availability is a factor, the note may read DME/DME
proach. Obstacle clearance for the portions of the
RNP0.3 Authorized; ABC and XYZ Required.
procedure other than the final approach segment is
This means that ABC and XYZ facilities have been
still based on GPS criteria.
determined by flight inspection to be required in the
NOTE navigation solution to assure RNP0.3. VOR/DME
Some GPS receiver installations inhibit GPS navigation updating must not be used for approach procedures.
whenever ANY ILS frequency is tuned. Pilots flying
aircraft with receivers installed in this manner must wait 5. Chart Terminology
until they are on the intermediate segment of the procedure
prior to the PFAF (PFAF is the active waypoint) to tune the (a) Decision Altitude (DA) replaces the
ILS frequency and must tune the ILS back to a VOR fre- familiar term Decision Height (DH). DA conforms to
quency in order to fly the GPS based missed approach. the international convention where altitudes relate to
MSL and heights relate to AGL. DA will eventually
(b) Charting. There are charting differences
be published for other types of instrument approach
between ILS, RNAV (GPS), and GLS approaches.
procedures with vertical guidance, as well. DA
(1) The LAAS procedure is titled GLS indicates to the pilot that the published descent profile
RWY XX on the approach chart. is flown to the DA (MSL), where a missed approach
will be initiated if visual references for landing are not
(2) The VDB provides information to the
established. Obstacle clearance is provided to allow
airborne receiver where the guidance is synthesized.
a momentary descent below DA while transitioning
(3) The LAAS procedure is identified by a from the final approach to the missed approach. The
four alphanumeric character field referred to as the aircraft is expected to follow the missed instructions
RPI or approach ID and is similar to the IDENT fea- while continuing along the published final approach
ture of the ILS. course to at least the published runway threshold
waypoint or MAP (if not at the threshold) before
(4) The RPI is charted.
executing any turns.
(5) Most RNAV(GPS) approach charts
(b) Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) has
have had the GLS (NA) minima line replaced by an
been in use for many years, and will continue to be
LPV line of minima.
used for the LNAV only and circling procedures.
(6) Since the concepts for LAAS and
(c) Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) has
WAAS procedure publication have evolved, GLS
been traditionally used in precision approaches as
will now be used only for LAAS minima, which will
the height of the glide slope above threshold. With
be on a separate approach chart.
publication of LNAV/VNAV minimums and RNAV
4. Required Navigation Performance (RNP) descent angles, including graphically depicted
descent profiles, TCH also applies to the height of the
(a) Pilots are advised to refer to the
descent angle, or glidepath, at the threshold. Unless
TERMS/LANDING MINIMUMS DATA
otherwise required for larger type aircraft which may
(Section A) of the U.S. Government Terminal
be using the IAP, the typical TCH is 30 to 50 feet.
Procedures books for aircraft approach eligibility
requirements by specific RNP level requirements. 6. The MINIMA FORMAT will also change
slightly.
(b) Some aircraft have RNP approval in their
AFM without a GPS sensor. The lowest level of (a) Each line of minima on the RNAV IAP is
sensors that the FAA will support for RNP service is titled to reflect the level of service available; e.g.,
DME/DME. However, necessary DME signal may GLS, LPV, LNAV/VNAV, LP, and LNAV.
not be available at the airport of intended operations. CIRCLING minima will also be provided.

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(b) The minima title box indicates the nature back hard cover for use in planning and executing
of the minimum altitude for the IAP. For example: precision descents under known or approximate
groundspeed conditions.
(1) DA will be published next to the
minima line title for minimums supporting vertical (b) Visual Descent Point (VDP). A VDP
guidance such as for GLS, LPV or LNAV/VNAV. will be published on most RNAV IAPs. VDPs apply
only to aircraft utilizing LP or LNAV minima, not
(2) MDA will be published as the minima LPV or LNAV/VNAV minimums.
line on approaches with lateral guidance only, LNAV,
or LP. Descent below the MDA must meet the (c) Missed Approach Symbology. In order
conditions stated in 14 CFR Section 91.175. to make missed approach guidance more readily
understood, a method has been developed to display
(3) Where two or more systems, such as missed approach guidance in the profile view through
LPV and LNAV/VNAV, share the same minima, each the use of quick reference icons. Due to limited space
line of minima will be displayed separately. in the profile area, only four or fewer icons can be
shown. However, the icons may not provide
7. Chart Symbology changed slightly to representation of the entire missed approach
include: procedure. The entire set of textual missed approach
instructions are provided at the top of the approach
(a) Descent Profile. The published descent chart in the pilot briefing. (See FIG 545).
profile and a graphical depiction of the vertical path
to the runway will be shown. Graphical depiction of (d) Waypoints. All RNAV or GPS
the RNAV vertical guidance will differ from the standalone IAPs are flown using data pertaining to
traditional depiction of an ILS glide slope (feather) the particular IAP obtained from an onboard
through the use of a shorter vertical track beginning database, including the sequence of all WPs used for
at the decision altitude. the approach and missed approach, except that step
down waypoints may not be included in some
(1) It is FAA policy to design IAPs with TSOC129 receiver databases. Included in the
minimum altitudes established at fixes/waypoints to database, in most receivers, is coding that informs the
achieve optimum stabilized (constant rate) descents navigation system of which WPs are flyover (FO) or
within each procedure segment. This design can flyby (FB). The navigation system may provide
enhance the safety of the operations and contribute guidance appropriately including leading the turn
toward reduction in the occurrence of controlled prior to a flyby WP; or causing overflight of a
flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents. Additionally, the flyover WP. Where the navigation system does not
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) provide such guidance, the pilot must accomplish the
recently emphasized that pilots could benefit from turn lead or waypoint overflight manually. Chart
publication of the appropriate IAP descent angle for symbology for the FB WP provides pilot awareness
a stabilized descent on final approach. The RNAV of expected actions. Refer to the legend of the U.S.
IAP format includes the descent angle to the Terminal Procedures books.
hundredth of a degree; e.g., 3.00 degrees. The angle
will be provided in the graphically depicted descent (e) TAAs are described in paragraph 545d,
profile. Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). When published, the
RNAV chart depicts the TAA areas through the use of
(2) The stabilized approach may be icons representing each TAA area associated with
performed by reference to vertical navigation the RNAV procedure (See FIG 545). These icons
information provided by WAAS or LNAV/VNAV are depicted in the plan view of the approach chart,
systems; or for LNAVonly systems, by the pilot generally arranged on the chart in accordance with
determining the appropriate aircraft their position relative to the aircrafts arrival from the
attitude/groundspeed combination to attain a en route structure. The WP, to which navigation is
constant rate descent which best emulates the appropriate and expected within each specific TAA
published angle. To aid the pilot, U.S. Government area, will be named and depicted on the associated
Terminal Procedures Publication charts publish an TAA icon. Each depicted named WP is the IAF for
expanded Rate of Descent Table on the inside of the arrivals from within that area. TAAs may not be used

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on all RNAV procedures because of airspace database. It is similar to the ILS ident, but displayed
congestion or other reasons. visually rather than aurally. The Approach ID
consists of the letter W for WAAS, the runway
(f) Hot and Cold Temperature Limitations.
number, and a letter other than L, C or R, which could
A minimum and maximum temperature limitation
be confused with Left, Center and Right, e.g., W35A.
is published on procedures which authorize
Approach IDs are assigned in the order that WAAS
BaroVNAV operation. These temperatures
approaches are built to that runway number at that
represent the airport temperature above or below
airport. The WAAS Channel Number and Approach
which BaroVNAV is not authorized to
ID are displayed in the upper left corner of the
LNAV/VNAV minimums. As an example, the
approach procedure pilot briefing.
limitation will read: Uncompensated BaroVNAV
NA below 8_C (+18_F) or above 47_C (117_F). (h) At locations where outages of WAAS
This information will be found in the upper left hand vertical guidance may occur daily due to initial
box of the pilot briefing. When the temperature is system limitations, a negative W symbol ( ) will be
above the high temperature or below the low placed on RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Many of
temperature limit, BaroVNAV may be used to these outages will be very short in duration, but may
provide a stabilized descent to the LNAV MDA; result in the disruption of the vertical portion of the
however, extra caution should be used in the visual approach. The symbol indicates that NOTAMs or
segment to ensure a vertical correction is not Air Traffic advisories are not provided for outages
required. If the VGSI is aligned with the published which occur in the WAAS LNAV/VNAV or LPV
glidepath, and the aircraft instruments indicate on vertical service. Use LNAV or circling minima for
glidepath, an above or below glidepath indication on flight planning at these locations, whether as a
the VGSI may indicate that temperature error is destination or alternate. For flight operations at these
causing deviations to the glidepath. These deviations locations, when the WAAS avionics indicate that
should be considered if the approach is continued LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is available, then
below the MDA. vertical guidance may be used to complete the
NOTE
approach using the displayed level of service. Should
Many systems which apply BaroVNAV temperature an outage occur during the procedure, reversion to
compensation only correct for cold temperature. In this LNAV minima may be required. As the WAAS
case, the high temperature limitation still applies. Also, coverage is expanded, the will be removed.
temperature compensation may require activation by NOTE
maintenance personnel during installation in order to be Properly trained and approved, as required, TSO-C145()
functional, even though the system has the feature. Some and TSO-C146() equipped users (WAAS users) with and
systems may have a temperature correction capability, but using approved baro-VNAV equipment may plan for
correct the Baroaltimeter all the time, rather than just on LNAV/VNAV DA at an alternate airport. Specifically au-
the final, which would create conflicts with other aircraft thorized WAAS users with and using approved baro-VNAV
if the feature were activated. Pilots should be aware of equipment may also plan for RNP 0.3 DA at the alternate
compensation capabilities of the system prior to airport as long as the pilot has verified RNP availability
disregarding the temperature limitations. through an approved prediction program.
NOTE
Temperature limitations do not apply to flying the LNAV/ 546. Approach Clearance
VNAV line of minima using approach certified WAAS a. An aircraft which has been cleared to a holding
receivers when LPV or LNAV/VNAV are annunciated to be fix and subsequently cleared . . . approach has not
available. received new routing. Even though clearance for the
(g) WAAS Channel Number/Approach ID. approach may have been issued prior to the aircraft
The WAAS Channel Number is an optional reaching the holding fix, ATC would expect the pilot
equipment capability that allows the use of a 5digit to proceed via the holding fix (his/her last assigned
number to select a specific final approach segment route), and the feeder route associated with that fix (if
without using the menu method. The Approach ID is a feeder route is published on the approach chart) to
an airport unique 4character combination for the initial approach fix (IAF) to commence the
verifying the selection and extraction of the correct approach. WHEN CLEARED FOR THE
final approach segment information from the aircraft APPROACH, THE PUBLISHED OFF AIRWAY

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(FEEDER) ROUTES THAT LEAD FROM THE 4. If proceeding to an IAF with a published
EN ROUTE STRUCTURE TO THE IAF ARE PART course reversal (procedure turn or hold-in-lieu of PT
OF THE APPROACH CLEARANCE. pattern), except when cleared for a straight in ap-
proach by ATC, the pilot must execute the procedure
b. If a feeder route to an IAF begins at a fix located
turn/hold-in-lieu of PT, and complete the approach.
along the route of flight prior to reaching the holding
fix, and clearance for an approach is issued, a pilot 5. If cleared to an IAF/IF via a NoPT route, or
should commence the approach via the published no procedure turn/hold-in-lieu of PT is published,
feeder route; i.e., the aircraft would not be expected continue with the published approach.
to overfly the feeder route and return to it. The pilot 6. In addition to the above, RNAV aircraft may
is expected to commence the approach in a similar be issued a clearance direct to the IAF/IF at intercept
manner at the IAF, if the IAF for the procedure is angles not greater than 90 degrees for both conven-
located along the route of flight to the holding fix. tional and RNAV instrument approaches. Controllers
c. If a route of flight directly to the initial approach may issue a heading or a course direct to a fix between
fix is desired, it should be so stated by the controller the IF and FAF at intercept angles not greater than
with phraseology to include the words direct . . . , 30 degrees for both conventional and RNAV instru-
proceed direct or a similar phrase which the pilot ment approaches. In all cases, controllers will assign
can interpret without question. When uncertain of the altitudes that ensure obstacle clearance and will per-
clearance, immediately query ATC as to what route of mit a normal descent to the FAF. When clearing
flight is desired. aircraft direct to the IF, ATC will radar monitor the
aircraft until the IF and will advise the pilot to expect
d. The name of an instrument approach, as clearance direct to the IF at least 5 miles from the fix.
published, is used to identify the approach, even ATC must issue a straight-in approach clearance
though a component of the approach aid, such as the when clearing an aircraft direct to an IAF/IF with a
glideslope on an Instrument Landing System, is procedure turn or holdinlieu of a procedure turn,
inoperative or unreliable. The controller will use the and ATC does not want the aircraft to execute the
name of the approach as published, but must advise course reversal.
the aircraft at the time an approach clearance is issued NOTE
that the inoperative or unreliable approach aid Refer to 14 CFR 91.175 (i).
component is unusable, except when the title of the
published approach procedures otherwise allows; for 7. RNAV aircraft may be issued a clearance dir-
example, ILS Rwy 05 or LOC Rwy 05. ect to the FAF that is also charted as an IAF, in which
case the pilot is expected to execute the depicted pro-
e. The following applies to aircraft on radar cedure turn or hold-in-lieu of procedure turn. ATC
vectors and/or cleared direct to in conjunction with will not issue a straight-in approach clearance. If the
an approach clearance: pilot desires a straight-in approach, they must request
vectors to the final approach course outside of the
1. Maintain the last altitude assigned by ATC FAF or fly a published NoPT route. When visual
until the aircraft is established on a published seg-
approaches are in use, ATC may clear an aircraft dir-
ment of a transition route, or approach procedure
ect to the FAF.
segment, or other published route, for which a lower
altitude is published on the chart. If already on an es- NOTE
tablished route, or approach or arrival segment, you 1. In anticipation of a clearance by ATC to any fix pub-
lished on an instrument approach procedure, pilots of
may descend to whatever minimum altitude is listed
RNAV aircraft are advised to select an appropriate IAF or
for that route or segment. feeder fix when loading an instrument approach procedure
2. Continue on the vector heading until inter- into the RNAV system.
cepting the next published ground track applicable to 2. Selection of Vectors-to-Final or Vectors option for
the approach clearance. an instrument approach may prevent approach fixes loc-
ated outside of the FAF from being loaded into an RNAV
3. Once reaching the final approach fix via the system. Therefore, the selection of these options is discour-
published segments, the pilot may continue on ap- aged due to increased workload for pilots to reprogram the
proach to a landing. navigation system.

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f. An RF leg is defined as a constant radius circular speed in excess of the upper limit of the speed range
path around a defined turn center that starts and ter- for an aircrafts category, the minimums for the
minates at a fix. An RF leg may be published as part higher category must be used. For example, an
of a procedure. Since not all aircraft have the capabil- airplane which fits into Category B, but is circling to
ity to fly these leg types, pilots are responsible for land at a speed of 145 knots, must use the approach
knowing if they can conduct an RNAV approach with Category D minimums. As an additional example, a
an RF leg. Requirements for RF legs will be indicated Category A airplane (or helicopter) which is
on the approach chart in the notes section or at the operating at 130 knots on a straightin approach must
applicable initial approach fix. Controllers will clear use the approach Category C minimums. See the
RNAV-equipped aircraft for instrument approach following category limits:
procedures containing RF legs:
1. Category A: Speed less than 91 knots.
1. Via published transitions, or 2. Category B: Speed 91 knots or more but less
2. On a heading or course direct to the IAF when than 121 knots.
a hold-in-lieu of procedure turn is published, and the 3. Category C: Speed 121 knots or more but
pilot will execute the procedure, or less than 141 knots.
3. On a heading or course direct to the IAF/IF, at 4. Category D: Speed 141 knots or more but
intercept angles no greater than 90 degrees and the less than 166 knots.
distance to the waypoint beginning the RF leg is 6NM
or greater, or 5. Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.
NOTE
4. With radar monitoring, on a heading or course VREF in the above definition refers to the speed used in
direct to any waypoint 3 miles or more from the way- establishing the approved landing distance under the
point that begins the RF leg, at an intercept angle not airworthiness regulations constituting the type
greater than 30 degrees. (See FIG 5413.) certification basis of the airplane, regardless of whether
EXAMPLE that speed for a particular airplane is 1.3 VSO, 1.23 VSR, or
some higher speed required for airplane controllability.
1. Controllers will not clear aircraft direct to THIRD be-
This speed, at the maximum certificated landing weight,
cause that waypoint begins the RF leg, and aircraft cannot
determines the lowest applicable approach category for
be vectored or cleared to TURNN or vectored to intercept
all approaches regardless of actual landing weight.
the approach segment at any point between THIRD and
FORTH because this is the RF leg. b. When operating on an unpublished route or
2. Controllers can clear Aircraft 1 direct to SCOND be-
while being radar vectored, the pilot, when an
cause the distance to THIRD, where the RF leg begins is approach clearance is received, must, in addition to
3NM or greater and the intercept angle will be 30 degrees complying with the minimum altitudes for IFR
or less and is radar monitored. Controllers can clear operations (14 CFR Section 91.177), maintain the
Aircraft 2 direct to FIRST because the intercept angle is last assigned altitude unless a different altitude is
90 degrees or less, and the distance from FIRST to THIRD assigned by ATC, or until the aircraft is established on
is 6NM or greater. a segment of a published route or IAP. After the
aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply to
547. Instrument Approach Procedures descent within each succeeding route or approach
segment unless a different altitude is assigned by
a. Aircraft approach category means a grouping of ATC. Notwithstanding this pilot responsibility, for
aircraft based on a speed of VREF, if specified, or if aircraft operating on unpublished routes or while
VREF is not specified, 1.3 VSO at the maximum being radar vectored, ATC will, except when
certified landing weight. V REF, V SO , and the conducting a radar approach, issue an IFR approach
maximum certified landing weight are those values as clearance only after the aircraft is established on a
established for the aircraft by the certification segment of a published route or IAP, or assign an
authority of the country of registry. A pilot must use altitude to maintain until the aircraft is established on
the minima corresponding to the category determined a segment of a published route or instrument
during certification or higher. Helicopters may use approach procedure. For this purpose, the procedure
Category A minima. If it is necessary to operate at a turn of a published IAP must not be considered a

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segment of that IAP until the aircraft reaches the IAP chart unless an appropriate new or revised ATC
initial fix or navigation facility upon which the clearance is received, or the IFR flight plan is
procedure turn is predicated. canceled.
EXAMPLE f. Pilots planning flights to locations which are
Cross Redding VOR at or above five thousand, cleared private airfields or which have instrument approach
VOR runway three four approach. procedures based on private navigation aids should
or obtain approval from the owner. In addition, the pilot
Five miles from outer marker, turn right heading three three must be authorized by the FAA to fly special
zero, maintain two thousand until established on the
instrument approach procedures associated with
localizer, cleared ILS runway three six approach.
private navigation aids (see paragraph 548).
NOTE Owners of navigation aids that are not for public use
The altitude assigned will assure IFR obstruction may elect to turn off the signal for whatever reason
clearance from the point at which the approach clearance
they may have; e.g., maintenance, energy
is issued until established on a segment of a published route
or IAP. If uncertain of the meaning of the clearance,
conservation, etc. Air traffic controllers are not
immediately request clarification from ATC. required to question pilots to determine if they have
permission to land at a private airfield or to use
c. Several IAPs, using various navigation and procedures based on privately owned navigation aids,
approach aids may be authorized for an airport. ATC and they may not know the status of the navigation
may advise that a particular approach procedure is aid. Controllers presume a pilot has obtained
being used, primarily to expedite traffic. If issued a approval from the owner and the FAA for use of
clearance that specifies a particular approach special instrument approach procedures and is aware
procedure, notify ATC immediately if a different one of any details of the procedure if an IFR flight plan
is desired. In this event it may be necessary for ATC was filed to that airport.
to withhold clearance for the different approach until
such time as traffic conditions permit. However, a g. Pilots should not rely on radar to identify a fix
pilot involved in an emergency situation will be given unless the fix is indicated as RADAR on the IAP.
priority. If the pilot is not familiar with the specific Pilots may request radar identification of an OM, but
approach procedure, ATC should be advised and they the controller may not be able to provide the service
will provide detailed information on the execution of due either to workload or not having the fix on the
the procedure. video map.
REFERENCE h. If a missed approach is required, advise ATC
AIM, Advance Information on Instrument Approach, Paragraph 544. and include the reason (unless initiated by ATC).
d. The name of an instrument approach, as Comply with the missed approach instructions for the
published, is used to identify the approach, even instrument approach procedure being executed,
though a component of the approach aid, such as the unless otherwise directed by ATC.
glideslope on an Instrument Landing System, is REFERENCE
AIM, Missed Approach, Paragraph 5421.
inoperative or unreliable. The controller will use the AIM, Missed Approach, Paragraph 555.
name of the approach as published, but must advise
the aircraft at the time an approach clearance is issued 548. Special Instrument Approach
that the inoperative or unreliable approach aid Procedures
component is unusable, except when the title of the
Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) charts reflect
published approach procedures otherwise allows, for
the criteria associated with the U.S. Standard for
example, ILS or LOC.
Terminal Instrument [Approach] Procedures
e. Except when being radar vectored to the final (TERPs), which prescribes standardized methods for
approach course, when cleared for a specifically use in developing IAPs. Standard IAPs are published
prescribed IAP; i.e., cleared ILS runway one niner in the Federal Register (FR) in accordance with
approach or when cleared approach i.e., execution Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 97,
of any procedure prescribed for the airport, pilots and are available for use by appropriately qualified
must execute the entire procedure commencing at an pilots operating properly equipped and airworthy
IAF or an associated feeder route as described on the aircraft in accordance with operating rules and

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procedures acceptable to the FAA. Special IAPs are NOTE

also developed using TERPS but are not given public The pilot may elect to use the procedure turn or
notice in the FR. The FAA authorizes only certain holdinlieuofPT when it is not required by the
individual pilots and/or pilots in individual procedure, but must first receive an amended clearance
from ATC. If the pilot is uncertain whether the ATC
organizations to use special IAPs, and may require
clearance intends for a procedure turn to be conducted or
additional crew training and/or aircraft equipment or to allow for a straightin approach, the pilot must
performance, and may also require the use of landing immediately request clarification from ATC (14 CFR
aids, communications, or weather services not Section 91.123).
available for public use. Additionally, IAPs that
1. On U.S. Government charts, a barbed arrow
service private use airports or heliports are generally
indicates the maneuvering side of the outbound
special IAPs. FDC NOTAMs for Specials, FDC
T-NOTAMs, may also be used to promulgate course on which the procedure turn is made.
safety-of-flight information relating to Specials Headings are provided for course reversal using the
provided the location has a valid landing area 45 degree type procedure turn. However, the point at
identifier and is serviced by the United States which the turn may be commenced and the type and
NOTAM system. Pilots may access NOTAMs online rate of turn is left to the discretion of the pilot (limited
or through an FAA Flight Service Station (FSS). FSS by the charted remain within xx NM distance). Some
specialists will not automatically provide NOTAM of the options are the 45 degree procedure turn, the
information to pilots for special IAPs during racetrack pattern, the teardrop procedure turn, or the
telephone preflight briefings. Pilots who are 80 degree $ 260 degree course reversal. Racetrack
authorized by the FAA to use special IAPs must entries should be conducted on the maneuvering side
specifically request FDC NOTAM information for where the majority of protected airspace resides. If an
the particular special IAP they plan to use. entry places the pilot on the nonmaneuvering side of
the PT, correction to intercept the outbound course
ensures remaining within protected airspace. Some
549. Procedure Turn and Holdinlieu of procedure turns are specified by procedural track.
Procedure Turn These turns must be flown exactly as depicted.
a. A procedure turn is the maneuver prescribed 2. Descent to the procedure turn (PT)
when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish completion altitude from the PT fix altitude (when
the aircraft inbound on an intermediate or final one has been published or assigned by ATC) must not
approach course. The procedure turn or begin until crossing over the PT fix or abeam and
holdinlieuofPTis a required maneuver when it proceeding outbound. Some procedures contain a
is depicted on the approach chart, unless cleared by note in the chart profile view that says Maintain
ATC for a straightin approach. Additionally, the (altitude) or above until established outbound for
procedure turn or holdinlieuofPT is not procedure turn (See FIG 5414). Newer
permitted when the symbol No PT is depicted on procedures will simply depict an at or above
the initial segment being used, when a RADAR altitude at the PT fix without a chart note (See
VECTOR to the final approach course is provided, FIG 5415). Both are there to ensure required
or when conducting a timed approach from a holding obstacle clearance is provided in the procedure turn
fix. The altitude prescribed for the procedure turn is entry zone (See FIG 5416). Absence of a chart note
a minimum altitude until the aircraft is established on or specified minimum altitude adjacent to the PT fix
the inbound course. The maneuver must be is an indication that descent to the procedure turn
completed within the distance specified in the altitude can commence immediately upon crossing
profile view. For a holdinlieuofPT, the holding over the PT fix, regardless of the direction of flight.
pattern direction must be flown as depicted and the This is because the minimum altitudes in the PT entry
specified leg length/timing must not be exceeded. zone and the PT maneuvering zone are the same.

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FIG 5413
Example of an RNAV Approach with RF Leg
FIG 5414
FIG 5415

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FIG 5416
3. When the approach procedure involves a 4. A teardrop procedure or penetration turn may
procedure turn, a maximum speed of not greater than be specified in some procedures for a required course
200 knots (IAS) should be observed from first reversal. The teardrop procedure consists of
overheading the course reversal IAF through the departure from an initial approach fix on an outbound
procedure turn maneuver to ensure containment course followed by a turn toward and intercepting the
within the obstruction clearance area. Pilots should inbound course at or prior to the intermediate fix or
begin the outbound turn immediately after passing point. Its purpose is to permit an aircraft to reverse
the procedure turn fix. The procedure turn maneuver direction and lose considerable altitude within
must be executed within the distance specified in the reasonably limited airspace. Where no fix is available
profile view. The normal procedure turn distance is to mark the beginning of the intermediate segment, it
10 miles. This may be reduced to a minimum of must be assumed to commence at a point 10 miles
5 miles where only Category A or helicopter aircraft prior to the final approach fix. When the facility is
are to be operated or increased to as much as 15 miles located on the airport, an aircraft is considered to be
to accommodate high performance aircraft. on final approach upon completion of the penetration
turn. However, the final approach segment begins on
the final approach course 10 miles from the facility.
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5. A holding pattern in lieu of procedure turn ATC and a clearance is received to execute a
may be specified for course reversal in some procedure turn.
procedures. In such cases, the holding pattern is 2. When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted
established over an intermediate fix or a final and a course reversal is required, this type turn must
approach fix. The holding pattern distance or time be executed.
specified in the profile view must be observed. For a
holdinlieuofPT, the holding pattern direction 3. When a holding pattern replaces a procedure
must be flown as depicted and the specified leg turn, the holding pattern must be followed, except
length/timing must not be exceeded. Maximum when RADAR VECTORING is provided or when
holding airspeed limitations as set forth for all NoPT is shown on the approach course. The
holding patterns apply. The holding pattern maneuver recommended entry procedures will ensure the
is completed when the aircraft is established on the aircraft remains within the holding patterns
inbound course after executing the appropriate entry. protected airspace. As in the procedure turn, the
If cleared for the approach prior to returning to the descent from the minimum holding pattern altitude to
holding fix, and the aircraft is at the prescribed the final approach fix altitude (when lower) may not
altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern are commence until the aircraft is established on the
not necessary nor expected by ATC. If pilots elect to inbound course. Where a holding pattern is
make additional circuits to lose excessive altitude or established inlieuof a procedure turn, the
to become better established on course, it is their maximum holding pattern airspeeds apply.
responsibility to so advise ATC upon receipt of their REFERENCE
AIM, Holding, Paragraph 538j2.
approach clearance.
4. The absence of the procedure turn barb in the
NOTE plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not
Some approach charts have an arrival holding pattern
authorized for that procedure.
depicted at the IAF using a thin line holding symbol. It
is charted where holding is frequently required prior to
starting the approach procedure so that detailed holding 5410. Timed Approaches from a Holding
instructions are not required. The arrival holding pattern Fix
is not authorized unless assigned by Air Traffic Control. a. TIMED APPROACHES may be conducted
Holding at the same fix may also be depicted on the enroute when the following conditions are met:
chart. A holdinlieu of procedure turn is depicted by a
thick line symbol, and is part of the instrument approach 1. A control tower is in operation at the airport
procedure as described in paragraph 549. (See U. S. where the approaches are conducted.
Terminal Procedures booklets page E1 for both examples.)
2. Direct communications are maintained
6. A procedure turn is not required when an between the pilot and the center or approach
approach can be made directly from a specified controller until the pilot is instructed to contact the
intermediate fix to the final approach fix. In such tower.
cases, the term NoPT is used with the appropriate 3. If more than one missed approach procedure
course and altitude to denote that the procedure turn is available, none require a course reversal.
is not required. If a procedure turn is desired, and
when cleared to do so by ATC, descent below the 4. If only one missed approach procedure is
procedure turn altitude should not be made until the available, the following conditions are met:
aircraft is established on the inbound course, since (a) Course reversal is not required; and,
some NoPT altitudes may be lower than the
(b) Reported ceiling and visibility are equal
procedure turn altitudes.
to or greater than the highest prescribed circling
b. Limitations on Procedure Turns minimums for the IAP.
1. In the case of a radar initial approach to a final 5. When cleared for the approach, pilots must
approach fix or position, or a timed approach from a not execute a procedure turn. (14 CFR
holding fix, or where the procedure specifies NoPT, Section 91.175.)
no pilot may make a procedure turn unless, when final b. Although the controller will not specifically
approach clearance is received, the pilot so advises state that timed approaches are in progress, the

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assigning of a time to depart the final approach fix or fix used in lieu of the outer marker and the airport.
inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer marker
c. Each pilot in an approach sequence will be given
or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound
advance notice as to the time they should leave the
(precision approach) is indicative that timed
holding point on approach to the airport. When a time
approach procedures are being utilized, or in lieu of
to leave the holding point has been received, the pilot
holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the
should adjust the flight path to leave the fix as closely
Final Approach Course to establish a mileage interval
as possible to the designated time. (See FIG 5417.)
between aircraft that will ensure the appropriate time
sequence between the final approach fix/outer marker

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FIG 5417
Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix
LOM LMM
1000 FT.
REPORT LEAVING
PREVIOUS ALTITUDE FOR
NEW ASSIGNED ALTITUDE
1000 FT.
1000 FT.
1000 FT.
ONE MINUTE APPROXIMATELY 5 MILES AIRPORT

FLYING TIME
12:03 CLEARANCE RECEIVED
:04 INITIAL TIME
OVER FIX
:06 1/2
30 SEC.
:05 :07 REPORT
:05 1/2 LEAVING FINAL
APPROACH TIME
EXAMPLE
At 12:03 local time, in the example shown, a pilot holding, receives instructions to leave the fix inbound at 12:07. These
instructions are received just as the pilot has completed turn at the outbound end of the holding pattern and is proceeding
inbound towards the fix. Arriving back over the fix, the pilot notes that the time is 12:04 and that there are 3 minutes to lose
in order to leave the fix at the assigned time. Since the time remaining is more than two minutes, the pilot plans to fly a race
track pattern rather than a 360 degree turn, which would use up 2 minutes. The turns at the ends of the race track pattern
will consume approximately 2 minutes. Three minutes to go, minus 2 minutes required for the turns, leaves 1 minute for level
flight. Since two portions of level flight will be required to get back to the fix inbound, the pilot halves the 1 minute remaining

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and plans to fly level for 30 seconds outbound before starting the turn back to the fix on final approach. If the winds were
negligible at flight altitude, this procedure would bring the pilot inbound across the fix precisely at the specified time of
12:07. However, if expecting headwind on final approach, the pilot should shorten the 30 second outbound course somewhat,
knowing that the wind will carry the aircraft away from the fix faster while outbound and decrease the ground speed while
returning to the fix. On the other hand, compensating for a tailwind on final approach, the pilot should lengthen the
calculated 30 second outbound heading somewhat, knowing that the wind would tend to hold the aircraft closer to the fix
while outbound and increase the ground speed while returning to the fix.
5411. Radar Approaches Range from touchdown is given at least once each
mile. If an aircraft is observed by the controller to
a. The only airborne radio equipment required for
proceed outside of specified safety zone limits in
radar approaches is a functioning radio transmitter
azimuth and/or elevation and continue to operate
and receiver. The radar controller vectors the aircraft
outside these prescribed limits, the pilot will be
to align it with the runway centerline. The controller
directed to execute a missed approach or to fly a
continues the vectors to keep the aircraft on course
specified course unless the pilot has the runway
until the pilot can complete the approach and landing
environment (runway, approach lights, etc.) in sight.
by visual reference to the surface. There are two types
Navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation is
of radar approaches: Precision (PAR) and
provided the pilot until the aircraft reaches the
Surveillance (ASR).
published Decision Height (DH). Advisory course
b. A radar approach may be given to any aircraft and glidepath information is furnished by the
upon request and may be offered to pilots of aircraft controller until the aircraft passes over the landing
in distress or to expedite traffic, however, an ASR threshold, at which point the pilot is advised of any
might not be approved unless there is an ATC deviation from the runway centerline. Radar service
operational requirement, or in an unusual or is automatically terminated upon completion of the
emergency situation. Acceptance of a PAR or ASR by approach.
a pilot does not waive the prescribed weather
minimums for the airport or for the particular aircraft 2. A SURVEILLANCE APPROACH (ASR)
operator concerned. The decision to make a radar is one in which a controller provides navigational
approach when the reported weather is below the guidance in azimuth only. The pilot is furnished
established minimums rests with the pilot. headings to fly to align the aircraft with the extended
centerline of the landing runway. Since the radar
c. PAR and ASR minimums are published on
information used for a surveillance approach is
separate pages in the FAA Terminal Procedures
considerably less precise than that used for a
Publication (TPP).
precision approach, the accuracy of the approach will
1. A PRECISION APPROACH (PAR) is one not be as great and higher minimums will apply.
in which a controller provides highly accurate Guidance in elevation is not possible but the pilot will
navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation to a be advised when to commence descent to the
pilot. Pilots are given headings to fly, to direct them Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) or, if appropriate,
to, and keep their aircraft aligned with the extended to an intermediate stepdown fix Minimum Crossing
centerline of the landing runway. They are told to Altitude and subsequently to the prescribed MDA. In
anticipate glidepath interception approximately 10 to addition, the pilot will be advised of the location of
30 seconds before it occurs and when to start descent. the Missed Approach Point (MAP) prescribed for the
The published Decision Height will be given only if procedure and the aircrafts position each mile on
the pilot requests it. If the aircraft is observed to final from the runway, airport or heliport or MAP, as
deviate above or below the glidepath, the pilot is appropriate. If requested by the pilot, recommended
given the relative amount of deviation by use of terms altitudes will be issued at each mile, based on the
slightly or well and is expected to adjust the descent gradient established for the procedure, down
aircrafts rate of descent/ascent to return to the to the last mile that is at or above the MDA. Normally,
glidepath. Trend information is also issued with navigational guidance will be provided until the
respect to the elevation of the aircraft and may be aircraft reaches the MAP. Controllers will terminate
modified by the terms rapidly and slowly; guidance and instruct the pilot to execute a missed
e.g., well above glidepath, coming down rapidly. approach unless at the MAP the pilot has the runway,

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airport or heliport in sight or, for a helicopter 5412. Radar Monitoring of Instrument
pointinspace approach, the prescribed visual Approaches
reference with the surface is established. Also, if, at
a. PAR facilities operated by the FAA and the
any time during the approach the controller considers
military services at some jointuse (civil and
that safe guidance for the remainder of the approach
military) and military installations monitor aircraft
cannot be provided, the controller will terminate
on instrument approaches and issue radar advisories
guidance and instruct the pilot to execute a missed
to the pilot when weather is below VFR minimums
approach. Similarly, guidance termination and
(1,000 and 3), at night, or when requested by a pilot.
missed approach will be effected upon pilot request
This service is provided only when the PAR Final
and, for civil aircraft only, controllers may terminate
Approach Course coincides with the final approach
guidance when the pilot reports the runway,
of the navigational aid and only during the
airport/heliport or visual surface route
operational hours of the PAR. The radar advisories
(pointinspace approach) in sight or otherwise
serve only as a secondary aid since the pilot has
indicates that continued guidance is not required.
selected the navigational aid as the primary aid for the
Radar service is automatically terminated at the
approach.
completion of a radar approach.
b. Prior to starting final approach, the pilot will be
NOTE advised of the frequency on which the advisories will
1. The published MDA for straightin approaches will be be transmitted. If, for any reason, radar advisories
issued to the pilot before beginning descent. When a cannot be furnished, the pilot will be so advised.
surveillance approach will terminate in a circletoland
maneuver, the pilot must furnish the aircraft approach c. Advisory information, derived from radar
category to the controller. The controller will then provide observations, includes information on:
the pilot with the appropriate MDA.
1. Passing the final approach fix inbound
2. ASR APPROACHES ARE NOT AVAILABLE WHEN (nonprecision approach) or passing the outer marker
AN ATC FACILITY IS USING CENRAP. or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound
(precision approach).
3. A NOGYRO APPROACH is available to NOTE
a pilot under radar control who experiences At this point, the pilot may be requested to report sighting
circumstances wherein the directional gyro or other the approach lights or the runway.
stabilized compass is inoperative or inaccurate.
2. Trend advisories with respect to elevation
When this occurs, the pilot should so advise ATC and
and/or azimuth radar position and movement will be
request a NoGyro vector or approach. Pilots of
provided.
aircraft not equipped with a directional gyro or other
stabilized compass who desire radar handling may NOTE
also request a NoGyro vector or approach. The pilot Whenever the aircraft nears the PAR safety limit, the pilot
should make all turns at standard rate and should will be advised that the aircraft is well above or below the
glidepath or well left or right of course. Glidepath
execute the turn immediately upon receipt of
information is given only to those aircraft executing a
instructions. For example, TURN RIGHT, STOP precision approach, such as ILS. Altitude information is
TURN. When a surveillance or precision approach not transmitted to aircraft executing other than precision
is made, the pilot will be advised after the aircraft has approaches because the descent portions of these
been turned onto final approach to make turns at half approaches generally do not coincide with the depicted
standard rate. PAR glidepath.

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3. If, after repeated advisories, the aircraft c. The close proximity of adjacent aircraft
proceeds outside the PAR safety limit or if a radical conducting simultaneous (parallel) independent
deviation is observed, the pilot will be advised to approaches and simultaneous close parallel PRM
execute a missed approach unless the prescribed approaches mandates strict pilot compliance with all
visual reference with the surface is established. ATC clearances. ATC assigned airspeeds, altitudes,
and headings must be complied with in a timely
d. Radar service is automatically terminated upon
manner. Autopilot coupled approaches require pilot
completion of the approach.
knowledge of procedures necessary to comply with
ATC instructions. Simultaneous (parallel)
5413. ILS Approaches to Parallel independent approaches and simultaneous close
Runways parallel PRM approaches necessitate precise
a. ATC procedures permit ILS/RNAV/GLS approach course tracking to minimize final monitor
instrument approach operations to dual or triple controller intervention, and unwanted No
parallel runway configurations. ILS/RNAV/GLS Transgression Zone (NTZ) penetration. In the
approaches to parallel runways are grouped into three unlikely event of a breakout, ATC will not assign
classes: Simultaneous Parallel Dependent altitudes lower than the minimum vectoring altitude.
Approaches; Simultaneous (Parallel) Independent Pilots should notify ATC immediately if there is a
Approaches; and Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM degradation of aircraft or navigation systems.
Approaches. (See FIG 5418.) RNAV approach d. Strict radio discipline is mandatory during
procedures that are approved for simultaneous simultaneous (parallel) independent and
operations require GPS as the sensor for position simultaneous close parallel PRM approach
updating. VOR/DME, DME/DME and IRU RNAV operations. This includes an alert listening watch and
updating is not authorized. The classification of a the avoidance of lengthy, unnecessary radio
parallel runway approach procedure is dependent on transmissions. Attention must be given to proper call
adjacent parallel runway centerline separation, ATC sign usage to prevent the inadvertent execution of
procedures, and airport ATC radar monitoring and clearances intended for another aircraft. Use of
communications capabilities. At some airports one or abbreviated call signs must be avoided to preclude
more parallel localizer courses may be offset up to 3 confusion of aircraft with similar sounding call signs.
degrees. ILS approaches with offset localizer Pilots must be alert to unusually long periods of
configurations result in loss of Category II/III silence or any unusual background sounds in their
capabilities and an increase in decision radio receiver. A stuck microphone may block the
altitude/height (50). issuance of ATC instructions on the tower frequency
b. Parallel approach operations demand by the final monitor controller during simultaneous
heightened pilot situational awareness. A thorough (parallel) independent and simultaneous close
Approach Procedure Chart review should be parallel PRM approaches. In the case of PRM
conducted with, as a minimum, emphasis on the approaches, the use of a second frequency by the
following approach chart information: name and monitor controller mitigates the stuck mike or other
number of the approach, localizer frequency, inbound blockage on the tower frequency.
localizer/azimuth course, glide slope intercept REFERENCE
altitude, glideslope crossing altitude at the final AIM, Chapter 4, Section 2, Radio Communications Phraseology and
Techniques, gives additional communications information.
approach fix, decision height, missed approach
instructions, special notes/procedures, and the e. Use of Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems
assigned runway location/proximity to adjacent (TCAS) provides an additional element of safety to
runways. Pilots will be advised that simultaneous parallel approach operations. Pilots should follow
dependent approaches, simultaneous approaches, or recommended TCAS operating procedures presented
simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches are in in approved flight manuals, original equipment
use. This information may be provided through the manufacturer recommendations, professional
ATIS. newsletters, and FAA publications.

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FIG 5418
Simultaneous Parallel Approaches
(Parallel Runways and Approach Courses and Offset Approach Courses between 2.5 and 3.0 degrees)

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5414. Parallel ILS Approaches (Dependent)

(See FIG 5419.)
FIG 5419
Simultaneous (Parallel) Dependent Approaches
a. Simultaneous (parallel) dependent approaches minimum of 2 NM diagonal radar separation is

are an ATC procedure permitting approaches to provided. Aircraft on the same final approach course
airports having parallel runway centerlines separated course within 10 NM of the runway end are provided
by between 2,500 feet and 9,000 feet. Integral parts a minimum of 3 NM radar separation, reduced to
of a total system are ILS, radar, communications, 2.5 NM in certain circumstances. In addition, a
ATC procedures, and required airborne equipment. minimum of 1,000 feet vertical or a minimum of three
RNAV equipment in the aircraft or GLS equipment miles radar separation is provided between aircraft
on the ground and in the aircraft may replace the during turn on to the parallel final approach course.
required airborne and ground based ILS equipment. d. Whenever parallel approaches are in progress,
b. A simultaneous (parallel) dependent approach pilots are informed by ATC or via the ATIS that
differs from a simultaneous (parallel) independent approaches to both runways are in use. The charted
approach in that, the minimum distance between IAP also notes which runways may be used
parallel runway centerlines is reduced; there is no simultaneously. In addition, the radar controller will
requirement for radar monitoring or advisories; and have the interphone capability of communicating
a staggered separation of aircraft on the adjacent final with the tower controller where separation
course is required. responsibility has not been delegated to the tower.
c. A minimum of 1.5 NM radar separation NOTE
(diagonal) is required between successive aircraft on ATC will specifically identify these operations as being de-
the adjacent final approach course when runway pendent when advertised on the ATIS.
centerlines are at least 2,500 feet but no more than EXAMPLE
4,300 feet apart. When runway centerlines are more Simultaneous dependent ILS runway 19R and 19L in pro-
than 4,300 feet but no more than 9,000 feet apart a gress.

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e. At certain airports, simultaneous (parallel) de- IAP briefing strip which indicates that simultaneous
pendent approaches are permitted to runways spaced operations require the use of vertical guidance and
less than 2500 feet apart. In this case, ATC will stag- that the pilot should maintain last assigned altitude
ger aircraft on the parallel approaches with the until intercepting the glideslope. No special pilot
leaders always arriving on the same runway. The training is required to participate in these operations.
trailing aircraft is permitted diagonal separation of NOTE
not less than 1.5 NM, instead of the single runway Either simultaneous dependent ILS approaches or SOIA
separation normally utilized for runways spaced less LDA PRM and ILS PRM approaches may be conducted to
than 2500 feet apart. For wake turbulence mitigation these runways depending on weather conditions and traffic
reasons: a) 1.5 NM spacing is only permitted when volume. Pilots should use caution so as not to confuse these
the leader is either in the large or small wake turbu- operations. Use SOIA procedures only when the ATIS ad-
lence category, and b) all aircraft must descend on the vertises PRM approaches are in use, refer to AIM
glideslope from the altitude at which they were paragraph 5-4-16. SFO is the only airport where both pro-
cedures are presently conducted.
cleared for the approach during these operations.
When 1.5 NM reduced separation is authorized, the

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5415. Simultaneous (Parallel) Independent ILS/RNAV/GLS Approaches

(See FIG 5420.)
FIG 5420
Simultaneous (Parallel) Independent ILS/RNAV/GLS Approaches
a. System. An approach system permitting malfunctioning or inoperative receivers, or if a

simultaneous ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to parallel simultaneous approach is not desired.
runways with centerlines separated by 4,300 to NOTE
9,000 feet (9,200 for airports above 5,000) utilizing ATC does not use the word independent or parallel when
NTZ final monitor controllers. Simultaneous advertising these operations on the ATIS.
(parallel) independent approaches require NTZ radar EXAMPLE
monitoring to ensure separation between aircraft on Simultaneous ILS 24L and ILS 24R approaches in pro-
the adjacent parallel approach course. Aircraft gress.
position is tracked by final monitor controllers who
b. Radar Services. These services are is provided
will issue instructions to aircraft observed deviating
for each simultaneous (parallel) independent
from the assigned final approach course. Staggered
approach.
radar separation procedures are not utilized. Integral
parts of a total system are ILS, radar, 1. During turn on to parallel final approach,
communications, ATC procedures, and required aircraft will be provided 3 miles radar separation or
airborne equipment. A chart note identifies that the a minimum of 1,000 feet vertical separation. The
approach is authorized for simultaneous use. When assigned altitude must be maintained until
simultaneous operations are in progress, it will be intercepting the glide path, unless cleared otherwise
advertised on the ATIS. When advised that by ATC. Aircraft will not be vectored to intercept the
simultaneous approaches are in progress, pilots must final approach course at an angle greater than thirty
advise approach control immediately of degrees.

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2. The final monitor controller will have the 5. If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to such
capability of overriding the tower controller on the instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ, the
tower frequency. aircraft on the adjacent final approach course (if
threatened), will be issued a breakout instruction.
3. Pilots will be instructed to contact the tower
frequency prior to the point where NTZ monitoring PHRASEOLOGY
begins. TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right)
4. Aircraft observed to overshoot the turnon or IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend)
AND MAINTAIN (altitude).
to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ
will be instructed to return to the correct final 6. Radar monitoring will automatically be
approach course immediately. The final monitor terminated when visual separation is applied, the
controller may cancel the approach clearance, and aircraft reports the approach lights or runway in sight,
issue missed approach or other instructions to the or the aircraft is 1 mile or less from the runway
deviating aircraft. threshold. Final monitor controllers will not advise
PHRASEOLOGY pilots when radar monitoring is terminated.
(Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL
APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) NOTE
IMMEDIATELY AND RETURN TO THE FINAL Simultaneous independent approaches conducted to run-
APPROACH COURSE, ways spaced greater than 9,000 feet (or 9,200 at airports
above 5,000) do not require an NTZ. However, from a pi-
or lots perspective, the same alerts relative to deviating
aircraft will be provided by ATC as are provided when an
(aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO NTZ is being monitored. Pilots may not be aware as to
THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE. whether or not an NTZ is being monitored.

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5416. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS PRM/RNAV PRM/GLS PRM Approaches and
Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)
(See FIG 5421.)
FIG 5421
PRM Approaches
Simultaneous Close Parallel
a. System. provides monitor controllers with aircraft identifica-

tion, position, speed and a ten-second projected
1. PRM is an acronym for the high update rate
position, as well as visual and aural NTZ penetration
Precision Runway Monitor surveillance system which
alerts. A PRM high update rate surveillance sensor is
is required to monitor the No Transgression Zone
a component of this system only for specific runway
(NTZ) for specific parallel runway separations used to
spacing. Additional procedures for simultaneous in-
conduct simultaneous close parallel approaches. PRM
dependent approaches are described in Paragraph
is also published in the title as part of the approach
5415, Simultaneous (Parallel) Independent ILS/
name for IAPs used to conduct Simultaneous Close
RNAV/GLS Approaches. Simultaneous Close
Parallel approaches. PRM alerts pilots that specific
Parallel PRM approaches, whether conducted utiliz-
airborne equipment, training, and procedures are ap-
ing a high update rate PRM surveillance sensor or not,
plicable.
must meet all of the following requirements: pilot
Because Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM training, PRM in the approach title, NTZ monitoring
approaches are independent, the NTZ and normal op- utilizing a final monitor aid, publication on an AAUP,
erating zone (NOZ) airspace between the final and use of a secondary PRM communication fre-
approach courses is monitored by two monitor con- quency.
trollers, one for each approach course. The NTZ
monitoring system consists of high resolution ATC Simultaneous close parallel ILS PRM approaches are
radar displays, automated tracking software which depicted on a separate Approach Procedure Chart

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titled ILS PRM Rwy XXX (Simultaneous Close Par- tial procedure published on the charted IAP. In the
allel). SOIA design of the offset approach, the lateral course
NOTE terminates at the fictitious threshold point (FTP),
ATC does not use the word independent when advert- which is an extension of the final approach course to
ising these operations on the ATIS. a point near the runway threshold. The FTP is desig-
EXAMPLE
nated in the approach coding as the MAP so that
Simultaneous ILS PRM 33L and ILS PRM 33R approaches vertical guidance is available to the pilot to the run-
in progress. way threshold, just as vertical guidance is provided
by the LDA glideslope. RNAV and GLS lateral guid-
(a) In the discussion below, RNAV PRM and ance, in contrast, is discontinued at the charted MAP
GLS PRM approaches may be substituted for one or and replaced by visual maneuvering to accomplish
both of the ILS PRM approaches in a simultaneous runway alignment in the same manner as LDA course
close parallel operation, or, in the case of SOIA, may guidance is discontinued at the MAP.
be substituted for an ILS PRM and/or LDA PRM ap-
proach. RNAV PRM or GLS PRM approaches utilize As a result of this RNAV and GLS approach coding,
the same applicable chart notations and the same when executing a missed approach at and after
fixes, crossing altitudes, and missed approach pro- passing the charted MAP, a heading must initially be
cedures as the ILS PRM or LDA PRM approach it flown, either hand-flown or using autopilot heading
overlays. Vertical guidance for an RNAV PRM or mode, before engaging LNAV. If the pilot engages
GLS PRM approach must be used when substituting LNAV immediately, the aircraft will continue to track
for an ILS PRM or LDA PRM approach. toward the FTP instead of commencing a turn toward
(b) RNAV PRM and GLS PRM approaches the missed approach holding fix. Notes on the charted
may be substituted for: IAP and in the AAUP make specific reference to this
procedure.
(1) one or both of the ILS PRM approaches
in a simultaneous close parallel operation, or Because the SOIA LDA approach is coded in the
(2) the ILS PRM and/or LDA PRM ap- FMS in same manner as the RNAV GPS approach,
proach in a Simultaneous Offset Instrument this same procedure should be utilized when conduct-
Approach (SOIA) operation. ing the LDA PRM missed approach at or inside of the
LDA MAP.
(c) The pilot may request to fly the RNAV
PRM or GLS PRM approach in lieu of either the ILS Some FMSs do not code waypoints inside of the FAF
PRM and LDA PRM approaches. ATIS may advert- as part of the approach. Therefore, the depicted MAP
ise RNAV or GLS PRM approaches to the affected on the charted IAP may not be included in the offset
runway or runways in the event of the loss of ground approach coding. Pilots utilizing those FMSs may
based NAVAIDS. The Attention All Users Page will identify the location of the waypoint by noting its dis-
address ILS PRM, LDA PRM, RNAV PRM, or GLS tance from the FTP as published on the charted IAP.
PRM approaches as applicable. In the remainder of In those same FMSs, the straight-in SOIA approach
this section: will not display a waypoint inside the PFAF. The
(1) The RNAV PRM or GLS PRM ap- same procedures may be utilized to identify the un-
proaches may be substituted when reference is made coded waypoint. In this case, the location is
to an ILS, LOC, or SOIA offset LDA PRM approach. determined by noting its distance from the runway
waypoint as published on the charted IAP.
(2) The RNAV PRM or GLS PRM Missed
Approach Point (MAP) in SOIA operations may be Because the FTP is coded as the MAP, the FMS map
substituted when reference is made to the LDA PRM display will depict the initial missed approach course
MAP. as beginning at the FTP. This depiction does not
2. Flight Management System (FMS) coding of match the charted initial missed approach procedure
the offset RNAV PRM and GLS PRM approaches in on the IAP. Pilots are reminded that charted IAP guid-
a SOIA operation is different than other RNAV and ance is to be followed, not the map display. Once the
GLS approach coding in that it does not match the ini- aircraft completes the initial turn when commencing

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a missed approach, the remainder of the procedure feet above ground level (AGL) on the extended run-
coding is standard and can be utilized as with any oth- way centerline. Aircraft will be paired in SOIA
er IAP. operations, with the ILS aircraft ahead of the LDA
aircraft prior to the LDA aircraft reaching the LDA
b. Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach MAP. A cloud ceiling for the approach is established
(SOIA). so that the LDA aircraft has nominally 30 seconds to
1. SOIA is an acronym for Simultaneous Offset acquire the leading ILS aircraft prior to the LDA air-
Instrument Approach, a procedure used to conduct craft reaching the LDA MAP. If visual acquisition is
simultaneous approaches to runways spaced less than not accomplished, a missed approach must be ex-
3,000 feet, but at least 750 feet apart. The SOIA pro- ecuted at the LDA MAP.
cedure utilizes an ILS PRM approach to one runway c. Requirements and Procedures.
and an offset Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA)
PRM approach with glide slope to the adjacent run- Besides system requirements and pilot procedures as
way. In SOIA operations, aircraft are paired, with the identified in subparagraph a1 above, all pilots must
aircraft conducting the ILS PRM approach always have completed special training before accepting a
positioned slightly ahead of the aircraft conducting clearance to conduct ILS PRM or LDA PRM Simul-
the LDA PRM approach. taneous Close Parallel Approaches.
1. Pilot Training Requirement. Pilots must
2. The ILS PRM approach plates used in SOIA
complete special pilot training, as outlined below,
operations are identical to other ILS PRM approach
before accepting a clearance for a simultaneous close
plates, with an additional note, which provides the
parallel ILS PRM or LDA PRM approach.
separation between the two runways used for simul-
taneous approaches. The LDA PRM approach plate (a) For operations under 14 CFR Parts 121,
displays the required notations for closely spaced ap- 129, and 135, pilots must comply with FAAap-
proaches as well as depicting the visual segment of proved company training as identified in their
the approach. Operations Specifications. Training, at a minim-
um, must require pilots to view the FAA video
3. Controllers monitor the SOIA ILS PRM and ILS PRM AND SOIA APPROACHES: INFORM-
LDA PRM approaches in exactly the same manner as ATION FOR AIR CARRIER PILOTS. Refer to
is done for ILS PRM approaches. The procedures and https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/
system requirements for SOIA ILS PRM and LDA prm/ or search key words FAA PRM for
PRM approaches are identical with those used for additional information and to view or download the
simultaneous close parallel ILS PRM approaches un- video.
til near the LDA PRM approach missed approach
point (MAP) where visual acquisition of the ILS (b) For operations under Part 91:
aircraft by the aircraft conducting the LDA PRM ap- (1) Pilots operating transport category
proach occurs. Since the ILS PRM and LDA PRM aircraft must be familiar with PRM operations as con-
approaches are identical except for the visual segment tained in this section of the AIM. In addition, pilots
in the SOIA concept, an understanding of the proced- operating transport category aircraft must view
ures for conducting ILS PRM approaches is essential the FAA video ILS PRM AND SOIA
before conducting a SOIA ILS PRM or LDA PRM APPROACHES: INFORMATION FOR AIR
operation. CARRIER PILOTS. Refer to https://www.faa.gov/
training_testing/training/prm/ or search key
4. In SOIA, the approach course separation (in-
words FAA PRM for additional information and to
stead of the runway separation) meets established
view or download the video.
close parallel approach criteria. Refer to
FIG 5422 for the generic SOIA approach geo- (2) Pilots not operating transport cat-
metry. A visual segment of the LDA PRM approach egory aircraft must be familiar with PRM and SOIA
is established between the LDA MAP and the runway operations as contained in this section of the AIM.
threshold. Aircraft transition in visual conditions The FAA strongly recommends that pilots not in-
from the LDA course, beginning at the LDA MAP, to volved in transport category aircraft operations
align with the runway and can be stabilized by 500 view the FAA video, ILS PRM AND SOIA AP-

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PROACHES: INFORMATION FOR GENERAL (d) To ensure separation is maintained, and in

AVIATION PILOTS. Refer to order to avoid an imminent situation during simultan-
https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/ eous close parallel ILS PRM or SOIA ILS PRM and
prm/ or search key words FAA PRM for LDA PRM approaches, pilots must immediately com-
additional information and to view or download the ply with PRM monitor controller instructions.
video.
(e) Aircraft observed to overshoot the turn or
NOTE to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ
Either simultaneous dependent ILS approaches, or SOIA will be instructed to return to the correct final ap-
LDA PRM and ILS PRM approaches may be conducted de- proach course immediately. The final monitor
pending on weather conditions and traffic volume. Pilots controller may cancel the approach clearance, and is-
should use caution so as not to confuse these operations. sue missed approach or other instructions to the
Use SOIA procedures only when the ATIS advertises PRM deviating aircraft.
approaches are in use. For simultaneous (parallel) de-
pendent approaches see paragraph 5414. SFO is the PHRASEOLOGY
only airport where both procedures are presently conduc- (Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL
ted. APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) IMMEDI-
ATELY AND RETURN TO THE LOCALIZER FINAL
2. ATC Directed Breakout. An ATC directed APPROACH COURSE,
breakout is defined as a vector off the ILS or LDA or
approach course of a threatened aircraft in response to (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO
another aircraft penetrating the NTZ. THE LOCALIZER FINAL APPROACH COURSE.
(f) If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to
3. Dual Communications. The aircraft flying such instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ,
the ILS PRM or LDA PRM approach must have the the aircraft on the adjacent final approach course (if
capability of enabling the pilot/s to listen to two com- threatened) will be issued a breakout instruction.
munications frequencies simultaneously.
PHRASEOLOGY
4. Radar Services. TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right)
IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend)
(a) During turn on to parallel final approach, AND MAINTAIN (altitude).
aircraft will be provided 3 miles radar separation or (g) Radar monitoring will automatically be
a minimum of 1,000 feet vertical separation. The as- terminated when visual separation is applied or the
signed altitude must be maintained until intercepting aircraft reports the approach lights or runway in
the glide path, unless cleared otherwise by ATC. Air- sight. Otherwise, monitoring continues to at least
craft will not be vectored to intercept the final .5 NM beyond the furthest DER. Final monitor con-
approach course at an angle greater than thirty de- trollers will not advise pilots when radar monitoring
grees. is terminated.
(b) The final monitor controller will have the 5. At airports that conduct PRM operations,
capability of overriding the tower controller on the (ILS PRM, and the case of airports where SOIAs are
tower frequency. conducted, ILS PRM and LDA PRM approaches) the
Attention All Users Page (AAUP) informs pilots who
(c) Pilots will be instructed to contact the are unable to participate that they will be afforded ap-
tower frequency prior to the point where NTZ monit- propriate arrival services as operational conditions
oring begins. Pilots will begin monitoring the permit and must notify the controlling ARTCC as
secondary PRM frequency at that time (see Dual soon as practical, but at least 100 miles from destina-
VHF Communications Required below). tion.

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FIG 5422
SOIA Approach Geometry
NOTE
SAP The stabilized approach point is a design point along the extended centerline of the intended land-
ing runway on the glide slope/glide path at 500 feet above the runway threshold elevation. It is
used to verify a sufficient distance is provided for the visual maneuver after the offset course ap-
proach DA to permit the pilots to conform to approved, stabilized approach criteria. The SAP is
not published on the IAP.
Offset The point along the LDA, or other offset course, where the course separation with the adjacent
Course DA ILS, or other straight-in course, reaches the minimum distance permitted to conduct closely
spaced approaches. Typically that minimum distance will be 3,000 feet without the use of high
update radar; with high update radar, course separation of less than 3,000 ft may be used when
validated by a safety study. The altitude of the glide slope/glide path at that point determines the
offset course approach decision altitude and is where the NTZ terminates. Maneuvering inside
the DA is done in visual conditions.
Visual Angle, as determined by the SOIA design tool, formed by the extension of the straight segment
Segment of the calculated flight track (between the offset course MAP/DA and the SAP) and the extended
Angle runway centerline. The size of the angle is dependent on the aircraft approach categories (Cat-
egory D or only selected categories/speeds) that are authorized to use the offset course approach
and the spacing between the runways.
Visibility Distance from the offset course approach DA to runway threshold in statute mile.

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Procedure The aircraft on the offset course approach must see the runway-landing environment and, if ATC
has advised that traffic on the straight-in approach is a factor, the offset course approach aircraft
must visually acquire the straight-in approach aircraft and report it in sight to ATC prior to reach-
ing the DA for the offset course approach.
CC The Clear of Clouds point is the position on the offset final approach course where aircraft
first operate in visual meteorological conditions below the ceiling, when the actual weather
conditions are at, or near, the minimum ceiling for SOIA operations. Ceiling is defined by the
Aeronautical Information Manual.
d. Attention All Users Page (AAUP). Multiple Simultaneous approach weather minimums are
PRM approach charts at the same airport have a single X,XXX feet (ceiling), x miles (visibility).
AAUP associated with them that must be referred to 2. Dual VHF Communications Required.
in preparation for conducting the approach. To avoid blocked transmissions, each runway will
Bullet points are published which summarize the have two frequencies, a primary and a PRM monitor
PRM procedures which apply to each approach and frequency. The tower controller will transmit on both
must be briefed before conducting a PRM approach. frequencies. The monitor controllers transmissions,
The following information may be summarized in the if needed, will override both frequencies. Pilots will
bullet points or published in more detail in the Expan- ONLY transmit on the tower controllers frequency,
ded Procedures section of the AAUP. Briefing on the but will listen to both frequencies. Select the PRM
Expanded Procedures is optional. monitor frequency audio only when instructed by
ATC to contact the tower. The volume levels should
1. ATIS. When the ATIS broadcast advises ILS be set about the same on both radios so that the pilots
PRM approaches are in progress (or ILS PRM and will be able to hear transmissions on at least one fre-
LDA PRM approaches in the case of SOIA), pilots quency if the other is blocked. Site specific
should brief to fly the ILS PRM or LDA PRM ap- procedures take precedence over the general informa-
proach. If later advised to expect the ILS or LDA tion presented in this paragraph. Refer to the AAUP
approach (should one be published), the ILS PRM or for applicable procedures at specific airports.
LDA PRM chart may be used after completing the NOTE
following briefing items. The pilot may also request At SFO, pilots conducting SOIA operations select the mon-
to fly the RNAV (GPS) PRM in lieu of either the ILS itor frequency audio when communicating with the final
PRM or LDAPRM approach. In the event of the loss radar controller. In this special case, the monitor control-
of ground based NAVAIDS, the ATIS may advertise lers transmissions, if required, override the final
RNAV (GPS) PRM approaches to the effected run- controllers frequency.
way or runways. 3. Breakouts. Breakouts differ from other types
of abandoned approaches in that they can happen
(a) Minimums and missed approach proced- anywhere and unexpectedly. Pilots directed by ATC
ures are unchanged. to break off an approach must assume that an aircraft
(b) PRM Monitor frequency no longer re- is blundering toward them and a breakout must be ini-
quired. tiated immediately.
(a) Hand-fly breakouts. All breakouts are
(c) ATC may assign a lower altitude for glide to be hand-flown to ensure the maneuver is accom-
slope intercept. plished in the shortest amount of time.
NOTE (b) ATC Directed Breakouts. ATC dir-
In the case of the LDA PRM approach, this briefing proced- ected breakouts will consist of a turn and a climb or
ure only applies if an LDA-DME approach is also
descent. Pilots must always initiate the breakout in re-
published.
sponse to an air traffic controllers instruction.
In the case of the SOIA ILS PRM and LDA PRM pro- Controllers will give a descending breakout only
cedure, the AAUP describes the weather conditions when there are no other reasonable options available,
in which simultaneous approaches are authorized: but in no case will the descent be below the minimum

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vectoring altitude (MVA) which provides at least til passing XXXXX (LDA MAP name) intersection
1,000 feet required obstruction clearance. The prior to maneuvering to align with the centerline of
AAUP may provide the MVA in the final approach Runway XXX.
segment as X,XXX feet at (Name) Airport. (d) SOIA (Name) Airport Visual Segment
NOTE (replaces ILS PRM (4) above). Pilot procedures for
TRAFFIC ALERT. If an aircraft enters the NO TRANS- navigating beyond the LDA MAP are spelled out. If
GRESSION ZONE (NTZ), the controller will breakout the ATC advises that there is traffic on the adjacent ILS,
threatened aircraft on the adjacent approach. The phraseo- pilots are authorized to continue past the LDA MAP
logy for the breakout will be:
to align with runway centerline when:
PHRASEOLOGY
TRAFFIC ALERT, (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) (1) the ILS traffic is in sight and is expected
IMMEDIATELY, HEADING (degrees), CLIMB/ DES- to remain in sight,
CEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude). (2) ATC has been advised that traffic is in
4. ILS PRM Glideslope Navigation. The pilot sight. (ATC is not required to acknowledge this
may find crossing altitudes published along the final transmission),
approach course. If the approach geometry warrants (3) the runway environment is in sight.
it, the pilot is advised on the AAUP that descending Otherwise, a missed approach must be executed.
on the ILS or LDA glideslope ensures complying Between the LDA MAP and the runway threshold, pi-
with any charted crossing restrictions. lots conducting the LDA PRM approach are re-
5. SOIA and ILS PRM differences as noted sponsible for separating themselves visually from
on the AAUP. traffic conducting the ILS PRM approach to the adja-
cent runway, which means maneuvering the aircraft
(a) ILS PRM, LDA Traffic (only published as necessary to avoid that traffic until landing, and
on the AAUP when the ILS PRM approach is used providing wake turbulence avoidance, if applicable.
in conjunction with an LDA PRM approach to the Pilots maintaining visual separation should advise
adjacent runway). To provide better situational ATC, as soon as practical, if visual contact with the
awareness, and because traffic on the LDA may be aircraft conducting the ILS PRM approach is lost and
visible on the ILS aircrafts TCAS, pilots are re- execute a missed approach unless otherwise instruc-
minded of the fact that aircraft will be maneuvering ted by ATC.
behind them to align with the adjacent runway. While
conducting the ILS PRM approach to Runway XXX, e. Differences between Simultaneous ILS and
other aircraft may be conducting the offset LDA PRM ILS PRM or LDA PRM approaches of import-
approach to Runway XXX. These aircraft will ap- ance to the pilot.
proach from the (left/right) rear and will realign with 1. Runway Spacing. Prior to simultaneous
Runway XXX after making visual contact with the close parallel approaches, most ATC directed break-
ILS traffic. Under normal circumstances, these air- outs were the result of two aircraft in-trail on the same
craft will not pass the ILS traffic. final approach course getting too close together. Two
aircraft going in the same direction did not mandate
(b) SOIA LDA PRM Items. The AAUP sec-
quick reaction times. With PRM closely spaced ap-
tion for the SOIA LDA PRM approach contains most
proaches, two aircraft could be alongside each other,
information found in the ILS PRM section. It replaces
navigating on courses that are separated by less than
certain information as seen below and provides pilots
4,300 feet. In the unlikely event that an aircraft blun-
with the procedures to be used in the visual segment
ders off its course and makes a worst case turn of 30
of the LDA PRM approach from the LDA MAP until
degrees toward the adjacent final approach course,
landing.
closing speeds of 135 feet per second could occur that
(c) SOIA LDA PRM Navigation (replaces constitute the need for quick reaction. A blunder has
ILS PRM (4) and (a) above). The pilot may find to be recognized by the monitor controller, and
crossing altitudes published along the final approach breakout instructions issued to the endangered air-
course. The pilot is advised that descending on the craft. The pilot will not have any warning that a
LDA glideslope ensures complying with any charted breakout is imminent because the blundering air-
crossing restrictions. Remain on the LDA course un- craft will be on another frequency. It is important

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that, when a pilot receives breakout instructions, he/ 4. Hand-flown Breakouts. The use of the
she assumes that a blundering aircraft is about to or autopilot is encouraged while flying an ILS PRM or
has penetrated the NTZ and is heading toward his/her LDA PRM approach, but the autopilot must be disen-
approach course. The pilot must initiate a breakout gaged in the rare event that a breakout is issued.
as soon as safety allows. While conducting PRM ap- Simulation studies of breakouts have shown that a
proaches, pilots must maintain an increased sense of hand-flown breakout can be initiated consistently
awareness in order to immediately react to an ATC in- faster than a breakout performed using the autopilot.
struction (breakout) and maneuver as instructed by
5. TCAS. The ATC breakout instruction is the
ATC, away from a blundering aircraft.
primary means of conflict resolution. TCAS, if in-
2. Communications. To help in avoiding com- stalled, provides another form of conflict resolution
in the unlikely event other separation standards
munication problems caused by stuck microphones
would fail. TCAS is not required to conduct a closely
and two parties talking at the same time, two frequen-
cies for each runway will be in use during ILS PRM spaced approach.
and LDA PRM approach operations, the primary The TCAS provides only vertical resolution of air-
tower frequency and the PRM monitor frequency. craft conflicts, while the ATC breakout instruction
The tower controller transmits and receive in a nor- provides both vertical and horizontal guidance for
mal fashion on the primary frequency and also conflict resolutions. Pilots should always immedi-
transmits on the PRM monitor frequency. The monit- ately follow the TCAS Resolution Advisory (RA),
or controllers transmissions override on both whenever it is received. Should a TCAS RA be re-
frequencies. The pilots flying the approach will listen ceived before, during, or after an ATC breakout
to both frequencies but only transmit on the primary instruction is issued, the pilot should follow the RA,
tower frequency. If the PRM monitor controller initi- even if it conflicts with the climb/descent portion of
ates a breakout and the primary frequency is blocked the breakout maneuver. If following an RA requires
by another transmission, the breakout instruction will deviating from an ATC clearance, the pilot must ad-
still be heard on the PRM monitor frequency. vise ATC as soon as practical. While following an
RA, it is extremely important that the pilot also
NOTE comply with the turn portion of the ATC breakout in-
At some airports, the override capability may be on other
struction unless the pilot determines safety to be
than the tower frequency (KSFO overrides the final radar
controller frequency). Pilots should carefully review the factor. Adhering to these procedures assures the pilot
dual communications requirements on the AAUP prior to that acceptable breakout separation margins will
accepting a PRM approach. always be provided, even in the face of a normal pro-
cedural or system failure.
3. Breakouts. The probability is extremely
low that an aircraft will blunder from its assigned 5417. Simultaneous Converging
approach course and enter the NTZ, causing ATC to Instrument Approaches
breakout the aircraft approaching on the adjacent
a. ATC may conduct instrument approaches
ILS or LDA course. However, because of the close
simultaneously to converging runways; i.e., runways
proximity of the final approach courses, it is essential
having an included angle from 15 to 100 degrees, at
that pilots follow the ATC breakout instructions pre-
airports where a program has been specifically
cisely and expeditiously. The controllers breakout
approved to do so.
instructions provide conflict resolution for the
threatened aircraft, with the turn portion of the b. The basic concept requires that dedicated,
breakout being the single most important element separate standard instrument approach procedures be
in achieving maximum protection. A descending developed for each converging runway included.
breakout will only be issued when it is the only con- These approaches can be identified by the letter V
troller option. In no case will the controller descend in the title; for example, ILS V Rwy 17
an aircraft below the MVA, which will provide at least (CONVERGING). Missed Approach Points must
1,000 feet clearance above obstacles. The pilot is not be at least 3 miles apart and missed approach
expected to exceed 1,000 feet per minute rate of des- procedures ensure that missed approach protected
cent in the event a descending breakout is issued. airspace does not overlap.

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c. Other requirements are: radar availability, with an arc or not. Aircraft speeds, winds and bank
nonintersecting final approach courses, precision angles have been taken into consideration in the
approach capability for each runway and, if runways development of the procedures.
intersect, controllers must be able to apply visual
3. RNP required for extraction or not.
separation as well as intersecting runway separation
Where required, the missed approach procedure may
criteria. Intersecting runways also require minimums
use RNP values less than RNP1. The reliability of
of at least 700 foot ceilings and 2 miles visibility.
the navigation system has to be very high in order to
Straight in approaches and landings must be made.
conduct these approaches. Operation on these
d. Whenever simultaneous converging procedures generally requires redundant equipment,
approaches are in progress, aircraft will be informed as no single point of failure can cause loss of both
by the controller as soon as feasible after initial approach and missed approach navigation.
contact or via ATIS. Additionally, the radar controller
will have direct communications capability with the 4. Nonstandard speeds or climb gradients.
tower controller where separation responsibility has RNP AR approaches are developed based on standard
not been delegated to the tower. approach speeds and a 200 ft/NM climb gradient in
the missed approach. Any exceptions to these
5418. RNP AR Instrument Approach standards will be indicated on the approach
Procedures procedure, and the operator should ensure they can
comply with any published restrictions before
These procedures require authorization analogous to conducting the operation.
the special authorization required for Category II or
III ILS procedures. Authorization required (AR) 5. Temperature Limits. For aircraft using
procedures are to be conducted by aircrews meeting barometric vertical navigation (without temperature
special training requirements in aircraft that meet the compensation) to conduct the approach, low and
specified performance and functional requirements. hightemperature limits are identified on the
procedure. Cold temperatures reduce the glidepath
a. Unique characteristics of RNP AR angle while high temperatures increase the glidepath
Approaches angle. Aircraft using baro VNAV with temperature
1. RNP value. Each published line of minima compensation or aircraft using an alternate means for
has an associated RNP value. The indicated value vertical guidance (e.g., SBAS) may disregard the
defines the lateral and vertical performance temperature restrictions. The charted temperature
requirements. A minimum RNP type is documented limits are evaluated for the final approach segment
as part of the RNP AR authorization for each operator only. Regardless of charted temperature limits or
and may vary depending on aircraft configuration or temperature compensation by the FMS, the pilot may
operational procedures (e.g., GPS inoperative, use of need to manually compensate for cold temperature on
flight director vice autopilot). minimum altitudes and the decision altitude.
2. Curved path procedures. Some RNP 6. Aircraft size. The achieved minimums may
approaches have a curved path, also called a be dependent on aircraft size. Large aircraft may
radiustoafix (RF) leg. Since not all aircraft have require higher minimums due to gear height and/or
the capability to fly these arcs, pilots are responsible wingspan. Approach procedure charts will be
for knowing if they can conduct an RNP approach annotated with applicable aircraft size restrictions.

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b. Types of RNP AR Approach Operations FIG 5424
1. RNP Standalone Approach Operations.

RNP AR procedures can provide access to runways
regardless of the groundbased NAVAID
infrastructure, and can be designed to avoid
obstacles, terrain, airspace, or resolve environmental
constraints.
2. RNP Parallel Approach (RPA)

Operations. RNP AR procedures can be used for
parallel approaches where the runway separation is
adequate (See FIG 5423). Parallel approach
procedures can be used either simultaneously or as
standalone operations. They may be part of either
independent or dependent operations depending on
the ATC ability to provide radar monitoring.
FIG 5423
4. RNP Converging Runway Operations. At

airports where runways converge, but may or may not
intersect, an RNP AR approach can provide a precise
curved missed approach path that conforms to aircraft
separation minimums for simultaneous operations
(See FIG 5425). By flying this curved missed
approach path with high accuracy and containment
provided by RNP, dual runway operations may
continue to be used to lower ceiling and visibility
values than currently available. This type of
operation allows greater capacity at airports where it
can be applied.
FIG 5425
3. RNP Parallel Approach Runway

Transitions (RPAT) Operations. RPAT
approaches begin as a parallel IFR approach
operation using simultaneous independent or
dependent procedures. (See FIG 5424). Visual
separation standards are used in the final segment of
the approach after the final approach fix, to permit the
RPAT aircraft to transition in visual conditions along
a predefined lateral and vertical path to align with the
runway centerline.

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5419. Sidestep Maneuver TBL 541

RVR Value Conversions
a. ATC may authorize a standard instrument
approach procedure which serves either one of RVR Visibility
(statute miles)
parallel runways that are separated by 1,200 feet or 1/
less followed by a straightin landing on the adjacent 1600 4
2400 1/
runway. 2
3200 5/
8
b. Aircraft that will execute a sidestep maneuver 4000 3/
4
will be cleared for a specified approach procedure 4500 7/
8
and landing on the adjacent parallel runway. 5000 1
Example, cleared ILS runway 7 left approach, 6000 1 1 /4
sidestep to runway 7 right. Pilots are expected to
1. Circling approach protected areas are defined
commence the sidestep maneuver as soon as
by the tangential connection of arcs drawn from each
possible after the runway or runway environment is
runway end (see FIG 5426). Circling approach
in sight. Compliance with minimum altitudes
protected areas developed prior to late 2012 used
associated with stepdown fixes is expected even after
fixed radius distances, dependent on aircraft
the sidestep maneuver is initiated.
approach category, as shown in the table on page B2
NOTE of the U.S. TPP. The approaches using standard
Sidestep minima are flown to a Minimum Descent
circling approach areas can be identified by the
Altitude (MDA) regardless of the approach authorized.
absence of the negative C symbol on the circling
c. Landing minimums to the adjacent runway will line of minima. Circling approach protected areas
be based on nonprecision criteria and therefore higher developed after late 2012 use the radius distance
than the precision minimums to the primary runway, shown in the table on page B2 of the U.S. TPP,
but will normally be lower than the published circling dependent on aircraft approach category, and the
minimums. altitude of the circling MDA, which accounts for true
5420. Approach and Landing Minimums airspeed increase with altitude. The approaches using
a. Landing Minimums. The rules applicable to expanded circling approach areas can be identified by
landing minimums are contained in 14 CFR the presence of the negative C symbol on the
Section 91.175. TBL 541 may be used to convert circling line of minima (see FIG 5427). Because of
RVR to ground or flight visibility. For converting obstacles near the airport, a portion of the circling
RVR values that fall between listed values, use the area may be restricted by a procedural note; for
next higher RVR value; do not interpolate. For example, Circling NA E of RWY 1735. Obstacle
example, when converting 1800 RVR, use 2400 RVR clearance is provided at the published minimums
with the resultant visibility of 1/2 mile. (MDA) for the pilot who makes a straightin
approach, sidesteps, or circles. Once below the
b. Obstacle Clearance. Final approach obstacle MDA the pilot must see and avoid obstacles.
clearance is provided from the start of the final Executing the missed approach after starting to
segment to the runway or missed approach point, maneuver usually places the aircraft beyond the
whichever occurs last. Sidestep obstacle protection MAP. The aircraft is clear of obstacles when at or
is provided by increasing the width of the final above the MDA while inside the circling area, but
approach obstacle clearance area. simply joining the missed approach ground track
from the circling maneuver may not provide vertical
obstacle clearance once the aircraft exits the circling
area. Additional climb inside the circling area may be
required before joining the missed approach track.
See Paragraph 5421, Missed Approach, for
additional considerations when starting a missed
approach at other than the MAP.

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FIG 5426
Final Approach Obstacle Clearance
NOTE
Circling approach area radii vary according to approach category and MSL circling altitude due to TAS changes
see FIG 5427.
FIG 5427
Standard and Expanded Circling Approach Radii in the U.S. TPP

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2. Precision Obstacle Free Zone (POFZ). A (SM) (or runway visual range below 4,000 feet). If the
volume of airspace above an area beginning at the POFZ is not clear, the MINIMUM authorized height
runway threshold, at the threshold elevation, and above touchdown (HAT) and visibility is 250 feet and
centered on the extended runway centerline. The 3/ SM. The POFZ is considered clear even if the wing
4
POFZ is 200 feet (60m) long and 800 feet (240m) of the aircraft holding on a taxiway waiting for
wide. The POFZ must be clear when an aircraft on a runway clearance penetrates the POFZ; however,
vertically guided final approach is within 2 nautical neither the fuselage nor the tail may infringe on the
miles of the runway threshold and the reported ceiling POFZ. The POFZ is applicable at all runway ends
is below 250 feet or visibility less than 3/4 statute mile including displaced thresholds.
FIG 5428
Precision Obstacle Free Zone (POFZ)
c. Straightin Minimums are shown on the IAP make a normal approach for landing. Under such
when the final approach course is within 30 degrees conditions and when ATC has cleared them for
of the runway alignment (15 degrees for GPS IAPs) landing on that runway, pilots are not expected to
and a normal descent can be made from the IFR circle even though only circling minimums are
altitude shown on the IAP to the runway surface. published. If they desire to circle, they should advise
When either the normal rate of descent or the runway ATC.
alignment factor of 30 degrees (15 degrees for GPS
d. SideStep Maneuver Minimums. Landing
IAPs) is exceeded, a straightin minimum is not
minimums for a sidestep maneuver to the adjacent
published and a circling minimum applies. The fact
runway will normally be higher than the minimums
that a straightin minimum is not published does not
to the primary runway.
preclude pilots from landing straightin if they have
the active runway in sight and have sufficient time to

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e. Published Approach Minimums. Approach REFERENCE

AC 9066A, Recommended Standards Traffic patterns for Aeronautical
minimums are published for different aircraft Operations at Airports without Operating Control Towers.
categories and consist of a minimum altitude (DA,
4. The missed approach point (MAP) varies
DH, MDA) and required visibility. These minimums
depending upon the approach flown. For vertically
are determined by applying the appropriate TERPS
guided approaches, the MAP is at the decision
criteria. When a fix is incorporated in a nonprecision
altitude/decision height. Nonvertically guided and
final segment, two sets of minimums may be
circling procedures share the same MAP and the pilot
published: one for the pilot that is able to identify the
determines this MAP by timing from the final
fix, and a second for the pilot that cannot. Two sets of
approach fix, by a fix, a NAVAID, or a waypoint.
minimums may also be published when a second
Circling from a GLS, an ILS without a localizer line
altimeter source is used in the procedure. When a
of minima or an RNAV (GPS) approach without an
nonprecision procedure incorporates both a
LNAV line of minima is prohibited.
stepdown fix in the final segment and a second
altimeter source, two sets of minimums are published g. Instrument Approach at a Military Field.
to account for the stepdown fix and a note addresses When instrument approaches are conducted by civil
minimums for the second altimeter source. aircraft at military airports, they must be conducted in
accordance with the procedures and minimums
f. Circling Minimums. In some busy terminal approved by the military agency having jurisdiction
areas, ATC may not allow circling and circling over the airport.
minimums will not be published. Published circling
minimums provide obstacle clearance when pilots 5421. Missed Approach
remain within the appropriate area of protection.
Pilots should remain at or above the circling altitude a. When a landing cannot be accomplished, advise
until the aircraft is continuously in a position from ATC and, upon reaching the missed approach point
which a descent to a landing on the intended runway defined on the approach procedure chart, the pilot
can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal must comply with the missed approach instructions
maneuvers. Circling may require maneuvers at low for the procedure being used or with an alternate
altitude, at low airspeed, and in marginal weather missed approach procedure specified by ATC.
conditions. Pilots must use sound judgment, have an b. Obstacle protection for missed approach is
indepth knowledge of their capabilities, and fully predicated on the missed approach being initiated at
understand the aircraft performance to determine the the decision altitude/height (DA/H) or at the missed
exact circling maneuver since weather, unique airport approach point and not lower than minimum descent
design, and the aircraft position, altitude, and altitude (MDA). A climb gradient of at least 200 feet
airspeed must all be considered. The following basic per nautical mile is required, (except for Copter
rules apply: approaches, where a climb of at least 400 feet per
nautical mile is required), unless a higher climb
1. Maneuver the shortest path to the base or
gradient is published in the notes section of the
downwind leg, as appropriate, considering existing
approach procedure chart. When higher than standard
weather conditions. There is no restriction from
climb gradients are specified, the end point of the
passing over the airport or other runways.
nonstandard climb will be specified at either an
2. It should be recognized that circling altitude or a fix. Pilots must preplan to ensure that the
maneuvers may be made while VFR or other flying aircraft can meet the climb gradient (expressed in feet
is in progress at the airport. Standard left turns or per nautical mile) required by the procedure in the
specific instruction from the controller for event of a missed approach, and be aware that flying
maneuvering must be considered when circling to at a higher than anticipated ground speed increases
land. the climb rate requirement (feet per minute). Tables
for the conversion of climb gradients (feet per
3. At airports without a control tower, it may be nautical mile) to climb rate (feet per minute), based
desirable to fly over the airport to observe wind and on ground speed, are included on page D1 of the U.S.
turn indicators and other traffic which may be on the Terminal Procedures booklets. Reasonable buffers
runway or flying in the vicinity of the airport. are provided for normal maneuvers. However, no

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consideration is given to an abnormally early turn. approach holding pattern will be depicted on the
Therefore, when an early missed approach is instrument approach chart for pilot situational
executed, pilots should, unless otherwise cleared by awareness and to assist ATC by not having to issue
ATC, fly the IAP as specified on the approach plate detailed holding instructions. The alternate missed
to the missed approach point at or above the MDA or approach may be based on NAVAIDs not used in the
DH before executing a turning maneuver. approach procedure or the primary missed approach.
When the alternate missed approach procedure is
c. If visual reference is lost while circlingtoland
implemented by NOTAM, it becomes a mandatory
from an instrument approach, the missed approach
part of the procedure. The NOTAM will specify both
specified for that particular procedure must be
the textual instructions and any additional equipment
followed (unless an alternate missed approach
requirements necessary to complete the procedure.
procedure is specified by ATC). To become
Air traffic may also issue instructions for the alternate
established on the prescribed missed approach
missed approach when necessary, such as when the
course, the pilot should make an initial climbing turn
primary missed approach NAVAID fails during the
toward the landing runway and continue the turn until
approach. Pilots may reject an ATC clearance for an
established on the missed approach course. Inasmuch
alternate missed approach that requires equipment
as the circling maneuver may be accomplished in
not necessary for the published approach procedure
more than one direction, different patterns will be
when the alternate missed approach is issued after
required to become established on the prescribed
beginning the approach. However, when the alternate
missed approach course, depending on the aircraft
missed approach is issued prior to beginning the
position at the time visual reference is lost.
approach the pilot must either accept the entire
Adherence to the procedure will help assure that an
procedure (including the alternate missed approach),
aircraft will remain laterally within the circling and
request a different approach procedure, or coordinate
missed approach obstruction clearance areas. Refer
with ATC for alternative action to be taken, i.e.,
to paragraph h concerning vertical obstruction
proceed to an alternate airport, etc.
clearance when starting a missed approach at other
than the MAP. (See FIG 5429.) f. When approach has been missed, request
d. At locations where ATC radar service is clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternative
provided, the pilot should conform to radar vectors airport, another approach, etc.
when provided by ATC in lieu of the published
g. Pilots must ensure that they have climbed to a
missed approach procedure. (See FIG 5430.)
safe altitude prior to proceeding off the published
e. Some locations may have a preplanned alternate missed approach, especially in nonradar
missed approach procedure for use in the event the environments. Abandoning the missed approach
primary NAVAID used for the missed approach prior to reaching the published altitude may not
procedure is unavailable. To avoid confusion, the provide adequate terrain clearance. Additional climb
alternate missed approach instructions are not may be required after reaching the holding pattern
published on the chart. However, the alternate missed before proceeding back to the IAF or to an alternate.

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FIG 5429 h. A clearance for an instrument approach

Circling and Missed Approach Obstruction procedure includes a clearance to fly the published
Clearance Areas missed approach procedure, unless otherwise
instructed by ATC. The published missed approach
procedure provides obstacle clearance only when the
DECISION TO MISS missed approach is conducted on the missed
HERE
CLIMBING TURN approach segment from or above the missed approach
point, and assumes a climb rate of 200 feet/NM or
X higher, as published. If the aircraft initiates a missed
approach at a point other than the missed approach
CLIMBING TURN point (see paragraph 545b), from below MDA or
DA (H), or on a circling approach, obstacle clearance
is not necessarily provided by following the
X published missed approach procedure, nor is
separation assured from other air traffic in the
CIRCLING DECISION vicinity.
MANEUVER VOR TO MISS HERE
In the event a balked (rejected) landing occurs at a po-
(WHEN
CLEARED IN sition other than the published missed approach
RIGHT HAND VOR
TRAFFIC
point, the pilot should contact ATC as soon as pos-
PATTERN) sible to obtain an amended clearance. If unable to
contact ATC for any reason, the pilot should attempt
to reintercept a published segment of the missed ap-
proach and comply with route and altitude
instructions. If unable to contact ATC, and in the pi-
lots judgment it is no longer appropriate to fly the
published missed approach procedure, then consider
FIG 5430 either maintaining visual conditions if practicable
Missed Approach and reattempt a landing, or a circleclimb over the
airport. Should a missed approach become necessary
when operating to an airport that is not served by an
operating control tower, continuous contact with an
air traffic facility may not be possible. In this case, the
pilot should execute the appropriate goaround/
1450 1265 missed approach procedure without delay and contact
1581
ATC when able to do so.
090 1180
1172
Prior to initiating an instrument approach procedure,
056
the pilot should assess the actions to be taken in the
CHANUTE
event of a balked (rejected) landing beyond the
missed approach point or below the MDA or DA (H)

011

36 109.2 CNU
191
R2
considering the anticipated weather conditions and
available aircraft performance. 14 CFR 91.175(e)
Portion of a Published Procedure
VOR
authorizes the pilot to fly an appropriate missed
Remain within
10 NM MISSED APPROACH approach procedure that ensures obstruction clear-
236 Climbing right turn to
2600 2600 direct to VOR ance, but it does not necessarily consider separation
056 from other air traffic. The pilot must consider other
x
2500 factors such as the aircrafts geographical location
5.7 NM with respect to the prescribed missed approach point,
direction of flight, and/or minimum turning altitudes
in the prescribed missed approach procedure. The
pilot must also consider aircraft performance, visual

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climb restrictions, charted obstacles, published vertical path reference for the pilot when vertical
obstacle departure procedure, takeoff visual climb guidance from a precision approach or approach with
requirements as expressed by nonstandard takeoff vertical guidance is not available.
minima, other traffic expected to be in the vicinity, or 1. StraightIn Instrument Approach
other factors not specifically expressed by the ap- Procedures. An EFVS may be used to descend
proach procedures. below DA or MDA from any straightin IAP, other
than Category II or Category III approaches,
provided all of the requirements of 14 CFR part
5422. Use of Enhanced Flight Vision
91.175 (l) are met. This includes straightin precision
Systems (EFVS) on Instrument Approaches
approaches, approaches with vertical guidance (for
An EFVS is an installed airborne system which uses example, LPV or LNAV/VNAV), and nonprecision
an electronic means to provide a display of the approaches (for example, VOR, NDB, LOC, RNAV,
forward external scene topography (the applicable GPS, LDA, SDF, etc.).
natural or manmade features of a place or region 2. Circling Approach Procedure. An IAP
especially in a way to show their relative positions with a circletoland maneuver or circletoland
and elevation) through the use of imaging sensors, minimums does not meet criteria for straightin
such as forward looking infrared, millimeter wave landing minimums. While the regulations do not
radiometry, millimeter wave radar, and/or low light prohibit EFVS from being used during any phase of
level image intensifying. The EFVS imagery is flight, they do prohibit it from being used for
displayed along with the additional flight information operational credit on anything but a straightin IAP
and aircraft flight symbology required by 14 CFR with straightin landing minima. EFVS must only be
91.175 (m) on a headup display (HUD), or an used during a circletoland maneuver provided the
equivalent display, in the same scale and alignment as visual references required throughout the circling
the external view and includes the display element, maneuver are distinctly visible using natural vision.
sensors, computers and power supplies, indications, An EFVS cannot be used to satisfy the requirement
and controls. The display is typically presented to the that an identifiable part of the airport be distinctly
pilot by means of an approved HUD. visible to the pilot during a circling maneuver at or
above MDA or while descending below MDA from
a. Basic Strategy Using EFVS. When flying an
a circling maneuver.
instrument approach procedure (IAP), if the runway
environment cannot be visually acquired at decision 3. Enhanced Flight Visibility. Flight visibility
altitude (DA) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) is determined by using natural vision, and enhanced
using natural vision, then a pilot may use an EFVS to flight visibility (EFV) is determined by using an
continue descending down to 100 feet above the EFVS. 14 CFR part 91.175 (l) requires that the EFV
Touchdown Zone Elevation (TDZE), provided all of observed by using an EFVS cannot be less than the
the visibility requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 (l) visibility prescribed in the IAP to be used in order to
are met. The primary reference for maneuvering the continue to descend below the DA or MDA.
aircraft is based on what the pilot sees through the b. EFVS Operations At or Below DA or MDA
EFVS. At 100 feet above the TDZE, a pilot can con- Down to 100 Feet Above the TDZE. The visual
tinue to descend only when the visual reference segment of an IAP begins at DA or MDA and contin-
requirements for descent below 100 feet can be seen ues to the runway. There are two means of operating
using natural vision (without the aid of the EFVS). In in the visual segmentone is by using natural vision
other words, a pilot may not continue to rely on the and the other is by using an EFVS. If the pilot determ-
EFVS sensor image to identify the required visual ines that the EFV observed by using the EFVS is not
references below 100 feet above the TDZE. Support- less than the minimum visibility prescribed in the IAP
ing information is provided by the flight path vector being flown, and the pilot acquires the required visual
(FPV), flight path angle (FPA) reference cue, on- references prescribed in 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(3) us-
board navigation system, and other imagery and ing the EFVS, then the pilot can continue the
flight symbology displayed on the EFVS. The FPV approach to 100 feet above the TDZE. To continue
and FPA reference cue, along with the EFVS imagery the approach, the pilot uses the EFVS image to visu-
of the Touchdown Zone (TDZ), provide the primary ally acquire the runway environment (the approach

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light system (ALS), if installed, or both the runway looking through the EFVS display. Pilots conducting
threshold and the TDZ), confirm lateral alignment, any nonprecision approach must verify lateral align-
maneuver to the extended runway centerline earlier ment with the runway centerline when determining
than would otherwise be possible, and continue a nor- when to descend from MDA.
mal descent from the DA or MDA to 100 feet above
4. When to Go Around. Any pilot operating
the TDZE.
an aircraft with an EFVS installed should be aware
1. Required Visual References. In order to that the requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 (c) for
descend below DA or MDA, the following visual using natural vision and the requirements of 14 CFR
references (specified in 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(3)) for part 91.175 (l) for using an EFVS are different. A
the runway of intended landing must be distinctly pilot would, therefore, first have to determine
visible and identifiable to the pilot using the EFVS: whether an approach will be commenced using
natural vision or using an EFVS. While these two sets
(a) The ALS (if installed), or of requirements provide a parallel decisionmaking
(b) The following visual references in both process, the requirements for when a missed
(b)(1) and (b)(2) below: approach must be executed differ. Using EFVS, a
missed approach must be initiated at or below DA or
(1) The runway threshold, identified by at MDA down to 100 feet above TDZE whenever the
least one of the following: the beginning of the run- pilot determines that:
way landing surface, the threshold lights, or the
runway end identifier lights (REIL). (a) The EFV is less than the visibility minima
prescribed for the IAP being used;
(2) The TDZ, identified by at least one of (b) The required visual references for the run-
the following: the runway TDZ landing surface, the way of intended landing are no longer distinctly
TDZ lights, the TDZ markings, or the runway lights. visible and identifiable to the pilot using the EFVS
2. Comparison of Visual Reference Require- imagery;
ments for EFVS and Natural Vision. The EFVS (c) The aircraft is not continuously in a posi-
visual reference requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 tion from which a descent to a landing can be made
(l)(3) comprise a more stringent standard than the on the intended runway, at a normal rate of descent,
visual reference requirements prescribed under 14 using normal maneuvers; or
CFR part 91.175 (c)(3) when using natural vision.
The more stringent standard is needed because an (d) For operations under 14 CFR parts 121
EFVS might not display the color of the lights used and 135, the descent rate of the aircraft would not
to identify specific portions of the runway or might allow touchdown to occur within the TDZ of the
not be able to consistently display the runway mark- runway of intended landing.
ings. The main differences for EFVS operations are 5. Missed Approach Considerations. It
that the visual glide slope indicator (VGSI) lights should be noted that a missed approach after passing
cannot be used as a visual reference, and specific the DA, or beyond the missed approach point (MAP),
visual references from both the threshold and TDZ involves additional risk until established on the pub-
must be distinctly visible and identifiable. However, lished missed approach segment. Initiating a
when using natural vision, only one of the specified goaround after passing the published MAP may res-
visual references must be visible and identifiable. ult in loss of obstacle clearance. As with any
3. Visual References and Offset approach, pilot planning should include contingen-
Approaches. Pilots must be especially knowledge- cies between the published MAP and touchdown with
able of the approach conditions and approach course reference to obstacle clearance, aircraft performance,
alignment when considering whether to rely on EFVS and alternate escape plans.
during a nonprecision approach with an offset final c. EFVS Operations At and Below 100 Feet
approach course. Depending upon the combination of Above the TDZE. At and below 100 feet above the
crosswind correction and the lateral field of view TDZE, the regulations do not require the EFVS to be
provided by a particular EFVS, the required visual turned off or the display to be stowed in order to con-
references may or may not be within the pilots view tinue to a landing. A pilot may continue the approach

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below this altitude using an EFVS as long as the re- While touchdown within the TDZ is not specifically
quired visual references can be seen through the addressed in the regulations for operators other than
display using natural vision. An operator may not 14 CFR parts 121 and 135 operators, continued oper-
continue to descend beyond this point by relying ations below DA or MDA where touchdown in the
solely on the sensor image displayed on the EFVS. TDZ is not assured, where a high sink rate occurs, or
where the decision to conduct a missed approach pro-
1. Required Visual References. In order to
cedure is not executed in a timely manner, all create
descend below 100 feet above the TDZE, the flight
a significant risk to the operation.
visibilityassessed using natural visionmust be
sufficient for the following visual references to be 4. Missed Approach Considerations. As
distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot without noted earlier, a missed approach initiated after the DA
reliance on the EFVS to continue to a landing: or MAP involves additional risk. At 100 feet or less
above the runway, it is likely that an aircraft is signi-
(a) The lights or markings of the threshold, or
ficantly below the TERPS missed approach obstacle
(b) The lights or markings of the TDZ. clearance surface. Prior planning is recommended
It is important to note that from 100 feet above the and should include contingencies between the pub-
TDZE and below, the flight visibility does not have lished MAP and touchdown with reference to
to be equal to or greater than the visibility prescribed obstacle clearance, aircraft performance, and altern-
for the IAP in order to continue descending. It only ate escape plans.
has to be sufficient for the visual references required d. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Airport Light-
by 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(4) to be distinctly visible ing Impact on EFVS Operations. The FAA has
and identifiable to the pilot without reliance on the recently begun to replace incandescent lamps with
EFVS. LEDs at some airports in threshold lights, taxiway
2. Comparison of Visual Reference Require- edge lights, taxiway centerline lights, low intensity
ments for EFVS and Natural Vision. Again, the runway edge lights, windcone lights, beacons, and
visual reference requirements for EFVS in 14 CFR some obstruction lighting. Pilots should be aware that
part 91.175 (l)(4) are more stringent than those re- LED lights cannot be sensed by current EFVS sys-
quired for natural vision in 14 CFR part 91.175 (c)(3). tems.
The main differences for EFVS operations are that
the ALS and red terminating bars or red side row bars, 5423. Visual Approach
the REIL, and the VASI cannot be used as visual ref- a. A visual approach is conducted on an IFR flight
erences. Only very specific visual references from the plan and authorizes a pilot to proceed visually and
threshold or the TDZ can be used (that is, the lights clear of clouds to the airport. The pilot must have
or markings of the threshold or the lights or markings either the airport or the preceding identified aircraft
of the TDZ). in sight. This approach must be authorized and
3. When to Go Around. A missed approach controlled by the appropriate air traffic control
must be initiated when the pilot determines that: facility. Reported weather at the airport must have a
ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or
(a) The flight visibility is no longer sufficient
greater. ATC may authorize this type approach when
to distinctly see and identify the required visual refer-
it will be operationally beneficial. Visual approaches
ences listed in 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(4) using natural
are an IFR procedure conducted under IFR in visual
vision;
meteorological conditions. Cloud clearance
(b) The aircraft is not continuously in a posi- requirements of 14 CFR Section 91.155 are not
tion from which a descent to a landing can be made applicable, unless required by operation
on the intended runway, at a normal rate of descent, specifications.
using normal maneuvers; or
b. Operating to an Airport Without Weather
(c) For operations under 14 CFR parts 121 Reporting Service. ATC will advise the pilot when
and 135, the descent rate of the aircraft would not al- weather is not available at the destination airport.
low touchdown to occur within the TDZ of the ATC may initiate a visual approach provided there is
runway of intended landing. a reasonable assurance that weather at the airport is a

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ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or Separation from other IFR aircraft will be maintained
greater (e.g., area weather reports, PIREPs, etc.). under these circumstances.
f. Visual approaches reduce pilot/controller
c. Operating to an Airport With an Operating workload and expedite traffic by shortening flight
Control Tower. Aircraft may be authorized to paths to the airport. It is the pilots responsibility to
conduct a visual approach to one runway while other advise ATC as soon as possible if a visual approach
aircraft are conducting IFR or VFR approaches to is not desired.
another parallel, intersecting, or converging runway.
When operating to airports with parallel runways g. Authorization to conduct a visual approach is an
separated by less than 2,500 feet, the succeeding IFR authorization and does not alter IFR flight plan
aircraft must report sighting the preceding aircraft cancellation responsibility.
unless standard separation is being provided by ATC. REFERENCE
AIM, Canceling IFR Flight Plan, Paragraph 5115.
When operating to parallel runways separated by at
least 2,500 feet but less than 4,300 feet, controllers h. Radar service is automatically terminated,
will clear/vector aircraft to the final at an angle not without advising the pilot, when the aircraft is
greater than 30 degrees unless radar, vertical, or instructed to change to advisory frequency.
visual separation is provided during the turnon. The
purpose of the 30 degree intercept angle is to reduce 5424. Charted Visual Flight Procedure
the potential for overshoots of the final and to (CVFP)
preclude sidebyside operations with one or both a. CVFPs are charted visual approaches
aircraft in a bellyup configuration during the established for environmental/noise considerations,
turnon. Once the aircraft are established within and/or when necessary for the safety and efficiency of
30 degrees of final, or on the final, these operations air traffic operations. The approach charts depict
may be conducted simultaneously. When the parallel prominent landmarks, courses, and recommended
runways are separated by 4,300 feet or more, or altitudes to specific runways. CVFPs are designed to
intersecting/converging runways are in use, ATC be used primarily for turbojet aircraft.
may authorize a visual approach after advising all
b. These procedures will be used only at airports
aircraft involved that other aircraft are conducting
with an operating control tower.
operations to the other runway. This may be
accomplished through use of the ATIS. c. Most approach charts will depict some
NAVAID information which is for supplemental
d. Separation Responsibilities. If the pilot has navigational guidance only.
the airport in sight but cannot see the aircraft to be d. Unless indicating a Class B airspace floor, all
followed, ATC may clear the aircraft for a visual depicted altitudes are for noise abatement purposes
approach; however, ATC retains both separation and and are recommended only. Pilots are not prohibited
wake vortex separation responsibility. When visually from flying other than recommended altitudes if
following a preceding aircraft, acceptance of the operational requirements dictate.
visual approach clearance constitutes acceptance of
e. When landmarks used for navigation are not
pilot responsibility for maintaining a safe approach
visible at night, the approach will be annotated
interval and adequate wake turbulence separation.
PROCEDURE NOT AUTHORIZED AT NIGHT.
e. A visual approach is not an IAP and therefore f. CVFPs usually begin within 20 flying miles
has no missed approach segment. If a go around is from the airport.
necessary for any reason, aircraft operating at g. Published weather minimums for CVFPs are
controlled airports will be issued an appropriate based on minimum vectoring altitudes rather than the
advisory/clearance/instruction by the tower. At recommended altitudes depicted on charts.
uncontrolled airports, aircraft are expected to remain
clear of clouds and complete a landing as soon as h. CVFPs are not instrument approaches and do
possible. If a landing cannot be accomplished, the not have missed approach segments.
aircraft is expected to remain clear of clouds and i. ATC will not issue clearances for CVFPs when
contact ATC as soon as possible for further clearance. the weather is less than the published minimum.

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j. ATC will clear aircraft for a CVFP after the pilot pilot assumes the responsibility for obstruction
reports siting a charted landmark or a preceding clearance. If radar service is being received, it will
aircraft. If instructed to follow a preceding aircraft, automatically terminate when the pilot is instructed to
pilots are responsible for maintaining a safe approach change to advisory frequency.
interval and wake turbulence separation.
k. Pilots should advise ATC if at any point they are 5426. Landing Priority
unable to continue an approach or lose sight of a
preceding aircraft. Missed approaches will be A clearance for a specific type of approach (ILS,
handled as a goaround. RNAV, GLS, ADF, VOR or Visual Approach) to an
aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan does not mean
that landing priority will be given over other traffic.
5425. Contact Approach ATCTs handle all aircraft, regardless of the type of
flight plan, on a firstcome, firstserved basis.
a. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR
Therefore, because of local traffic or runway in use,
flight plan, provided they are clear of clouds and have
it may be necessary for the controller in the interest
at least 1 mile flight visibility and can reasonably
of safety, to provide a different landing sequence. In
expect to continue to the destination airport in those
any case, a landing sequence will be issued to each
conditions, may request ATC authorization for a
aircraft as soon as possible to enable the pilot to
contact approach.
properly adjust the aircrafts flight path.
b. Controllers may authorize a contact approach
provided:
5427. Overhead Approach Maneuver
1. The contact approach is specifically
a. Pilots operating in accordance with an
requested by the pilot. ATC cannot initiate this
IFR flight plan in Visual Meteorological
approach.
Conditions (VMC) may request ATC authorization
EXAMPLE for an overhead maneuver. An overhead maneuver is
Request contact approach. not an instrument approach procedure. Overhead
2. The reported ground visibility at the maneuver patterns are developed at airports where
destination airport is at least 1 statute mile. aircraft have an operational need to conduct the
maneuver. An aircraft conducting an overhead
3. The contact approach will be made to an maneuver is considered to be VFR and the IFR flight
airport having a standard or special instrument plan is cancelled when the aircraft reaches the initial
approach procedure. point on the initial approach portion of the maneuver.
4. Approved separation is applied between (See FIG 5431.) The existence of a standard
aircraft so cleared and between these aircraft and overhead maneuver pattern does not eliminate the
other IFR or special VFR aircraft. possible requirement for an aircraft to conform to
conventional rectangular patterns if an overhead
EXAMPLE maneuver cannot be approved. Aircraft operating to
Cleared contact approach (and, if required) at or below
an airport without a functioning control tower must
(altitude) (routing) if not possible (alternative procedures)
and advise.
initiate cancellation of an IFR flight plan prior to
executing the overhead maneuver. Cancellation of
c. A contact approach is an approach procedure the IFR flight plan must be accomplished after
that may be used by a pilot (with prior authorization crossing the landing threshold on the initial portion of
from ATC) in lieu of conducting a standard or special the maneuver or after landing. Controllers may
IAP to an airport. It is not intended for use by a pilot authorize an overhead maneuver and issue the
on an IFR flight clearance to operate to an airport not following to arriving aircraft:
having a published and functioning IAP. Nor is it
intended for an aircraft to conduct an instrument 1. Pattern altitude and direction of traffic. This
approach to one airport and then, when in the clear, information may be omitted if either is standard.
discontinue that approach and proceed to another PHRASEOLOGY
airport. In the execution of a contact approach, the PATTERN ALTITUDE (altitude). RIGHT TURNS.

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2. Request for a report on initial approach. nonstandard. Pilots may be requested to report
PHRASEOLOGY break if required for traffic or other reasons.
REPORT INITIAL.
PHRASEOLOGY
3. Break information and a request for the BREAK AT (specified point).
pilot to report. The Break Point will be specified if REPORT BREAK.
FIG 5431
Overhead Maneuver
INITIAL APPROACH
180 TURN 3 - 5 NM
BREAK POINT
X X
ROLL OUT
INITIAL POINT
X 180 TURN

4/3/14 AIM
Section 5. Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
551. General or phases of flight. More detailed explanations are

contained in other portions of this publication, the
a. The roles and responsibilities of the pilot and appropriate CFRs, ACs and similar publications. The
controller for effective participation in the ATC information provided is an overview of the principles
system are contained in several documents. Pilot involved and is not meant as an interpretation of the
responsibilities are in the CFRs and the air traffic rules nor is it intended to extend or diminish
controllers are in the FAA Order JO 7110.65, responsibilities.
Air Traffic Control, and supplemental FAA direc-
tives. Additional and supplemental information for
pilots can be found in the current Aeronautical 552. Air Traffic Clearance
Information Manual (AIM), Notices to Airmen, a. Pilot.
Advisory Circulars and aeronautical charts. Since
there are many other excellent publications produced 1. Acknowledges receipt and understanding of
by nongovernment organizations, as well as other an ATC clearance.
government organizations, with various updating 2. Reads back any hold short of runway
cycles, questions concerning the latest or most instructions issued by ATC.
current material can be resolved by cross-checking
with the above mentioned documents. 3. Requests clarification or amendment, as
appropriate, any time a clearance is not fully
b. The pilotincommand of an aircraft is directly understood or considered unacceptable from a safety
responsible for, and is the final authority as to the safe standpoint.
operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring
immediate action, the pilotincommand may 4. Promptly complies with an air traffic
deviate from any rule in the General Subpart A and clearance upon receipt except as necessary to cope
Flight Rules Subpart B in accordance with 14 CFR with an emergency. Advises ATC as soon as possible
Section 91.3. and obtains an amended clearance, if deviation is
necessary.
c. The air traffic controller is responsible to give NOTE
first priority to the separation of aircraft and to the A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on
issuance of radar safety alerts, second priority to other the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance
services that are required, but do not involve does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any
separation of aircraft and third priority to additional previously issued altitude crossing restriction.
services to the extent possible. b. Controller.
d. In order to maintain a safe and efficient air 1. Issues appropriate clearances for the opera-
traffic system, it is necessary that each party fulfill tion to be conducted, or being conducted, in
their responsibilities to the fullest. accordance with established criteria.
e. The responsibilities of the pilot and the 2. Assigns altitudes in IFR clearances that are at
controller intentionally overlap in many areas or above the minimum IFR altitudes in controlled
providing a degree of redundancy. Should one or the airspace.
other fail in any manner, this overlapping responsi- 3. Ensures acknowledgement by the pilot for
bility is expected to compensate, in many cases, for issued information, clearances, or instructions.
failures that may affect safety.
4. Ensures that readbacks by the pilot of
f. The following, while not intended to be all altitude, heading, or other items are correct. If
inclusive, is a brief listing of pilot and controller incorrect, distorted, or incomplete, makes corrections
responsibilities for some commonly used procedures as appropriate.
Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities 551

AIM 4/3/14
553. Contact Approach (b) Approach not authorized when local area
altimeter not available;
a. Pilot.
(c) Procedure not authorized when control
1. Must request a contact approach and makes it tower not in operation;
in lieu of a standard or special instrument approach.
(d) Procedure not authorized when glide
2. By requesting the contact approach, indicates slope not used;
that the flight is operating clear of clouds, has at least
one mile flight visibility, and reasonably expects to (e) Straight-in minimums not authorized at
continue to the destination airport in those conditions. night; etc.
(f) Radar required; or
3. Assumes responsibility for obstruction clear-
ance while conducting a contact approach. (g) The circling minimums published on the
instrument approach chart provide adequate obstruc-
4. Advises ATC immediately if unable to tion clearance and pilots should not descend below
continue the contact approach or if encounters less the circling altitude until the aircraft is in a position
than 1 mile flight visibility. to make final descent for landing. Sound judgment
5. Is aware that if radar service is being received, and knowledge of the pilots and the aircrafts
it may be automatically terminated when told to capabilities are the criteria for determining the exact
contact the tower. maneuver in each instance since airport design and
REFERENCE the aircraft position, altitude and airspeed must all be
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Radar Service Terminated. considered.
b. Controller. REFERENCE
AIM, Approach and Landing Minimums, Paragraph 5420.
1. Issues clearance for a contact approach only 3. Upon receipt of an approach clearance while
when requested by the pilot. Does not solicit the use on an unpublished route or being radar vectored:
of this procedure.
(a) Complies with the minimum altitude for
2. Before issuing the clearance, ascertains that IFR; and
reported ground visibility at destination airport is at
least 1 mile. (b) Maintains the last assigned altitude until
established on a segment of a published route or IAP,
3. Provides approved separation between the at which time published altitudes apply.
aircraft cleared for a contact approach and other IFR
b. Controller.
or special VFR aircraft. When using vertical
separation, does not assign a fixed altitude, but clears 1. Issues an approach clearance based on known
the aircraft at or below an altitude which is at least traffic.
1,000 feet below any IFR traffic but not below 2. Issues an IFR approach clearance only after
Minimum Safe Altitudes prescribed in 14 CFR the aircraft is established on a segment of published
Section 91.119. route or IAP, or assigns an appropriate altitude for the
4. Issues alternative instructions if, in their aircraft to maintain until so established.
judgment, weather conditions may make completion
of the approach impracticable. 555. Missed Approach
a. Pilot.
554. Instrument Approach 1. Executes a missed approach when one of the
a. Pilot. following conditions exist:
1. Be aware that the controller issues clearance (a) Arrival at the Missed Approach
for approach based only on known traffic. Point (MAP) or the Decision Height (DH) and visual
reference to the runway environment is insufficient to
2. Follows the procedure as shown on the IAP, complete the landing.
including all restrictive notations, such as:
(b) Determines that a safe approach or
(a) Procedure not authorized at night; landing is not possible (see subparagraph 5421h).
552 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

4/3/14 AIM
(c) Instructed to do so by ATC. b. Controller.

2. Advises ATC that a missed approach will be 1. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C,
made. Include the reason for the missed approach Class D, and Class E airspace:
unless the missed approach is initiated by ATC. (a) For separation.
3. Complies with the missed approach instruc- (b) For noise abatement.
tions for the IAP being executed from the MAP,
unless other missed approach instructions are (c) To obtain an operational advantage for the
specified by ATC. pilot or controller.
4. If executing a missed approach prior to 2. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C,

reaching the MAP, fly the lateral navigation path of Class D, Class E, and Class G airspace when
the instrument procedure to the MAP. Climb to the requested by the pilot.
altitude specified in the missed approach procedure, 3. Vectors IFR aircraft at or above minimum
except when a maximum altitude is specified vectoring altitudes.
between the final approach fix (FAF) and the MAP. In
4. May vector VFR aircraft, not at an ATC
that case, comply with the maximum altitude
assigned altitude, at any altitude. In these cases,
restriction. Note, this may require a continued
terrain separation is the pilots responsibility.
descent on the final approach.
5. Following a missed approach, requests 557. Safety Alert
clearance for specific action; i.e., another approach,
hold for improved conditions, proceed to an alternate a. Pilot.
airport, etc. 1. Initiates appropriate action if a safety alert is
b. Controller. received from ATC.
2. Be aware that this service is not always
1. Issues an approved alternate missed approach
available and that many factors affect the ability of
procedure if it is desired that the pilot execute a
the controller to be aware of a situation in which
procedure other than as depicted on the instrument
unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another
approach chart.
aircraft may be developing.
2. May vector a radar identified aircraft
b. Controller.
executing a missed approach when operationally
advantageous to the pilot or the controller. 1. Issues a safety alert if aware an aircraft under
their control is at an altitude which, in the controllers
3. In response to the pilots stated intentions, judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to
issues a clearance to an alternate airport, to a holding terrain, obstructions or another aircraft. Types of
fix, or for reentry into the approach sequence, as safety alerts are:
traffic conditions permit.
(a) Terrain or Obstruction Alert. Immedi-
ately issued to an aircraft under their control if aware
556. Radar Vectors the aircraft is at an altitude believed to place the
a. Pilot. aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain or obstructions.
1. Promptly complies with headings and (b) Aircraft Conflict Alert. Immediately
altitudes assigned to you by the controller. issued to an aircraft under their control if aware of an
aircraft not under their control at an altitude believed
2. Questions any assigned heading or altitude to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other.
believed to be incorrect. With the alert, they offer the pilot an alternative, if
feasible.
3. If operating VFR and compliance with any
radar vector or altitude would cause a violation of any 2. Discontinue further alerts if informed by the
CFR, advises ATC and obtains a revised clearance or pilot action is being taken to correct the situation or
instructions. that the other aircraft is in sight.

AIM 4/3/14
558. See and Avoid 2. Adheres to the restrictions published in the

FAAO JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, as to when
a. Pilot. When meteorological conditions permit, speed adjustment procedures may be applied.
regardless of type of flight plan or whether or not
under control of a radar facility, the pilot is 3. Avoids speed adjustments requiring alternate
responsible to see and avoid other traffic, terrain, or decreases and increases.
obstacles. 4. Assigns speed adjustments to a specified IAS
b. Controller. (KNOTS)/Mach number or to increase or decrease
speed using increments of 10 knots or multiples
1. Provides radar traffic information to radar thereof.
identified aircraft operating outside positive control
5. Terminates ATC-assigned speed adjustments
airspace on a workload permitting basis.
when no longer required by issuing further
2. Issues safety alerts to aircraft under their instructions to pilots in the following manner:
control if aware the aircraft is at an altitude believed (a) Advises pilots to resume normal speed
to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain, when the aircraft is on a heading, random routing,
obstructions, or other aircraft. charted procedure, or route without published speed
restrictions.
559. Speed Adjustments (b) Instructs pilots to comply with speed
restrictions when the aircraft is joining or resuming
a. Pilot.
a charted procedure or route with published speed
1. Advises ATC any time cruising airspeed restrictions.
varies plus or minus 5 percent or 10 knots, whichever CAUTION
is greater, from that given in the flight plan. The phraseology comply with restrictions requires
2. Complies with speed adjustments from ATC compliance with all altitude and/or speed restrictions
unless: depicted on the procedure.
(a) The minimum or maximum safe airspeed (c) Instructs pilots to resume published
for any particular operation is greater or less than the speed when aircraft are cleared via a charted
requested airspeed. In such cases, advises ATC. instrument flight procedure that contains published
speed restrictions.
NOTE
It is the pilots responsibility and prerogative to refuse (d) Advises aircraft to delete speed restric-
speed adjustments considered excessive or contrary to the tions when ATC assigned or published speed
aircrafts operating specifications. restrictions on a charted procedure are no longer
required.
(b) Operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on
an ATC assigned SPEED ADJUSTMENT of more (e) Clears pilots for approach without restat-
than 250 knots IAS and subsequent clearance is ing previously issued speed adjustments.
received for descent below 10,000 feet MSL. In such REFERENCE
cases, pilots are expected to comply with 14 CFR PCG, Resume Normal Speed, Resume Published Speed
Section 91.117(a). 6. Gives due consideration to aircraft capabili-
ties to reduce speed while descending.
3. When complying with speed adjustment
assignments, maintains an indicated airspeed within 7. Does not assign speed adjustments to aircraft
plus or minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the at or above FL 390 without pilot consent.
specified speed.
b. Controller. 5510. Traffic Advisories (Traffic
Information)
1. Assigns speed adjustments to aircraft when
a. Pilot.
necessary but not as a substitute for good vectoring
technique. 1. Acknowledges receipt of traffic advisories.

4/3/14 AIM
2. Informs controller if traffic in sight. remain clear of clouds, needs to climb, or loses sight
of the airport.
3. Advises ATC if a vector to avoid traffic is
desired. 6. Be aware that radar service is automatically
terminated, without being advised by ATC, when the
4. Does not expect to receive radar traffic pilot is instructed to change to advisory frequency.
advisories on all traffic. Some aircraft may not appear
on the radar display. Be aware that the controller may 7. Be aware that there may be other traffic in the
be occupied with higher priority duties and unable to traffic pattern and the landing sequence may differ
issue traffic information for a variety of reasons. from the traffic sequence assigned by approach
control or ARTCC.
5. Advises controller if service is not desired.
b. Controller.
b. Controller.
1. Do not clear an aircraft for a visual approach
1. Issues radar traffic to the maximum extent unless reported weather at the airport is ceiling at or
consistent with higher priority duties except in above 1,000 feet and visibility is 3 miles or greater.
Class A airspace. When weather is not available for the destination
airport, inform the pilot and do not initiate a visual
2. Provides vectors to assist aircraft to avoid approach to that airport unless there is reasonable
observed traffic when requested by the pilot. assurance that descent and flight to the airport can be
3. Issues traffic information to aircraft in the made visually.
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas for 2. Issue visual approach clearance when the
sequencing purposes. pilot reports sighting either the airport or a preceding
4. Controllers are required to issue to each aircraft which is to be followed.
aircraft operating on intersecting or nonintersecting 3. Provide separation except when visual
converging runways where projected flight paths separation is being applied by the pilot.
will cross.
4. Continue flight following and traffic in-
formation until the aircraft has landed or has been
5511. Visual Approach instructed to change to advisory frequency.
a. Pilot. 5. Inform the pilot when the preceding aircraft
is a heavy.
1. If a visual approach is not desired, advises
ATC. 6. When weather is available for the destination
airport, do not initiate a vector for a visual approach
2. Complies with controllers instructions for unless the reported ceiling at the airport is 500 feet or
vectors toward the airport of intended landing or to a more above the MVA and visibility is 3 miles or more.
visual position behind a preceding aircraft. If vectoring weather minima are not available but
3. The pilot must, at all times, have either the weather at the airport is ceiling at or above 1,000 feet
airport or the preceding aircraft in sight. After being and visibility of 3 miles or greater, visual approaches
cleared for a visual approach, proceed to the airport may still be conducted.
in a normal manner or follow the preceding aircraft. 7. Informs the pilot conducting the visual
Remain clear of clouds while conducting a visual approach of the aircraft class when pertinent traffic is
approach. known to be a heavy aircraft.
4. If the pilot accepts a visual approach
clearance to visually follow a preceding aircraft, you 5512. Visual Separation
are required to establish a safe landing interval behind a. Pilot.
the aircraft you were instructed to follow. You are
1. Acceptance of instructions to follow another
responsible for wake turbulence separation.
aircraft or to provide visual separation from it is an
5. Advise ATC immediately if the pilot is unable acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the
to continue following the preceding aircraft, cannot aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to

AIM 4/3/14
maintain in-trail separation. Pilots are responsible to (b) Comply with the VFR visibility and
maintain visual separation until flight paths (altitudes distance from clouds criteria in 14 CFR Sec-
and/or courses) diverge. tion 91.155, Basic VFR weather minimums.
2. If instructed by ATC to follow another aircraft (c) Comply with instrument flight rules that
or to provide visual separation from it, promptly are applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR
notify the controller if you lose sight of that aircraft, altitudes, position reporting, radio communications,
are unable to maintain continued visual contact with course to be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.
it, or cannot accept the responsibility for your own 3. Should advise ATC prior to any altitude
separation for any reason. change to ensure the exchange of accurate traffic
3. The pilot also accepts responsibility for wake information.
turbulence separation under these conditions. b. Controller.
b. Controller. Applies visual separation only: 1. May clear an aircraft to maintain VFR-on-top
if the pilot of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan requests
1. Within the terminal area when a controller the clearance.
has both aircraft in sight or by instructing a pilot who
sees the other aircraft to maintain visual separation 2. Informs the pilot of an aircraft cleared to
from it. climb to VFR-on-top the reported height of the tops
or that no top report is available; issues an alternate
2. Pilots are responsible to maintain visual clearance if necessary; and once the aircraft reports
separation until flight paths (altitudes and/or courses) reaching VFR-on-top, reclears the aircraft to
diverge. maintain VFR-on-top.
3. Within en route airspace when aircraft are on 3. Before issuing clearance, ascertain that the
opposite courses and one pilot reports having seen the aircraft is not in or will not enter Class A airspace.
other aircraft and that the aircraft have passed each
other. 5514. Instrument Departures
a. Pilot.
5513. VFR-on-top
1. Prior to departure considers the type of terrain
a. Pilot. and other obstructions on or in the vicinity of the
departure airport.
1. This clearance must be requested by the pilot
on an IFR flight plan, and if approved, allows the pilot 2. Determines if obstruction avoidance can be
the choice (subject to any ATC restrictions) to select maintained visually or that the departure procedure
an altitude or flight level in lieu of an assigned should be followed.
altitude. 3. Determines whether a departure procedure
NOTE and/or DP is available for obstruction avoidance.
VFRontopis not permitted in certain airspace areas, 4. At airports where IAPs have not been
such as Class A airspace, certain restricted areas, etc.
Consequently, IFR flights operating VFRontop will
published, hence no published departure procedure,
avoid such airspace. determines what action will be necessary and takes
such action that will assure a safe departure.
REFERENCE
AIM, IFR Clearance VFRontop, Paragraph 448. b. Controller.
AIM, IFR Separation Standards, Paragraph 4411.
AIM, Position Reporting, Paragraph 532. 1. At locations with airport traffic control
AIM, Additional Reports, Paragraph 533.
service, when necessary, specifies direction of
2. By requesting a VFR-on-top clearance, the takeoff, turn, or initial heading to be flown after
pilot assumes the sole responsibility to be vigilant so takeoff.
as to see and avoid other aircraft and to:
2. At locations without airport traffic control
(a) Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as service but within Class E surface area when
prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159. necessary to specify direction of takeoff, turn, or

4/3/14 AIM
initial heading to be flown, obtains pilots concur- 2. Pilots are not authorized to fly a published
rence that the procedure will allow the pilot to comply RNAV or RNP procedure (instrument approach,
with local traffic patterns, terrain, and obstruction departure, or arrival procedure) unless it is retrievable
avoidance. by the procedure name from the current aircraft
navigation database and conforms to the charted
3. Includes established departure procedures as procedure. The system must be able to retrieve the
part of the ATC clearance when pilot compliance is procedure by name from the aircraft navigation
necessary to ensure separation. database, not just as a manually entered series of
waypoints.
5515. Minimum Fuel Advisory 3. Whenever possible, RNAV routes (Q or
a. Pilot. Troute) should be extracted from the database in
their entirety, rather than loading RNAV route
1. Advise ATC of your minimum fuel status waypoints from the database into the flight plan
when your fuel supply has reached a state where, individually. However, selecting and inserting
upon reaching destination, you cannot accept any individual, named fixes from the database is
undue delay. permitted, provided all fixes along the published
route to be flown are inserted.
2. Be aware this is not an emergency situation,
but merely an advisory that indicates an emergency 4. Pilots must not change any database
situation is possible should any undue delay occur. waypoint type from a flyby to flyover, or vice
versa. No other modification of database waypoints
3. On initial contact the term minimum fuel or the creation of userdefined waypoints on
should be used after stating call sign. published RNAV or RNP procedures is permitted,
EXAMPLE except to:
Salt Lake Approach, United 621, minimum fuel.
(a) Change altitude and/or airspeed waypoint
4. Be aware a minimum fuel advisory does not constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/
imply a need for traffic priority. instruction.
5. If the remaining usable fuel supply suggests (b) Insert a waypoint along the published
the need for traffic priority to ensure a safe landing, route to assist in complying with ATC instruction,
you should declare an emergency due to low fuel and example, Descend via the WILMS arrival except
report fuel remaining in minutes. cross 30 north of BRUCE at/or below FL 210. This
REFERENCE
is limited only to systems that allow alongtrack
Pilot/Controller Glossary Item Fuel Remaining. waypoint construction.
b. Controller. 5. Pilots of FMSequipped aircraft, who are
assigned an RNAV DP or STAR procedure and
1. When an aircraft declares a state of minimum
subsequently receive a change of runway, transition
fuel, relay this information to the facility to whom
or procedure, must verify that the appropriate
control jurisdiction is transferred.
changes are loaded and available for navigation.
2. Be alert for any occurrence which might 6. For RNAV 1 DPs and STARs, pilots must use
delay the aircraft. a CDI, flight director and/or autopilot, in lateral
navigation mode. Other methods providing an
5516. RNAV and RNP Operations equivalent level of performance may also be
acceptable.
a. Pilot.
7. For RNAV 1 DPs and STARs, pilots of
1. If unable to comply with the requirements of aircraft without GPS, using DME/DME/IRU, must
an RNAV or RNP procedure, pilots must advise air ensure the aircraft navigation system position is
traffic control as soon as possible. For example, confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of
N1234, failure of GPS system, unable RNAV, takeoff roll. The use of an automatic or manual
request amended clearance. runway update is an acceptable means of compliance

AIM 4/3/14
with this requirement. Other methods providing an accuracy for the segment being flown. For example,
equivalent level of performance may also be while operating on a Q-Route (RNAV 2), the aircraft
acceptable. is considered to be established on-course when it is
within 2 nm of the course centerline.
8. For procedures or routes requiring the use of
GPS, if the navigation system does not automatically NOTE
alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator Pilots must be aware of how their navigation system
operates, along with any AFM limitations, and confirm
must develop procedures to verify correct GPS
that the aircrafts lateral deviation display (or map display
operation. if being used as an allowed alternate means) is suitable for
9. RNAV terminal procedures (DP and STAR) the accuracy of the segment being flown. Automatic scaling
may be amended by ATC issuing radar vectors and/or and alerting changes are appropriate for some operations.
For example, TSO-C129 systems change within 30 miles of
clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should avoid
destination and within 2 miles of FAF to support approach
premature manual deletion of waypoints from their operations. For some navigation systems and operations,
active legs page to allow for rejoining procedures. manual selection of scaling will be necessary.
(a) Pilots flying FMS equipped aircraft with barometric
10. RAIM Prediction: If TSOC129 equipment
vertical navigation (Baro-VNAV) may descend when the
is used to solely satisfy the RNAV and RNP aircraft is established on-course following FMS leg
requirement, GPS RAIM availability must be transition to the next segment. Leg transition normally
confirmed for the intended route of flight (route and occurs at the turn bisector for a fly-by waypoint (reference
time). If RAIM is not available, pilots need an paragraph 1-2-1 for more on waypoints). When using full
approved alternate means of navigation. automation, pilots should monitor the aircraft to ensure the
REFERENCE
aircraft is turning at appropriate lead times and
AIM, RNAV and RNP Operations, Paragraph 5116 descending once established on-course.
11. Definition of established for RNAV and (b) Pilots flying TSO-C129 navigation system equipped
RNP operations. An aircraft is considered to be aircraft without full automation should use normal lead
established on-course during RNAV and RNP points to begin the turn. Pilots may descend when
operations anytime it is within 1 times the required established on-course on the next segment of the approach.

7/24/14
4/3/14 AIM
Section 6. National Security and Interception Procedures
561. National Security 4. Position Reporting.

(a) For IFR flight. Normal IFR position
a. National security in the control of air traffic is
reporting.
governed by 14 CFR Part 99.
(b) For DVFR flights:
b. All aircraft entering domestic U.S. airspace (1) The pilot reports to an appropriate
from points outside must provide for identification aeronautical facility before penetration: the time,
prior to entry. To facilitate early aircraft identification position, and altitude at which the aircraft passed the
of all aircraft in the vicinity of U.S. and international last reporting point before penetration and the
airspace boundaries, Air Defense Identification estimated time of arrival over the next appropriate
Zones (ADIZ) have been established. reporting point along the flight route;
REFERENCE (2) If there is no appropriate reporting point
AIM, ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas,
Paragraph 565. along the flight route, the pilot reports at least 15
minutes before penetration: the estimated time,
c. Operational requirements for aircraft oper- position, and altitude at which the pilot will penetrate;
ations associated with an ADIZ are as follows: or
1. Flight Plan. Except as specified in subpara- (3) If the departure airport is within an
graphs d and e below, an IFR or DVFR flight plan ADIZ or so close to the ADIZ boundary that it
must be filed with an appropriate aeronautical facility prevents the pilot from complying with paragraphs
as follows: (b)(1) or (2) of this section, the pilot must report
immediately after departure: the time of departure,
(a) Generally, for all operations that enter an the altitude, and the estimated time of arrival over the
ADIZ. first reporting point along the flight route.
(b) For operations that will enter or exit the (c) For inbound aircraft of foreign reg-
U.S. and which will operate into, within or across the istry. The pilot must report to the aeronautical
Contiguous U.S. ADIZ regardless of true airspeed. facility at least one hour prior to ADIZ penetration.
5. Aircraft Position Tolerances.
(c) The flight plan must be filed before
(a) Over land, the tolerance is within plus or
departure except for operations associated with the
minus five minutes from the estimated time over a
Alaskan ADIZ when the airport of departure has no
reporting point or point of penetration and within
facility for filing a flight plan, in which case the flight
10 NM from the centerline of an intended track over
plan may be filed immediately after takeoff or when
an estimated reporting point or penetration point.
within range of the aeronautical facility.
(b) Over water, the tolerance is plus or minus
2. Two-way Radio. For the majority of opera- five minutes from the estimated time over a reporting
tions associated with an ADIZ, an operating two-way point or point of penetration and within 20 NM from
radio is required. See 14 CFR Section 99.1 for the centerline of the intended track over an estimated
exceptions. reporting point or point of penetration (to include the
Aleutian Islands).
3. Transponder Requirements. Unless other-
wise authorized by ATC, each aircraft conducting 6. LandBased ADIZ. LandBased ADIZ are
operations into, within, or across the Contiguous U.S. activated and deactivated over U.S. metropolitan
ADIZ must be equipped with an operable radar areas as needed, with dimensions, activation dates
beacon transponder having altitude reporting capa- and other relevant information disseminated via
bility (Mode C), and that transponder must be turned NOTAM.
on and set to reply on the appropriate code or as (a) In addition to requirements outlined in
assigned by ATC. subparagraphs c1 through c3, pilots operating within
National Security and Interception Procedures 561

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
7/24/14
4/3/14
a LandBased ADIZ must report landing or leaving h. Emergency Security Control of Air Traffic
the LandBased ADIZ if flying too low for radar (ESCAT).
coverage. 1. During defense emergency or air defense
emergency conditions, additional special security
(b) Pilots unable to comply with all require-
instructions may be issued in accordance with
ments must remain clear of LandBased ADIZ. Pilots
32 CFR 245 Plan for the Emergency Security Control
entering a LandBased ADIZ without authorization
of Air Traffic (ESCAT).
or who fail to follow all requirements risk
interception by military fighter aircraft. 2. Under the provisions of 32 CFR 245, the
military will direct the action to be taken in regard
d. Except when applicable under 14 CFR to landing, grounding, diversion, or dispersal of
Section 99.7, 14 CFR Part 99 does not apply to aircraft and the control of air navigation aids in the
aircraft operations: defense of the U.S. during emergency conditions.
3. At the time a portion or all of ESCAT is
1. Within the 48 contiguous states and the implemented, ATC facilities will broadcast
District of Columbia, or within the State of Alaska, appropriate instructions received from the Air Traffic
and remains within 10 miles of the point of departure; Control System Command Center (ATCSCC) over
available ATC frequencies. Depending on
2. Over any island, or within three nautical
instructions received from the ATCSCC, VFR flights
miles of the coastline of any island, in the Hawaii
may be directed to land at the nearest available
ADIZ; or
airport, and IFR flights will be expected to proceed as
3. Associated with any ADIZ other than the directed by ATC.
Contiguous U.S. ADIZ, when the aircraft true 4. Pilots on the ground may be required to file a
airspeed is less than 180 knots. flight plan and obtain an approval (through FAA)
prior to conducting flight operation.
e. Authorizations to deviate from the requirements
5. In view of the above, all pilots should monitor
of Part 99 may also be granted by the ARTCC, on a
an ATC or FSS frequency at all times while
local basis, for some operations associated with an
conducting flight operations.
ADIZ.
f. An airfiled VFR Flight Plan makes an aircraft 562. Interception Procedures

subject to interception for positive identification a. General.
when entering an ADIZ. Pilots are, therefore, urged 1. In conjunction with the FAA, Air Defense
to file the required DVFR flight plan either in person Sectors monitor air traffic and could order an
or by telephone prior to departure. intercept in the interest of national security or
defense. Intercepts during peacetime operations are
g. Special Security Instructions.
vastly different than those conducted under increased
1. Each person operating an aircraft in an ADIZ states of readiness. The interceptors may be fighters
or Defense Area must, in addition to the applicable or rotary wing aircraft. The reasons for aircraft
rules of part 99, comply with special security intercept include, but are not limited to:
instructions issued by the Administrator in the (a) Identify an aircraft;
interest of national security, pursuant to agreement (b) Track an aircraft;
between the FAA and the Department of Defense, or
between the FAA and a U.S. Federal security or (c) Inspect an aircraft;
intelligence agency. (d) Divert an aircraft;
2. Defense Area means any airspace of the (e) Establish communications with an air-
contiguous United States that is not an ADIZ in which craft.
the control of aircraft is required for reasons of 2. When specific information is required (i.e.,
national security. markings, serial numbers, etc.) the interceptor
562 National Security and Interception Procedures

7/24/14
4/3/14 AIM
pilot(s) will respond only if, in their judgment, the aircraft while gathering data at a distance considered
request can be conducted in a safe manner. Intercept safe based on aircraft performance characteristics.
procedures are described in some detail in the
3. Post Intercept Phase.
paragraphs below. In all situations, the interceptor
An interceptor may attempt to establish communica-
pilot will consider safety of flight for all concerned
tions via standard ICAO signals. In time-critical
throughout the intercept procedure. The interceptor
situations where the interceptor is seeking an
pilot(s) will use caution to avoid startling the
immediate response from the intercepted aircraft or if
intercepted crew or passengers and understand that
the intercepted aircraft remains non-compliant to
maneuvers considered normal for interceptor aircraft
instruction, the interceptor pilot may initiate a divert
may be considered hazardous to other aircraft.
maneuver. In this maneuver, the interceptor flies
3. All aircraft operating in US national airspace across the intercepted aircrafts flight path (minimum
are highly encouraged to maintain a listening watch 500 feet separation and commencing from slightly
below the intercepted aircraft altitude) in the general
on VHF/UHF guard frequencies (121.5 or 243.0
MHz). If subjected to a military intercept, it is direction the intercepted aircraft is expected to turn.
incumbent on civilian aviators to understand their The interceptor will rock its wings (daytime) or flash
external lights/select afterburners (night) while
responsibilities and to comply with ICAO standard
signals relayed from the intercepting aircraft. crossing the intercepted aircrafts flight path. The
Specifically, aviators are expected to contact air interceptor will roll out in the direction the
intercepted aircraft is expected to turn before
traffic control without delay (if able) on the local
operating frequency or on VHF/UHF guard. returning to verify the aircraft of interest is
Noncompliance may result in the use of force. complying. The intercepted aircraft is expected to
execute an immediate turn to the direction of the
b. Fighter intercept phases (See FIG 561). intercepting aircraft. If the aircraft of interest does not
comply, the interceptor may conduct a second
1. Approach Phase. climbing turn across the intercepted aircrafts flight
As standard procedure, intercepted aircraft are path (minimum 500 feet separation and commencing
approached from behind. Typically, interceptor from slightly below the intercepted aircraft altitude)
aircraft will be employed in pairs, however, it is not while expending flares as a warning signal to the
uncommon for a single aircraft to perform the intercepted aircraft to comply immediately and to
intercept operation. Safe separation between inter- turn in the direction indicated and to leave the area.
ceptors and intercepted aircraft is the responsibility of The interceptor is responsible to maintain safe
the intercepting aircraft and will be maintained at all separation during these and all intercept maneuvers.
times. Flight safety is paramount.
NOTE
2. Identification Phase. 1. NORAD interceptors will take every precaution to
Interceptor aircraft will initiate a controlled closure preclude the possibility of the intercepted aircraft
toward the aircraft of interest, holding at a distance no experiencing jet wash/wake turbulence; however, there is
closer than deemed necessary to establish positive a potential that this condition could be encountered.
identification and to gather the necessary informa- 2. During Night/IMC, the intercept will be from below
tion. The interceptor may also fly past the intercepted flight path.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 561
Intercept Procedures

4/3/14 AIM
c. Helicopter Intercept phases (See FIG 562) 3. Post Intercept Phase.

Visual signaling devices may be used in an attempt to
1. Approach Phase. communicate with the intercepted aircraft. Visual
Aircraft intercepted by helicopter may be approached signaling devices may include, but are not limited to,
from any direction, although the helicopter should LED scrolling signboards or blue flashing lights. If
close for identification and signaling from behind. compliance is not attained through the use of radios
Generally, the helicopter will approach off the left or signaling devices, standard ICAO intercept signals
side of the intercepted aircraft. Safe separation (Table 5-6-1) may be employed. In order to maintain
between the helicopter and the unidentified aircraft safe aircraft separation, it is incumbent upon the pilot
will be maintained at all times. of the intercepted aircraft not to fall into a trail
position (directly behind the helicopter) if instructed
2. Identification Phase. to follow the helicopter. This is because the helicopter
The helicopter will initiate a controlled closure pilot may lose visual contact with the intercepted
toward the aircraft of interest, holding at a distance no aircraft.
closer than deemed necessary to establish positive NOTE
identification and gather the necessary information. Intercepted aircraft must not follow directly behind the
The intercepted pilot should expect the interceptor helicopter thereby allowing the helicopter pilot to maintain
helicopter to take a position off his left wing slightly visual contact with the intercepted aircraft and ensuring
forward of abeam. safe separation is maintained.
FIG 562
Helicopter Intercept Procedures

AIM 4/3/14
d. Summary of Intercepted Aircraft Actions. An 563. Law Enforcement Operations by

intercepted aircraft must, without delay: Civil and Military Organizations
1. Adhere to instructions relayed through the
a. Special law enforcement operations.
use of visual devices, visual signals, and radio
communications from the intercepting aircraft.
1. Special law enforcement operations include
2. Attempt to establish radio communications in-flight identification, surveillance, interdiction, and
with the intercepting aircraft or with the appropriate pursuit activities performed in accordance with
air traffic control facility by making a general call on official civil and/or military mission responsibilities.
guard frequencies (121.5 or 243.0 MHz), giving the
identity, position, and nature of the flight. 2. To facilitate accomplishment of these special
missions, exemptions from specified sections of the
3. If transponder equipped, select Mode 3/A CFRs have been granted to designated departments
Code 7700 unless otherwise instructed by air traffic and agencies. However, it is each organizations
control. responsibility to apprise ATC of their intent to operate
NOTE under an authorized exemption before initiating
If instruction received from any agency conflicts with that actual operations.
given by the intercepting aircraft through visual or radio
communications, the intercepted aircraft must seek 3. Additionally, some departments and agencies
immediate clarification. that perform special missions have been assigned
4. The crew of the intercepted aircraft must coded identifiers to permit them to apprise ATC of
continue to comply with interceptor aircraft signals ongoing mission activities and solicit special
and instructions until positively released. air traffic assistance.

4/3/14 AIM
564. Interception Signals

TBL 561 and TBL 562.
TBL 561
Intercepting Signals
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.1)
Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning
1 DAYRocking wings from a position You have AEROPLANES: Understood,
slightly above and ahead of, and normally been DAYRocking wings and following. will comply.
to the left of, the intercepted aircraft and, intercepted.
after acknowledgement, a slow level turn, Follow me.
normally to the left, on to the desired
heading.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing NIGHTSame and, in addition, flashing

navigational lights at irregular intervals. navigational lights at irregular intervals.
NOTE 1Meteorological conditions or

terrain may require the intercepting
aircraft to take up a position slightly above
and ahead of, and to the right of, the
intercepted aircraft and to make the
subsequent turn to the right. HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHTRocking aircraft, flashing
NOTE 2If the intercepted aircraft is not navigational lights at irregular intervals and
able to keep pace with the intercepting following.
aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series
of racetrack patterns and to rock its wings
each time it passes the intercepted aircraft.
2 DAY or NIGHTAn abrupt breakaway You may AEROPLANES: Understood,
maneuver from the intercepted aircraft proceed. DAY or NIGHT-Rocking wings. will comply.
consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees
or more without crossing the line of flight HELICOPTERS:
of the intercepted aircraft. DAY or NIGHTRocking aircraft.
3 DAYCircling aerodrome, lowering land- Land at this AEROPLANES: Understood,
ing gear and overflying runway in direction aerodrome. DAYLowering landing gear, following will comply.
of landing or, if the intercepted aircraft is a the intercepting aircraft and, if after
helicopter, overflying the helicopter land- overflying the runway landing is consid-
ing area. ered safe, proceeding to land.
NIGHTSame and, in addition, showing NIGHTSame and, in addition, showing

steady landing lights. steady landing lights (if carried).
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Following the intercepting
aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a
steady landing light (if carried).

AIM 4/3/14
TBL 562
Intercepting Signals
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals and Responses During Aircraft Intercept
Signals initiated by intercepted aircraft and responses by intercepting aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.2)
Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTING Aircraft Responds Meaning
4 DAY or NIGHTRaising landing gear (if Aerodrome DAY or NIGHTIf it is desired that the Understood,
fitted) and flashing landing lights while you have intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting follow me.
passing over runway in use or helicopter designated is aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the
landing area at a height exceeding 300m inadequate. intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear
(1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m (if fitted) and uses the Series 1 signals
(2,000 ft) (in the case of a helicopter, at a prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
height exceeding 50m (170 ft) but not
exceeding 100m (330 ft) above the
aerodrome level, and continuing to circle If it is decided to release the intercepted Understood,
runway in use or helicopter landing area. If aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the you may
unable to flash landing lights, flash any Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting proceed.
other lights available. aircraft.
5 DAY or NIGHTRegular switching on and Cannot DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals Understood.
off of all available lights but in such a comply. prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
manner as to be distinct from flashing
lights.
6 DAY or NIGHTIrregular flashing of all In distress. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals Understood.
available lights. prescribed for intercepting aircraft.

4/3/14
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a a a
a a a aa a a a a a
a a a
a a a a
a a a aa aa a a a aa aa a a
a a a a a a a a a aa aa a a aa aa a aa aa a a aa aa a a aa a a aa aa a a aa aa a a aa a
a a a aa a aa aa aa a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a aa a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa
a a aa a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa aa a a a aa aa a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a aa a aa aa a a a a a aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa
a a
a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a aa a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a a a
National Security and Interception Procedures

a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa
a a
a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa a a aa aa a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa
a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a aa a a aa a a
a a a a
a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa
a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa
a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a
a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a a a
a a a aa a a a aa a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a aa a
a
a a a a a a a a
FIG 563
a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a aa a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aaaa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a aa a aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aaaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aaaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a
a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa
Designated Mountainous Areas
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa
Air Defense Identification Zone Boundaries
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aaaa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a aa a a
a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa
a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aaaa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a
a aa aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a
a aa a
a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a
565. ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas (See FIG 563.)
AIM
569
AIM 4/3/14
566. Visual Warning System (VWS) ATC on an appropriate frequency, VHF Guard 121.5
or UHF Guard 243.0, and provide your aircraft
The VWS signal consists of highly-focused red and identification, position, and nature of the flight.
green colored laser lights designed to illuminate in an Failure to follow these procedures may result in
alternating red and green signal pattern. These lasers interception by military aircraft. Further noncompli-
may be directed at specific aircraft suspected of ance with interceptor aircraft or ATC may result in the
making unauthorized entry into the Washington, DC use of force.
Special Flight Rules Area (DC SFRA) proceeding on
a heading or flight path that may be interpreted as a c. Pilots planning to operate aircraft in or near the
threat or that operate contrary to the operating rules DC SFRA are to familiarize themselves with aircraft
for the DC SFRA. The beam is neither hazardous to intercept procedures. This information applies to all
the eyes of pilots/aircrew or passengers, regardless of aircraft operating within the DC SFRA including
altitude or distance from the source nor will the beam DOD, Law Enforcement, and aircraft engaged in
affect aircraft systems. aeromedical operations and does not change
procedures established for reporting unauthorized
a. If you are communicating with ATC, and this laser illumination as published in FAA Advisory
signal is directed at your aircraft, you are required to Circulars and Notices.
contact ATC and advise that you are being
REFERENCE
illuminated by a visual warning system. CFR 91.161
b. If this signal is directed at you, and you are not d. More details including a video demonstration of
communicating with ATC, you are advised to turn to the VWS are available from the following FAA web
the most direct heading away from the center of the site: www.faasafety.gov/VisualWarningSystem/
DC SFRA as soon as possible. Immediately contact VisualWarning.htm.

4/3/14 AIM
Chapter 6. Emergency Procedures

Section 1. General
611. Pilot Responsibility and Authority 612. Emergency Condition Request

Assistance Immediately
a. The pilotincommand of an aircraft is directly
responsible for and is the final authority as to the a. An emergency can be either a distress or
operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring urgency condition as defined in the Pilot/Controller
immediate action, the pilotincommand may Glossary. Pilots do not hesitate to declare an
deviate from any rule in 14 CFR Part 91, Subpart A, emergency when they are faced with distress
General, and Subpart B, Flight Rules, to the extent conditions such as fire, mechanical failure, or
required to meet that emergency. structural damage. However, some are reluctant to
REFERENCE report an urgency condition when they encounter
14 CFR Section 91.3(b). situations which may not be immediately perilous,
b. If the emergency authority of 14 CFR but are potentially catastrophic. An aircraft is in at
Section 91.3(b) is used to deviate from the provisions least an urgency condition the moment the pilot
of an ATC clearance, the pilotincommand must becomes doubtful about position, fuel endurance,
notify ATC as soon as possible and obtain an weather, or any other condition that could adversely
amended clearance. affect flight safety. This is the time to ask for help, not
after the situation has developed into a distress
c. Unless deviation is necessary under the condition.
emergency authority of 14 CFR Section 91.3, pilots
of IFR flights experiencing two-way radio commu- b. Pilots who become apprehensive for their safety
nications failure are expected to adhere to the for any reason should request assistance immediately.
procedures prescribed under IFR operations, Ready and willing help is available in the form of
two-way radio communications failure. radio, radar, direction finding stations and other
REFERENCE
aircraft. Delay has caused accidents and cost lives.
14 CFR Section 91.185. Safety is not a luxury! Take action!
General 611
4/3/14 AIM
Section 2. Emergency Services Available to Pilots
621. Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in 622. Transponder Emergency Operation
Difficulty
a. When a distress or urgency condition is
encountered, the pilot of an aircraft with a coded radar
a. Radar equipped ATC facilities can provide beacon transponder, who desires to alert a ground
radar assistance and navigation service (vectors) to radar facility, should squawk Mode 3/A,
VFR aircraft in difficulty when the pilot can talk with Code 7700/Emergency and Mode C altitude report-
the controller, and the aircraft is within radar ing and then immediately establish communications
coverage. Pilots should clearly understand that with the ATC facility.
authorization to proceed in accordance with such
radar navigational assistance does not constitute b. Radar facilities are equipped so that Code 7700
authorization for the pilot to violate CFRs. In effect, normally triggers an alarm or special indicator at all
assistance is provided on the basis that navigational control positions. Pilots should understand that they
guidance information is advisory in nature, and the might not be within a radar coverage area. Therefore,
responsibility for flying the aircraft safely remains they should continue squawking Code 7700 and
with the pilot. establish radio communications as soon as possible.
b. Experience has shown that many pilots who are

623. Intercept and Escort
not qualified for instrument flight cannot maintain
control of their aircraft when they encounter clouds a. The concept of airborne intercept and escort is
or other reduced visibility conditions. In many cases, based on the Search and Rescue (SAR) aircraft
the controller will not know whether flight into establishing visual and/or electronic contact with an
instrument conditions will result from ATC instruc- aircraft in difficulty, providing in-flight assistance,
tions. To avoid possible hazards resulting from being and escorting it to a safe landing. If bailout, crash
vectored into IFR conditions, a pilot in difficulty landing or ditching becomes necessary, SAR
should keep the controller advised of the current operations can be conducted without delay. For most
weather conditions being encountered and the incidents, particularly those occurring at night and/or
weather along the course ahead and observe the during instrument flight conditions, the availability
following: of intercept and escort services will depend on the
proximity of SAR units with suitable aircraft on alert
1. If a course of action is available which will for immediate dispatch. In limited circumstances,
permit flight and a safe landing in VFR weather other aircraft flying in the vicinity of an aircraft in
conditions, noninstrument rated pilots should choose difficulty can provide these services.
the VFR condition rather than requesting a vector or
approach that will take them into IFR weather b. If specifically requested by a pilot in difficulty
conditions; or or if a distress condition is declared, SAR
coordinators will take steps to intercept and escort an
aircraft. Steps may be initiated for intercept and
2. If continued flight in VFR conditions is not
escort if an urgency condition is declared and unusual
possible, the noninstrument rated pilot should so
circumstances make such action advisable.
advise the controller and indicating the lack of an
instrument rating, declare a distress condition; or c. It is the pilots prerogative to refuse intercept
and escort services. Escort services will normally be
3. If the pilot is instrument rated and current, and provided to the nearest adequate airport. Should the
the aircraft is instrument equipped, the pilot should so pilot receiving escort services continue onto another
indicate by requesting an IFR flight clearance. location after reaching a safe airport, or decide not to
Assistance will then be provided on the basis that the divert to the nearest safe airport, the escort aircraft is
aircraft can operate safely in IFR weather conditions. not obligated to continue and further escort is
Emergency Services Available to Pilots 621

AIM 4/3/14
discretionary. The decision will depend on the avoided. In the case of an inadvertent 406 MHz ELT
circumstances of the individual incident. activation, the owner can deactivate the 406 MHz
ELT. If the 406 MHz ELT equipped aircraft is being
flown, the RCC can quickly activate a search.
624. Emergency Locator Transmitter
406 MHz ELTs permit the CospasSarsat satellite
(ELT)
system to narrow the search area to a more confined
a. General. area compared to that of a 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz
ELT. 406 MHz ELTs also include a lowpower
1. ELTs are required for most General Aviation 121.5 MHz homing transmitter to aid searchers in
airplanes. finding the aircraft in the terminal search phase.
REFERENCE
14 CFR SECTION 91.207. (c) Each analog ELT emits a distinctive
downward swept audio tone on 121.5 MHz and
2. ELTs of various types were developed as a 243.0 MHz.
means of locating downed aircraft. These electronic,
battery operated transmitters operate on one of three (d) If armed and when subject to crash
frequencies. These operating frequencies are generated forces, ELTs are designed to automatically
121.5 MHz, 243.0 MHz, and the newer 406 MHz. activate and continuously emit their respective
ELTs operating on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are signals, analog or digital. The transmitters will
analog devices. The newer 406 MHz ELT is a digital operate continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide
transmitter that can be encoded with the owners temperature range. A properly installed, maintained,
contact information or aircraft data. The latest and functioning ELT can expedite search and rescue
406 MHz ELT models can also be encoded with the operations and save lives if it survives the crash and
aircrafts position data which can help SAR forces is activated.
locate the aircraft much more quickly after a crash. (e) Pilots and their passengers should know
The 406 MHz ELTs also transmits a stronger signal how to activate the aircrafts ELT if manual activation
when activated than the older 121.5 MHz ELTs. is required. They should also be able to verify the
(a) The Federal Communications Commis- aircrafts ELT is functioning and transmitting an alert
sion (FCC) requires 406 MHz ELTs be registered after a crash or manual activation.
with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric (f) Because of the large number of 121.5 MHz
Administration (NOAA) as outlined in the ELTs ELT false alerts and the lack of a quick means of
documentation. The FAAs 406 MHz ELT Technical verifying the actual status of an activated 121.5 MHz
Standard Order (TSO) TSOC126 also requires that or 243.0 MHz analog ELT through an owner
each 406 MHz ELT be registered with NOAA. The registration database, U.S. SAR forces do not
reason is NOAA maintains the owner registration respond as quickly to initial 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT
database for U.S. registered 406 MHz alerting alerts as the SAR forces do to 406 MHz ELT alerts.
devices, which includes ELTs. NOAA also operates Compared to the almost instantaneous detection of a
the United States portion of the CospasSarsat 406 MHz ELT, SAR forces normal practice is to wait
satellite distress alerting system designed to detect for either a confirmation of a 121.5/243.0 MHz alert
activated ELTs and other distress alerting devices. by additional satellite passes or through confirmation
(b) In the event that a properly registered of an overdue aircraft or similar notification. In some
406 MHz ELT activates, the CospasSarsat satellite cases, this confirmation process can take hours. SAR
system can decode the owners information and forces can initiate a response to 406 MHz alerts in
provide that data to the appropriate search and minutes compared to the potential delay of hours for
rescue (SAR) center. In the United States, NOAA a 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT.
provides the alert data to the appropriate U.S. Air 3. The CospasSarsat system has announced the
Force Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) or U.S. termination of satellite monitoring and reception of
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. That RCC the 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz frequencies in 2009.
can then telephone or contact the owner to verify the The CospasSarsat system will continue to monitor
status of the aircraft. If the aircraft is safely secured the 406 MHz frequency. What this means for pilots is
in a hangar, a costly ground or airborne search is that after the termination date, those aircraft with only
622 Emergency Services Available to Pilots

4/3/14 AIM
121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz ELTs onboard will have nance. These false alarms can be minimized by
to depend upon either a nearby Air Traffic Control monitoring 121.5 MHz and/or 243.0 MHz as follows:
facility receiving the alert signal or an overflying
(a) In flight when a receiver is available.
aircraft monitoring 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz
detecting the alert. To ensure adequate monitoring of (b) Before engine shut down at the end of
these frequencies and timely alerts after 2009, all each flight.
airborne pilots should periodically monitor these (c) When the ELT is handled during installa-
frequencies to try and detect an activated tion or maintenance.
121.5/243.0 MHz ELT.
(d) When maintenance is being performed
b. Testing. near the ELT.
1. ELTs should be tested in accordance with the (e) When a ground crew moves the aircraft.
manufacturers instructions, preferably in a shielded (f) If an ELT signal is heard, turn off the
or screened room or specially designed test container aircrafts ELT to determine if it is transmitting. If it
to prevent the broadcast of signals which could has been activated, maintenance might be required
trigger a false alert. before the unit is returned to the ARMED position.
2. When this cannot be done, aircraft operation- You should contact the nearest Air Traffic facility and
al testing is authorized as follows: notify it of the inadvertent activation.
d. Inflight Monitoring and Reporting.
(a) Analog 121.5/243 MHz ELTs should only
be tested during the first 5 minutes after any hour. If 1. Pilots are encouraged to monitor 121.5 MHz
operational tests must be made outside of this period, and/or 243.0 MHz while inflight to assist in
they should be coordinated with the nearest FAA identifying possible emergency ELT transmissions.
Control Tower or FSS. Tests should be no longer than On receiving a signal, report the following
three audible sweeps. If the antenna is removable, a information to the nearest air traffic facility:
dummy load should be substituted during test (a) Your position at the time the signal was
procedures. first heard.
(b) Digital 406 MHz ELTs should only be (b) Your position at the time the signal was
tested in accordance with the units manufacturers last heard.
instructions.
(c) Your position at maximum signal
(c) Airborne tests are not authorized. strength.
c. False Alarms. (d) Your flight altitudes and frequency on

which the emergency signal was heard: 121.5 MHz or
1. Caution should be exercised to prevent the 243.0 MHz. If possible, positions should be given
inadvertent activation of ELTs in the air or while they relative to a navigation aid. If the aircraft has homing
are being handled on the ground. Accidental or equipment, provide the bearing to the emergency
unauthorized activation will generate an emergency signal with each reported position.
signal that cannot be distinguished from the real
thing, leading to expensive and frustrating searches. 625. FAA K9 Explosives Detection
A false ELT signal could also interfere with genuine Team Program
emergency transmissions and hinder or prevent the
timely location of crash sites. Frequent false alarms a. The FAAs Office of Civil Aviation Security
could also result in complacency and decrease the Operations manages the FAA K9 Explosives
vigorous reaction that must be attached to all ELT Detection Team Program which was established in
signals. 1972. Through a unique agreement with law
enforcement agencies and airport authorities, the
2. Numerous cases of inadvertent activation FAA has strategically placed FAAcertified K9
have occurred as a result of aerobatics, hard landings, teams (a team is one handler and one dog) at airports
movement by ground crews and aircraft mainte- throughout the country. If a bomb threat is received

AIM 4/3/14
while an aircraft is in flight, the aircraft can be STL St. Louis, Missouri
directed to an airport with this capability. The FAA TUS Tucson, Arizona
provides initial and refresher training for all handlers, TUL Tulsa, Oklahoma
provides single purpose explosive detector dogs, and
requires that each team is annually evaluated in five
c. If due to weather or other considerations an
areas for FAA certification: aircraft (widebody and
aircraft with a suspected hidden explosive problem
narrowbody), vehicles, terminal, freight (cargo), and
were to land or intended to land at an airport other
luggage. If you desire this service, notify your
than those listed in b above, it is recommended that
company or an FAA air traffic control facility.
they call the FAAs Washington Operations Center
b. The following list shows the locations of (telephone 2022673333, if appropriate) or have an
current FAA K9 teams: air traffic facility with which you can communicate
contact the above center requesting assistance.
TBL 621
FAA Sponsored Explosives Detection
Dog/Handler Team Locations 626. Search and Rescue
Airport Symbol Location a. General. SAR is a lifesaving service provided

through the combined efforts of the federal agencies
ATL Atlanta, Georgia
signatory to the National SAR Plan, and the agencies
BHM Birmingham, Alabama
responsible for SAR within each state. Operational
BOS Boston, Massachusetts resources are provided by the U.S. Coast Guard,
BUF Buffalo, New York DOD components, the Civil Air Patrol, the Coast
CLT Charlotte, North Carolina Guard Auxiliary, state, county and local law
ORD Chicago, Illinois enforcement and other public safety agencies, and
CVG Cincinnati, Ohio private volunteer organizations. Services include
DFW Dallas, Texas search for missing aircraft, survival aid, rescue, and
emergency medical help for the occupants after an
DEN Denver, Colorado
accident site is located.
DTW Detroit, Michigan
IAH Houston, Texas b. National Search and Rescue Plan. By federal
interagency agreement, the National Search and
JAX Jacksonville, Florida
Rescue Plan provides for the effective use of all
MCI Kansas City, Missouri
available facilities in all types of SAR missions.
LAX Los Angeles, California These facilities include aircraft, vessels, pararescue
MEM Memphis, Tennessee and ground rescue teams, and emergency radio
MIA Miami, Florida fixing. Under the plan, the U.S. Coast Guard is
MKE Milwaukee, Wisconsin responsible for the coordination of SAR in the
MSY New Orleans, Louisiana Maritime Region, and the USAF is responsible in the
MCO Orlando, Florida Inland Region. To carry out these responsibilities, the
Coast Guard and the Air Force have established
PHX Phoenix, Arizona
Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs) to direct SAR
PIT Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania activities within their regions. For aircraft emergen-
PDX Portland, Oregon cies, distress, and urgency, information normally will
SLC Salt Lake City, Utah be passed to the appropriate RCC through an ARTCC
SFO San Francisco, California or FSS.
SJU San Juan, Puerto Rico c. Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers.
SEA Seattle, Washington (See TBL 622.)

4/3/14 AIM
TBL 622 f. Emergency and Overdue Aircraft.

Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers
1. ARTCCs and FSSs will alert the SAR system
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers when information is received from any source that an
Alameda, CA Miami, FL aircraft is in difficulty, overdue, or missing.
5104373701 3054156800 (a) Radar facilities providing radar flight
Boston, MA New Orleans, LA following or advisories consider the loss of radar and
6172238555 5045896225 radios, without service termination notice, to be a
Cleveland, OH Portsmouth, VA possible emergency. Pilots receiving VFR services
2169026117 7573986390 from radar facilities should be aware that SAR may
be initiated under these circumstances.
Honolulu, HI Seattle, WA
8085412500 2062207001 (b) A filed flight plan is the most timely and
Juneau, AK San Juan, PR effective indicator that an aircraft is overdue. Flight
9074632000 7872892042 plan information is invaluable to SAR forces for
search planning and executing search efforts.
d. Air Force Rescue Coordination Centers.
2. Prior to departure on every flight, local or
(See TBL 623 and TBL 624.)
otherwise, someone at the departure point should be
TBL 623 advised of your destination and route of flight if other
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center than direct. Search efforts are often wasted and rescue
48 Contiguous States is often delayed because of pilots who thoughtlessly
takeoff without telling anyone where they are going.
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center File a flight plan for your safety.
Tyndall AFB, Florida Phone
3. According to the National Search and Rescue
Commercial 8502835955
Plan, The life expectancy of an injured survivor
WATS 8008513051 decreases as much as 80 percent during the first
DSN 5235955 24 hours, while the chances of survival of uninjured
survivors rapidly diminishes after the first 3 days.
TBL 624
Air Command Rescue Coordination Center 4. An Air Force Review of 325 SAR missions
Alaska conducted during a 23month period revealed that
Time works against people who experience a
Alaskan Air Command Rescue distress but are not on a flight plan, since 36 hours
Coordination Center normally pass before family concern initiates an
Elmendorf AFB, Alaska Phone (alert).
Commercial 9074287230
g. VFR Search and Rescue Protection.
8004207230
(outside Anchorage) 1. To receive this valuable protection, file a VFR
DSN 3175517230 or DVFR Flight Plan with an FAA FSS. For
maximum protection, file only to the point of first
e. Joint Rescue Coordination Center. intended landing, and refile for each leg to final
(See TBL 625.) destination. When a lengthy flight plan is filed, with
TBL 625
several stops en route and an ETE to final destination,
Joint Rescue Coordination Center a mishap could occur on any leg, and unless other
Hawaii information is received, it is probable that no one
would start looking for you until 30 minutes after
Honolulu Joint Rescue Coordination Center your ETA at your final destination.
HQ 14th CG District
Phone 2. If you land at a location other than the
Honolulu
intended destination, report the landing to the nearest
Commercial 8085412500 FAA FSS and advise them of your original
DSN 4480301 destination.

AIM 4/3/14
3. If you land en route and are delayed more than signals illustrated on these pages can be used to
30 minutes, report this information to the nearest FSS transmit messages to the pilot circling over your
and give them your original destination. location.
4. If your ETE changes by 30 minutes or more, 2. Stand in the open when you make the signals.
report a new ETA to the nearest FSS and give them
your original destination. Remember that if you fail 3. Be sure the background, as seen from the air,
to respond within one-half hour after your ETA at is not confusing.
final destination, a search will be started to locate you.
4. Go through the motions slowly and repeat
5. It is important that you close your flight plan each signal until you are positive that the pilot
IMMEDIATELY AFTER ARRIVAL AT YOUR FINAL understands you.
DESTINATION WITH THE FSS DESIGNATED
WHEN YOUR FLIGHT PLAN WAS FILED. The pilot j. Observance of Downed Aircraft.
is responsible for closure of a VFR or DVFR flight 1. Determine if crash is marked with a yellow
plan; they are not closed automatically. This will cross; if so, the crash has already been reported and
prevent needless search efforts. identified.
6. The rapidity of rescue on land or water will
depend on how accurately your position may be 2. If possible, determine type and number of
determined. If a flight plan has been followed and aircraft and whether there is evidence of survivors.
your position is on course, rescue will be expedited. 3. Fix the position of the crash as accurately as
h. Survival Equipment. possible with reference to a navigational aid. If
possible, provide geographic or physical description
1. For flight over uninhabited land areas, it is of the area to aid ground search parties.
wise to take and know how to use survival equipment
for the type of climate and terrain. 4. Transmit the information to the nearest FAA
2. If a forced landing occurs at sea, chances for or other appropriate radio facility.
survival are governed by the degree of crew 5. If circumstances permit, orbit the scene to
proficiency in emergency procedures and by the guide in other assisting units until their arrival or until
availability and effectiveness of water survival you are relieved by another aircraft.
equipment.
6. Immediately after landing, make a complete
i. Body Signal Illustrations.
report to the nearest FAA facility, or Air Force or
1. If you are forced down and are able to attract Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. The report
the attention of the pilot of a rescue airplane, the body can be made by a long distance collect telephone call.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 621
GroundAir Visual Code for Use by Survivors
NO. MESSAGE CODE SYMBOL
1 Require assistance V
2 Require medical assistance X
3 No or Negative N
4 Yes or Affirmative Y
5 Proceeding in this direction
IF IN DOUBT, USE INTERNATIONAL SYMBOL

SOS
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Lay out symbols by using strips of fabric or parachutes, pieces of wood, stones, or any available material.
2. Provide as much color contrast as possible between material used for symbols and background against which symbols are exposed.
3. Symbols should be at least 10 feet high or larger. Care should be taken to lay out symbols exactly as shown.
4. In addition to using symbols, every effort is to be made to attract attention by means of radio, flares, smoke, or other available means.
5. On snow covered ground, signals can be made by dragging, shoveling or tramping. Depressed areas forming symbols will
appear black from the air.
6. Pilot should acknowledge message by rocking wings from side to side.
FIG 622
GroundAir Visual Code for use by Ground Search Parties
NO. MESSAGE CODE SYMBOL
1 Operation completed. L L L
2 We have found all personnel. L L
3 We have found only some personnel.
4
We are not able to continue.
Returning to base. X X
5
Have divided into two groups.
Each proceeding in direction indicated.
6 Information received that aircraft is in this direction.
7 Nothing found. Will continue search. N N

Note: These visual signals have been accepted for international use and appear in Annex 12 to the Convention on International
Civil Aviation.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 623 FIG 625

Urgent Medical Assistance Short Delay
NEED MEDICAL
ASSISTANCE-URGENT
Used only when life is at stake
FIG 624
All OK CAN PROCEED SHORTLY
WAIT IF PRACTICABLE
One arm horizontal
FIG 626
Long Delay
ALL OK-DO NOT WAIT
Wave one arm overhead

NEED MECHANICAL HELP
OR PARTS - LONG DELAY
Both arms horizontal

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 627 FIG 629

Drop Message Do Not Land Here
Make throwing motion DO NOT ATTEMPT

TO LAND HERE
Both arms waved across face
FIG 628 FIG 6210

Receiver Operates Land Here
LAND HERE
OUR RECEIVER IS Both arms forward horizontally,

OPERATING squatting and point in direction
of landing - Repeat
Cup hands over ears

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 6211 FIG 6213

Negative (Ground) Pick Us Up
NEGATIVE (NO)
White cloth waved horizontally PICK US UP-
PLANE ABANDONED
Both arms vertical
FIG 6212
Affirmative (Ground) FIG 6214
Affirmative (Aircraft)
Affirmative reply from aircraft:
AFFIRMATIVE (YES)
AFFIRMATIVE (YES) Dip nose of plane several times
White cloth waved vertically

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 6215 FIG 6216

Negative (Aircraft) Message received and understood (Aircraft)
Negative reply from aircraft:
Message received and understood by aircraft:

Day or moonlight - Rocking wings
Night - Green flashed from signal lamp
NEGATIVE (NO)
Fishtail plane
FIG 6217
Message received and NOT understood (Aircraft)
Message received and NOT understood by aircraft:

Day or moonlight - Making a complete right-hand circle
Night-Red flashes from signal lamp.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 3. Distress and Urgency Procedures
631. Distress and Urgency f. The station addressed should immediately

Communications acknowledge a distress or urgency message, provide
assistance, coordinate and direct the activities of
a. A pilot who encounters a distress or urgency assisting facilities, and alert the appropriate search
condition can obtain assistance simply by contacting and rescue coordinator if warranted. Responsibility
the air traffic facility or other agency in whose area of will be transferred to another station only if better
responsibility the aircraft is operating, stating the handling will result.
nature of the difficulty, pilots intentions and
assistance desired. Distress and urgency communica- g. All other stations, aircraft and ground, will
tions procedures are prescribed by the International continue to listen until it is evident that assistance is
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), however, and being provided. If any station becomes aware that the
have decided advantages over the informal procedure station being called either has not received a distress
described above. or urgency message, or cannot communicate with the
aircraft in difficulty, it will attempt to contact the
b. Distress and urgency communications proce- aircraft and provide assistance.
dures discussed in the following paragraphs relate to
the use of air ground voice communications. h. Although the frequency in use or other
frequencies assigned by ATC are preferable, the
c. The initial communication, and if considered following emergency frequencies can be used for
necessary, any subsequent transmissions by an distress or urgency communications, if necessary or
aircraft in distress should begin with the signal desirable:
MAYDAY, preferably repeated three times. The
signal PANPAN should be used in the same manner 1. 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz. Both have a
for an urgency condition. range generally limited to line of sight. 121.5 MHz is
guarded by direction finding stations and some
d. Distress communications have absolute priority military and civil aircraft. 243.0 MHz is guarded by
over all other communications, and the word military aircraft. Both 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are
MAYDAY commands radio silence on the frequency guarded by military towers, most civil towers, FSSs,
in use. Urgency communications have priority over and radar facilities. Normally ARTCC emergency
all other communications except distress, and the frequency capability does not extend to radar
word PANPAN warns other stations not to interfere coverage limits. If an ARTCC does not respond when
with urgency transmissions. called on 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz, call the nearest
tower or FSS.
e. Normally, the station addressed will be the
air traffic facility or other agency providing air traffic 2. 2182 kHz. The range is generally less than
services, on the frequency in use at the time. If the 300 miles for the average aircraft installation. It can
pilot is not communicating and receiving services, be used to request assistance from stations in the
the station to be called will normally be the air traffic maritime service. 2182 kHz is guarded by major radio
facility or other agency in whose area of responsibil- stations serving Coast Guard Rescue Coordination
ity the aircraft is operating, on the appropriate Centers, and Coast Guard units along the sea coasts
assigned frequency. If the station addressed does not of the U.S. and shores of the Great Lakes. The call
respond, or if time or the situation dictates, the Coast Guard will alert all Coast Guard Radio
distress or urgency message may be broadcast, or a Stations within range. 2182 kHz is also guarded by
collect call may be used, addressing Any Station most commercial coast stations and some ships and
(Tower)(Radio)(Radar). boats.
Distress and Urgency Procedures 631

AIM 4/3/14
632. Obtaining Emergency Assistance REFERENCE

Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Fuel Remaining.
a. A pilot in any distress or urgency condition b. After establishing radio contact, comply with
should immediately take the following action, not advice and instructions received. Cooperate. Do not
necessarily in the order listed, to obtain assistance: hesitate to ask questions or clarify instructions when
1. Climb, if possible, for improved communica- you do not understand or if you cannot comply with
tions, and better radar and direction finding detection. clearance. Assist the ground station to control
However, it must be understood that unauthorized communications on the frequency in use. Silence
climb or descent under IFR conditions within interfering radio stations. Do not change frequency or
controlled airspace is prohibited, except as permitted change to another ground station unless absolutely
by 14 CFR Section 91.3(b). necessary. If you do, advise the ground station of the
new frequency and station name prior to the change,
2. If equipped with a radar beacon transponder transmitting in the blind if necessary. If twoway
(civil) or IFF/SIF (military): communications cannot be established on the new
(a) Continue squawking assigned Mode A/3 frequency, return immediately to the frequency or
discrete code/VFR code and Mode C altitude station where twoway communications last existed.
encoding when in radio contact with an air traffic c. When in a distress condition with bailout, crash
facility or other agency providing air traffic services, landing or ditching imminent, take the following
unless instructed to do otherwise. additional actions to assist search and rescue units:
(b) If unable to immediately establish com- 1. Time and circumstances permitting, transmit
munications with an air traffic facility/agency, as many as necessary of the message elements in
squawk Mode A/3, Code 7700/Emergency and subparagraph a3 above, and any of the following that
Mode C. you think might be helpful:
3. Transmit a distress or urgency message (a) ELT status.
consisting of as many as necessary of the following
(b) Visible landmarks.
elements, preferably in the order listed:
(c) Aircraft color.
(a) If distress, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAY
DAY; if urgency, PANPAN, PANPAN, PANPAN. (d) Number of persons on board.
(b) Name of station addressed. (e) Emergency equipment on board.
(c) Aircraft identification and type. 2. Actuate your ELT if the installation permits.
(d) Nature of distress or urgency. 3. For bailout, and for crash landing or ditching
if risk of fire is not a consideration, set your radio for
(e) Weather. continuous transmission.
(f) Pilots intentions and request. 4. If it becomes necessary to ditch, make every
(g) Present position, and heading; or if lost, effort to ditch near a surface vessel. If time permits,
last known position, time, and heading since that an FAA facility should be able to get the position of
position. the nearest commercial or Coast Guard vessel from a
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center.
(h) Altitude or flight level.
5. After a crash landing, unless you have good
(i) Fuel remaining in minutes. reason to believe that you will not be located by
search aircraft or ground teams, it is best to remain
(j) Number of people on board.
with your aircraft and prepare means for signaling
(k) Any other useful information. search aircraft.
632 Distress and Urgency Procedures

4/3/14 AIM
633. Ditching Procedures

FIG 631 FIG 633
Single Swell (15 knot wind) Double Swell (30 knot wind)
PRIMARY
SWELL SWELL
SECONDARY
SWELL
G
IN
H G
ITC IN ING
D D CH
EA DIT
H ING
AD
HE
WIND
WIND
FIG 634
(50 knot wind)
FIG 632
Double Swell (15 knot wind)
SWELL
W
W
IN
IN
PRIMARY
D
D
SWELL G
IN
CH G
IT IN
D D
EA
H
SECONDARY
SWELL
Aircraft with low landing speeds - land into the wind.
Aircraft with high landing speeds - choose compromise

heading between wind and swell.
Both - land on back side of swell.

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 635
WindSwellDitch Heading
DIRECTION OF
SWELL MOVEMENT
BEST
GOOD
FAIR
GOOD
Landing parallel to the major swell
GOOD !! POOR!!!
KS IDE FACE
BAC
Landing on the face and back of swell
a. A successful aircraft ditching is dependent on 6. Secondary Swells. Those swell systems of

three primary factors. In order of importance they are: less height than the primary swell.
1. Sea conditions and wind. 7. Fetch. The distance the waves have been
driven by a wind blowing in a constant direction,
2. Type of aircraft. without obstruction.
3. Skill and technique of pilot. 8. Swell Period. The time interval between the
b. Common oceanographic terminology. passage of two successive crests at the same spot in
the water, measured in seconds.
1. Sea. The condition of the surface that is the
result of both waves and swells. 9. Swell Velocity. The speed and direction of
the swell with relation to a fixed reference point,
2. Wave (or Chop). The condition of the measured in knots. There is little movement of water
surface caused by the local winds. in the horizontal direction. Swells move primarily in
3. Swell. The condition of the surface which a vertical motion, similar to the motion observed
has been caused by a distance disturbance. when shaking out a carpet.
4. Swell Face. The side of the swell toward the 10. Swell Direction. The direction from which
observer. The backside is the side away from the a swell is moving. This direction is not necessarily the
observer. These definitions apply regardless of the result of the wind present at the scene. The swell may
direction of swell movement. be moving into or across the local wind. Swells, once
set in motion, tend to maintain their original direction
5. Primary Swell. The swell system having the for as long as they continue in deep water, regardless
greatest height from trough to crest. of changes in wind direction.

4/3/14 AIM
11. Swell Height. The height between crest swell, the choice will depend on the velocity of the
and trough, measured in feet. The vast majority of wind versus the velocity and height of the secondary
ocean swells are lower than 12 to 15 feet, and swells swell.
over 25 feet are not common at any spot on the d. The simplest method of estimating the wind
oceans. Successive swells may differ considerably in direction and velocity is to examine the windstreaks
height. on the water. These appear as long streaks up and
c. In order to select a good heading when ditching down wind. Some persons may have difficulty
an aircraft, a basic evaluation of the sea is required. determining wind direction after seeing the streaks on
Selection of a good ditching heading may well the water. Whitecaps fall forward with the wind but
minimize damage and could save your life. It can be are overrun by the waves thus producing the illusion
extremely dangerous to land into the wind without that the foam is sliding backward. Knowing this, and
regard to sea conditions; the swell system, or systems, by observing the direction of the streaks, the wind
must be taken into consideration. Remember one direction is easily determined. Wind velocity can be
axiom AVOID THE FACE OF A SWELL. estimated by noting the appearance of the whitecaps,
foam and wind streaks.
1. In ditching parallel to the swell, it makes little
difference whether touchdown is on the top of the 1. The behavior of the aircraft on making
crest or in the trough. It is preferable, however, to land contact with the water will vary within wide limits
on the top or back side of the swell, if possible. After according to the state of the sea. If landed parallel to
determining which heading (and its reciprocal) will a single swell system, the behavior of the aircraft may
parallel the swell, select the heading with the most approximate that to be expected on a smooth sea. If
into the wind component. landed into a heavy swell or into a confused sea, the
deceleration forces may be extremely greatresulting
2. If only one swell system exists, the problem in breaking up of the aircraft. Within certain limits,
is relatively simpleeven with a high, fast system. the pilot is able to minimize these forces by proper sea
Unfortunately, most cases involve two or more swell evaluation and selection of ditching heading.
systems running in different directions. With more 2. When on final approach the pilot should look
than one system present, the sea presents a confused ahead and observe the surface of the sea. There may
appearance. One of the most difficult situations be shadows and whitecapssigns of large seas.
occurs when two swell systems are at right angles. Shadows and whitecaps close together indicate short
For example, if one system is eight feet high, and the and rough seas. Touchdown in these areas is to be
other three feet, plan to land parallel to the primary avoided. Select and touchdown in any area (only
system, and on the down swell of the secondary about 500 feet is needed) where the shadows and
system. If both systems are of equal height, a whitecaps are not so numerous.
compromise may be advisableselect an intermediate
heading at 45 degrees down swell to both systems. 3. Touchdown should be at the lowest speed and
When landing down a secondary swell, attempt to rate of descent which permit safe handling and
touch down on the back side, not on the face of the optimum nose up attitude on impact. Once first
swell. impact has been made, there is often little the pilot can
do to control a landplane.
3. If the swell system is formidable, it is
considered advisable, in landplanes, to accept more e. Once preditching preparations are completed,
crosswind in order to avoid landing directly into the the pilot should turn to the ditching heading and
swell. commence letdown. The aircraft should be flown
low over the water, and slowed down until ten knots
4. The secondary swell system is often from the or so above stall. At this point, additional power
same direction as the wind. Here, the landing may be should be used to overcome the increased drag caused
made parallel to the primary system, with the wind by the nose up attitude. When a smooth stretch of
and secondary system at an angle. There is a choice water appears ahead, cut power, and touchdown at the
to two directions paralleling the primary system. One best recommended speed as fully stalled as possible.
direction is downwind and down the secondary swell, By cutting power when approaching a relatively
and the other is into the wind and into the secondary smooth area, the pilot will prevent overshooting and

AIM 4/3/14
will touchdown with less chance of planing off into made just after passage of the crest. If contact is made
a second uncontrolled landing. Most experienced on the face of the swell, the aircraft may be swamped
seaplane pilots prefer to make contact with the water or thrown violently into the air, dropping heavily into
in a semistalled attitude, cutting power as the tail the next swell. If control surfaces remain intact, the
makes contact. This technique eliminates the chance pilot should attempt to maintain the proper nose
of misjudging altitude with a resultant heavy drop in above the horizon attitude by rapid and positive use
a fully stalled condition. Care must be taken not to of the controls.
drop the aircraft from too high altitude or to balloon
f. After Touchdown. In most cases drift, caused
due to excessive speed. The altitude above water
by crosswind can be ignored; the forces acting on the
depends on the aircraft. Over glassy smooth water, or
aircraft after touchdown are of such magnitude that
at night without sufficient light, it is very easy, for
drift will be only a secondary consideration. If the
even the most experienced pilots to misjudge altitude
aircraft is under good control, the crab may be
by 50 feet or more. Under such conditions, carry
kicked out with rudder just prior to touchdown. This
enough power to maintain nine to twelve degrees
is more important with high wing aircraft, for they are
nose up attitude, and 10 to 20 percent over stalling
laterally unstable on the water in a crosswind and may
speed until contact is made with the water. The proper
roll to the side in ditching.
use of power on the approach is of great importance.
REFERENCE
If power is available on one side only, a little power This information has been extracted from Appendix H of the National
should be used to flatten the approach; however, the Search and Rescue Manual.
engine should not be used to such an extent that the
aircraft cannot be turned against the good engines 634. Special Emergency (Air Piracy)
right down to the stall with a margin of rudder
movement available. When near the stall, sudden a. A special emergency is a condition of air piracy,
application of excessive unbalanced power may or other hostile act by a person(s) aboard an aircraft,
result in loss of directional control. If power is which threatens the safety of the aircraft or its
available on one side only, a slightly higher than passengers.
normal glide approach speed should be used. This b. The pilot of an aircraft reporting a special
will ensure good control and some margin of speed emergency condition should:
after leveling off without excessive use of power. The
1. If circumstances permit, apply distress or
use of power in ditching is so important that when it
urgency radiotelephony procedures. Include the
is certain that the coast cannot be reached, the pilot
details of the special emergency.
should, if possible, ditch before fuel is exhausted. The
use of power in a night or instrument ditching is far REFERENCE
AIM, Distress and Urgency Communications, Paragraph 631.
more essential than under daylight contact
conditions. 2. If circumstances do not permit the use of
prescribed distress or urgency procedures, transmit:
1. If no power is available, a greater than normal (a) On the air/ground frequency in use at the
approach speed should be used down to the flareout. time.
This speed margin will allow the glide to be broken
early and more gradually, thereby giving the pilot (b) As many as possible of the following
time and distance to feel for the surface decreasing elements spoken distinctly and in the following order:
the possibility of stalling high or flying into the water. (1) Name of the station addressed (time and
When landing parallel to a swell system, little circumstances permitting).
difference is noted between landing on top of a crest
(2) The identification of the aircraft and
or in the trough. If the wings of aircraft are trimmed
present position.
to the surface of the sea rather than the horizon, there
is little need to worry about a wing hitting a swell (3) The nature of the special emergency
crest. The actual slope of a swell is very gradual. If condition and pilot intentions (circumstances
forced to land into a swell, touchdown should be permitting).

4/3/14 AIM
(4) If unable to provide this information, 1. Maintain a true airspeed of no more than
use code words and/or transponder as follows: 400 knots, and preferably an altitude of between
10,000 and 25,000 feet.
Spoken Words
TRANSPONDER SEVEN FIVE ZERO ZERO 2. Fly a course toward the destination which the
hijacker has announced.
Meaning
I am being hijacked/forced to a new destination e. If these procedures result in either radio contact
Transponder Setting or air intercept, the pilot will attempt to comply with
Mode 3/A, Code 7500 any instructions received which may direct the
aircraft to an appropriate landing field or alter the
NOTE aircrafts flight path off its current course, away from
Code 7500 will never be assigned by ATC without prior
protected airspace.
notification from the pilot that the aircraft is being
subjected to unlawful interference. The pilot should refuse
the assignment of Code 7500 in any other situation and 635. Fuel Dumping
inform the controller accordingly. Code 7500 will trigger
the special emergency indicator in all radar ATC facilities. a. Should it become necessary to dump fuel, the
c. Air traffic controllers will acknowledge and pilot should immediately advise ATC. Upon receipt
confirm receipt of transponder Code 7500 by asking of information that an aircraft will dump fuel, ATC
the pilot to verify it. If the aircraft is not being will broadcast or cause to be broadcast immediately
subjected to unlawful interference, the pilot should and every 3 minutes thereafter the following on
respond to the query by broadcasting in the clear that appropriate ATC and FSS radio frequencies:
the aircraft is not being subjected to unlawful EXAMPLE
interference. Upon receipt of this information, the Attention all aircraft fuel dumping in progress over
controller will request the pilot to verify the code (location) at (altitude) by (type aircraft) (flight direction).
selection depicted in the code selector windows in the b. Upon receipt of such a broadcast, pilots of
transponder control panel and change the code to the aircraft affected, which are not on IFR flight plans or
appropriate setting. If the pilot replies in the special VFR clearances, should clear the area
affirmative or does not reply, the controller will not specified in the advisory. Aircraft on IFR flight plans
ask further questions but will flight follow, respond to or special VFR clearances will be provided specific
pilot requests and notify appropriate authorities. separation by ATC. At the termination of the fuel
d. If it is possible to do so without jeopardizing the dumping operation, pilots should advise ATC. Upon
safety of the flight, the pilot of a hijacked passenger receipt of such information, ATC will issue, on the
aircraft, after departing from the cleared routing over appropriate frequencies, the following:
which the aircraft was operating, will attempt to do EXAMPLE
one or more of the following things, insofar as ATTENTION ALL AIRCRAFT FUEL DUMPING BY
circumstances may permit: (type aircraft) TERMINATED.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 4. Two-way Radio Communications Failure
641. Two-way Radio Communications required to land at an unauthorized airport, at an airport

Failure unsuitable for the type of aircraft flown, or to land only
minutes short of their intended destination.
a. It is virtually impossible to provide regulations
3. IFR conditions. If the failure occurs in IFR
and procedures applicable to all possible situations
conditions, or if subparagraph 2 above cannot be
associated with two-way radio communications
complied with, each pilot must continue the flight
failure. During two-way radio communications
according to the following:
failure, when confronted by a situation not covered in
the regulation, pilots are expected to exercise good (a) Route.
judgment in whatever action they elect to take. (1) By the route assigned in the last ATC
Should the situation so dictate they should not be clearance received;
reluctant to use the emergency action contained in
14 CFR Section 91.3(b). (2) If being radar vectored, by the direct
route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route,
b. Whether two-way communications failure or airway specified in the vector clearance;
constitutes an emergency depends on the circum-
stances, and in any event, it is a determination made (3) In the absence of an assigned route, by
by the pilot. 14 CFR Section 91.3(b) authorizes a the route that ATC has advised may be expected in a
pilot to deviate from any rule in Subparts A and B to further clearance; or
the extent required to meet an emergency. (4) In the absence of an assigned route or a
c. In the event of two-way radio communications route that ATC has advised may be expected in a
failure, ATC service will be provided on the basis that further clearance by the route filed in the flight plan.
the pilot is operating in accordance with 14 CFR (b) Altitude. At the HIGHEST of the
Section 91.185. A pilot experiencing two-way following altitudes or flight levels FOR THE ROUTE
communications failure should (unless emergency SEGMENT BEING FLOWN:
authority is exercised) comply with 14 CFR
Section 91.185 quoted below: (1) The altitude or flight level assigned in
the last ATC clearance received;
1. General. Unless otherwise authorized by
(2) The minimum altitude (converted, if
ATC, each pilot who has two-way radio communica-
appropriate, to minimum flight level as prescribed in
tions failure when operating under IFR must comply
14 CFR Section 91.121(c)) for IFR operations; or
with the rules of this section.
(3) The altitude or flight level ATC has
2. VFR conditions. If the failure occurs in advised may be expected in a further clearance.
VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encoun-
tered after the failure, each pilot must continue the NOTE
flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable. The intent of the rule is that a pilot who has experienced
two-way radio failure should select the appropriate
NOTE altitude for the particular route segment being flown and
This procedure also applies when two-way radio failure make the necessary altitude adjustments for subsequent
occurs while operating in Class A airspace. The primary route segments. If the pilot received an expect further
objective of this provision in 14 CFR Section 91.185 is to clearance containing a higher altitude to expect at a
preclude extended IFR operation by these aircraft within specified time or fix, maintain the highest of the following
the ATC system. Pilots should recognize that operation altitudes until that time/fix:
under these conditions may unnecessarily as well as
adversely affect other users of the airspace, since ATC may (1) the last assigned altitude; or
be required to reroute or delay other users in order to (2) the minimum altitude/flight level for IFR
protect the failure aircraft. However, it is not intended that operations.
the requirement to land as soon as practicable be
construed to mean as soon as possible. Pilots retain the Upon reaching the time/fix specified, the pilot should
prerogative of exercising their best judgment and are not commence climbing to the altitude advised to expect. If the
Two-way Radio Communications Failure 641

AIM 4/3/14
radio failure occurs after the time/fix specified, the altitude calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC)
to be expected is not applicable and the pilot should Estimated Time En Route (ETE).
maintain an altitude consistent with 1 or 2 above. If the
pilot receives an expect further clearance containing a (2) If the clearance limit is not a fix from
lower altitude, the pilot should maintain the highest of 1 or which an approach begins, leave the clearance limit
2 above until that time/fix specified in subparagraph (c) at the expect further clearance time if one has been
Leave clearance limit, below. received, or if none has been received, upon arrival
EXAMPLE over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from
1. A pilot experiencing two-way radio failure at an which an approach begins and commence descent or
assigned altitude of 7,000 feet is cleared along a direct descent and approach as close as possible to the
route which will require a climb to a minimum IFR altitude estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed
of 9,000 feet, should climb to reach 9,000 feet at the time or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.
or place where it becomes necessary (see 14 CFR
Section 91.177(b)). Later while proceeding along an 642. Transponder Operation During
airway with an MEA of 5,000 feet, the pilot would descend
Two-way Communications Failure
to 7,000 feet (the last assigned altitude), because that
altitude is higher than the MEA. a. If an aircraft with a coded radar beacon
2. A pilot experiencing two-way radio failure while being transponder experiences a loss of two-way radio
progressively descended to lower altitudes to begin an capability, the pilot should adjust the transponder to
approach is assigned 2,700 feet until crossing the VOR and reply on Mode A/3, Code 7600.
then cleared for the approach. The MOCA along the airway b. The pilot should understand that the aircraft
is 2,700 feet and MEA is 4,000 feet. The aircraft is within
may not be in an area of radar coverage.
22 NM of the VOR. The pilot should remain at 2,700 feet
until crossing the VOR because that altitude is the
minimum IFR altitude for the route segment being flown. 643. Reestablishing Radio Contact
3. The MEA between a and b: 5,000 feet. The MEA a. In addition to monitoring the NAVAID voice
between b and c: 5,000 feet. The MEA between c and d: feature, the pilot should attempt to reestablish
11,000 feet. The MEA between d and e: 7,000 feet. A pilot communications by attempting contact:
had been cleared via a, b, c, d, to e. While flying between
a and b the assigned altitude was 6,000 feet and the pilot 1. On the previously assigned frequency; or
was told to expect a clearance to 8,000 feet at b. Prior to 2. With an FSS or *ARINC.
receiving the higher altitude assignment, the pilot
experienced two-way failure. The pilot would maintain b. If communications are established with an FSS
6,000 to b, then climb to 8,000 feet (the altitude advised to or ARINC, the pilot should advise that radio
expect). The pilot would maintain 8,000 feet, then climb to communications on the previously assigned frequen-
11,000 at c, or prior to c if necessary to comply with an cy has been lost giving the aircrafts position, altitude,
MCA at c. (14 CFR Section 91.177(b).) Upon reaching d, last assigned frequency and then request further
the pilot would descend to 8,000 feet (even though the MEA clearance from the controlling facility. The preceding
was 7,000 feet), as 8,000 was the highest of the altitude does not preclude the use of 121.5 MHz. There is no
situations stated in the rule (14 CFR Section 91.185). priority on which action should be attempted first. If
(c) Leave clearance limit. the capability exists, do all at the same time.
NOTE
(1) When the clearance limit is a fix from
*Aeronautical Radio/Incorporated (ARINC) is a commer-
which an approach begins, commence descent or cial communications corporation which designs,
descent and approach as close as possible to the constructs, operates, leases or otherwise engages in radio
expect further clearance time if one has been activities serving the aviation community. ARINC has the
received, or if one has not been received, as close as capability of relaying information to/from ATC facilities
possible to the Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) as throughout the country.
642 Two-way Radio Communications Failure

4/3/14 AIM
Section 5. Aircraft Rescue and

Fire Fighting Communications
651. Discrete Emergency Frequency 652. Radio Call Signs

a. Direct contact between an emergency aircraft Preferred radio call sign for the ARFF IC is
flight crew, Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (location/facility) Command when communica-
Incident Commander (ARFF IC), and the Airport ting with the flight crew and the FAA ATCT.
Traffic Control Tower (ATCT), is possible on an EXAMPLE
aeronautical radio frequency (Discrete Emergency LAX Command.
Frequency [DEF]), designated by Air Traffic Washington Command.
Control (ATC) from the operational frequencies
assigned to that facility. 653. ARFF Emergency Hand Signals
b. Emergency aircraft at airports without an In the event that electronic communications cannot
ATCT, (or when the ATCT is closed), may contact the be maintained between the ARFF IC and the flight
ARFF IC (if ARFF service is provided), on the crew, standard emergency hand signals as depicted in
Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) FIG 651 through FIG 653 should be used. These
published for the airport or the civil emergency hand signals should be known and understood by all
frequency 121.5 MHz. cockpit and cabin aircrew, and all ARFF firefighters.
FIG 651
Recommend Evacuation
FIG 652
Recommend Stop
Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications 651

AIM 4/3/14
FIG 653
Emergency Contained
652 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications

4/3/14 AIM
Chapter 7. Safety of Flight

711. National Weather Service Aviation 176 locations in the 48 contiguous States and
Products 21 locations in Alaska for flight planning purposes.
(Winds aloft forecasts for Hawaii are prepared
a. Weather service to aviation is a joint effort of the locally.) All the aviation weather forecasts are given
National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal wide distribution through the Weather Message
Aviation Administration (FAA), the military weather Switching Center Replacement (WMSCR) in
services, and other aviation oriented groups and Atlanta, Georgia, and Salt Lake City, Utah.
individuals. The NWS maintains an extensive
REFERENCE
surface, upper air, and radar weather observing AIM, Para 716, Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories.
program; a nationwide aviation weather forecasting
service; and provides limited pilot briefing service c. Weather element values may be expressed by
(interpretational). Pilot weather briefings are pro- using different measurement systems depending on
vided by personnel at Flight Service Stations several factors, such as whether the weather products
operated by FAA (in Alaska) or by federal contract will be used by the general public, aviation interests,
facilities (elsewhere in the U.S.). Aviation routine international services, or a combination of these
weather reports (METAR) are taken manually by users. FIG 711 provides conversion tables for the
NWS, FAA, contractors, or supplemental observers. most used weather elements that will be encountered
METAR reports are also provided by Automated by pilots.
Weather Observing System (AWOS), Automated
Surface Observing System (ASOS), and Automated 712. FAA Weather Services
Weather Sensor System (AWSS). a. The FAA maintains a nationwide network of
REFERENCE Flight Service Stations (FSSs) to serve the weather
AIM, Para 7112, Weather Observing Programs.
needs of pilots. In addition, NWS meteorologists are
b. Aerodrome forecasts are prepared by 122 assigned to most ARTCCs as part of the Center
Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs). These offices Weather Service Unit (CWSU). They provide Center
prepare and distribute 625 aerodrome forecasts 4 Weather Advisories (CWAs) and gather weather
times daily for specific airports in the 50 States, information to support the needs of the FAA and other
Puerto Rico, the Caribbean and Pacific Islands. These users of the system.
forecasts are valid for 24 or 30 hours and amended as b. The primary source of preflight weather
required. A centralized aviation forecast program briefings is an individual briefing obtained from a
originating from the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) briefer at the FSS. These briefings, which are tailored
in Kansas City was implemented in October 1995. In to your specific flight, are available 24 hours a day
the conterminous U.S., all inflight advisories, through the use of the toll free number (1800WX
Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMETs), BRIEF). Numbers for these services can be found in
Convective SIGMETs, and Airmens Meteorological the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) under FAA
Information (AIRMETtext bulletins [WA] and and NWS Telephone Numbers section. They may
graphics [GAIRMETs]), and all Area Forecasts also be listed in the U.S. Government section of your
(FAs) (6 areas) are now issued by AWC. FAs are local telephone directory under Department of
prepared 3 times a day in the conterminous U.S. and Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration.
Alaska (4 times in Hawaii), and amended as required.
REFERENCE
Inflight advisories are issued only when conditions AIM, Para 714, Preflight Briefing, explains the types of preflight
warrant. Winds aloft forecasts are provided for briefings available and the information contained in each.
Meteorology 711
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 711
Weather Elements Conversion Tables
712 Meteorology
6/25/15
4/3/14 AIM
c. Other Sources of Weather Information REFERENCE

AIM, En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), Paragraph 715, gives
details on this service.
1. Telephone Information Briefing Service
(TIBS) (FSS); and in Alaska, Transcribed Weather 713. Use of Aviation Weather Products
Broadcast (TWEB) locations, and telephone access a. Air carriers and operators certificated under the
to the TWEB (TELTWEB) provide continuously provisions of 14 CFR Part 119 are required to use the
updated recorded weather information for short or aeronautical weather information systems defined in
local flights. Separate paragraphs in this section give the Operations Specifications issued to that certifi-
additional information regarding these services. cate holder by the FAA. These systems may utilize
REFERENCE
basic FAA/National Weather Service (NWS) weather
AIM, Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS), Paragraph 718. services, contractor or operatorproprietary weath-
AIM, Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) (Alaska Only), er services and/or Enhanced Weather Information
Paragraph 719.
System (EWINS) when approved in the Operations
2. Weather and aeronautical information are Specifications. As an integral part of this system
also available from numerous private industry approval, the procedures for collecting, producing
sources on an individual or contract pay basis. and disseminating aeronautical weather information,
Information on how to obtain this service should be as well as the crew member and dispatcher training to
available from local pilot organizations. support the use of system weather products, must be
accepted or approved.
3. Pilots can access the Direct User Access b. Operators not certificated under the provisions
Terminal System (DUATS) and Lockheed Martin of 14 CFR Part 119 are encouraged to use FAA/NWS
Flight Services with a current medical certificate via products through Flight Service Stations, Direct User
the internet. Pilots can receive preflight weather data Access Terminal System (DUATS), Lockheed
and file domestic VFR and IFR flight plans. The Martin Flight Services, and/or Flight Information
following are the contract DUATS vendors: ServicesBroadcast (FISB).
c. The suite of available aviation weather product
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) types is expanding, with the development of new
Internet Access: http://www.duats.com sensor systems, algorithms and forecast models. The
For customer service: (800) 3453828 FAA and NWS, supported by various weather
research laboratories and corporations under contract
Data Transformation Corporation (DTC) to the Government, develop and implement new
Internet Access: http://www.duat.com aviation weather product types. The FAAs NextGen
For customer service: (800) 2433828 Aviation Weather Research Program (AWRP)
facilitates collaboration between the NWS, the FAA,
Lockheed Martin Flight Services and various industry and research representatives.
Internet Access: http://www.1800wxbrief.com This collaboration ensures that user needs and
For customer service: (866) 9366826 technical readiness requirements are met before
experimental products mature to operational applica-
d. Inflight weather information is available from tion.
any FSS within radio range. The common frequency
for all FSSs is 122.2. Discrete frequencies for d. The AWRP manages the transfer of aviation
individual stations are listed in the A/FD. weather R&D to operational use through technical
review panels and conducting safety assessments to
ensure that newly developed aviation weather
1. Information on In-Flight Weather broadcasts.
products meet regulatory requirements and enhance
REFERENCE safety.
AIM, Inflight Weather Broadcasts, Paragraph 7110.
e. The AWRP review and decisionmaking
2. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) is process applies criteria to weather products at various
provided to serve the nonroutine weather needs of stages . The stages are composed of the following:
pilots in flight. 1. Sponsorship of user needs.
Meteorology 713
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
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2. R & D and controlled testing. h. With increased access to weather products via
the public Internet, the aviation community has
3. Experimental application.
access to an over whelming amount of weather
4. Operational application. information and data that support self-briefing. FAA
f. Pilots and operators should be aware that AC 00-45 (current edition) describes the weather
weather services provided by entities other than FAA, products distributed by the NWS. Pilots and
NWS or their contractors (such as the DUAT/DUATS operators using the public Internet to access weather
and Lockheed Martin Flight Services) may not meet from a third party vendor should request and/or
FAA/NWS quality control standards. Hence, review an appropriate description of services and
operators and pilots contemplating using such provider disclosure. This should include, but is not
services should request and/or review an appropriate limited to, the type of weather product (for example,
description of services and provider disclosure. This current weather or forecast weather), the currency of
should include, but is not limited to, the type of the product (i.e., product issue and valid times), and
weather product (e.g., current weather or forecast the relevance of the product. Pilots and operators
weather), the currency of the product (i.e., product should be cautious when using unfamiliar weather
issue and valid times), and the relevance of the products and when in doubt, consult with a Flight
product. Pilots and operators should be cautious Service Specialist.
when using unfamiliar products, or products not i. The development of new weather products,
supported by FAA/NWS technical specifications. coupled with the termination of some legacy textual
and graphical products may create confusion between
NOTE
When in doubt, consult with a FAA Flight Service Station regulatory requirements and the new products. All
Specialist. flightrelated, aviation weather decisions must be
based on all available pertinent weather products. As
g. In addition, pilots and operators should be every flight is unique and the weather conditions for
aware there are weather services and products that flight vary hour by hour, day to day, multiple
available from government organizations beyond the weather products may be necessary to meet aviation
scope of the AWRP process mentioned earlier in this weather regulatory requirements. Many new weather
section. For example, governmental agencies such as products now have a Precautionary Use Statement
the NWS and the Aviation Weather Center (AWC), or that details the proper use or application of the
research organizations such as the National Center specific product.
for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) display weather
model data and experimental products which j. The FAA has identified three distinct types of
require training and/or expertise to properly interpret weather information available to pilots and operators.
and use. These products are developmental proto- 1. Observations. Raw weather data collected
types that are subject to ongoing research and can by some type of sensor suite including surface and
change without notice. Therefore, some data on airborne observations, radar, lightning, satellite
display by government organizations, or government imagery, and profilers.
data on display by independent organizations may be 2. Analysis. Enhanced depiction and/or inter-
unsuitable for flight planning purposes. Operators pretation of observed weather data.
and pilots contemplating using such services should
3. Forecasts. Predictions of the development
request and/or review an appropriate description of
and/or movement of weather phenomena based on
services and provider disclosure. This should include,
meteorological observations and various mathemat-
but is not limited to, the type of weather product (for
ical models.
example, current weather or forecast weather), the
currency of the product (i.e., product issue and valid k. Not all sources of aviation weather information
times), and the relevance of the product. Pilots and are able to provide all three types of weather
operators should be cautious when using unfamiliar information. The FAA has determined that operators
weather products. and pilots may utilize the following approved sources
of aviation weather information:
NOTE
When in doubt, consult with a FAA Flight Service Station 1. Federal Government. The FAA and NWS
Specialist. collect raw weather data, analyze the observations,
714 Meteorology
1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
and produce forecasts. The FAA and NWS qualified and certificated by the NWS as Pilot
disseminate meteorological observations, analyses, Weather Briefers. They are not authorized to make
and forecasts through a variety of systems. In original forecasts, but are authorized to translate and
addition, the Federal Government is the only interpret available forecasts and reports directly into
approval authority for sources of weather observa- terms describing the weather conditions which you
tions; for example, contract towers and airport can expect along your flight route and at your
operators may be approved by the Feder al destination. Available aviation weather reports,
Government to provide weather observations. forecasts and aviation weather charts are displayed at
each FSS, for pilot use. Pilots should feel free to use
2. Enhanced Weather Information System these self briefing displays where available, or to ask
(EWINS). An EWINS is an FAA authorized, for a briefing or assistance from the specialist on duty.
proprietary system for tracking, evaluating, report- Three basic types of preflight briefings are available
ing, and forecasting the presence or lack of adverse to serve your specific needs. These are: Standard
weather phenomena. The FAA authorizes a certific- Briefing, Abbreviated Briefing, and Outlook Brief-
ate holder to use an EWINS to produce flight ing. You should specify to the briefer the type of
movement forecasts, adverse weather phenomena briefing you want, along with your appropriate
forecasts, and other meteorological advisories. For background information. This will enable the briefer
more detailed information regarding EWINS, see the to tailor the information to your intended flight. The
Aviation Weather Services Advisory Circular 0045 following paragraphs describe the types of briefings
and the Flight Standards Information Management available and the information provided in each
System 8900.1. briefing.
3. Commercial Weather Information REFERENCE
AIM, Preflight Preparation, Paragraph 511, for items that are
Providers. In general, commercial providers required.
produce proprietary weather products based on
NWS/FAA products with formatting and layout b. Standard Briefing. You should request a
modifications but no material changes to the weather Standard Briefing any time you are planning a flight
information itself. This is also referred to as and you have not received a previous briefing or have
repackaging. In addition, commercial providers not received preliminary information through mass
may produce analyses, forecasts, and other dissemination media; e.g., TIBS, TWEB (Alaska
proprietary weather products that substantially alter only), etc. International data may be inaccurate or
the information contained in governmentproduced incomplete. If you are planning a flight outside of
products. However, those proprietary weather U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will advise you
products that substantially alter government to check data as soon as practical after entering
produced weather products or information, may only foreign airspace, unless you advise that you have the
be approved for use by 14 CFR Part 121 and Part 135 international cautionary advisory. The briefer will
certificate holders if the commercial provider is automatically provide the following information in
EWINS qualified. the sequence listed, except as noted, when it is
applicable to your proposed flight.
NOTE
Commercial weather information providers contracted by 1. Adverse Conditions. Significant meteoro-
FAA to provide weather observations, analyses, and logical and/or aeronautical information that might
forecasts (e.g., contract towers) are included in the Federal influence the pilot to alter or cancel the proposed
Government category of approved sources by virtue of flight; for example, hazardous weather conditions,
maintaining required technical and quality assurance
airport closures, air traffic delays, etc. Pilots should
standards under Federal Government oversight.
be especially alert for current or forecast weather
that could reduce flight minimums below VFR or
714. Preflight Briefing IFR conditions. Pilots should also be alert for any
reported or forecast icing if the aircraft is not certified
a. Flight Service Stations (FSSs) are the primary for operating in icing conditions. Flying into areas
source for obtaining preflight briefings and inflight of icing or weather below minimums could have
weather information. Flight Service Specialists are disastrous results.
Meteorology 715
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
1/8/15
4/3/14
2. VFR Flight Not Recommended. When will interpolate wind directions and speeds between
VFR flight is proposed and sky conditions or levels and stations as necessary to provide expected
visibilities are present or forecast, surface or aloft, conditions at planned altitudes. (Heights are MSL.)
that, in the briefers judgment, would make flight Temperature information will be provided on request.
under VFR doubtful, the briefer will describe the 8. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs).
conditions, describe the affected locations, and use
the phrase VFR flight not recommended. This (a) Available NOTAM (D) information perti-
recommendation is advisory in nature. The final nent to the proposed flight, including special use
decision as to whether the flight can be conducted airspace (SUA) NOTAMs for restricted areas, aerial
safely rests solely with the pilot. Upon receiving a refueling, and night vision goggles (NVG).
VFR flight not recommended statement, the NOTE
nonIFR rated pilot will need to make a go or no go Other SUA NOTAMs (D), such as military operations
area (MOA), military training route (MTR), and warning
decision. This decision should be based on weighing
area NOTAMs, are considered upon request briefing
the current and forecast weather conditions against items as indicated in paragraph 714b10(a).
the pilots experience and ratings. The aircrafts
equipment, capabilities and limitations should also (b) Prohibited Areas P40, P49, P56,
be considered. and the special flight rules area (SFRA) for
Washington, DC.
NOTE
Pilots flying into areas of minimal VFR weather could (c) FSS briefers do not provide FDC NOTAM
encounter unforecasted lowering conditions that place the information for special instrument approach proce-
aircraft outside the pilots ratings and experience level. dures unless specifically asked. Pilots authorized by
This could result in spatial disorientation and/or loss of the FAA to use special instrument approach
control of the aircraft. procedures must specifically request FDC NOTAM
3. Synopsis. A brief statement describing the information for these procedures.
type, location and movement of weather systems NOTE
and/or air masses which might affect the proposed 1. NOTAM information may be combined with current
flight. conditions when the briefer believes it is logical to do so.
2. NOTAM (D) information and FDC NOTAMs which
NOTE have been published in the Notices to Airmen Publication
These first 3 elements of a briefing may be combined in any
are not included in pilot briefings unless a review of this
order when the briefer believes it will help to more clearly
publication is specifically requested by the pilot. For
describe conditions.
complete flight information you are urged to review the
4. Current Conditions. Reported weather printed NOTAMs in the Notices to Airmen Publication and
conditions applicable to the flight will be summarized the A/FD in addition to obtaining a briefing.
from all available sources; e.g., METARs/ SPECIs, 9. ATC Delays. Any known ATC delays and
PIREPs, RAREPs. This element will be omitted if the flow control advisories which might affect the
proposed time of departure is beyond 2 hours, unless proposed flight.
the information is specifically requested by the pilot.
10. Pilots may obtain the following from
5. En Route Forecast. Forecast en route flight service station briefers upon request:
conditions for the proposed route are summarized in (a) Information on SUA and SUArelated
logical order; i.e., departure/climbout, en route, and airspace, except those listed in paragraph 714b8.
descent. (Heights are MSL, unless the contractions
NOTE
AGL or CIG are denoted indicating that heights
1. For the purpose of this paragraph, SUA and related
are above ground.) airspace includes the following types of airspace: alert
6. Destination Forecast. The destination fore- area, military operations area (MOA), warning area, and
cast for the planned ETA. Any significant changes air traffic control assigned airspace (ATCAA). MTR data
within 1 hour before and after the planned arrival are includes the following types of airspace: IFR training
routes (IR), VFR training routes (VR), and slow training
included.
routes (SR).
7. Winds Aloft. Forecast winds aloft will be 2. Pilots are encouraged to request updated information
provided using degrees of the compass. The briefer from ATC facilities while in flight.
716 Meteorology
1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
(b) A review of the Notices to Airmen e. When filing a flight plan only, you will be asked
Publication for pertinent NOTAMs and Special if you require the latest information on adverse
Notices. conditions pertinent to the route of flight.
f. Inflight Briefing. You are encouraged to
(c) Approximate density altitude data. obtain your preflight briefing by telephone or in
person before departure. In those cases where you
(d) Information regarding such items as air need to obtain a preflight briefing or an update to a
traffic services and rules, customs/immigration previous briefing by radio, you should contact the
procedures, ADIZ rules, search and rescue, etc. nearest FSS to obtain this information. After
communications have been established, advise the
(e) GPS RAIM availability for 1 hour before specialist of the type briefing you require and provide
to 1 hour after ETA or a time specified by the pilot. appropriate background information. You will be
provided information as specified in the above
(f) Other assistance as required. paragraphs, depending on the type of briefing
requested. In addition, the specialist will recommend
c. Abbreviated Briefing. Request an Abbrevia- shifting to the Flight Watch frequency when
ted Briefing when you need information to conditions along the intended route indicate that it
supplement mass disseminated data, update a would be advantageous to do so. Remember that
previous briefing, or when you need only one or two weather conditions can change rapidly and that a go
specific items. Provide the briefer with appropriate or no go decision, as mentioned in paragraph
background information, the time you received the 714b2, should be assessed at all phases of flight.
previous information, and/or the specific items
needed. You should indicate the source of the g. Following any briefing, feel free to ask for any
information already received so that the briefer can information that you or the briefer may have missed
limit the briefing to the information that you have not or are not understood. This way, the briefer is able to
received, and/or appreciable changes in meteorologi- present the information in a logical sequence, and
cal/aeronautical conditions since your previous lessens the chance of important items being
briefing. To the extent possible, the briefer will overlooked.
provide the information in the sequence shown for a
Standard Briefing. If you request only one or two 715. En Route Flight Advisory Service
specific items, the briefer will advise you if adverse (EFAS)
conditions are present or forecast. (Adverse condi- a. EFAS (radio call Flight Watch) is a service
tions contain both meteorological and/or aeronautical specifically designed to provide en route aircraft with
information.) Details on these conditions will be timely and meaningful weather advisories pertinent
provided at your request. International data may be to the type of flight intended, route of flight, and
inaccurate or incomplete. If you are planning a flight altitude. In conjunction with this service, EFAS is
outside of U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will also a central collection and distribution point for
advise you to check data as soon as practical after pilot reported weather information. EFAS is provided
entering foreign airspace, unless you advise that you by specially trained FSS specialists controlling
have the international cautionary advisory. multiple Remote Communications Outlets covering
a large geographical area and is normally available
d. Outlook Briefing. You should request an throughout the conterminous U.S. and Puerto Rico
Outlook Briefing whenever your proposed time of from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. EFAS provides communica-
departure is six or more hours from the time of the tions capabilities for aircraft flying at 5,000 feet
briefing. The briefer will provide available forecast above ground level to 17,500 feet MSL on a common
data applicable to the proposed flight. This type of frequency of 122.0 MHz. Discrete EFAS frequencies
briefing is provided for planning purposes only. You have been established to ensure communications
should obtain a Standard or Abbreviated Briefing coverage from 18,000 through 45,000 MSL serving
prior to departure in order to obtain such items as in each specific ARTCC area. These discrete
adverse conditions, current conditions, updated frequencies may be used below 18,000 feet when
forecasts, winds aloft and NOTAMs, etc. coverage permits reliable communication.
Meteorology 717
1/8/15
AIM AIM
4/3/14
NOTE winds, turbulence, flight visibility, icing, etc.,

When an EFAS outlet is located in a time zone different from between pilots and flight watch specialists. Pilots are
the zone in which the flight watch control station is located, encouraged to report good weather as well as bad, and
the availability of service may be plus or minus one hour to confirm expected conditions as well as unexpected
from the normal operating hours.
to EFAS facilities.
b. In some regions of the contiguous U.S.,
especially those that are mountainous, it is necessary 716. Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories
to be above 5000 feet AGL in order to be at an altitude
a. Background
where the EFAS frequency, 122.0 MHz, is available.
Pilots should take this into account when flight 1. Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories are
planning. Other FSS communication frequencies forecasts to advise en route aircraft of development of
may be available at lower altitudes. See FIG 712. potentially hazardous weather. All inflight aviation
weather advisories in the conterminous U.S. are
c. Contact flight watch by using the name of the issued by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) in
ARTCC facility identification serving the area of Kansas City, Missouri. The Weather Forecast
your location, followed by your aircraft identifica- Office (WFO) in Honolulu issues advisories for the
tion, and the name of the nearest VOR to your Hawaiian Islands. In Alaska, the Alaska Aviation
position. The specialist needs to know this Weather Unit (AAWU) issues inflight aviation
approximate location to select the most appropriate weather advisories. All heights are referenced MSL,
transmitter/receiver outlet for communications except in the case of ceilings (CIG) which indicate
coverage. AGL.
EXAMPLE
2. There are three types of inflight aviation
Cleveland Flight Watch, Cessna One Two Three Four Kilo,
Mansfield VOR, over.
weather advisories: the SIGMET, the Convective
SIGMET, and the AIRMET (text or graphical
d. Charts depicting the location of the flight watch product). All of these advisories use the same location
control stations (parent facility) and the outlets they identifiers (either VORs, airports, or wellknown
use are contained in the A/FD. If you do not know in geographic areas) to describe the hazardous weather
which flight watch area you are flying, initiate contact areas. See FIG 713 and FIG 714. Graphics with
by using the words Flight Watch, your aircraft improved clarity can be found in the latest version of
identification, and the name of the nearest VOR. The Advisory Circular AC 0045 series, Aviation Weath-
facility will respond using the name of the flight er Services, which is available on the following Web
watch facility. site: http://www.faa.gov.
EXAMPLE 3. Two other weather products supplement
Flight Watch, Cessna One Two Three Four Kilo, these Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories:
Mansfield VOR,over.
(a) The Severe Weather Watch Bulle-
e. Radio outlets that provide En Route Flight tins (WWs), (with associated Alert Messages)
Advisory Service are listed regionally in the A/FDs. (AWW), and
f. EFAS is not intended to be used for filing or (b) The Center Weather Advisories (CWAs).
closing flight plans, position reporting, getting
complete preflight briefings, or obtaining random b. SIGMET (WS)/AIRMET (WA or
weather reports and forecasts. En route flight GAIRMET)
advisories are tailored to the phase of flight that SIGMETs/AIRMET text (WA) products are issued
begins after climb-out and ends with descent to land. corresponding to the Area Forecast (FA) areas
Immediate destination weather and terminal aero- described in FIG 715, FIG 716 and FIG 717.
drome forecasts will be provided on request. Pilots The maximum forecast period is 4 hours for
requesting information not within the scope of flight SIGMETs and 6 hours for AIRMETs. The
watch will be advised of the appropriate FSS GAIRMET is issued over the CONUS every 6
frequency to obtain the information. Pilot participa- hours, valid at 3hour increments through 12 hours
tion is essential to the success of EFAS by providing with optional forecasts possible during the first
a continuous exchange of information on weather, 6 hours. The first 6 hours of the GAIRMET
718 Meteorology
1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
correspond to the 6hour period of the AIRMET. Subsequent issuances are at the forecasters discre-
SIGMETs and AIRMETs are considered wide- tion. Issuance for the same phenomenon will be
spread because they must be either affecting or be sequentially numbered, using the original designator
forecasted to affect an area of at least 3,000 square until the phenomenon ends. For example, the first
miles at any one time. However, if the total area to be issuance in the Chicago (CHI) FA area for
affected during the forecast period is very large, it phenomenon moving from the Salt Lake City (SLC)
could be that in actuality only a small portion of this FA area will be SIGMET Papa 3, if the previous two
total area would be affected at any one time. issuances, Papa 1 and Papa 2, had been in the SLC FA
area. Note that no two different phenomena across the
c. SIGMET (WS)
country can have the same alphabetic designator at
1. A SIGMET advises of nonconvective the same time.
weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft.
EXAMPLE
SIGMETs are unscheduled products that are valid for Example of a SIGMET:
4 hours. However, conditions that are associated with BOSR WS 050600
hurricanes are valid for 6 hours. Unscheduled updates SIGMET ROMEO 2 VALID UNTIL 051000
and corrections are issued as necessary. In the ME NH VT
conterminous U.S., SIGMETs are issued when the FROM CAR TO YSJ TO CON TO MPV TO CAR
following phenomena occur or are expected to occur: OCNL SEV TURB BLW 080 EXP DUE TO STG NWLY
FLOW. CONDS CONTG BYD 1000Z.
(a) Severe icing not associated with thunder-
storms. d. Convective SIGMET (WST)
(b) Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air 1. Convective SIGMETs are issued in the
turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms. conterminous U.S. for any of the following:
(c) Widespread dust storms or sandstorms (a) Severe thunderstorm due to:
lowering surface visibilities to below 3 miles. (1) Surface winds greater than or equal to
(d) Volcanic ash. 50 knots.
2. In Alaska and Hawaii, SIGMETs are also (2) Hail at the surface greater than or equal
3/
to 4 inches in diameter.
issued for:
(a) Tornadoes. (3) Tornadoes.
(b) Lines of thunderstorms. (b) Embedded thunderstorms.
(c) Embedded thunderstorms. (c) A line of thunderstorms.
(d) Hail greater than or equal to 3/4 inch in (d) Thunderstorms producing precipitation
diameter. greater than or equal to heavy precipitation affecting
40 percent or more of an area at least 3,000 square
3. SIGMETs are identified by an alphabetic
miles.
designator from November through Yankee exclud-
ing Sierra and Tango. (Sierra, Tango, and Zulu are 2. Any convective SIGMET implies severe or
reserved for AIRMET text [WA] products; greater turbulence, severe icing, and lowlevel wind
GAIRMETS do not use the Sierra, Tango, or Zulu shear. A convective SIGMET may be issued for any
designators.) The first issuance of a SIGMET will be convective situation that the forecaster feels is
labeled as UWS (Urgent Weather SIGMET). hazardous to all categories of aircraft.
Meteorology 719
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 712
EFAS Radio Coverage Areas
NOTE
EFAS radio coverage at 5000 feet AGL. The shaded areas depict limited coverage areas in which altitudes above 5000 feet
AGL would be required to contact EFAS.
7110 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 713
Inflight Advisory Plotting Chart
Meteorology 7111
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 714
Geographical Areas and Terrain Features
7112 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 715
Aviation Area Forecasts
FA Locations Contiguous United States
Meteorology 7113
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 716
Alaska Area Forecast Sectors
FIG 717
Hawaii Area Forecast Locations
7114 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
3. Convective SIGMET bulletins are issued for forecasted to affect an area of at least 3,000 square
the western (W), central (C), and eastern (E) United miles at any one time. The International SIGMET is
States. (Convective SIGMETs are not issued for issued for 6 hours for volcanic ash events, 6 hours for
Alaska or Hawaii.) The areas are separated at 87 and hurricanes and tropical storms, and 4 hours for all
107 degrees west longitude with sufficient overlap to other events. Like the domestic SIGMETs, interna-
cover most cases when the phenomenon crosses the tional SIGMETs are also identified by an alphabetic
boundaries. Bulletins are issued hourly at H+55. designator from Alpha through Mike and are
Special bulletins are issued at any time as required numbered sequentially until that weather phenome-
and updated at H+55. If no criteria meeting non ends. The criteria for an international SIGMET
convective SIGMET requirements are observed or are:
forecasted, the message CONVECTIVE SIGMET...
(a) Thunderstorms occurring in lines, em-
NONE will be issued for each area at H+55.
bedded in clouds, or in large areas producing
Individual convective SIGMETs for each area (W, C,
tornadoes or large hail.
E) are numbered sequentially from number one each
day, beginning at 00Z. A convective SIGMET for a (b) Tropical cyclones.
continuing phenomenon will be reissued every hour
at H+55 with a new number. The text of the bulletin (c) Severe icing.
consists of either an observation and a forecast or just (d) Severe or extreme turbulence.
a forecast. The forecast is valid for up to 2 hours.
(e) Dust storms and sandstorms lowering
EXAMPLE visibilities to less than 3 miles.
CONVECTIVE SIGMET 44C
VALID UNTIL 1455Z (f) Volcanic ash.
AR TX OK EXAMPLE
FROM 40NE ADM-40ESE MLC-10W TXK-50WNW Example of an International SIGMET:
LFK-40ENE SJT-40NE ADM WSNT06 KKCI 022014
AREA TS MOV FROM 26025KT. TOPS ABV FL450. SIGA0F
OUTLOOK VALID 061455-061855 KZMA KZNY TJZS SIGMET FOXTROT 3 VALID
FROM 60WSW OKC-MLC-40N TXK-40WSW 022015/030015 KKCI MIAMI OCEANIC FIR NEW
IGB-VUZ-MGM-HRV-60S BTR-40N YORK OCEANIC FIR SAN JUAN FIR FRQ TS WI AREA
IAH-60SW SJT-40ENE LBB-60WSW OKC BOUNDED BY 2711N6807W 2156N6654W 2220N7040W
WST ISSUANCES EXPD. REFER TO MOST RECENT 2602N7208W 2711N6807W. TOPS TO FL470. MOV NE
ACUS01 KWNS FROM STORM PREDICTION CENTER 15KT. WKN. BASED ON SAT AND LTG OBS.
FOR SYNOPSIS AND METEOROLOGICAL DETAILS MOSHER
f. AIRMET
e. International SIGMET
1. AIRMETs (WAs) are advisories of signifi-
1. Some NWS offices have been designated by cant weather phenomena but describe conditions at
the ICAO as Meteorological Watch Offices (MWOs). intensities lower than those which require the
These offices are responsible for issuing International issuance of SIGMETs. AIRMETs are intended for
SIGMETs for designated areas that include Alaska, dissemination to all pilots in the preflight and en route
Hawaii, portions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, phase of flight to enhance safety. AIRMET
and the Gulf of Mexico. information is available in two formats: text bulletins
2. The offices which issue international (WA) and graphics (GAIRMET). Both formats meet
SIGMETs are: the criteria of paragraph 713i1 and are issued on a
scheduled basis every 6 hours beginning at
(a) The AWC in Kansas City, Missouri. 0245 UTC. Unscheduled updates and corrections are
(b) The AAWU in Anchorage, Alaska. issued as necessary. AIRMETs contain details about
IFR, extensive mountain obscuration, turbulence,
(c) The WFO in Honolulu, Hawaii. strong surface winds, icing, and freezing levels.
3. These SIGMETs are considered wide- 2. There are three AIRMETs: Sierra, Tango,
spread because they must be either affecting or be and Zulu. After the first issuance each day, scheduled
Meteorology 7115
AIM 4/3/14
or unscheduled bulletins are numbered sequentially TO 40SW BAM TO 100SE MLS

for easier identification. MOD TURB BTN FL310 AND FL410. CONDS
CONTG BYD 21Z ENDG 2100Z.
(a) AIRMET Sierra describes IFR conditions .
and/or extensive mountain obscurations. AIRMET TURB...NV AZ NM CA AND CSTL WTRS
FROM 100WSW ENI TO 40W BTY TO 40S LAS TO
(b) AIRMET Tango describes moderate
30ESE TBE TO INK TO ELP TO 50S TUS TO BZA
turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or TO 20S MZB TO 150SW PYE TO 100WSW ENI
greater, and/or nonconvective lowlevel wind shear. MOD TURB BTWN FL210 AND FL380. CONDS
(c) AIRMET Zulu describes moderate icing CONTG BYD 21Z THRU 03Z.
and provides freezing level heights. ....
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Example of AIRMET Zulu issued for the San Francisco
Example of AIRMET Sierra issued for the Chicago FA
FA area:
area:
SFOZ WA 131445
CHIS WA 131445
AIRMET ZULU UPDT 2 FOR ICE AND FRZLVL VALID
AIRMET SIERRA UPDT 2 FOR IFR AND MTN OBSCN
UNTIL 132100.
VALID UNTIL 132100.
NO SGFNT ICE EXP OUTSIDE OF CNVTV ACT.
AIRMET IFR...KY
.
FROM 20SSW HNN TO HMV TO 50ENE DYR TO20SSW
FRZLVL....RANGING FROM SFC105 ACRS AREA
HNN
MULT FRZLVL BLW 080 BOUNDED BY 40SE
CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM PCPN/BR/FG. CONDS
YDC60NNW GEG60SW MLP30WSW BKE
ENDG BY 18Z.
20SW BAM70W BAM40SW YKM40E HUH
.
40SE YDC
AIRMET IFR....MN LS
SFC ALG 20NNW HUH30SSE HUH60S SEA
FROM INL TO 70W YQT TO 40ENE DLH TO
50NW LKV60WNWOAL30SW OAL
30WNW DLH TO 50SE GFK TO 20 ENE GFK TO
040 ALG 40W HUH30W HUH30NNW SEA40N
INL
PDX20NNW DSD
CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM BR. CONDS ENDG 15
080 ALG 160NW FOT80SW ONP50SSW EUG
18Z.
40SSE OED50SSE CZQ60E EHF40WSW LAS
.
....
AIRMET IFR....KS
FROM 30N SLN TO 60E ICT TO 40S ICT TO 50W 3. Graphical AIRMETs (GAIRMETs),
LBL TO 30SSW GLD TO 30N SLN found on the Aviation Weather Center webpage at
CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM PCPN/BR/FG. CONDS http://aviationweather.gov, are graphical forecasts of
ENDG 1518Z. enroute weather hazards valid at discrete times no
. more than 3 hours apart for a period of up to 12 hours
AIRMET MTN OBSCN...KY TN into the future (for example, 00, 03, 06, 09, and 12
FROM HNN TO HMV TO GQO TO LOZ TO HNN
hours). Additional forecasts may be inserted during
MTN OBSC BY CLDS/PCPN/BR. CONDS CONTG
BYD 21Z THRU 03Z.
the first 6 hours (for example, 01, 02, 04, and 05). 00
..... hour represents the initial conditions, and the
subsequent graphics depict the area affected by the
EXAMPLE
particular hazard at that valid time. Forecasts valid at
Example of AIRMET Tango issued for the Salt Lake City
FA area: 00 through 06 hours correspond to the text AIRMET
SLCT WA 131445 bulletin. Forecasts valid at 06 through 12 hours
AIRMET TANGO UPDT 2 FOR TURB VALID UNTIL correspond to the text bulletin outlook. GAIRMET
132100. depicts the following en route aviation weather
AIRMET TURB...MT hazards:
FROM 40NW HVR TO 50SE BIL TO 60E DLN TO
(a) Instrument flight rule conditions (ceiling
60SW YQL TO 40NW HVR
MOD TURB BLW 150. CONDS DVLPG 1821Z.
< 1000 and/or surface visibility <3 miles)
CONDS CONTG BYD 21Z THRU 03Z. (b) Mountain obscuration
.
(c) Icing
AIRMET TURB....ID MT WY NV UT CO
FROM 100SE MLS TO 50SSW BFF TO 20SW BTY (d) Freezing level
7116 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
(e) Turbulence 3. A tornado watch describes areas where the

threat of tornadoes exists.
(f) Low level wind shear (LLWS)
4. In order to alert the WFOs, CWSUs, FSSs,
(g) Strong surface winds and other users, a preliminary notification of a watch
GAIRMETs are snap shots at discrete time intervals called the Alert Severe Weather Watch bulletin
as defined above. The text AIRMET is the result of (AWW) is sent before the WW. (WFOs know this
the production of the GAIRMET but provided in a product as a SAW).
time smear for a 6hr valid period. GAIRMETs EXAMPLE
provide a higher forecast resolution than text Example of an AWW:
AIRMET products. Since GAIRMETs and text MKC AWW 011734
AIRMETs are created from the same forecast WW 75 TORNADO TX OK AR 011800Z020000Z
production process, there exists perfect consist- AXIS..80 STATUTE MILES EAST AND WEST OF A
LINE..60ESE DAL/DALLAS TX/ 30 NW ARG/ WALNUT
ency between the two. Using the two together will
RIDGE AR/
provide clarity of the area impacted by the weather
hazard and improve situational awareness and ..AVIATION COORDS.. 70NM E/W /58W GGG 25NW
decision making. ARG/
HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT..1 3/4 INCHES. WIND
Interpolation of time periods between GAIRMET
GUSTS..70 KNOTS. MAX TOPS TO 450. MEAN WIND
valid times: Users must keep in mind when using the VECTOR 24045.
GAIRMET that if a 00 hour forecast shows no
significant weather and a 03 hour forecast shows 5. Soon after the AWW goes out, the actual
hazardous weather, they must assume a change is watch bulletin itself is issued. A WW is in the
occurring during the period between the two following format:
forecasts. It should be taken into consideration that (a) Type of severe weather watch, watch area,
the hazardous weather starts immediately after the 00 valid time period, type of severe weather possible,
hour forecast unless there is a defined initiation or watch axis, meaning of a watch, and a statement that
ending time for the hazardous weather. The same persons should be on the lookout for severe weather.
would apply after the 03 hour forecast. The user
(b) Other watch information; i.e., references
should assume the hazardous weather condition
to previous watches.
is occurring between the snap shots unless informed
otherwise. For example, if a 00 hour forecast shows (c) Phenomena, intensities, hail size, wind
no hazard, a 03 hour forecast shows the presence of speed (knots), maximum cumulonimbus (CB) tops,
hazardous weather, and a 06 hour forecast shows no and estimated cell movement (mean wind vector).
hazard, the user should assume the hazard exists from (d) Cause of severe weather.
the 0001 hour to the 0559 hour time period.
(e) Information on updating Convective
EXAMPLE Outlook (AC) products.
See FIG 718 for an example of the GAIRMET
graphical product. EXAMPLE
Example of a WW:
g. Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WWs) and BULLETIN IMMEDIATE BROADCAST REQUESTED
Alert Messages (AWWs) TORNADO WATCH NUMBER 381
STORM PREDICTION CENTER NORMAN OK
1. WWs define areas of possible severe 556 PM CDT MON JUN 2 1997
thunderstorms or tornado activity. The bulletins are THE STORM PREDICTON CENTER HAS ISSUED A
issued by the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in TORNADO WATCH FOR PORTIONS OF NORTHEAST
Norman, OK. WWs are unscheduled and are issued NEW MEXICO TEXAS PANHANDLE
as required. EFFECTIVE THIS MONDAY NIGHT AND TUESDAY
MORNING FROM 630 PM UNTIL MIDNIGHT CDT.
2. A severe thunderstorm watch describes areas TORNADOES...HAIL TO 2 3/4 INCHES IN DIAME-
of expected severe thunderstorms. (Severe thunder- TER...THUNDERSTORM WIND GUSTS TO 80
storm criteria are 3/4inch hail or larger and/or wind MPH...AND DANGEROUS LIGHTNING ARE POSSIBLE
gusts of 50 knots [58 mph] or greater.) IN THESE AREAS.
Meteorology 7117
AIM 4/3/14
THE TORNADO WATCH AREA IS ALONG AND 60 of information about existing meteorological
STATUTE MILES NORTH AND SOUTH OF A LINE conditions.
FROM 50 MILES SOUTHWEST OF RATON NEW
MEXICO TO 50 MILES EAST OF AMARILLO TEXAS. (c) When observed or developing weather
REMEMBER...A TORNADO WATCH MEANS CON- conditions do not meet SIGMET, Convective
DITIONS ARE FAVORABLE FOR TORNADOES AND SIGMET, or AIRMET criteria; e.g., in terms of
SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS IN AND CLOSE TO THE intensity or area coverage, but current pilot reports or
WATCH AREA. PERSONS IN THESE AREAS SHOULD other weather information sources indicate that
BE ON THE LOOKOUT FOR THREATENING WEATH- existing or anticipated meteorological phenomena
ER CONDITIONS AND LISTEN FOR LATER will adversely affect the safe flow of air traffic within
STATEMENTS AND POSSIBLE WARNINGS. the ARTCC area of responsibility.
OTHER WATCH INFORMATION...CONTINUE...
WW 378...WW 379...WW 380 2. The following example is a CWA issued from
the Kansas City, Missouri, ARTCC. The 3 after
DISCUSSION...THUNDERSTORMS ARE INCREASING ZKC in the first line denotes this CWA has been
OVER NE NM IN MOIST SOUTHEASTERLY UPSLOPE issued for the third weather phenomena to occur for
FLOW. OUTFLOW BOUNDARY EXTENDS EASTWARD the day. The 301 in the second line denotes the
INTO THE TEXAS PANHANDLE AND EXPECT STORMS
phenomena number again (3) and the issuance
TO MOVE ESE ALONG AND NORTH OF THE
BOUNDARY ON THE N EDGE OF THE CAP. VEERING
number (01) for this phenomena. The CWA was
WINDS WITH HEIGHT ALONG WITH INCREASGING issued at 2140Z and is valid until 2340Z.
MID LVL FLOW INDICATE A THREAT FOR SUPER- EXAMPLE
CELLS. ZKC3 CWA 032140
ZKC CWA 301 VALID UNTIL 032340
AVIATION...TORNADOES AND A FEW SEVERE THUN- ISOLD SVR TSTM over KCOU MOVG SWWD
DERSTORMS WITH HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT TO 2 10 KTS ETC.
3/ INCHES. EXTREME TURBULENCE AND SURFACE
4
WIND GUSTS TO 70 KNOTS. A FEW CUMULONIMBI
WITH MAXIMUM TOPS TO 550. MEAN STORM
717. Categorical Outlooks
MOTION VECTOR 28025. a. Categorical outlook terms, describing general
6. Status reports are issued as needed to show ceiling and visibility conditions for advanced
progress of storms and to delineate areas no longer planning purposes are used only in area forecasts and
under the threat of severe storm activity. Cancellation are defined as follows:
bulletins are issued when it becomes evident that no 1. LIFR (Low IFR). Ceiling less than 500 feet
severe weather will develop or that storms have and/or visibility less than 1 mile.
subsided and are no longer severe.
2. IFR. Ceiling 500 to less than 1,000 feet
7. When tornadoes or severe thunderstorms and/or visibility 1 to less than 3 miles.
have developed, the local WFO office will issue the
warnings covering those areas. 3. MVFR (Marginal VFR). Ceiling 1,000 to
3,000 feet and/or visibility 3 to 5 miles inclusive.
h. Center Weather Advisories (CWAs)
4. VFR. Ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and
1. CWAs are unscheduled inflight, flow control, visibility greater than 5 miles; includes sky clear.
air traffic, and air crew advisory. By nature of its short
b. The cause of LIFR, IFR, or MVFR is indicated
lead time, the CWA is not a flight planning product.
by either ceiling or visibility restrictions or both. The
It is generally a nowcast for conditions beginning
contraction CIG and/or weather and obstruction to
within the next two hours. CWAs will be issued:
vision symbols are used. If winds or gusts of 25 knots
(a) As a supplement to an existing SIGMET, or greater are forecast for the outlook period, the word
Convective SIGMET or AIRMET. WIND is also included for all categories including
(b) When an Inflight Advisory has not been VFR.
issued but observed or expected weather conditions EXAMPLE
meet SIGMET/AIRMET criteria based on current 1. LIFR CIGlow IFR due to low ceiling.
pilot reports and reinforced by other sources 2. IFR FGIFR due to visibility restricted by fog.
7118 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
3. MVFR CIG HZ FUmarginal VFR due to both ceiling synopsis, winds aloft forecast, en route and terminal
and visibility restricted by haze and smoke. forecast data, and radar reports. At selected locations,
4. IFR CIG RA WINDIFR due to both low ceiling and telephone access to the TWEB has been provided
visibility restricted by rain; wind expected to be 25 knots or (TELTWEB). Telephone numbers for this service
greater. are found in the Supplement Alaska A/FD. These
broadcasts are made available primarily for preflight
718. Telephone Information Briefing and inflight planning, and as such, should not be
Service (TIBS) considered as a substitute for specialistprovided
preflight briefings.
a. TIBS, provided by FSS, is a system of
automated telephone recordings of meteorological 7110. Inflight Weather Broadcasts
and aeronautical information available throughout a. Weather Advisory Broadcasts. ARTCCs
the United States. Based on the specific needs of each broadcast a Severe Weather Forecast Alert (AWW),
area, TIBS provides route and/or area briefings in Convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA alert once
addition to airspace procedures and special an- on all frequencies, except emergency, when any part
nouncements concerning aviation interests that may of the area described is within 150 miles of the
be available. Depending on user demand, other items airspace under their jurisdiction. These broadcasts
may be provided; for example, surface weather contain SIGMET or CWA (identification) and a brief
observations, terminal forecasts, wind and temperat- description of the weather activity and general area
ures aloft forecasts, etc. affected.
b. TIBS is not intended to be a substitute for EXAMPLE
specialistprovided preflight briefings from FSS. 1. Attention all aircraft, SIGMET Delta Three, from Myton
TIBS is recommended as a preliminary briefing and to Tuba City to Milford, severe turbulence and severe clear
often will be valuable in helping you to make a go icing below one zero thousand feet. Expected to continue
or no go decision. beyond zero three zero zero zulu.
2. Attention all aircraft, convective SIGMET Two Seven
c. Pilots are encouraged to utilize TIBS, which can
Eastern. From the vicinity of Elmira to Phillipsburg.
be accessed by dialing the FSS tollfree telephone
Scattered embedded thunderstorms moving east at one
number, 1800WXBRIEF (9927433) or specific zero knots. A few intense level five cells, maximum tops four
published TIBS telephone numbers in certain areas. five zero.
Consult the FSS Telephone Numbers section of the
3. Attention all aircraft, Kansas City Center weather
A/FD or the Alaska or Pacific Chart Supplement
advisory one zero three. Numerous reports of moderate to
book. severe icing from eight to niner thousand feet in a three zero
NOTE mile radius of St. Louis. Light or negative icing reported
A touchtone telephone is necessary to fully utilize TIBS. from four thousand to one two thousand feet remainder of
Kansas City Center area.
719. Transcribed Weather Broadcast NOTE
(TWEB) (Alaska Only) 1. Terminal control facilities have the option to limit the
AWW, convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA broadcast as
Equipment is provided in Alaska by which follows: local control and approach control positions may
meteorological and aeronautical data are recorded on opt to broadcast SIGMET or CWA alerts only when any
tapes and broadcast continuously over selected L/MF part of the area described is within 50 miles of the airspace
and VOR facilities. Broadcasts are made from a series under their jurisdiction.
of individual tape recordings, and changes, as they 2. In areas where HIWAS is available, ARTCC, Terminal
occur, are transcribed onto the tapes. The information ATC, and FSS facilities no longer broadcast Inflight
provided varies depending on the type equipment Weather Advisories as described above in paragraph a. See
available. Generally, the broadcast contains a paragraphs b1 and b2 below.
summary of adverse conditions, surface weather b. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Ser-
observations, pilot weather reports, and a density vice (HIWAS). HIWAS is an automated, continuous
altitude statement (if applicable). At the discretion of broadcast of inflight weather advisories, provided by
the broadcast facility, recordings may also include a FSS over select VOR outlets, which include the
Meteorology 7119
AIM 4/3/14
following weather products: AWW, SIGMET, EXAMPLE

Convective SIGMET, CWA, AIRMET (text [WA] or Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information
graphical [GAIRMET] products), and urgent (SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, AIRMET (text [WA] or
PIREP. HIWAS is available throughout the conter- graphical [GAIRMET] product) , Urgent Pilot
minous United States as an additional source of Weather Report [UUA], or Center Weather Advisory
hazardous weather information. HIWAS does not [CWA], Number or Numbers) for (geographical area)
available on HIWAS, Flight Watch, or Flight Service
replace preflight or inflight weather briefings from
frequencies.
FSS or realtime weather updates from Enroute
Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), radio call Flight 2. Upon notification of an update to HIWAS,
Watch. Pilots should call FSS or Flight Watch if FSS will broadcast a HIWAS update announcement
there are any questions about weather that is different once on all frequencies except emergency frequen-
than forecasted or if the HIWAS broadcast appears to cies. Included in the broadcast will be the type of
be in error. advisory updated; for example, AWW, SIGMET,
Convective SIGMET, CWA, etc.
1. Where HIWAS is available, ARTCC and EXAMPLE
terminal ATC facilities will broadcast, upon receipt, Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information for
a HIWAS alert once on all frequencies, except (geographical area) available from Flight Watch or Flight
emergency frequencies. Included in the broadcast Service.
will be an alert announcement, frequency instruction, 3. HIWAS availability is notated with VOR
number, and type of advisory updated; for example, listings in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), and
AWW, SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, or CWA. is shown by symbols on IFR Enroute Low Altitude
Charts and VFR Sectional Charts. The symbol
depiction is identified in the chart legend.
7120 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 718
GAIRMET Graphical Product
Meteorology 7121
AIM 4/3/14
7111. Flight Information Services (FIS) 2. Three Data Link Modes. There are three data
link modes that may be used for transmitting AI and
a. FIS. FIS is a method of disseminating MET information to aircraft. The intended use of the
meteorological (MET) and aeronautical information
AI and/or MET information will determine the most
(AI) to displays in the cockpit in order to enhance appropriate data link service.
pilot situational awareness, provide decision support
tools, and improve safety. FIS augments traditional (a) Broadcast Mode: A one-way interaction
pilot voice communication with Flight Service in which AI and/or MET updates or changes
Stations (FSSs), ATC facilities, or Airline Operations applicable to a designated geographic area are
Control Centers (AOCCs). FIS is not intended to continuously transmitted (or transmitted at repeated
replace traditional pilot and controller/flight service periodic intervals) to all aircraft capable of receiving
specialist/aircraft dispatcher preflight briefings or the broadcast within the service volume defined by
inflight voice communications. FIS, however, can the system network architecture.
provide textual and graphical information that can (b) Contract/Demand Mode: A two-way
help abbreviate and improve the usefulness of such interaction in which AI and/or MET information is
communications. FIS enhances pilot situational transmitted to an aircraft in response to a specific
awareness and improves safety. request.
1. Data link Service Providers (DLSP) - DLSP (c) Contract/Update Mode: A two-way inter-
deploy and maintain airborne, ground-based, and, in action that is an extension of the Demand Mode.
some cases, space-based infrastructure that supports Initial AI and/or MET report(s) are sent to an aircraft
the transmission of AI/MET information over one or and subsequent updates or changes to the AI and/or
more physical links. DLSP may provide a free of MET information that meet the contract criteria are
charge or for-fee service that permits end users to automatically or manually sent to an aircraft.
uplink and downlink AI/MET and other information. 3. To ensure airman compliance with Federal
The following are examples of DLSP: Aviation Regulations, manufacturers operating
(a) FAA FIS-B. A ground-based broadcast manuals should remind airmen to contact ATC
service provided through the ADS-B Universal controllers, FSS specialists, operator dispatchers, or
Access Transceiver (UAT) network. The service airline operations control centers for general and
provides users with a 978 MHz data link capability mission critical aviation weather information and/or
when operating within range and line-of-sight of a NAS status conditions (such as NOTAMs, Special
transmitting ground station. FIS-B enables users of Use Airspace status, and other government flight
properly equipped aircraft to receive and display a information). If FIS products are systemically
suite of broadcast weather and aeronautical informa- modified (for example, are displayed as abbreviated
tion products. plain text and/or graphical depictions), the modifica-
tion process and limitations of the resultant product
(b) Non-FAA FIS Systems. Several commer- should be clearly described in the vendors user
cial vendors provide customers with FIS data over guidance.
both the aeronautical spectrum and on other
frequencies using a variety of data link protocols. 4. Operational Use of FIS. Regardless of the
Services available from these providers vary greatly type of FIS system being used, several factors must
and may include tier based subscriptions. Advance- be considered when using FIS:
ments in bandwidth technology permits preflight as (a) Before using FIS for inflight operations,
well as inflight access to the same MET and AI pilots and other flight crewmembers should become
information available on the ground. Pilots and familiar with the operation of the FIS system to be
operators using non-FAA FIS for MET and AI used, the airborne equipment to be used, including its
information should be knowledgeable regarding the system architecture, airborne system components,
weather services being provided as some commercial coverage service volume and other limitations of the
vendors may be repackaging NWS sourced weather, particular system, modes of operation and indications
while other commercial vendors may alter the of various system failures. Users should also be
weather information to produce vendortailored or familiar with the specific content and format of the
vendorspecific weather reports and forecasts. services available from the FIS provider(s). Sources
7122 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
of information that may provide this specific adjust the amount of information based on numerous
guidance include manufacturers manuals, training factors including, but not limited to, the phase of
programs, and reference guides. flight, single pilot operation, autopilot availability,
class of airspace, and the weather conditions
(b) FIS should not serve as the sole source of encountered.
aviation weather and other operational information.
ATC, FSSs, and, if applicable, AOCC VHF/HF voice (f) FIS NOTAM products, including Tempor-
remain as a redundant method of communicating ary Flight Restriction (TFR) information, are
aviation weather, NOTAMs, and other operational advisoryuse information and are intended for
information to aircraft in flight. FIS augments these situational awareness purposes only. Cockpit dis-
traditional ATC/FSS/AOCC services and, for some plays of this information are not appropriate for
products, offers the advantage of being displayed as tactical navigation pilots should stay clear of any
graphical information. By using FIS for orientation, geographic area displayed as a TFR NOTAM. Pilots
the usefulness of information received from should contact FSSs and/or ATC while en route to
conventional means may be enhanced. For example, obtain updated information and to verify the cockpit
FIS may alert the pilot to specific areas of concern display of NOTAM information.
that will more accurately focus requests made to FSS
(g) FIS supports better pilot decisionmaking
or AOCC for inflight updates or similar queries made
by increasing situational awareness. Better decision
to ATC.
making is based on using information from a variety
(c) The airspace and aeronautical environ- of sources. In addition to FIS, pilots should take
ment is constantly changing. These changes occur advantage of other weather/NAS status sources,
quickly and without warning. Critical operational including, briefings from Flight Service Stations,
decisions should be based on use of the most current FAAs en route Flight Watch service, data from
and appropriate data available. When differences other air traffic control facilities, airline operation
exist between FIS and information obtained by voice control centers, pilot reports, as well as their own
communication with ATC, FSS, and/or AOCC (if observations.
applicable), pilots are cautioned to use the most (h) FAAs Flight Information Service
recent data from the most authoritative source. Broadcast (FISB).
(d) FIS aviation weather products (for (1) FISB is a groundbased broadcast
example, graphical groundbased radar precipitation service provided through the FAAs Automatic
depictions) are not appropriate for tactical (typical Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) Ser-
timeframe of less than 3 minutes) avoidance of severe vices Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) network.
weather such as negotiating a path through a weather The service provides users with a 978 MHz data link
hazard area. FIS supports strategic (typical timeframe capability when operating within range and lineof
of 20 minutes or more) weather decisionmaking such sight of a transmitting ground station. FISB enables
as route selection to avoid a weather hazard area in its users of properlyequipped aircraft to receive and
entirety. The misuse of information beyond its display a suite of broadcast weather and aeronautical
applicability may place the pilot and aircraft in information products.
jeopardy. In addition, FIS should never be used in lieu
of an individual preflight weather and flight planning (2) The following list represents the initial
briefing. suite of text and graphical products available through
FISB and provided freeofcharge. Detailed
(e) DLSP offer numerous MET and AI information concerning FISB meteorological
products with information that can be layered on top products can be found in Advisory Circular 0045,
of each other. Pilots need to be aware that too much Aviation Weather Services, and AC 00-63, Use of
information can have a negative effect on their Cockpit Displays of Digital Weather and Aeronautic-
cognitive work load. Pilots need to manage the al Information. Information on Special Use Airspace
amount of information to a level that offers the most (SUA), Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR), and
pertinent information to that specific flight without Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) products can be found
creating a cockpit distraction. Pilots may need to in Chapters 3, 4 and 5 of this manual.
Meteorology 7123
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
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4/3/14
[a] Text: Aviation Routine Weather (6) Prior to using this capability, users
Report (METAR) and Special Aviation Report should familiarize themselves with the operation of
(SPECI); FISB avionics by referencing the applicable Users
Guides. Guidance concerning the interpretation of
[b] Text: Pilot Weather Report (PIREP);
information displayed should be obtained from the
[c] Text: Winds and Temperatures Aloft; appropriate avionics manufacturer.
[d] Text: Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (7) FISB malfunctions not attributed to
(TAF) and amendments; aircraft system failures or covered by active NOTAM
[e] Text: Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) should be reported by radio or telephone to the nearest
Distant and Flight Data Center; FSS facility.
[f] Text/Graphic: Airmens Meteorolo- b. NonFAA FIS Systems. Several commercial

gical Conditions (AIRMET); vendors also provide customers with FIS data over
both the aeronautical spectrum and on other
[g] Text/Graphic: Significant Meteoro- frequencies using a variety of data link protocols. In
logical Conditions (SIGMET); some cases, the vendors provide only the commu-
[h] Text/Graphic: Convective SIG- nications system that carries customer messages,
MET; such as the Aircraft Communications Addressing and
Reporting System (ACARS) used by many air carrier
[i] Text/Graphic: Special Use Airspace and other operators.
(SUA);
[j] Text/Graphic: Temporary Flight 1. Operators using nonFAA FIS data for
Restriction (TFR) NOTAM; and inflight weather and other operational information
should ensure that the products used conform to
[k] Graphic: NEXRAD Composite Re- FAA/NWS standards. Specifically, aviation weather
flectivity Products (Regional and National). and NAS status information should meet the
following criteria:
(3) Users of FISB should familiarize
themselves with the operational characteristics and (a) The products should be either FAA/NWS
limitations of the system, including: system architec- accepted aviation weather reports or products, or
ture; service environment; product lifecycles; modes based on FAA/NWS accepted aviation weather
of operation; and indications of system failure. reports or products. If products are used which do not
(4) FISB products are updated and meet this criteria, they should be so identified. The
transmitted at specific intervals based primarily on operator must determine the applicability of such
product issuance criteria. Update intervals are products to their particular flight operations.
defined as the rate at which the product data is
available from the source for transmission. Transmis- (b) In the case of a weather product which is
sion intervals are defined as the amount of time within the result of the application of a process which alters
which a new or updated product transmission must be the form, function or content of the base FAA/NWS
completed and/or the rate or repetition interval at accepted weather product(s), that process, and any
which the product is rebroadcast. Update and limitations to the application of the resultant product,
transmission intervals for each product are provided should be described in the vendors user guidance
in TBL 711. material.
(5) Where applicable, FISB products 2. An example would be a NEXRAD radar

include a lookahead range expressed in nautical composite/mosaic map, which has been modified by
miles (NM) for three service domains: Airport changing the scaling resolution. The methodology of
Surface; Terminal Airspace; and Enroute/Gulfof assigning reflectivity values to the resultant image
Mexico (GOMEX). TBL 712 provides service components should be described in the vendors
domain availability and lookahead ranging for each guidance material to ensure that the user can
FISB product. accurately interpret the displayed data.
7124 Meteorology
7/24/14
4/3/14 AIM
TBL 711
FISB Over UAT Product Update and Transmission Intervals
Product FIS-B Over UAT Service FIS-B Service

Update Intervals1 Transmission
Intervals2
AIRMET As Available 5 minutes
Convective SIGMET As Available 5 minutes
METARs/SPECIs 1 minute/As Available 5 minutes
NEXRAD Composite Reflectivity (CONUS) 15 minutes 15 minutes
NEXRAD Composite Reflectivity (Regional) 5 minutes 2.5 minutes
NOTAMs-D/FDC/TFR As Available 10 minutes

PIREP As Available 10 minutes
SIGMET As Available 5 minutes
SUA Status As Available 10 minutes
TAF/AMEND 8 Hours/As Available 10 minutes
Temperatures Aloft 12 Hours 10 minutes
Winds Aloft 12 Hours 10 minutes
1 The Update Interval is the rate at which the product data is available from the source.
2 The Transmission Interval is the amount of time within which a new or updated product transmission must be completed
and the rate or repetition interval at which the product is rebroadcast.
Meteorology 7125
AIM 4/3/14
TBL 712
Product Parameters for Low/Medium/High Altitude Tier Radios
Product Surface Radios Low Altitude Tier Medium Altitude High Altitude Tier
Tier
CONUS NEXRAD N/A CONUS NEXRAD CONUS NEXRAD CONUS NEXRAD
not provided imagery imagery
Winds & Temps 500 NM lookahead 500 NM lookahead 750 NM lookahead 1,000 NM look
Aloft range range range ahead range
METAR 100 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead 375 NM lookahead CONUS: CONUS
range range range Class B & C airport
METARs and 500
NM lookahead
range
Outside of CONUS:
500 NM look-ahead
range
TAF 100 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead 375 NM lookahead CONUS: CONUS
range range range Class B & C airport
TAFs and 500 NM
lookahead range
Outside of CONUS:
500 NM look-ahead
range
AIRMET, SIGMET, 100 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead 375 NM lookahead 500 NM lookahead
PIREP, and SUA/ range. PIREP/SUA/ range range range
SAA SAA is N/A.
Regional NEXRAD 150 NM lookahead 150 NM lookahead 200 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead
range range range range
NOTAMs D, FDC, 100 NM lookahead 100 NM lookahead 100 NM lookahead 100 NM lookahead
and TFR range range range range
7112. Weather Observing Programs ter to broadcast local, minute-by-minute weather data
directly to the pilot.
a. Manual Observations. With only a few
exceptions, these reports are from airport locations NOTE
staffed by FAA or NWS personnel who manually When the barometric pressure exceeds 31.00 inches Hg.,
observe, perform calculations, and enter these see Paragraph 722, Procedures, for the altimeter
setting procedures.
observations into the (WMSCR) communication
system. The format and coding of these observations 2. The AWOS observations will include the
are contained in Paragraph 7130 , Key to Aviation prefix AUTO to indicate that the data are derived
Routine Weather Report (METAR) and Aerodrome from an automated system. Some AWOS locations
Forecasts (TAF). will be augmented by certified observers who will
provide weather and obstruction to vision informa-
b. Automated Weather Observing System
tion in the remarks of the report when the reported
(AWOS).
visibility is less than 7 miles. These sites, along with
1. Automated weather reporting systems are the hours of augmentation, are to be published in the
increasingly being installed at airports. These A/FD. Augmentation is identified in the observation
systems consist of various sensors, a processor, a as OBSERVER WEATHER. The AWOS wind
computer-generated voice subsystem, and a transmit- speed, direction and gusts, temperature, dew point,
7126 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
and altimeter setting are exactly the same as for 4. The information is transmitted over a discrete
manual observations. The AWOS will also report VHF radio frequency or the voice portion of a local
density altitude when it exceeds the field elevation by NAVAID. AWOS transmissions on a discrete VHF
more than 1,000 feet. The reported visibility is radio frequency are engineered to be receivable to a
derived from a sensor near the touchdown of the maximum of 25 NM from the AWOS site and a
primary instrument runway. The visibility sensor maximum altitude of 10,000 feet AGL. At many
output is converted to a visibility value using a locations, AWOS signals may be received on the
10minute harmonic average. The reported sky surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit
condition/ceiling is derived from the ceilometer the maximum AWOS reception distance and/or
located next to the visibility sensor. The AWOS altitude. The system transmits a 20 to 30 second
algorithm integrates the last 30 minutes of ceilometer weather message updated each minute. Pilots should
data to derive cloud layers and heights. This output monitor the designated frequency for the automated
may also differ from the observer sky condition in weather broadcast. A description of the broadcast is
that the AWOS is totally dependent upon the cloud contained in subparagraph c. There is no two-way
advection over the sensor site. communication capability. Most AWOS sites also
have a dial-up capability so that the minute-by-min-
3. These real-time systems are operationally ute weather messages can be accessed via telephone.
classified into nine basic levels:
5. AWOS information (system level, frequency,
(a) AWOSA only reports altimeter setting;
phone number, etc.) concerning specific locations is
NOTE published, as the systems become operational, in the
Any other information is advisory only. A/FD, and where applicable, on published Instru-
(b) AWOSAV reports altimeter and ment Approach Procedures. Selected individual
visibility; systems may be incorporated into nationwide data
collection and dissemination networks in the future.
NOTE
Any other information is advisory only. c. AWOS Broadcasts. Computer-generated
voice is used in AWOS to automate the broadcast of
(c) AWOSl usually reports altimeter setting,
the minute-by-minute weather observations. In
wind data, temperature, dew point, and density
addition, some systems are configured to permit the
altitude;
addition of an operator-generated voice message;
(d) AWOS2 provides the information pro- e.g., weather remarks following the automated
vided by AWOSl plus visibility; and parameters. The phraseology used generally follows
that used for other weather broadcasts. Following are
(e) AWOS3 provides the information pro- explanations and examples of the exceptions.
vided by AWOS2 plus cloud/ceiling data.
1. Location and Time. The location/name and
(f) AWOS 3P provides reports the same as the phrase AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVA-
the AWOS 3 system, plus a precipitation identifica- TION, followed by the time are announced.
tion sensor.
(a) If the airports specific location is
(g) AWOS 3PT reports the same as the
included in the airports name, the airports name is
AWOS 3P System, plus thunderstorm/lightning announced.
reporting capability.
EXAMPLE
(h) AWOS 3T reports the same as AWOS 3 Bremerton National Airport automated weather observa-
system and includes a thunderstorm/lightning tion, one four five six zulu;
reporting capability. Ravenswood Jackson County Airport automated weather
observation, one four five six zulu.
(i) AWOS 4 reports the same as the AWOS
3 system, plus precipitation occurrence, type and (b) If the airports specific location is not
accumulation, freezing rain, thunderstorm, and included in the airports name, the location is
runway surface sensors. announced followed by the airports name.
Meteorology 7127
AIM 4/3/14
EXAMPLE No clouds detected is announced as NO CLOUDS

Sault Ste. Marie, Chippewa County International Airport BELOW XXX or, in newer systems as CLEAR
automated weather observation; BELOW XXX (where XXX is the range limit of the
Sandusky, Cowley Field automated weather sensor).
observation.
EXAMPLE
(c) The word TEST is added following No clouds below one two thousand.
OBSERVATION when the system is not in Clear below one two thousand.
commissioned status.
(c) A sensor for determining ceiling and sky
EXAMPLE cover is not included in some AWOS. In these
Bremerton National Airport automated weather observa- systems, ceiling and sky cover are not announced.
tion test, one four five six zulu. SKY CONDITION MISSING is announced only if
(d) The phrase TEMPORARILY INOP- the system is configured with a ceilometer and the
ERATIVE is added when the system is inoperative. ceiling and sky cover information is not available.
EXAMPLE 5. Remarks. If remarks are included in the
Bremerton National Airport automated weather observ- observation, the word REMARKS is announced
ing system temporarily inoperative. following the altimeter setting.
2. Visibility. (a) Automated Remarks.
(a) The lowest reportable visibility value in (1) Density Altitude.
AWOS is less than 1 / 4 . It is announced as
(2) Variable Visibility.
VISIBILITY LESS THAN ONE QUARTER.
(3) Variable Wind Direction.
(b) A sensor for determining visibility is not
included in some AWOS. In these systems, visibility (b) Manual Input Remarks. Manual input
is not announced. VISIBILITY MISSING is remarks are prefaced with the phrase OBSERVER
announced only if the system is configured with a WEATHER. As a general rule the manual remarks
visibility sensor and visibility information is not are limited to:
available. (1) Type and intensity of precipitation.
3. Weather. In the future, some AWOSs are to (2) Thunderstorms and direction; and
be configured to determine the occurrence of
precipitation. However, the type and intensity may (3) Obstructions to vision when the visibili-
not always be determined. In these systems, the word ty is 3 miles or less.
PRECIPITATION will be announced if precipita- EXAMPLE
tion is occurring, but the type and intensity are not Remarks ... density altitude, two thousand five hundred ...
determined. visibility variable between one and two ... wind direction
variable between two four zero and three one zero
4. Ceiling and Sky Cover. ...observed weather ... thunderstorm moderate rain
showers and fog ... thunderstorm overhead.
(a) Ceiling is announced as either CEIL-
ING or INDEFINITE CEILING. With the (c) If an automated parameter is missing
exception of indefinite ceilings, all automated ceiling and no manual input for that parameter is available,
heights are measured. the parameter is announced as MISSING. For
example, a report with the dew point missing and
EXAMPLE
Bremerton National Airport automated weather observa-
no manual input available, would be announced as
tion, one four five six zulu. Ceiling two thousand overcast; follows:
EXAMPLE
Bremerton National Airport automated weather observa- Ceiling one thousand overcast ... visibility three ...
tion, one four five six zulu. Indefinite ceiling two hundred, precipitation ... temperature three zero, dew point missing
sky obscured. ... wind calm ... altimeter three zero zero one.
(b) The word Clear is not used in AWOS (d) REMARKS are announced in the
due to limitations in the height ranges of the sensors. following order of priority:
7128 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
(1) Automated REMARKS. interpretation, both produce an observation quite

similar in form and content. For the objective
[a] Density Altitude.
elements such as pressure, ambient temperature, dew
[b] Variable Visibility. point temperature, wind, and precipitation accumula-
tion, both the automated system and the observer use
[c] Variable Wind Direction. a fixed location and time-averaging technique. The
(2) Manual Input REMARKS. quantitative differences between the observer and the
automated observation of these elements are
[a] Sky Condition. negligible. For the subjective elements, however,
[b] Visibility. observers use a fixed time, spatial averaging
technique to describe the visual elements (sky
[c] Weather and Obstructions to Vision. condition, visibility and present weather), while the
[d] Temperature. automated systems use a fixed location, time
averaging technique. Although this is a fundamental
[e] Dew Point. change, the manual and automated techniques yield
[f] Wind; and remarkably similar results within the limits of their
respective capabilities.
[g] Altimeter Setting.
1. System Description.
EXAMPLE
Remarks ... density altitude, two thousand five hundred ... (a) The ASOS/AWSS at each airport location
visibility variable between one and two ... wind direction consists of four main components:
variable between two four zero and three one zero ... (1) Individual weather sensors.
observer ceiling estimated two thousand broken ...
observer temperature two, dew point minus five. (2) Data collection and processing units.
d. Automated Surface Observing System (3) Peripherals and displays.
(ASOS)/Automated Weather Sensor System (b) The ASOS/AWSS sensors perform the
(AWSS). The ASOS/AWSS is the primary surface basic function of data acquisition. They continuously
weather observing system of the U.S. (See Key to sample and measure the ambient environment, derive
Decode an ASOS/AWSS (METAR) Observation, raw sensor data and make them available to the
FIG 719 and FIG 7110.) The program to install collection and processing units.
and operate these systems throughout the U.S. is a
joint effort of the NWS, the FAA and the Department 2. Every ASOS/AWSS will contain the
of Defense. AWSS is a followon program that following basic set of sensors:
provides identical data as ASOS. ASOS/AWSS is (a) Cloud height indicator (one or possibly
designed to support aviation operations and weather three).
forecast activities. The ASOS/AWSS will provide
continuous minute-by-minute observations and (b) Visibility sensor (one or possibly three).
perform the basic observing functions necessary to (c) Precipitation identification sensor.
generate an aviation routine weather report (ME-
(d) Freezing rain sensor (at select sites).
TAR) and other aviation weather information. The
information may be transmitted over a discrete VHF (e) Pressure sensors (two sensors at small
radio frequency or the voice portion of a local airports; three sensors at large airports).
NAVAID. ASOS/AWSS transmissions on a discrete (f) Ambient temperature/Dew point tempera-
VHF radio frequency are engineered to be receivable ture sensor.
to a maximum of 25 NM from the ASOS/AWSS site
and a maximum altitude of 10,000 feet AGL. At many (g) Anemometer (wind direction and speed
locations, ASOS/AWSS signals may be received on sensor).
the surface of the airport, but local conditions may (h) Rainfall accumulation sensor.
limit the maximum reception distance and/or altitude.
While the automated system and the human may 3. The ASOS/AWSS data outlets include:
differ in their methods of data collection and (a) Those necessary for on-site airport users.
Meteorology 7129
AIM 4/3/14
(b) National communications networks. 5. There are two types of automated stations,
AO1 for automated weather reporting stations
(c) Computer-generated voice (available without a precipitation discriminator, and AO2 for
through FAA radio broadcast to pilots, and dial-in automated stations with a precipitation discriminator.
telephone line). As appropriate, AO1 and AO2 must appear in
NOTE remarks. (A precipitation discriminator can deter-
Wind direction broadcast over FAA radios is in reference mine the difference between liquid and
to magnetic north. frozen/freezing precipitation).
4. An ASOS/AWOS/AWSS report without NOTE
human intervention will contain only that weather To decode an ASOS/AWSS report, refer to FIG 719 and
data capable of being reported automatically. The FIG 7110.
modifier for this METAR report is AUTO. When REFERENCE
A complete explanation of METAR terminology is located in AIM,
an observer augments or backsup an ASOS/AWOS/ Paragraph 7130, Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation
AWSS site, the AUTO modifier disappears. Routine Weather Report (METAR).
7130 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 719
Key to Decode an ASOS/AWSS (METAR) Observation (Front)
Meteorology 7131
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 7110
Key to Decode an ASOS/AWSS (METAR) Observation (Back)
7132 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
e. TBL 713 contains a comparison of weather inserts the correct or missing value for the automated
observing programs and the elements reported. ASOS/AWSS elements. This service is provided by
air traffic controllers under the Limited Aviation
f. Service Standards. During 1995, a govern- Weather Reporting Station (LAWRS) process, FSS
ment/industry team worked to comprehensively and NWS observers, and, at selected sites,
reassess the requirements for surface observations at NonFederal Observation Program observers.
the nations airports. That work resulted in agreement
on a set of service standards, and the FAA and NWS Two categories of airports require detail beyond
ASOS sites to which the standards would apply. The Service Level C in order to enhance air traffic control
term Service Standards refers to the level of detail efficiency and increase system capacity. Services at
in weather observation. The service standards consist these airports are typically provided by contract
of four different levels of service (A, B, C, and D) as weather observers, NWS observers, and, at some
described below. Specific observational elements locations, FSS observers.
included in each service level are listed in 3. Service Level B is a service in which weather
TBL 714. observations consist of all elements provided under
1. Service Level D defines the minimum Service Level C, plus augmentation of additional data
acceptable level of service. It is a completely beyond the capability of the ASOS/AWSS. This
automated service in which the ASOS/AWSS category of airports includes smaller hubs or special
observation will constitute the entire observation, airports in other ways that have worse than average
i.e., no additional weather information is added by a bad weather operations for thunderstorms and/or
human observer. This service is referred to as a stand freezing/frozen precipitation, and/or that are remote
alone D site. airports.
4. Service Level A, the highest and most
2. Service Level C is a service in which the
demanding category, includes all the data reported in
human observer, usually an air traffic controller,
Service Standard B, plus additional requirements as
augments or adds information to the automated
specified. Service Level A covers major aviation
observation. Service Level C also includes backup of
hubs and/or high volume traffic airports with average
ASOS/AWSS elements in the event of an ASOS/
or worse weather.
AWSS malfunction or an unrepresentative
ASOS/AWSS report. In backup, the human observer
TBL 713
Weather Observing Programs
Runway Surface
Thunderstorm/
Accumulation
Freezing Rain
Cloud/Ceiling
Identification
Precipitation
Precipitation
Temperature
Occurrence
Occurrence
Condition
Lightning
Rainfall
Dew Point
Altimeter
Altimeter
Reported
Density
Remarks
Visibility
Element
Wind
Type
AWSS X X X X X X X X X X
ASOS X X X X X X X X X X
AWOSA X
AWOSA/V X X
AWOS1 X X X X
AWOS2 X X X X X
AWOS3 X X X X X X
AWOS3P X X X X X X X
AWOS3T X X X X X X X
AWOS3P/T X X X X X X X X
AWOS4 X X X X X X X X X X X X
Manual X X X X X X X
REFERENCE FAA Order 7900.5B, Surface Weather Observing, for element reporting.
Meteorology 7133
AIM 4/3/14
TBL 714
SERVICE LEVEL A
Service Level A consists of all the elements of 10 minute longline RVR at precedented sites or
Service Levels B, C and D plus the elements additional visibility increments of 1/8, 1/16 and 0
listed to the right, if observed. Sector visibility
Variable sky condition
Cloud layers above 12,000 feet and cloud types
Widespread dust, sand and other obscurations
Volcanic eruptions
SERVICE LEVEL B
Service Level B consists of all the elements of Longline RVR at precedented sites
Service Levels C and D plus the elements listed to (may be instantaneous readout)
the right, if observed. Freezing drizzle versus freezing rain
Ice pellets
Snow depth & snow increasing rapidly remarks
Thunderstorm and lightning location remarks
Observed significant weather not at the station
remarks
SERVICE LEVEL C
Service Level C consists of all the elements of Service Thunderstorms
Level D plus augmentation and backup by a human Tornadoes
observer or an air traffic control specialist on location Hail
nearby. Backup consists of inserting the correct value if Virga
the system malfunctions or is unrepresentative. Volcanic ash
Augmentation consists of adding the elements listed to Tower visibility
the right, if observed. During hours that the observing Operationally significant remarks as deemed
facility is closed, the site reverts to Service Level D. appropriate by the observer
SERVICE LEVEL D
This level of service consists of an ASOS or AWSS Wind
continually measuring the atmosphere at a point near the Visibility
runway. The ASOS or AWSS senses and measures the Precipitation/Obstruction to vision
weather parameters listed to the right. Cloud height
Sky cover
Temperature
Dew point
Altimeter
7113. Weather Radar Services transmittals. Data contained in the reports are also
collected by the National Center for Environmental
a. The National Weather Service operates a Prediction and used to prepare national radar
network of radar sites for detecting coverage, summary charts for dissemination on facsimile
intensity, and movement of precipitation. The circuits.
network is supplemented by FAA and DOD radar
sites in the western sections of the country. Local c. A clear radar display (no echoes) does not mean
warning radar sites augment the network by operating that there is no significant weather within the
on an as needed basis to support warning and forecast coverage of the radar site. Clouds and fog are not
programs. detected by the radar. However, when echoes are
present, turbulence can be implied by the intensity of
b. Scheduled radar observations are taken hourly the precipitation, and icing is implied by the presence
and transmitted in alpha-numeric format on weather of the precipitation at temperatures at or below zero
telecommunications circuits for flight planning degrees Celsius. Used in conjunction with other
purposes. Under certain conditions, special radar weather products, radar provides invaluable informa-
reports are issued in addition to the hourly tion for weather avoidance and flight planning.
7134 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 7111
NEXRAD Coverage
Meteorology 7135
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 7112
NEXRAD Coverage
7136 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 7113
NEXRAD Coverage
Meteorology 7137
AIM 4/3/14
d. All En Route Flight Advisory Service facilities 3. ATC facilities that, due to equipment
and FSSs have equipment to directly access the radar limitations, cannot display the intensity levels of
displays from the individual weather radar sites. precipitation, will describe the location of the
Specialists at these locations are trained to interpret precipitation area by geographic position, or position
the display for pilot briefing and inflight advisory relative to the aircraft. Since the intensity level is not
services. The Center Weather Service Units located in available, the controller will state INTENSITY
ARTCCs also have access to weather radar displays UNKNOWN.
and provide support to all air traffic facilities within
their centers area. 4. ARTCC facilities normally use a Weather and
Radar Processor (WARP) to display a mosaic of data
e. Additional information on weather radar obtained from multiple NEXRAD sites. There is a
products and services can be found in AC 0045, time delay between actual conditions and those
Aviation Weather Services. displayed to the controller. For example, the
REFERENCE precipitation data on the ARTCC controllers display
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Precipitation Radar Weather could be up to 6 minutes old. When the WARP is not
Descriptions.
AIM, Thunderstorms, Paragraph 7128. available, a second system, the narrowband Air Route
A/FD, Charts, NWS Upper Air Observing Stations and Weather Network Surveillance Radar (ARSR) can display two distinct
for the location of specific radar sites. levels of precipitation intensity that will be described
to pilots as MODERATE (30 to 40 dBZ) and
7114. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance HEAVY TO EXTREME ( > 40 dBZ ). The WARP
Assistance processor is only used in ARTCC facilities.
a. ATC Radar Weather Display. 5. ATC radar is not able to detect turbulence.
1. ATC radars are able to display areas of Generally, turbulence can be expected to occur as the
precipitation by sending out a beam of radio energy rate of rainfall or intensity of precipitation increases.
that is reflected back to the radar antenna when it Turbulence associated with greater rates of rainfall/
strikes an object or moisture which may be in the form precipitation will normally be more severe than any
of rain drops, hail, or snow. The larger the object is, associated with lesser rates of rainfall/precipitation.
or the more dense its reflective surface, the stronger Turbulence should be expected to occur near
the return will be presented. Radar weather convective activity, even in clear air. Thunderstorms
processors indicate the intensity of reflective returns are a form of convective activity that imply severe or
in terms of decibels (dBZ). ATC systems cannot greater turbulence. Operation within 20 miles of
detect the presence or absence of clouds. The ATC thunderstorms should be approached with great
systems can often determine the intensity of a caution, as the severity of turbulence can be markedly
precipitation area, but the specific character of that greater than the precipitation intensity might indicate.
area (snow, rain, hail, VIRGA, etc.) cannot be b. Weather Avoidance Assistance.
determined. For this reason, ATC refers to all
weather areas displayed on ATC radar scopes as 1. To the extent possible, controllers will issue
precipitation. pertinent information on weather or chaff areas and
assist pilots in avoiding such areas when requested.
2. All ATC facilities using radar weather
Pilots should respond to a weather advisory by either
processors with the ability to determine precipitation
acknowledging the advisory or by acknowledging the
intensity, will describe the intensity to pilots as:
advisory and requesting an alternative course of
(a) LIGHT (< 30 dBZ) action as follows:
(b) MODERATE (30 to 40 dBZ) (a) Request to deviate off course by stating a
(c) HEAVY (> 40 to 50 dBZ) heading or degrees, direction of deviation, and
approximate number of miles. In this case, when the
(d) EXTREME (> 50 dBZ) requested deviation is approved, navigation is at the
NOTE pilots prerogative, but must maintain the altitude
Enroute ATC radars Weather and Radar Processor assigned, and remain within the lateral restrictions
(WARP) does not display light precipitation intensity. issued by ATC.
7138 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
(b) An approval for lateral deviation author- be furnished to ATC when requesting clearance to
izes the pilot to maneuver left or right within the detour around weather activity:
limits specified in the clearance. (a) Proposed point where detour will
NOTE commence.
1. It is often necessary for ATC to restrict the amount of
(b) Proposed route and extent of detour
lateral deviation (twenty degrees right, up to fifteen
degrees left, up to ten degrees left or right of course).
(direction and distance).
2. The term when able, proceed direct, in an ATC (c) Point where original route will be
weather deviation clearance, refers to the pilots ability to resumed.
remain clear of the weather when returning to (d) Flight conditions (IFR or VFR).
course/route.
(e) Any further deviation that may become
(c) Request a new route to avoid the affected necessary as the flight progresses.
area.
(f) Advise if the aircraft is equipped with
(d) Request a change of altitude. functioning airborne radar.
6. To a large degree, the assistance that might be
(e) Request radar vectors around the affected
rendered by ATC will depend upon the weather
areas.
information available to controllers. Due to the
2. For obvious reasons of safety, an IFR pilot extremely transitory nature of severe weather
must not deviate from the course or altitude or flight situations, the controllers weather information may
level without a proper ATC clearance. When weather be of only limited value if based on weather observed
conditions encountered are so severe that an on radar only. Frequent updates by pilots giving
immediate deviation is determined to be necessary specific information as to the area affected, altitudes,
and time will not permit approval by ATC, the pilots intensity and nature of the severe weather can be of
emergency authority may be exercised. considerable value. Such reports are relayed by radio
or phone to other pilots and controllers and also
3. When the pilot requests clearance for a route receive widespread teletypewriter dissemination.
deviation or for an ATC radar vector, the controller
7. Obtaining IFR clearance or an ATC radar
must evaluate the air traffic picture in the affected
vector to circumnavigate severe weather can often be
area, and coordinate with other controllers (if ATC
accommodated more readily in the en route areas
jurisdictional boundaries may be crossed) before
away from terminals because there is usually less
replying to the request.
congestion and, therefore, offer greater freedom of
4. It should be remembered that the controllers action. In terminal areas, the problem is more acute
primary function is to provide safe separation because of traffic density, ATC coordination
between aircraft. Any additional service, such as requirements, complex departure and arrival routes,
weather avoidance assistance, can only be provided adjacent airports, etc. As a consequence, controllers
to the extent that it does not derogate the primary are less likely to be able to accommodate all requests
function. Its also worth noting that the separation for weather detours in a terminal area or be in a
workload is generally greater than normal when position to volunteer such routing to the pilot.
weather disrupts the usual flow of traffic. ATC radar Nevertheless, pilots should not hesitate to advise
limitations and frequency congestion may also be a controllers of any observed severe weather and
factor in limiting the controllers capability to should specifically advise controllers if they desire
provide additional service. circumnavigation of observed weather.
5. It is very important, therefore, that the request c. Procedures for Weather Deviations and
for deviation or radar vector be forwarded to ATC as Other Contingencies in Oceanic Controlled
far in advance as possible. Delay in submitting it may Airspace.
delay or even preclude ATC approval or require that 1. When the pilot initiates communications with
additional restrictions be placed on the clearance. ATC, rapid response may be obtained by stating
Insofar as possible the following information should WEATHER DEVIATION REQUIRED to indicate
Meteorology 7139
AIM 4/3/14
priority is desired on the frequency and for ATC (e) Deviations of less than 10 NM or
response. operations within COMPOSITE (NOPAC and
CEPAC) Airspace, should REMAIN at ASSIGNED
2. The pilot still retains the option of initiating
altitude. Otherwise, when the aircraft is approximate-
the communications using the urgency call PAN
ly 10 NM from track, initiate an altitude change based
PAN 3 times to alert all listening parties of a special
on the following criteria:
handling condition which will receive ATC priority
TBL 715
for issuance of a clearance or assistance.
3. ATC will: Route Deviations Altitude Change
Centerline/Track >10 NM
(a) Approve the deviation.
East Left Descend 300 Feet
(b) Provide vertical separation and then 000 179M Right Climb 300 Feet
approve the deviation; or West Left Climb 300 Feet
180359M Right Descend 300 Feet
(c) If ATC is unable to establish vertical
Pilot Memory Slogan: East right up,
separation, ATC must advise the pilot that standard West right down.
separation cannot be applied; provide essential traffic
information for all affected aircraft, to the extent (f) When returning to track, be at assigned
practicable; and if possible, suggest a course of flight level when the aircraft is within approximately
action. ATC may suggest that the pilot climb or 10 NM of centerline.
descend to a contingency altitude (1,000 feet above or (g) If contact was not established prior to
below that assigned if operating above FL 290; deviating, continue to attempt to contact ATC to
500 feet above or below that assigned if operating at obtain a clearance. If contact was established,
or below FL 290). continue to keep ATC advised of intentions and
PHRASEOLOGY obtain essential traffic information.
STANDARD SEPARATION NOT AVAILABLE, DEVIATE
AT PILOTS DISCRETION; SUGGEST CLIMB (or 7115. Runway Visual Range (RVR)
descent) TO (appropriate altitude); TRAFFIC (position
There are currently two configurations of RVR in the
and altitude); REPORT DEVIATION COMPLETE.
NAS commonly identified as Taskers and New
4. The pilot will follow the ATC advisory Generation RVR. The Taskers are the existing
altitude when approximately 10 NM from track as configuration which uses transmissometer technolo-
well as execute the procedures detailed in para- gy. The New Generation RVRs were deployed in
graph 7114c5. November 1994 and use forward scatter technology.
The New Generation RVRs are currently being
5. If contact cannot be established or revised
deployed in the NAS to replace the existing Taskers.
ATC clearance or advisory is not available and
deviation from track is required, the pilot must take a. RVR values are measured by transmissometers
the following actions: mounted on 14foot towers along the runway. A full
RVR system consists of:
(a) If possible, deviate away from an
organized track or route system. 1. Transmissometer projector and related items.
2. Transmissometer receiver (detector) and
(b) Broadcast aircraft position and intentions
related items.
on the frequency in use, as well as on frequency
121.5 MHz at suitable intervals stating: flight 3. Analog
identification (operator call sign), flight level, track 4. recorder.
code or ATS route designator, and extent of deviation
5. Signal data converter and related items.
expected.
6. Remote digital or remote display program-
(c) Watch for conflicting traffic both visually mer.
and by reference to TCAS (if equipped).
b. The transmissometer projector and receiver are
(d) Turn on aircraft exterior lights. mounted on towers 250 feet apart. A known intensity
7140 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
of light is emitted from the projector and is measured h. Details on the requirements for the operational
by the receiver. Any obscuring matter such as rain, use of RVR are contained in FAA AC 971, Runway
snow, dust, fog, haze or smoke reduces the light Visual Range (RVR). Pilots are responsible for
intensity arriving at the receiver. The resultant compliance with minimums prescribed for their class
intensity measurement is then converted to an RVR of operations in the appropriate CFRs and/or
value by the signal data converter. These values are operations specifications.
displayed by readout equipment in the associated air i. RVR values are also measured by forward
traffic facility and updated approximately once every scatter meters mounted on 14foot frangible
minute for controller issuance to pilots. fiberglass poles. A full RVR system consists of:
c. The signal data converter receives information 1. Forward scatter meter with a transmitter,
on the high intensity runway edge light setting in use receiver and associated items.
(step 3, 4, or 5); transmission values from the
2. A runway light intensity monitor (RLIM).
transmissometer and the sensing of day or night
conditions. From the three data sources, the system 3. An ambient light sensor (ALS).
will compute appropriate RVR values. 4. A data processor unit (DPU).
d. An RVR transmissometer established on a 5. Controller display (CD).
250 foot baseline provides digital readouts to a j. The forward scatter meter is mounted on a
minimum of 600 feet, which are displayed in 200 foot 14foot frangible pole. Infrared light is emitted from
increments to 3,000 feet and in 500 foot increments the transmitter and received by the receiver. Any
from 3,000 feet to a maximum value of 6,000 feet. obscuring matter such as rain, snow, dust, fog, haze
e. RVR values for Category IIIa operations extend or smoke increases the amount of scattered light
down to 700 feet RVR; however, only 600 and reaching the receiver. The resulting measurement
800 feet are reportable RVR increments. The along with inputs from the runway light intensity
800 RVR reportable value covers a range of 701 feet monitor and the ambient light sensor are forwarded to
to 900 feet and is therefore a valid minimum the DPU which calculates the proper RVR value. The
indication of Category IIIa operations. RVR values are displayed locally and remotely on
controller displays.
f. Approach categories with the corresponding
minimum RVR values. (See TBL 716.) k. The runway light intensity monitors both the
runway edge and centerline light step settings (steps 1
TBL 716 through 5). Centerline light step settings are used for
Approach Category/Minimum RVR Table CAT IIIb operations. Edge Light step settings are
used for CAT I, II, and IIIa operations.
Category Visibility (RVR)
l. New Generation RVRs can measure and display
Nonprecision 2,400 feet RVR values down to the lowest limits of
Category I 1,800 feet* Category IIIb operations (150 feet RVR). RVR
Category II 1,000 feet values are displayed in 100 feet increments and are
Category IIIa 700 feet reported as follows:
Category IIIb 150 feet 1. 100feet increments for products below
Category IIIc 0 feet 800 feet.
2. 200feet increments for products between
* 1,400 feet with special equipment and authorization
800 feet and 3,000 feet.
g. Ten minute maximum and minimum RVR 3. 500feet increments for products between
values for the designated RVR runway are reported in 3,000 feet and 6,500 feet.
the body of the aviation weather report when the
prevailing visibility is less than one mile and/or the 4. 25meter increments for products below
RVR is 6,000 feet or less. ATCTs report RVR when 150 meters.
the prevailing visibility is 1 mile or less and/or the 5. 50meter increments for products between
RVR is 6,000 feet or less. 150 meters and 800 meters.
Meteorology 7141
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6. 100meter increments for products between known distance from the usual point of observation.
800 meters and 1,200 meters. Visibilities which are determined to be less than
7 miles, identify the obscuring atmospheric condi-
7. 200meter increments for products between
tion; e.g., fog, haze, smoke, etc., or combinations
1,200 meters and 2,000 meters.
thereof.
7116. Reporting of Cloud Heights b. Prevailing visibility is the greatest visibility
equaled or exceeded throughout at least one half of
a. Ceiling, by definition in the CFRs and as used the horizon circle, not necessarily contiguous.
in aviation weather reports and forecasts, is the height Segments of the horizon circle which may have a
above ground (or water) level of the lowest layer of significantly different visibility may be reported in
clouds or obscuring phenomenon that is reported as the remarks section of the weather report; i.e., the
broken, overcast, or obscuration, e.g., an southeastern quadrant of the horizon circle may be
aerodrome forecast (TAF) which reads BKN030 determined to be 2 miles in mist while the remaining
refers to height above ground level. An area forecast quadrants are determined to be 3 miles in mist.
which reads BKN030 indicates that the height is
above mean sea level. c. When the prevailing visibility at the usual point
of observation, or at the tower level, is less than
REFERENCE
AIM, Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather 4 miles, certificated tower personnel will take
Report (METAR), Paragraph 7130, defines broken, overcast, and visibility observations in addition to those taken at the
obscuration.
usual point of observation. The lower of these two
b. Pilots usually report height values above MSL, values will be used as the prevailing visibility for
since they determine heights by the altimeter. This is aircraft operations.
taken in account when disseminating and otherwise
applying information received from pilots. (Ceil- 7118. Estimating Intensity of Rain and
ing heights are always above ground level.) In Ice Pellets
reports disseminated as PIREPs, height references
are given the same as received from pilots, that is, a. Rain
above MSL. 1. Light. From scattered drops that, regardless
c. In area forecasts or inflight advisories, ceilings of duration, do not completely wet an exposed surface
are denoted by the contraction CIG when used with up to a condition where individual drops are easily
sky cover symbols as in LWRG TO CIG OVC005, seen.
or the contraction AGL after, the forecast cloud 2. Moderate. Individual drops are not clearly
height value. When the cloud base is given in height identifiable; spray is observable just above pave-
above MSL, it is so indicated by the contraction ments and other hard surfaces.
MSL or ASL following the height value. The
heights of clouds tops, freezing level, icing, and 3. Heavy. Rain seemingly falls in sheets;
turbulence are always given in heights above ASL or individual drops are not identifiable; heavy spray to
MSL. height of several inches is observed over hard
surfaces.
7117. Reporting Prevailing Visibility b. Ice Pellets
a. Surface (horizontal) visibility is reported in 1. Light. Scattered pellets that do not com-
METAR reports in terms of statute miles and pletely cover an exposed surface regardless of
increments thereof; e.g., 1/16, 1/8, 3/16, 1/4, 5/16, 3/8, 1/2, duration. Visibility is not affected.
5/ , 3/ , 7/ , 1, 1 1/ , etc. (Visibility reported by an
8 4 8 8
2. Moderate. Slow accumulation on ground.
unaugmented automated site is reported differently
Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 7 statute
than in a manual report, i.e., ASOS/AWSS: 0, 1/16, 1/8,
1/ , 1/ , 3/ , 1, 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 3/ 2, 2 1/ 3, 4, 5, etc., AWOS: miles.
4 2 4 4, 2, 4, 2,
M1/4, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2, 1 3/4, 2, 2 1/2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) 3. Heavy. Rapid accumulation on ground.
Visibility is determined through the ability to see and Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 3 statute
identify preselected and prominent objects at a miles.
7142 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
7119. Estimating Intensity of Snow or 1. The ATCT uses the reports to expedite the
Drizzle (Based on Visibility) flow of air traffic in the vicinity of the field and for
hazardous weather avoidance procedures.
a. Light. Visibility more than 1/2 statute mile.
2. The FSS uses the reports to brief other pilots,
b. Moderate. Visibility from more than 1/4 stat- to provide inflight advisories, and weather avoidance
ute mile to 1/2 statute mile. information to en route aircraft.
3. The ARTCC uses the reports to expedite the
c. Heavy. Visibility 1/4 statute mile or less.
flow of en route traffic, to determine most favorable
altitudes, and to issue hazardous weather information
within the centers area.
7120. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)
4. The NWS uses the reports to verify or amend
a. FAA air traffic facilities are required to solicit conditions contained in aviation forecast and
PIREPs when the following conditions are reported advisories. In some cases, pilot reports of hazardous
or forecast: ceilings at or below 5,000 feet; visibility conditions are the triggering mechanism for the
at or below 5 miles (surface or aloft); thunderstorms issuance of advisories. They also use the reports for
and related phenomena; icing of light degree or pilot weather briefings.
greater; turbulence of moderate degree or greater; 5. The NWS, other government organizations,
wind shear and reported or forecast volcanic ash the military, and private industry groups use PIREPs
clouds. for research activities in the study of meteorological
b. Pilots are urged to cooperate and promptly phenomena.
volunteer reports of these conditions and other 6. All air traffic facilities and the NWS forward
atmospheric data such as: cloud bases, tops and the reports received from pilots into the weather
layers; flight visibility; precipitation; visibility distribution system to assure the information is made
restrictions such as haze, smoke and dust; wind at available to all pilots and other interested parties.
altitude; and temperature aloft.
e. The FAA, NWS, and other organizations that
c. PIREPs should be given to the ground facility enter PIREPs into the weather reporting system use
with which communications are established; the format listed in TBL 717. Items 1 through 6 are
i.e., EFAS, FSS, ARTCC, or terminal ATC. One of included in all transmitted PIREPs along with one or
the primary duties of EFAS facilities, radio call more of items 7 through 13. Although the PIREP
FLIGHT WATCH, is to serve as a collection point should be as complete and concise as possible, pilots
for the exchange of PIREPs with en route aircraft. should not be overly concerned with strict format or
phraseology. The important thing is that the
d. If pilots are not able to make PIREPs by radio, information is relayed so other pilots may benefit
reporting upon landing of the inflight conditions from your observation. If a portion of the report needs
encountered to the nearest FSS or Weather Forecast clarification, the ground station will request the
Office will be helpful. Some of the uses made of the information. Completed PIREPs will be transmitted
reports are: to weather circuits as in the following examples:
Meteorology 7143
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TBL 717
PIREP Element Code Chart
PIREP ELEMENT PIREP CODE CONTENTS

1. 3letter station identifier XXX Nearest weather reporting location to the reported phenomenon
2. Report type UA or UUA Routine or Urgent PIREP
3. Location /OV In relation to a VOR
4. Time /TM Coordinated Universal Time
5. Altitude /FL Essential for turbulence and icing reports
6. Type Aircraft /TP Essential for turbulence and icing reports
7. Sky cover /SK Cloud height and coverage (sky clear, few, scattered, broken, or
overcast)
8. Weather /WX Flight visibility, precipitation, restrictions to visibility, etc.
9. Temperature /TA Degrees Celsius
10. Wind /WV Direction in degrees magnetic north and speed in knots
11. Turbulence /TB See AIM paragraph 7123
12. Icing /IC See AIM paragraph 7121
13. Remarks /RM For reporting elements not included or to clarify previously
reported items
EXAMPLE extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the

1. KCMH UA /OV APE 230010/TM 1516/FL085/TP leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It
BE20/SK BKN065/WX FV03SM HZ FU/TA 20/TB LGT takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of
NOTE some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the
1. One zero miles southwest of Appleton VOR; time frictional drag by an equal percentage.
1516 UTC; altitude eight thousand five hundred; aircraft
type BE200; bases of the broken cloud layer is six thousand b. A pilot can expect icing when flying in visible
five hundred; flight visibility 3 miles with haze and smoke; precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets, and the
air temperature 20 degrees Celsius; light turbulence. temperature is between +02 and 10 degrees Celsius.
EXAMPLE When icing is detected, a pilot should do one of two
2. KCRW UV /OV KBKW 360015KCRW/TM things, particularly if the aircraft is not equipped with
1815/FL120//TP BE99/SK IMC/WX RA/TA M08 /WV deicing equipment; get out of the area of
290030/TB LGTMDT/IC LGT RIME/RM MDT MXD precipitation; or go to an altitude where the
ICG DURC KROA NWBND FL080100 1750Z
temperature is above freezing. This warmer
NOTE altitude may not always be a lower altitude. Proper
2. From 15 miles north of Beckley VOR to Charles- preflight action includes obtaining information on the
ton VOR; time 1815 UTC; altitude 12,000 feet; type
freezing level and the above freezing levels in
aircraft, BE99; in clouds; rain; temperature minus
8 Celsius; wind 290 degrees magnetic at 30 knots; light to
precipitation areas. Report icing to ATC, and if
moderate turbulence; light rime icing during climb operating IFR, request new routing or altitude if icing
northwestbound from Roanoke, VA, between 8,000 and will be a hazard. Be sure to give the type of aircraft to
10,000 feet at 1750 UTC. ATC when reporting icing. The following describes
how to report icing conditions.
7121. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing
1. Trace. Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of
a. The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative- accumulation slightly greater than sublimation.
thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not utilized unless
weight increases. The results are an increase in stall encountered for an extended period of time (over
speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In 1 hour).
7144 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
2. Light. The rate of accumulation may create time (UTC), intensity of type, altitude/FL, aircraft
a problem if flight is prolonged in this environment type, indicated air speed (IAS), and outside air
(over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing temperature (OAT).
equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does NOTE
not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing 1. Rime ice. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the
equipment is used. instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water
droplets.
3. Moderate. The rate of accumulation is such
2. Clear ice. A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by
that even short encounters become potentially
the relatively slow freezing of large supercooled water
hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or droplets.
flight diversion is necessary.
3. The OAT should be requested by the FSS or ATC if not
4. Severe. The rate of accumulation is such that included in the PIREP.
deicing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or
control the hazard. Immediate flight diversion is
necessary. 7122. Definitions of Inflight Icing Terms
EXAMPLE See TBL 718, Icing Types, and TBL 719, Icing
Pilot report: give aircraft identification, location, Conditions.
TBL 718
Icing Types
Clear Ice See Glaze Ice.

Glaze Ice Ice, sometimes clear and smooth, but usually containing some air pockets, which results in a
lumpy translucent appearance. Glaze ice results from supercooled drops/droplets striking a
surface but not freezing rapidly on contact. Glaze ice is denser, harder, and sometimes more
transparent than rime ice. Factors, which favor glaze formation, are those that favor slow
dissipation of the heat of fusion (i.e., slight supercooling and rapid accretion). With larger
accretions, the ice shape typically includes horns protruding from unprotected leading edge
surfaces. It is the ice shape, rather than the clarity or color of the ice, which is most likely to
be accurately assessed from the cockpit. The terms clear and glaze have been used for
essentially the same type of ice accretion, although some reserve clear for thinner accretions
which lack horns and conform to the airfoil.
Intercycle Ice Ice which accumulates on a protected surface between actuation cycles of a deicing system.
Known or Observed or Actual ice observed visually to be on the aircraft by the flight crew or identified by onboard
Detected Ice Accretion sensors.
Mixed Ice Simultaneous appearance or a combination of rime and glaze ice characteristics. Since the
clarity, color, and shape of the ice will be a mixture of rime and glaze characteristics, accurate
identification of mixed ice from the cockpit may be difficult.
Residual Ice Ice which remains on a protected surface immediately after the actuation of a deicing system.
Rime Ice A rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the rapid freezing of supercooled drops/droplets after
they strike the aircraft. The rapid freezing results in air being trapped, giving the ice its opaque
appearance and making it porous and brittle. Rime ice typically accretes along the stagnation
line of an airfoil and is more regular in shape and conformal to the airfoil than glaze ice. It is
the ice shape, rather than the clarity or color of the ice, which is most likely to be accurately
assessed from the cockpit.
Runback Ice Ice which forms from the freezing or refreezing of water leaving protected surfaces and
running back to unprotected surfaces.
Note
Ice types are difficult for the pilot to discern and have uncertain effects on an airplane in flight. Ice type definitions will
be included in the AIM for use in the Remarks section of the PIREP and for use in forecasting.
Meteorology 7145
AIM 4/3/14
TBL 719
Icing Conditions
Appendix C Icing Conditions Appendix C (14 CFR, Part 25 and 29) is the certification icing condition standard
for approving ice protection provisions on aircraft. The conditions are specified in
terms of altitude, temperature, liquid water content (LWC), representative droplet
size (mean effective drop diameter [MED]), and cloud horizontal extent.
Forecast Icing Conditions Environmental conditions expected by a National Weather Service or an
FAAapproved weather provider to be conducive to the formation of inflight icing
on aircraft.
Freezing Drizzle (FZDZ) Drizzle is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid water drops
which have diameters less than 0.5 mm and greater than 0.05 mm. Freezing drizzle
is drizzle that exists at air temperatures less than 0C (supercooled), remains in
liquid form, and freezes upon contact with objects on the surface or airborne.
Freezing Precipitation Freezing precipitation is freezing rain or freezing drizzle falling through or outside
of visible cloud.
Freezing Rain (FZRA) Rain is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid water drops which
have diameters greater than 0.5 mm. Freezing rain is rain that exists at air
temperatures less than 0C (supercooled), remains in liquid form, and freezes upon
contact with objects on the ground or in the air.
Icing in Cloud Icing occurring within visible cloud. Cloud droplets (diameter < 0.05 mm) will be
present; freezing drizzle and/or freezing rain may or may not be present.
Icing in Precipitation Icing occurring from an encounter with freezing precipitation, that is, supercooled
drops with diameters exceeding 0.05 mm, within or outside of visible cloud.
Known Icing Conditions Atmospheric conditions in which the formation of ice is observed or detected in
flight.
Note
Because of the variability in space and time of atmospheric conditions, the existence
of a report of observed icing does not assure the presence or intensity of icing
conditions at a later time, nor can a report of no icing assure the absence of icing
conditions at a later time.
Potential Icing Conditions Atmospheric icing conditions that are typically defined by airframe manufacturers
relative to temperature and visible moisture that may result in aircraft ice accretion
on the ground or in flight. The potential icing conditions are typically defined in the
Airplane Flight Manual or in the Airplane Operation Manual.
Supercooled Drizzle Drops Synonymous with freezing drizzle aloft.
(SCDD)
Supercooled Drops or /Droplets Water drops/droplets which remain unfrozen at temperatures below 0 C.
Supercooled drops are found in clouds, freezing drizzle, and freezing rain in the
atmosphere. These drops may impinge and freeze after contact on aircraft surfaces.
Supercooled Large Drops (SLD) Liquid droplets with diameters greater than 0.05 mm at temperatures less than
0C, i.e., freezing rain or freezing drizzle.
7146 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
7123. PIREPs Relating to Turbulence 5. Aircraft altitude or flight level.

a. When encountering turbulence, pilots are 6. Type of aircraft.
urgently requested to report such conditions to ATC 7. Duration of turbulence.
as soon as practicable. PIREPs relating to turbulence
should state: EXAMPLE
1. Over Omaha, 1232Z, moderate turbulence in clouds at
1. Aircraft location. Flight Level three one zero, Boeing 707.
2. Time of occurrence in UTC. 2. From five zero miles south of Albuquerque to three zero
miles north of Phoenix, 1250Z, occasional moderate chop
3. Turbulence intensity. at Flight Level three three zero, DC8.
4. Whether the turbulence occurred in or near b. Duration and classification of intensity should
clouds. be made using TBL 7110.
TBL 7110
Turbulence Reporting Criteria Table
Intensity Aircraft Reaction Reaction Inside Aircraft Reporting TermDefinition
Light Turbulence that momentarily causes Occupants may feel a slight strain OccasionalLess than 1/3 of the time.
slight, erratic changes in altitude and/or against seat belts or shoulder straps.
attitude (pitch, roll, yaw). Report as Unsecured objects may be displaced Intermittent1/3 to 2/3.
Light Turbulence; 1 slightly. Food service may be con-
or ducted and little or no difficulty is ContinuousMore than 2/3.
Turbulence that causes slight, rapid and encountered in walking.
somewhat rhythmic bumpiness without
appreciable changes in altitude or
attitude. Report as Light Chop.
Moderate Turbulence that is similar to Light Occupants feel definite strains against NOTE
Turbulence but of greater intensity. seat belts or shoulder straps. Unse- 1. Pilots should report location(s),
Changes in altitude and/or attitude occur cured objects are dislodged. Food time (UTC), intensity, whether in or
but the aircraft remains in positive service and walking are difficult. near clouds, altitude, type of aircraft
control at all times. It usually causes and, when applicable, duration of
variations in indicated airspeed. Report turbulence.
as Moderate Turbulence; 1
or 2. Duration may be based on time
Turbulence that is similar to Light Chop between two locations or over a single
but of greater intensity. It causes rapid location. All locations should be
bumps or jolts without appreciable readily identifiable.
changes in aircraft altitude or attitude.
Report as Moderate Chop.1
Severe Turbulence that causes large, abrupt Occupants are forced violently against
changes in altitude and/or attitude. It seat belts or shoulder straps. Unse- EXAMPLES:
usually causes large variations in cured objects are tossed about. Food a. Over Omaha. 1232Z, Moderate
indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be Service and walking are impossible. Turbulence, in cloud, Flight
momentarily out of control. Report as Level 310, B707.
Severe Turbulence. 1
Extreme Turbulence in which the aircraft is b. From 50 miles south of Albuquer-
violently tossed about and is practically que to 30 miles north of Phoenix,
impossible to control. It may cause 1210Z to 1250Z, occasional Moderate
structural damage. Report as Extreme Chop, Flight Level 330, DC8.
Turbulence. 1
1 High level turbulence (normally above 15,000 feet ASL) not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, including thunderstorms,
should be reported as CAT (clear air turbulence) preceded by the appropriate intensity, or light or moderate chop.
Meteorology 7147
AIM 4/3/14
7124. Wind Shear PIREPs traffic flying in excess of 15,000 feet. The best
available information on this phenomenon must
a. Because unexpected changes in wind speed and
come from pilots via the PIREP reporting procedures.
direction can be hazardous to aircraft operations at
All pilots encountering CAT conditions are urgently
low altitudes on approach to and departing from
requested to report time, location, and intensity (light,
airports, pilots are urged to promptly volunteer
moderate, severe, or extreme) of the element to the
reports to controllers of wind shear conditions they
FAA facility with which they are maintaining radio
encounter. An advance warning of this information
contact. If time and conditions permit, elements
will assist other pilots in avoiding or coping with a
should be reported according to the standards for
wind shear on approach or departure.
other PIREPs and position reports.
b. When describing conditions, use of the terms
negative or positive wind shear should be REFERENCE
AIM, PIREPs Relating to Turbulence, Paragraph 7123.
avoided. PIREPs of negative wind shear on final,
intended to describe loss of airspeed and lift, have
been interpreted to mean that no wind shear was
encountered. The recommended method for wind
7126. Microbursts
shear reporting is to state the loss or gain of airspeed
and the altitudes at which it was encountered.
a. Relatively recent meteorological studies have
EXAMPLE
confirmed the existence of microburst phenomenon.
1. Denver Tower, Cessna 1234 encountered wind shear,
loss of 20 knots at 400.
Microbursts are small scale intense downdrafts
which, on reaching the surface, spread outward in all
2. Tulsa Tower, American 721 encountered wind shear on directions from the downdraft center. This causes the
final, gained 25 knots between 600 and 400 feet followed presence of both vertical and horizontal wind shears
by loss of 40 knots between 400 feet and surface.
that can be extremely hazardous to all types and
1. Pilots who are not able to report wind shear in categories of aircraft, especially at low altitudes. Due
these specific terms are encouraged to make reports to their small size, short life span, and the fact that
in terms of the effect upon their aircraft. they can occur over areas without surface precipita-
EXAMPLE tion, microbursts are not easily detectable using
Miami Tower, Gulfstream 403 Charlie encountered an conventional weather radar or wind shear alert
abrupt wind shear at 800 feet on final, max thrust required. systems.
2. Pilots using Inertial Navigation Systems
(INSs) should report the wind and altitude both above b. Parent clouds producing microburst activity
and below the shear level. can be any of the low or middle layer convective
cloud types. Note, however, that microbursts
commonly occur within the heavy rain portion of
7125. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREPs
thunderstorms, and in much weaker, benign
CAT has become a very serious operational factor to appearing convective cells that have little or no
flight operations at all levels and especially to jet precipitation reaching the ground.
7148 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 7114
Evolution of a Microburst
WIND SPEED
10-20 knots
> 20 knots
HEIGHT (feet)
T-5 Min T-2 Min T T + 5 Min T + 10 Min
10,000
5,000
0 1 2 3
SCALE (miles)
Vertical cross section of the evolution of a microburst wind field. T is the time of initial divergence at
the surface. The shading refers to the vector wind speeds. Figure adapted from Wilson et al., 1984,
Microburst Wind Structure and Evaluation of Doppler Radar for Wind Shear Detection, DOT/FAA
Report No. DOT/FAA/PM-84/29, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 37 pp.
c. The life cycle of a microburst as it descends in 3. Visual Signs. Microbursts can be found
a convective rain shaft is seen in FIG 7114. An almost anywhere that there is convective activity.
important consideration for pilots is the fact that the They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with
microburst intensifies for about 5 minutes after it a thunderstorm or in light rain in benign appearing
strikes the ground. virga. When there is little or no precipitation at the
surface accompanying the microburst, a ring of
d. Characteristics of microbursts include:
blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its
1. Size. The microburst downdraft is typically existence.
less than 1 mile in diameter as it descends from the
cloud base to about 1,0003,000 feet above the
4. Duration. An individual microburst will
ground. In the transition zone near the ground, the
seldom last longer than 15 minutes from the time it
downdraft changes to a horizontal outflow that can
strikes the ground until dissipation. The horizontal
extend to approximately 2 1/2 miles in diameter.
winds continue to increase during the first 5 minutes
2. Intensity. The downdrafts can be as strong with the maximum intensity winds lasting approxi-
as 6,000 feet per minute. Horizontal winds near the mately 24 minutes. Sometimes microbursts are
surface can be as strong as 45 knots resulting in a concentrated into a line structure, and under these
90 knot shear (headwind to tailwind change for a conditions, activity may continue for as long as an
traversing aircraft) across the microburst. These hour. Once microburst activity starts, multiple
strong horizontal winds occur within a few hundred microbursts in the same general area are not
feet of the ground. uncommon and should be expected.
Meteorology 7149
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 7115
Microburst Encounter During Takeoff
A microburst encounter during takeoff. The airplane first encounters a headwind and experiences increasing
performance (1), this is followed in short succession by a decreasing headwind component (2), a downdraft
(3), and finally a strong tailwind (4), where 2 through 5 all result in decreasing performance of the airplane.
Position (5) represents an extreme situation just prior to impact. Figure courtesy of Walter Frost, FWG
Associates, Inc., Tullahoma, Tennessee.
e. Microburst wind shear may create a severe experience of penetrating one is characterized in
hazard for aircraft within 1,000 feet of the ground, FIG 7115. The aircraft may encounter a headwind
particularly during the approach to landing and (performance increasing) followed by a downdraft
landing and take-off phases. The impact of a and tailwind (both performance decreasing), possibly
microburst on aircraft which have the unfortunate resulting in terrain impact.
7150 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 7116
NAS Wind Shear Product Systems
(33)
(39)
(36)
(9)
f. Detection of Microbursts, Wind Shear and concept that significantly improves the aviation
Gust Fronts. weather information in the terminal area. (See
FIG 7116.)
1. FAAs Integrated Wind Shear Detection
Plan.
(b) The wind shear/microburst information
(a) The FAA currently employs an integrated and warnings are displayed on the ribbon display
plan for wind shear detection that will significantly terminals (RBDT) located in the tower cabs. They are
improve both the safety and capacity of the majority identical (and standardized) in the LLWAS, TDWR
of the airports currently served by the air carriers. and WSP systems, and so designed that the controller
This plan integrates several programs, such as the does not need to interpret the data, but simply read the
Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS), displayed information to the pilot. The RBDTs are
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather constantly monitored by the controller to ensure the
System Processor (WSP), and Low Level Wind Shear rapid and timely dissemination of any hazardous
Alert Systems (LLWAS) into a single strategic event(s) to the pilot.
Meteorology 7151
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 7117
LLWAS Siting Criteria
(c) The early detection of a wind shear/ 2. Low Level Wind Shear Alert System
microburst event, and the subsequent warning(s) (LLWAS).
issued to an aircraft on approach or departure, will
(a) The LLWAS provides wind data and
alert the pilot/crew to the potential of, and to be
software processes to detect the presence of
prepared for, a situation that could become very
hazardous wind shear and microbursts in the vicinity
dangerous! Without these warnings, the aircraft may
of an airport. Wind sensors, mounted on poles
NOT be able to climb out of, or safely transition, the
sometimes as high as 150 feet, are (ideally) located
event, resulting in a catastrophe. The air carriers,
2,000 3,500 feet, but not more than 5,000 feet, from
working with the FAA, have developed specialized
the centerline of the runway. (See FIG 7117.)
training programs using their simulators to train and
prepare their pilots on the demanding aircraft
procedures required to escape these very dangerous
wind shear and/or microburst encounters.
7152 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 7118
Warning Boxes
(b) LLWAS was fielded in 1988 at 110 air- and precipitation intensities. TDWR products advise
ports across the nation. Many of these systems have the controller of wind shear and microburst events
been replaced by new TDWR and WSP technology. impacting all runways and the areas 1/2 mile on either
Eventually all LLWAS systems will be phased out; side of the extended centerline of the runways out to
however, 39 airports will be upgraded to the 3 miles on final approach and 2 miles out on
LLWASNE (Network Expansion) system, which departure.
employs the very latest software and sensor (FIG 7118 is a theoretical view of the warning
technology. The new LLWASNE systems will not boxes, including the runway, that the software uses in
only provide the controller with wind shear warnings determining the location(s) of wind shear or
and alerts, including wind shear/microburst detection microbursts). These warnings are displayed (as
at the airport wind sensor location, but will also depicted in the examples in subparagraph 5) on the
provide the location of the hazards relative to the RBDT.
airport runway(s). It will also have the flexibility and (b) It is very important to understand what
capability to grow with the airport as new runways are TDWR does NOT DO:
built. As many as 32 sensors, strategically located
around the airport and in relationship to its runway (1) It DOES NOT warn of wind shear
configuration, can be accommodated by the outside of the alert boxes (on the arrival and departure
LLWASNE network. ends of the runways);
(2) It DOES NOT detect wind shear that is
3. Terminal Doppler Weather Radar NOT a microburst or a gust front;
(TDWR). (3) It DOES NOT detect gusty or cross
wind conditions; and
(a) TDWRs are being deployed at 45 loca-
tions across the U.S. Optimum locations for TDWRs (4) It DOES NOT detect turbulence.
are 8 to 12 miles off of the airport proper, and However, research and development is continuing on
designed to look at the airspace around and over the these systems. Future improvements may include
airport to detect microbursts, gust fronts, wind shifts such areas as storm motion (movement), improved
Meteorology 7153
AIM 4/3/14
gust front detection, storm growth and decay, 34 airports across the nation, substantially increasing
microburst prediction, and turbulence detection. the safety of the American flying public.
(c) TDWR also provides a geographical 5. Operational aspects of LLWAS, TDWR
situation display (GSD) for supervisors and traffic and WSP.
management specialists for planning purposes. The To demonstrate how this data is used by both the
GSD displays (in color) 6 levels of weather controller and the pilot, 3 ribbon display examples
(precipitation), gust fronts and predicted storm and their explanations are presented:
movement(s). This data is used by the tower
supervisor(s), traffic management specialists and (a) MICROBURST ALERTS
controllers to plan for runway changes and EXAMPLE
arrival/departure route changes in order to both This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display
reduce aircraft delays and increase airport capacity. in the tower cab.
4. Weather System Processor (WSP). 27A MBA 35K 2MF 250 20

(a) The WSP provides the controller, supervi- NOTE
sor, traffic management specialist, and ultimately the (See FIG 7119 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines
pilot, with the same products as the terminal doppler the microburst location).
weather radar (TDWR) at a fraction of the cost of a This is what the controller will say when issuing the
TDWR. This is accomplished by utilizing new alert.
technologies to access the weather channel capabili-
PHRASEOLOGY
ties of the existing ASR9 radar located on or near the RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, MICROBURST ALERT, 35 KT
airport, thus eliminating the requirements for a LOSS 2 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WIND 250 AT 20.
separate radar location, land acquisition, support
facilities and the associated communication landlines In plain language, the controller is telling the pilot
and expenses. that on approach to runway 27, there is a microburst
alert on the approach lane to the runway, and to
(b) The WSP utilizes the same RBDT display anticipate or expect a 35 knot loss of airspeed at
as the TDWR and LLWAS, and, just like TDWR, also approximately 2 miles out on final approach (where
has a GSD for planning purposes by supervisors, it will first encounter the phenomena). With that
traffic management specialists and controllers. The information, the aircrew is forewarned, and should be
WSP GSD emulates the TDWR display, i.e., it also prepared to apply wind shear/microburst escape
depicts 6 levels of precipitation, gust fronts and procedures should they decide to continue the
predicted storm movement, and like the TDWR GSD, approach. Additionally, the surface winds at the
is used to plan for runway changes and arrival/depar- airport for landing runway 27 are reported as
ture route changes in order to reduce aircraft delays 250 degrees at 20 knots.
and to increase airport capacity. NOTE
Threshold wind is at pilots request or as deemed
(c) This system is currently under develop-
appropriate by the controller.
ment and is operating in a developmental test status
REFERENCE
at the Albuquerque, New Mexico, airport. When FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Low Level Wind
fielded, the WSP is expected to be installed at Shear/Microburst Advisories, Paragraph 318b2(a).
7154 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 7119
Microburst Alert
(b) WIND SHEAR ALERTS In plain language, the controller is advising the
EXAMPLE aircraft arriving on runway 27 that at about 3 miles
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display out they can expect to encounter a wind shear
in the tower cab. condition that will decrease their airspeed by 20 knots
and possibly encounter turbulence. Additionally, the
27A WSA 20K 3MF 200 15
airport surface winds for landing runway 27 are
NOTE reported as 200 degrees at 15 knots.
(See FIG 7120 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines
the wind shear location). NOTE
This is what the controller will say when issuing the Threshold wind is at pilots request or as deemed
alert. appropriate by the controller.
PHRASEOLOGY
REFERENCE
RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Low Level Wind
LOSS 3 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WIND 200 AT 15. Shear/Microburst Advisories, Paragraph 318b2(a).
Meteorology 7155
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 7120
Weak Microburst Alert
7156 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
FIG 7121
Gust Front Alert
(c) MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS PHRASEOLOGY

MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS. RUNWAY 27
EXAMPLE ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT GAIN ON
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display RUNWAY; RUNWAY 27 DEPARTURE, WIND SHEAR
in the tower cab. ALERT, 20 KT GAIN ON RUNWAY, WIND 250 AT 20.
EXAMPLE
27A WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20 In this example, the controller is advising arriving and
27D WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20 departing aircraft that they could encounter a wind shear
condition right on the runway due to a gust front
(significant change of wind direction) with the possibility
NOTE of a 20 knot gain in airspeed associated with the gust front.
(See FIG 7121 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines Additionally, the airport surface winds (for the runway in
the gust front/wind shear location.) use) are reported as 250 degrees at 20 knots.
REFERENCE
This is what the controller will say when issuing the FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Low Level Wind
alert. Shear/Microburst Advisories, Paragraph 318b2(d).
Meteorology 7157
AIM 4/3/14
6. The Terminal Weather Information for VFR/MVFR/IFR/LIFR; it only deals with precipita-
Pilots System (TWIP). tion, wind shears and microbursts.
(a) With the increase in the quantity and
quality of terminal weather information available 7127. PIREPs Relating to Volcanic Ash
through TDWR, the next step is to provide this Activity
information directly to pilots rather than relying on a. Volcanic eruptions which send ash into the
voice communications from ATC. The National upper atmosphere occur somewhere around the world
Airspace System has long been in need of a means of several times each year. Flying into a volcanic ash
delivering terminal weather information to the cloud can be extremely dangerous. At least two
cockpit more efficiently in terms of both speed and B747s have lost all power in all four engines after
accuracy to enhance pilot awareness of weather such an encounter. Regardless of the type aircraft,
hazards and reduce air traffic controller workload. some damage is almost certain to ensue after an
With the TWIP capability, terminal weather encounter with a volcanic ash cloud. Additionally,
information, both alphanumerically and graphically, studies have shown that volcanic eruptions are the
is now available directly to the cockpit on a test basis only significant source of large quantities of sulphur
at 9 locations. dioxide (SO2) gas at jet-cruising altitudes. Therefore,
the detection and subsequent reporting of SO2 is of
(b) TWIP products are generated using
significant importance. Although SO2 is colorless, its
weather data from the TDWR or the Integrated
presence in the atmosphere should be suspected when
Terminal Weather System (ITWS) testbed. TWIP
a sulphur-like or rotten egg odor is present throughout
products are generated and stored in the form of text
the cabin.
and character graphic messages. Software has been
developed to allow TDWR or ITWS to format the b. While some volcanoes in the U.S. are
data and send the TWIP products to a database monitored, many in remote areas are not. These
resident at Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC). These unmonitored volcanoes may erupt without prior
products can then be accessed by pilots using the warning to the aviation community. A pilot observing
ARINC Aircraft Communications Addressing and a volcanic eruption who has not had previous
Reporting System (ACARS) data link services. notification of it may be the only witness to the
Airline dispatchers can also access this database and eruption. Pilots are strongly encouraged to transmit a
send messages to specific aircraft whenever wind PIREP regarding volcanic eruptions and any
shear activity begins or ends at an airport. observed volcanic ash clouds or detection of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) gas associated with volcanic activity.
(c) TWIP products include descriptions and
character graphics of microburst alerts, wind shear c. Pilots should submit PIREPs regarding volcanic
alerts, significant precipitation, convective activity activity using the Volcanic Activity Reporting (VAR)
within 30 NM surrounding the terminal area, and form as illustrated in Appendix 2. If a VAR form is
expected weather that will impact airport operations. not immediately available, relay enough information
During inclement weather, i.e., whenever a predeter- to identify the position and type of volcanic activity.
mined level of precipitation or wind shear is detected d. Pilots should verbally transmit the data required
within 15 miles of the terminal area, TWIP products in items 1 through 8 of the VAR as soon as possible.
are updated once each minute for text messages and The data required in items 9 through 16 of the VAR
once every five minutes for character graphic should be relayed after landing if possible.
messages. During good weather (below the predeter-
mined precipitation or wind shear parameters) each
7128. Thunderstorms
message is updated every 10 minutes. These products
are intended to improve the situational awareness of a. Turbulence, hail, rain, snow, lightning, sus-
the pilot/flight crew, and to aid in flight planning prior tained updrafts and downdrafts, icing conditionsall
to arriving or departing the terminal area. It is are present in thunderstorms. While there is some
important to understand that, in the context of TWIP, evidence that maximum turbulence exists at the
the predetermined levels for inclement versus good middle level of a thunderstorm, recent studies show
weather has nothing to do with the criteria for little variation of turbulence intensity with altitude.
7158 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
b. There is no useful correlation between the 2. Alert provided by an FSS:

external visual appearance of thunderstorms and the (aircraft identification) EXTREME precipitation two zero
severity or amount of turbulence or hail within them. miles west of Atlanta VOR, two five miles wide, moving
The visible thunderstorm cloud is only a portion of a east at two zero knots, tops flight level three niner zero.
turbulent system whose updrafts and downdrafts
often extend far beyond the visible storm cloud. 7129. Thunderstorm Flying
Severe turbulence can be expected up to 20 miles
a. Thunderstorm Avoidance. Never regard any
from severe thunderstorms. This distance decreases
thunderstorm lightly, even when radar echoes are of
to about 10 miles in less severe storms.
light intensity. Avoiding thunderstorms is the best
c. Weather radar, airborne or ground based, will policy. Following are some Dos and Donts of
normally reflect the areas of moderate to heavy thunderstorm avoidance:
precipitation (radar does not detect turbulence). The 1. Dont land or takeoff in the face of an
frequency and severity of turbulence generally approaching thunderstorm. A sudden gust front of
increases with the radar reflectivity which is closely low level turbulence could cause loss of control.
associated with the areas of highest liquid water
content of the storm. NO FLIGHT PATH THROUGH 2. Dont attempt to fly under a thunderstorm
AN AREA OF STRONG OR VERY STRONG even if you can see through to the other side.
RADAR ECHOES SEPARATED BY 2030 MILES Turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be
OR LESS MAY BE CONSIDERED FREE OF hazardous.
SEVERE TURBULENCE. 3. Dont attempt to fly under the anvil of a
d. Turbulence beneath a thunderstorm should not thunderstorm. There is a potential for severe and
be minimized. This is especially true when the extreme clear air turbulence.
relative humidity is low in any layer between the 4. Dont fly without airborne radar into a cloud
surface and 15,000 feet. Then the lower altitudes may mass containing scattered embedded thunderstorms.
be characterized by strong out flowing winds and Scattered thunderstorms not embedded usually can
severe turbulence. be visually circumnavigated.
e. The probability of lightning strikes occurring to 5. Dont trust the visual appearance to be a
aircraft is greatest when operating at altitudes where reliable indicator of the turbulence inside a
temperatures are between minus 5 degrees Celsius thunderstorm.
and plus 5 degrees Celsius. Lightning can strike 6. Dont assume that ATC will offer radar
aircraft flying in the clear in the vicinity of a navigation guidance or deviations around thunder-
thunderstorm. storms.
f. METAR reports do not include a descriptor for 7. Dont use data-linked weather next genera-
severe thunderstorms. However, by understanding tion weather radar (NEXRAD) mosaic imagery as the
severe thunderstorm criteria, i.e., 50 knot winds or sole means for negotiating a path through a
3/ inch hail, the information is available in the report
4 thunderstorm area (tactical maneuvering).
to know that one is occurring.
8. Do remember that the data-linked NEXRAD
g. Current weather radar systems are able to mosaic imagery shows where the weather was, not
objectively determine precipitation intensity. These where the weather is. The weather conditions may be
precipitation intensity areas are described as light, 15 to 20 minutes older than the age indicated on the
moderate, heavy, and extreme. display.
REFERENCE 9. Do listen to chatter on the ATC frequency for
Pilot/Controller Glossary, Precipitation Radar Weather Descriptions.
Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP) and other aircraft
EXAMPLE requesting to deviate or divert.
1. Alert provided by an ATC facility to an aircraft:
(aircraft identification) EXTREME precipitation between 10. Do ask ATC for radar navigation guidance
ten oclock and two oclock, one five miles. Precipitation or to approve deviations around thunderstorms, if
area is two five miles in diameter. needed.
Meteorology 7159
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
7/24/14
4/3/14
11. Do use data-linked weather NEXRAD 2. Plan and hold the course to take the aircraft
mosaic imagery (for example, Flight Information through the storm in a minimum time.
Service-Broadcast (FIS-B)) for route selection to
3. To avoid the most critical icing, establish a
avoid thunderstorms entirely (strategic maneuver-
penetration altitude below the freezing level or above
ing).
the level of -15C.
12. Do advise ATC, when switched to another
4. Verify that pitot heat is on and turn on
controller, that you are deviating for thunderstorms
carburetor heat or jet engine anti-ice. Icing can be
before accepting to rejoin the original route.
rapid at any altitude and cause almost instantaneous
13. Do ensure that after an authorized weather power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication.
deviation, before accepting to rejoin the original
5. Establish power settings for turbulence
route, that the route of flight is clear of thunderstorms.
penetration airspeed recommended in the aircraft
14. Do avoid by at least 20 miles any manual.
thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an intense
6. Turn up cockpit lights to highest intensity to
radar echo. This is especially true under the anvil of
lessen temporary blindness from lightning.
a large cumulonimbus.
7. If using automatic pilot, disengage Altitude
15. Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area
Hold Mode and Speed Hold Mode. The automatic
has 6/10 thunderstorm coverage.
altitude and speed controls will increase maneuvers
16. Do remember that vivid and frequent of the aircraft thus increasing structural stress.
lightning indicates the probability of a severe
8. If using airborne radar, tilt the antenna up and
thunderstorm.
down occasionally. This will permit the detection of
17. Do regard as extremely hazardous any other thunderstorm activity at altitudes other than the
thunderstorm with tops 35,000 feet or higher whether one being flown.
the top is visually sighted or determined by radar.
c. Following are some Dos and Donts during the
18. Do give a PIREP for the flight conditions. thunderstorm penetration:
19. Do divert and wait out the thunderstorms on 1. Do keep your eyes on your instruments.
the ground if unable to navigate around an area of Looking outside the cockpit can increase danger of
thunderstorms. temporary blindness from lightning.
20. Do contact Flight Service/Flight Watch for 2. Dont change power settings; maintain
assistance in avoiding thunderstorms. Flight Service/ settings for the recommended turbulence penetration
Flight Watch specialists have NEXRAD mosaic radar airspeed.
imagery and NEXRAD single site radar with unique
3. Do maintain constant attitude. Allow the
features such as base and composite reflectivity, echo
altitude and airspeed to fluctuate.
tops, and VAD wind profiles.
4. Dont turn back once you are in the
b. If you cannot avoid penetrating a thunderstorm,
thunderstorm. A straight course through the storm
following are some Dos before entering the storm:
most likely will get the aircraft out of the hazards
1. Tighten your safety belt, put on your shoulder most quickly. In addition, turning maneuvers increase
harness (if installed), if and secure all loose objects. stress on the aircraft.
7160 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
7130. Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
FIG 7122
Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) (Front)
Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation

Routine Weather Report (METAR) (Front)
TAF KPIT 091730Z 0918/1024 15005KT 5SM HZ FEW020 WS010/31022KT

FM091930 30015G25KT 3SM SHRA OVC015
TEMPO 0920/0922 1/2SM +TSRA OVC008CB
FM100100 27008KT 5SM SHRA BKN020 OVC040
PROB30 1004/1007 1SM -RA BR
FM101015 18005KT 6SM -SHRA OVC020
BECMG 1013/1015 P6SM NSW SKC
NOTE: Users are cautioned to confirm DATE and TIME of the TAF. For example FM100000 is
0000Z on the 10th. Do not confuse with 1000Z!
METAR KPIT 091955Z COR 22015G25KT 3/4SM R28L/2600FT TSRA OVC010CB 18/16 A2992 RMK
SLP045 T01820159
Forecast Explanation Report

TAF Message type: TAF-routine or TAF AMD-amended forecast, METAR- METAR
hourly, SPECI-special or TESTM-non-commissioned ASOS report
KPIT ICAO location indicator KPIT
091730Z Issuance time: ALL times in UTC Z, 2-digit date, 4-digit time 091955Z
0918/1024 Valid period, either 24 hours or 30 hours. The first two digits of EACH
four digit number indicate the date of the valid period, the final two di
gits indicate the time (valid from 18Z on the 9th to 24Z on the 10th).
In U.S. METAR: CORrected ob; or AUTOmated ob for automated re COR
port with no human intervention; omitted when observer logs on.
15005KT Wind: 3 digit true-north direction, nearest 10 degrees (or VaRiaBle); 22015G25KT
next 2-3 digits for speed and unit, KT (KMH or MPS); as needed, Gust
and maximum speed; 00000KT for calm; for METAR, if direction varies
60 degrees or more, Variability appended, e.g., 180V260
5SM Prevailing visibility; in U.S., Statute Miles & fractions; above 6 miles in SM
TAF Plus6SM. (Or, 4-digit minimum visibility in meters and as re
quired, lowest value with direction)
Runway Visual Range: R; 2-digit runway designator Left, Center, or R28L/2600FT
Right as needed; /, Minus or Plus in U.S., 4-digit value, FeeT in
U.S., (usually meters elsewhere); 4-digit value Variability 4-digit value
(and tendency Down, Up or No change)
HZ Significant present, forecast and recent weather: see table (on back) TSRA
FEW020 Cloud amount, height and type: Sky Clear 0/8, FEW >0/8-2/8, ScaTtered OVC 010CB
3/8-4/8, BroKeN 5/8-7/8, OverCast 8/8; 3-digit height in hundreds of ft;
Towering Cumulus or CumulonimBus in METAR; in TAF, only CB.
Vertical Visibility for obscured sky and height VV004. More than 1
layer may be reported or forecast. In automated METAR reports only,
CleaR for clear below 12,000 feet
Temperature: degrees Celsius; first 2 digits, temperature / last 2 18/16
digits, dew-point temperature; Minus for below zero, e.g., M06
Altimeter setting: indicator and 4 digits; in U.S., A-inches and hun A2992
dredths; (Q-hectoPascals, e.g., Q1013)
WS010/31022KT In U.S. TAF, non-convective low-level (2,000 ft) Wind Shear; 3-digit
height (hundreds of ft); /; 3-digit wind direction and 2-3 digit wind
speed above the indicated height, and unit, KT
Meteorology 7161
AIM 4/3/14
FIG 7123
Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) (Back)
Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation

Routine Weather Report (METAR) (Back)
In METAR, ReMarK indicator & remarks. For example: Sea- Level RMK SLP045
Pressure in hectoPascals & tenths, as shown: 1004.5 hPa; Temp/dew- T01820159
point in tenths C, as shown: temp. 18.2C, dew-point 15.9C
FM091930 FroM: changes are expected at: 2-digit date, 2-digit hour, and 2-digit
minute beginning time: indicates significant change. Each FM starts on a
new line, indented 5 spaces
TEMPO TEMPOrary: changes expected for <1 hour and in total, < half of the
0920/0922 period between the 2-digit date and 2-digit hour beginning, and 2-digit
date and 2-digit hour ending time
PROB30 PROBability and 2-digit percent (30 or 40): probable condition in the
1004/1007 period between the 2-digit date & 2-digit hour beginning time, and the
2-digit date and 2-digit hour ending time
BECMG BECoMinG: change expected in the period between the 2-digit date and
1013/1015 2-digit hour beginning time, and the 2-digit date and 2-digit hour ending
time
Table of Significant Present, Forecast and Recent Weather - Grouped in categories and
used in the order listed below; or as needed in TAF, No Significant Weather.
Qualifiers
Intensity or Proximity
- = Light No sign = Moderate + = Heavy
VC = Vicinity, but not at aerodrome. In the US METAR, 5 to 10 SM from the point of observation. In the US
TAF, 5 to 10 SM from the center of the runway complex. Elsewhere, within 8000m.
Descriptor
BC Patches BL Blowing DR Drifting FZ Freezing
MI Shallow PR Partial SH Showers TS Thunderstorm
Weather Phenomena
Precipitation
DZ Drizzle GR Hail GS Small Hail/Snow Pellets
IC Ice Crystals PL Ice Pellets RA Rain SG Snow Grains
SN Snow UP Unknown Precipitation in automated observations
Obscuration
BR Mist (5/8SM) DU Widespread FG Fog (<5/8SM) FU Smoke
Dust
HZ Haze PY Spray SA Sand VA Volcanic Ash
Other
DS Dust Storm FC Funnel Cloud +FC Tornado or Waterspout
PO Well developed dust or sand whirls SQ Squall SS Sandstorm
- Explanations in parentheses () indicate different worldwide practices.

- Ceiling is not specified; defined as the lowest broken or overcast layer, or the vertical visibility.
- NWS TAFs exclude BECMG groups and temperature forecasts, NWS TAFS do not use PROB in the first 9
hours of a TAF; NWS METARs exclude trend forecasts. US Military TAFs include Turbulence and Icing groups.
7162 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
7131. International Civil Aviation (b) Nonroutine (Special) Aviation Weather

Organization (ICAO) Weather Formats Report (SPECI).
The U.S. uses the ICAO world standard for aviation The type of report (METAR or SPECI) will always
weather reporting and forecasting. The World appear as the lead element of the report.
Meteorological Organizations (WMO) publication 2. ICAO Station Identifier. The METAR
No. 782 Aerodrome Reports and Forecasts code uses ICAO 4letter station identifiers. In the
contains the base METAR and TAF code as adopted contiguous 48 States, the 3letter domestic station
by the WMO member countries. identifier is prefixed with a K; i.e., the domestic
a. Although the METAR code is adopted identifier for Seattle is SEA while the ICAO identifier
worldwide, each country is allowed to make is KSEA. Elsewhere, the first two letters of the ICAO
modifications or exceptions to the code for use in identifier indicate what region of the world and
their particular country, e.g., the U.S. will continue to country (or state) the station is in. For Alaska, all
use statute miles for visibility, feet for RVR values, station identifiers start with PA; for Hawaii, all
knots for wind speed, and inches of mercury for station identifiers start with PH. Canadian station
altimetry. However, temperature and dew point will identifiers start with CU, CW, CY, and CZ.
be reported in degrees Celsius. The U.S reports Mexican station identifiers start with MM. The
prevailing visibility rather than lowest sector identifier for the western Caribbean is M followed
visibility. The elements in the body of a METAR by the individual countrys letter; i.e., Cuba is MU;
report are separated with a space. The only exceptions Dominican Republic MD; the Bahamas MY. The
are RVR, temperature, and dew point which are identifier for the eastern Caribbean is T followed
separated with a solidus (/). When an element does by the individual countrys letter; i.e., Puerto Rico is
not occur, or cannot be observed, the preceding space TJ. For a complete worldwide listing see ICAO
and that element are omitted from that particular Document 7910, Location Indicators.
report. A METAR report contains the following 3. Date and Time of Report. The date and
sequence of elements in the following order: time the observation is taken are transmitted as a
1. Type of report. sixdigit date/time group appended with Z to denote
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The first two
2. ICAO Station Identifier. digits are the date followed with two digits for hour
3. Date and time of report. and two digits for minutes.
EXAMPLE
4. Modifier (as required). 172345Z (the 17 th day of the month at 2345Z)
5. Wind. 4. Modifier (As Required). AUTO identi-
6. Visibility. fies a METAR/SPECI report as an automated weather
report with no human intervention. If AUTO is
7. Runway Visual Range (RVR). shown in the body of the report, the type of sensor
8. Weather phenomena. equipment used at the station will be encoded in the
remarks section of the report. The absence of
9. Sky conditions. AUTO indicates that a report was made manually
10. Temperature/dew point group. by an observer or that an automated report had human
augmentation/backup. The modifier COR indi-
11. Altimeter. cates a corrected report that is sent out to replace an
12. Remarks (RMK). earlier report with an error.
NOTE
b. The following paragraphs describe the ele-
There are two types of automated stations, AO1 for
ments in a METAR report. automated weather reporting stations without a precipita-
1. Type of report. There are two types of tion discriminator, and AO2 for automated stations with a
report: precipitation discriminator. (A precipitation discriminator
can determine the difference between liquid and
(a) Aviation Routine Weather Report frozen/freezing precipitation). This information appears in
(METAR); and the remarks section of an automated report.
Meteorology 7163
AIM 4/3/14
5. Wind. The wind is reported as a five digit the lesser of the two will be reported in the body of the
group (six digits if speed is over 99 knots). The first report; the greater will be reported in remarks.
three digits are the direction the wind is blowing
from, in tens of degrees referenced to true north, or (b) Automated visibility. ASOS/AWSS
VRB if the direction is variable. The next two digits visibility stations will show visibility 10 or greater
is the wind speed in knots, or if over 99 knots, the next than 10 miles as 10SM. AWOS visibility stations
three digits. If the wind is gusty, it is reported as a G will show visibility less than 1/4 statute mile as
after the speed followed by the highest gust reported. M1/4SM and visibility 10 or greater than 10 miles
The abbreviation KT is appended to denote the use as 10SM.
of knots for wind speed. NOTE
Automated sites that are augmented by human observer to
EXAMPLE
meet service level requirements can report 0, 1/16 SM, and
13008KT wind from 130 degrees at 8 knots
1/8 SM visibility increments.
08032G45KT wind from 080 degrees at 32 knots with
gusts to 45 knots (c) Variable visibility. Variable visibility is
VRB04KT wind variable in direction at 4 knots shown in remarks (when rapid increase or decrease
00000KT wind calm by 1/2 statute mile or more and the average prevailing
210103G130KT wind from 210 degrees at 103 knots with
visibility is less than three miles) e.g., VIS 1V2
gusts to 130 knots
If the wind direction is variable by 60 degrees or more and
visibility variable between one and two.
the speed is greater than 6 knots, a variable group (d) Sector visibility. Sector visibility is
consisting of the extremes of the wind direction separated shown in remarks when it differs from the prevailing
by a v will follow the prevailing wind group.
visibility, and either the prevailing or sector visibility
32012G22KT 280V350
is less than three miles.
(a) Peak Wind. Whenever the peak wind
EXAMPLE
exceeds 25 knots PK WND will be included in
VIS N2 visibility north two
Remarks, e.g., PK WND 28045/1955 Peak wind two
eight zero at four five occurred at one niner five five. 7. Runway Visual Range (When Reported).
If the hour can be inferred from the report time, only R identifies the group followed by the runway
the minutes will be appended, e.g., PK WND heading (and parallel runway designator, if needed)
34050/38 Peak wind three four zero at five zero / and the visual range in feet (meters in other
occurred at three eight past the hour. countries) followed with FT (feet is not spoken).
(b) Wind shift. Whenever a wind shift (a) Variability Values. When RVR varies
occurs, WSHFT will be included in remarks (by more than on reportable value), the lowest and
followed by the time the wind shift began, e.g., highest values are shown with V between them.
WSHFT 30 FROPA Wind shift at three zero due to
frontal passage. (b) Maximum/Minimum Range. P indi-
cates an observed RVR is above the maximum value
6. Visibility. Prevailing visibility is reported in for this system (spoken as more than). M
statute miles with SM appended to it. indicates an observed RVR is below the minimum
EXAMPLE value which can be determined by the system (spoken
7SM seven statute miles as less than).
15SM fifteen statute miles
1/ SM onehalf statute mile EXAMPLE
2
R32L/1200FT runway three two left RVR one thousand
two hundred.
(a) Tower/surface visibility. If either visi- R27R/M1000V4000FT runway two seven right RVR
bility (tower or surface) is below four statute miles, variable from less than one thousand to four thousand.
7164 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
8. Weather Phenomena. The weather as (e) Obstructions to visibility. There are

reported in the METAR code represents a significant eight types of obscuration phenomena in the METAR
change in the way weather is currently reported. In code (obscurations are any phenomena in the
METAR, weather is reported in the format: atmosphere, other than precipitation, that reduce
horizontal visibility):
Intensity/Proximity/Descriptor/Precipitation/
FG . . . . . . . . . . fog (vsby less than 5/8 mile)
Obstruction to visibility/Other
HZ . . . . . . . . . . haze
NOTE FU . . . . . . . . . . smoke
The / above and in the following descriptions (except as PY . . . . . . . . . . spray
the separator between the temperature and dew point) are
BR . . . . . . . . . . mist (vsby 5/8 6 miles)
for separation purposes in this publication and do not
appear in the actual METARs.
SA . . . . . . . . . . sand
DU . . . . . . . . . . dust
(a) Intensity applies only to the first type of VA . . . . . . . . . . volcanic ash
precipitation reported. A denotes light, no symbol
denotes moderate, and a + denotes heavy. NOTE
Fog (FG) is observed or forecast only when the visibility is
(b) Proximity applies to and reported only less than fiveeighths of mile, otherwise mist (BR) is
for weather occurring in the vicinity of the airport observed or forecast.
(between 5 and 10 miles of the point(s) of
observation). It is denoted by the letters VC. (f) Other. There are five categories of other
(Intensity and VC will not appear together in the weather phenomena which are reported when they
weather group). occur:
SQ . . . . . . . . . . . squall
(c) Descriptor. These eight descriptors ap- SS . . . . . . . . . . . sandstorm
ply to the precipitation or obstructions to visibility: DS . . . . . . . . . . . duststorm
TS . . . . . . . . . . . thunderstorm PO . . . . . . . . . . dust/sand whirls
DR . . . . . . . . . . . low drifting FC . . . . . . . . . . . funnel cloud
SH . . . . . . . . . . . showers +FC . . . . . . . . . tornado/waterspout
MI . . . . . . . . . . . shallow
FZ . . . . . . . . . . . freezing Examples:
BC . . . . . . . . . . . patches
BL . . . . . . . . . . . blowing TSRA . . . . . . . . . thunderstorm with moderate
PR . . . . . . . . . . . partial rain
+SN . . . . . . . . . . heavy snow
NOTE RA FG . . . . . . . light rain and fog
Although TS and SH are used with precipitation and
BRHZ . . . . . . . . mist and haze
may be preceded with an intensity symbol, the intensity still
applies to the precipitation, not the descriptor. (visibility 5/8 mile or greater)
FZDZ . . . . . . . . . freezing drizzle
(d) Precipitation. There are nine types of VCSH . . . . . . . . rain shower in the vicinity
precipitation in the METAR code: +SHRASNPL . . heavy rain showers, snow,
RA . . . . . . . . . . rain ice pellets (intensity
DZ . . . . . . . . . . drizzle indicator refers to the
SN . . . . . . . . . . snow predominant rain)
GR . . . . . . . . . . hail (1/4 or greater)
GS . . . . . . . . . . small hail/snow pellets 9. Sky Condition. The sky condition as
PL . . . . . . . . . . ice pellets reported in METAR represents a significant change
SG . . . . . . . . . . snow grains from the way sky condition is currently reported. In
IC . . . . . . . . . . . ice crystals (diamond dust) METAR, sky condition is reported in the format:
UP . . . . . . . . . . unknown precipitation
(automated stations only) Amount/Height/(Type) or Indefinite Ceiling/Height
Meteorology 7165
AIM 4/3/14
(a) Amount. The amount of sky cover is (e) Obscurations are reported when the sky
reported in eighths of sky cover, using the is partially obscured by a groundbased phenomena
contractions: by indicating the amount of obscuration as FEW,
SKC . . . . . . . . . clear (no clouds) SCT, BKN followed by three zeros (000). In remarks,
FEW . . . . . . . . >0 to 2/8 the obscuring phenomenon precedes the amount of
SCT . . . . . . . . . scattered (3/8s to 4/8s of obscuration and three zeros.
clouds)
EXAMPLE
BKN . . . . . . . . . broken (5/8s to 7/8s of clouds) BKN000 (in body) . . . . . . . . sky partially obscured
OVC . . . . . . . . . overcast (8/8s clouds) FU BKN000 (in remarks) . . . smoke obscuring five
CB . . . . . . . . . . Cumulonimbus when present to seveneighths of the
TCU . . . . . . . . . Towering cumulus when sky
present
(f) When sky conditions include a layer aloft,
NOTE other than clouds, such as smoke or haze the type of
1. SKC will be reported at manual stations. CLR will phenomena, sky cover and height are shown in
be used at automated stations when no clouds below remarks.
12,000 feet are reported.
EXAMPLE
2. A ceiling layer is not designated in the METAR code. BKN020 (in body) . . . . . . . . ceiling two thousand
For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the lowest broken or broken
overcast layer, or vertical visibility into an obscuration. RMK FU BKN020 . . . . . . . . broken layer of smoke
Also there is no provision for reporting thin layers in the aloft, based at
METAR code. When clouds are thin, that layer must be two thousand
reported as if it were opaque.
(g) Variable ceiling. When a ceiling is
(b) Height. Cloud bases are reported with below three thousand and is variable, the remark
three digits in hundreds of feet above ground level CIG will be shown followed with the lowest and
(AGL). (Clouds above 12,000 feet cannot be reported highest ceiling heights separated by a V.
by an automated station). EXAMPLE
CIG 005V010 . . . . . . . . . . . . ceiling variable
(c) (Type). If Towering Cumulus Clouds between five hundred and
(TCU) or Cumulonimbus Clouds (CB) are present, one thousand
they are reported after the height which represents
(h) Second site sensor. When an automated
their base.
station uses meteorological discontinuity sensors,
EXAMPLE remarks will be shown to identify site specific sky
(Reported as) SCT025TCU BKN080 BKN250 (spoken as) conditions which differ and are lower than conditions
TWO THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED SCATTERED reported in the body.
TOWERING CUMULUS, CEILING EIGHT THOUSAND
EXAMPLE
BROKEN, TWO FIVE THOUSAND BROKEN.
CIG 020 RY11 . . . . . . . . . . . ceiling two thousand at
(Reported as) SCT008 OVC012CB (spoken as) EIGHT
runway one one
HUNDRED SCATTERED CEILING ONE THOUSAND
TWO HUNDRED OVERCAST CUMULONIMBUS (i) Variable cloud layer. When a layer is
CLOUDS. varying in sky cover, remarks will show the
variability range. If there is more than one cloud
(d) Vertical Visibility (indefinite ceiling
layer, the variable layer will be identified by
height). The height into an indefinite ceiling is
including the layer height.
preceded by VV and followed by three digits
indicating the vertical visibility in hundreds of feet. EXAMPLE
This layer indicates total obscuration. SCT V BKN . . . . . . . . . . . . . scattered layer variable to
broken
EXAMPLE BKN025 V OVC . . . . . . . . . broken layer at
1/ SM FG VV006 visibility one eighth, fog, indefinite two thousand five hundred
8
ceiling six hundred. variable to overcast
7166 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
(j) Significant clouds. When significant 11. Altimeter. Altimeter settings are reported
clouds are observed, they are shown in remarks, in a four-digit format in inches of mercury prefixed
along with the specified information as shown below: with an A to denote the units of pressure.
(1) Cumulonimbus (CB), or Cumulonim- EXAMPLE
bus Mammatus (CBMAM), distance (if known), A2995 Altimeter two niner niner five
direction from the station, and direction of 12. Remarks. Remarks will be included in all
movement, if known. If the clouds are beyond observations, when appropriate. The contraction
10 miles from the airport, DSNT will indicate RMK denotes the start of the remarks section of a
distance. METAR report.
EXAMPLE Except for precipitation, phenomena located within
CB W MOV E . . . . . . . cumulonimbus west moving 5 statute miles of the point of observation will be
east
reported as at the station. Phenomena between 5 and
CBMAM DSNT S . . . . cumulonimbus mammatus
distant south
10 statute miles will be reported in the vicinity, VC.
Precipitation not occurring at the point of observation
(2) Towering Cumulus (TCU), location, (if but within 10 statute miles is also reported as in the
known), or direction from the station. vicinity, VC. Phenomena beyond 10 statute miles
EXAMPLE will be shown as distant, DSNT. Distances are in
TCU OHD . . . . . . . . . towering cumulus overhead statute miles except for automated lightning remarks
TCU W . . . . . . . . . . . . towering cumulus west which are in nautical miles. Movement of clouds or
weather will be indicated by the direction toward
(3) Altocumulus Castellanus (ACC), Stra- which the phenomena is moving.
tocumulus Standing Lenticular (SCSL),
Altocumulus Standing Lenticular (ACSL), Cirrocu- (a) There are two categories of remarks:
mulus Standing Lenticular (CCSL) or rotor clouds,
(1) Automated, manual, and plain
describing the clouds (if needed) and the direction
language.
from the station.
(2) Additive and automated maintenance
EXAMPLE
ACC W . . . . . . . . . . . . . altocumulus castellanus west data.
ACSL SWS . . . . . . . . . standing lenticular (b) Automated, Manual, and Plain Lan-
altocumulus southwest guage. This group of remarks may be generated
through south
from either manual or automated weather reporting
APRNT ROTOR CLD S apparent rotor cloud south
CCSL OVR MT E . . . . . standing lenticular stations and generally elaborate on parameters
cirrocumulus over the reported in the body of the report. (Plain language
mountains east remarks are only provided by manual stations).
10. Temperature/Dew Point. Temperature (1) Volcanic eruptions.
and dew point are reported in two, two-digit groups
(2) Tornado, Funnel Cloud, Waterspout.
in degrees Celsius, separated by a solidus (/).
Temperatures below zero are prefixed with an M. (3) Station Type (AO1 or AO2).
If the temperature is available but the dew point is
(4) PK WND.
missing, the temperature is shown followed by a
solidus. If the temperature is missing, the group is (5) WSHFT (FROPA).
omitted from the report.
(6) TWR VIS or SFC VIS.
EXAMPLE
15/08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . temperature one five, (7) VRB VIS.
dew point 8
00/M02 . . . . . . . . . . . . temperature zero,
(8) Sector VIS.
dew point minus 2 (9) VIS @ 2nd Site.
M05/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . temperature minus five,
dew point missing (10) (freq) LTG (type) (loc).
Meteorology 7167
AIM 4/3/14
(11) Beginning/Ending of Precipitation/ PNO

TSTMS. VISNO
(12) TSTM Location MVMT. Examples of METAR reports and explanation:
(13) Hailstone Size (GR). METAR KBNA 281250Z 33018KT 290V360
1/2SM R31/2700FT SN BLSN FG VV008 00/M03
(14) Virga. A2991 RMK RAE42SNB42
(15) VRB CIG (height).
METAR . . . . . . aviation routine weather
(16) Obscuration. report
(17) VRB Sky Condition. KBNA . . . . . . . . Nashville, TN
281250Z . . . . . . date 28th, time 1250 UTC
(18) Significant Cloud Types. (no modifier) . . This is a manually generated
(19) Ceiling Height 2nd Location. report, due to the absence of
AUTO and AO1 or AO2
(20) PRESFR PRESRR. in remarks
(21) SeaLevel Pressure. 33018KT . . . . . wind three three zero at one
eight
(22) ACFT Mishap (not transmitted). 290V360 . . . . . . wind variable between
(23) NOSPECI. two nine zero and three six
zero
(24) SNINCR. 1/2SM . . . . . . . . visibility one half
(25) Other SIG Info. R31/2700FT . . . Runway three one RVR two
thousand seven hundred
(c) Additive and Automated Maintenance SN . . . . . . . . . . . moderate snow
Data. BLSN FG . . . . . visibility obscured by
(1) Hourly Precipitation. blowing snow and fog
VV008 . . . . . . . indefinite ceiling eight
(2) 3 and 6Hour Precipitation Amount. hundred
(3) 24Hour Precipitation. 00/M03 . . . . . . . temperature zero, dew point
minus three
(4) Snow Depth on Ground. A2991 . . . . . . . . altimeter two niner niner one
(5) Water Equivalent of Snow. RMK . . . . . . . . remarks
RAE42 . . . . . . . rain ended at four two
(6) Cloud Type. SNB42 . . . . . . . snow began at four two
(7) Duration of Sunshine. METAR KSFO 041453Z AUTO VRB02KT 3SM
BR CLR 15/12 A3012 RMK AO2
(8) Hourly Temperature/Dew Point
(Tenths).
METAR . . . . . . aviation routine weather
(9) 6Hour Maximum Temperature. report
KSFO . . . . . . . . San Francisco, CA
(10) 6Hour Minimum Temperature.
041453Z . . . . . . date 4th, time 1453 UTC
(11) 24Hour Maximum/Minimum AUTO . . . . . . . fully automated; no human
Temperature. intervention
VRB02KT . . . . wind variable at two
(12) Pressure Tendency.
3SM . . . . . . . . . visibility three
(13) Sensor Status. BR . . . . . . . . . . visibility obscured by mist
PWINO CLR . . . . . . . . . no clouds below one two
FZRANO thousand
TSNO 15/12 . . . . . . . . . temperature one five, dew
RVRNO point one two
7168 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
A3012 . . . . . . . . altimeter three zero one two beginning and end for a period of time. In this case,
RMK . . . . . . . . remarks each fourdigit pair consists of a twodigit date and
AO2 . . . . . . . . . this automated station has a a twodigit hour.
weather discriminator (for TAFs are issued in the following format:
precipitation)
TYPE OF REPORT/ICAO STATION IDENTIFIER/
SPECI KCVG 152224Z 28024G36KT 3/4SM DATE AND TIME OF ORIGIN/VALID PERIOD
+TSRA BKN008 OVC020CB 28/23 A3000 RMK DATE AND TIME/FORECAST METEOROLOG-
TSRAB24 TS W MOV E ICAL CONDITIONS
NOTE
SPECI . . . . . . . (nonroutine) aviation special The / above and in the following descriptions are for
weather report separation purposes in this publication and do not appear
KCVG . . . . . . . Cincinnati, OH in the actual TAFs.
152228Z . . . . . . date 15th, time 2228 UTC TAF KORD 051130Z 0512/0618 14008KT 5SM BR
(no modifier) . . This is a manually generated BKN030
report due to the absence of TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
AUTO and AO1 or AO2 FM051600 16010KT P6SM SKC
in remarks FM052300 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA OVC020
28024G36KT . . wind two eight zero at PROB40 0600/0606 2SM TSRA OVC008CB
two four gusts three six BECMG 0606/0608 21015KT P6SM NSW
3/4SM . . . . . . . . visibility three fourths SCT040
+TSRA . . . . . . . thunderstorms, heavy rain TAF format observed in the above example:
BKN008 ceiling eight hundred broken
OVC020CB . . . two thousand overcast TAF = type of report
cumulonimbus clouds KORD = ICAO station identifier
28/23 . . . . . . . . . temperature two eight,
051130Z = date and time of origin (issuance time)
dew point two three
A3000 . . . . . . . . altimeter three zero zero zero 0512/0618 = valid period date and times
RMK . . . . . . . . remarks 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030 = forecast meteorolo-
TSRAB24 . . . . . thunderstorm and rain began gical conditions
at two four
TS W MOV E thunderstorm west moving Explanation of TAF elements:
east 1. Type of Report. There are two types of TAF
issuances, a routine forecast issuance (TAF) and an
c. Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). A concise state- amended forecast (TAF AMD). An amended TAF is
ment of the expected meteorological conditions at an issued when the current TAF no longer adequately
airport during a specified period. At most locations, describes the on-going weather or the forecaster feels
TAFs have a 24 hour forecast period. However, TAFs the TAF is not representative of the current or
for some locations have a 30 hour forecast period. expected weather. Corrected (COR) or delayed
These forecast periods may be shorter in the case of (RTD) TAFs are identified only in the communica-
an amended TAF. TAFs use the same codes as tions header which precedes the actual forecasts.
METAR weather reports. They are scheduled four 2. ICAO Station Identifier. The TAF code
times daily for 24hour periods beginning at 0000Z, uses ICAO 4letter location identifiers as described
0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. in the METAR section.
Forecast times in the TAF are depicted in two ways. 3. Date and Time of Origin. This element is
The first is a 6digit number to indicate a specific the date and time the forecast is actually prepared.
point in time, consisting of a twodigit date, The format is a twodigit date and fourdigit time
twodigit hour, and twodigit minute (such as followed, without a space, by the letter Z.
issuance time or FM). The second is a pair of 4. Valid Period Date and Time. The UTC
fourdigit numbers separated by a / to indicate a valid period of the forecast consists of two fourdigit
Meteorology 7169
AIM 4/3/14
sets, separated by a /. The first fourdigit set is a units of wind speed. Wind gusts are noted by the letter
twodigit date followed by the twodigit beginning G appended to the wind speed followed by the
hour, and the second fourdigit set is a twodigit date highest expected gust. A variable wind direction is
followed by the twodigit ending hour. Although noted by VRB where the three digit direction
most airports have a 24hour TAF, a select number of usually appears. A calm wind (3 knots or less) is
airports have a 30hour TAF. In the case of an forecast as 00000KT.
amended forecast, or a forecast which is corrected or EXAMPLE
delayed, the valid period may be for less than 24 18010KT . . . . . wind one eight zero at one zero (wind is
hours. Where an airport or terminal operates on a blowing from 180).
parttime basis (less than 24 hours/day), the TAFs 35012G20KT . . wind three five zero at one two gust two
issued for those locations will have the abbreviated zero.
statement AMD NOT SKED added to the end of (b) Visibility. The expected prevailing visi-
the forecasts. The time observations are scheduled to bility up to and including 6 miles is forecast in statute
end and/or resume will be indicated by expanding the miles, including fractions of miles, followed by SM
AMD NOT SKED statement. Expanded statements to note the units of measure. Expected visibilities
will include: greater than 6 miles are forecast as P6SM (plus
(a) Observation ending time (AFT DDH- six statute miles).
Hmm; for example, AFT 120200) EXAMPLE
1/ SM visibility onehalf
2
(b) Scheduled observations resumption time 4SM visibility four
(TIL DDHHmm; for example, TIL 171200Z) or P6SM visibility more than six
(c) Period of observation unavailability (c) Weather Phenomena. The expected
(DDHH/DDHH); for example, 2502/2512). weather phenomena is coded in TAF reports using the
same format, qualifiers, and phenomena contractions
5. Forecast Meteorological Conditions. This as METAR reports (except UP). Obscurations to
is the body of the TAF. The basic format is: vision will be forecast whenever the prevailing
W I N D / V I S I B I L I T Y / W E AT H E R / S K Y visibility is forecast to be 6 statute miles or less. If no
CONDITION/OPTIONAL DATA (WIND SHEAR) significant weather is expected to occur during a
specific time period in the forecast, the weather
The wind, visibility, and sky condition elements are phenomena group is omitted for that time period. If,
always included in the initial time group of the after a time period in which significant weather
forecast. Weather is included only if significant to phenomena has been forecast, a change to a forecast
aviation. If a significant, lasting change in any of the of no significant weather phenomena occurs, the
elements is expected during the valid period, a new contraction NSW (No Significant Weather) will
time period with the changes is included. It should be appear as the weather group in the new time period.
noted that with the exception of a FM group the (NSW is included only in TEMPO groups).
new time period will include only those elements
NOTE
which are expected to change, i.e., if a lowering of the
It is very important that pilots understand that NSW only
visibility is expected but the wind is expected to refers to weather phenomena, i.e., rain, snow, drizzle, etc.
remain the same, the new time period reflecting the Omitted conditions, such as sky conditions, visibility,
lower visibility would not include a forecast wind. winds, etc., are carried over from the previous time group.
The forecast wind would remain the same as in the
previous time period. Any temporary conditions (d) Sky Condition. TAF sky condition
expected during a specific time period are included forecasts use the METAR format described in the
with that time period. The following describes the METAR section. Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are the
elements in the above format. only cloud type forecast in TAFs. When clear skies
are forecast, the contraction SKC will always be
(a) Wind. This five (or six) digit group used. The contraction CLR is never used in the
includes the expected wind direction (first 3 digits) TAF. When the sky is obscured due to a
and speed (last 2 digits or 3 digits if 100 knots or surfacebased phenomenon, vertical visibility (VV)
greater). The contraction KT follows to denote the into the obscuration is forecast. The format for
7170 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
vertical visibility is VV followed by a threedigit EXAMPLE

height in hundreds of feet. PROB40 2221/2302 1/2 SM +TSRA chance between
2100Z and 0200Z of
NOTE visibility onehalf
As in METAR, ceiling layers are not designated in the TAF statute mile in
code. For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the lowest thunderstorms and
broken or overcast layer or vertical visibility into a heavy rain.
complete obscuration. PROB30 3010/3014 1SM RASN . chance between
1000Z and 1400Z of
SKC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sky clear visibility one statute
SCT005 BKN025CB . five hundred scattered, mile in mixed rain
and snow.
ceiling two thousand
five hundred broken e. Forecast Change Indicators. The following
cumulonimbus clouds change indicators are used when either a rapid,
VV008 . . . . . . . . . . . . indefinite ceiling gradual, or temporary change is expected in some or
eight hundred all of the forecast meteorological conditions. Each
change indicator marks a time group within the TAF
(e) Optional Data (Wind Shear). Wind report.
shear is the forecast of nonconvective low level winds 1. From (FM) group. The FM group is used
(up to 2,000 feet). The forecast includes the letters when a rapid change, usually occurring in less than
WS followed by the height of the wind shear, the one hour, in prevailing conditions is expected.
wind direction and wind speed at the indicated height Typically, a rapid change of prevailing conditions to
and the ending letters KT (knots). Height is given more or less a completely new set of prevailing
in hundreds of feet (AGL) up to and including conditions is associated with a synoptic feature
2,000 feet. Wind shear is encoded with the passing through the terminal area (cold or warm
contraction WS, followed by a threedigit height, frontal passage). Appended to the FM indicator is
slant character /, and winds at the height indicated the sixdigit date, hour, and minute the change is
in the same format as surface winds. The wind shear expected to begin and continues until the next change
element is omitted if not expected to occur. group or until the end of the current forecast. A FM
group will mark the beginning of a new line in a TAF
WS010/18040KT LOW LEVEL WIND SHEAR report (indented 5 spaces). Each FM group
AT ONE THOUSAND, WIND ONE EIGHT ZERO contains all the required elementswind, visibility,
AT FOUR ZERO weather, and sky condition. Weather will be omitted
in FM groups when it is not significant to aviation.
d. Probability Forecast. The probability or FM groups will not include the contraction NSW.
chance of thunderstorms or other precipitation events EXAMPLE
occurring, along with associated weather conditions FM210100 14010KT P6SM SKC after 0100Z on the
(wind, visibility, and sky conditions). The PROB30 21st, wind one four zero at one zero, visibility more than six,
group is used when the occurrence of thunderstorms sky clear.
or precipitation is 3039% and the PROB40 group is
2. Becoming (BECMG) group. The BECMG
used when the occurrence of thunderstorms or
group is used when a gradual change in conditions is
precipitation is 4049%. This is followed by two
expected over a longer time period, usually two
fourdigit groups separated by a /, giving the
hours. The time period when the change is expected
beginning date and hour, and the ending date and hour
is two fourdigit groups separated by a /, with the
of the time period during which the thunderstorms or
beginning date and hour, and ending date and hour of
precipitation are expected.
the change period which follows the BECMG
NOTE indicator. The gradual change will occur at an
NWS does not use PROB 40 in the TAF. However U.S. unspecified time within this time period. Only the
Military generated TAFS may include PROB40. PROB30 changing forecast meteorological conditions are
will not be shown during the first nine hours of a NWS included in BECMG groups. The omitted conditions
forecast. are carried over from the previous time group.
Meteorology 7171
AIM 4/3/14
NOTE four digit group gives the beginning date and hour,
The NWS does not use BECMG in the TAF. and the second four digit group gives the ending date
EXAMPLE and hour of the time period during which the
OVC012 BECMG 0114/0116 BKN020 ceiling one temporary conditions are expected. Only the
thousand two hundred overcast. Then a gradual change changing forecast meteorological conditions are
to ceiling two thousand broken between 1400Z on the 1st included in TEMPO groups. The omitted conditions
and 1600Z on the 1st. are carried over from the previous time group.
3. Temporary (TEMPO) group. The TEMPO EXAMPLE
group is used for any conditions in wind, visibility, 1. SCT030 TEMPO 0519/0523 BKN030 three
weather, or sky condition which are expected to last thousand scattered with occasional ceilings three thousand
for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional), broken between 1900Z on the 5th and 2300Z on the 5th.
and are expected to occur during less than half the 2. 4SM HZ TEMPO 1900/1906 2SM BR HZ visibility
time period. The TEMPO indicator is followed by four in haze with occasional visibility two in mist and haze
two fourdigit groups separated by a /. The first between 0000Z on the 19th and 0600Z on the 19th.
7172 Meteorology
4/3/14 AIM
Section 2. Altimeter Setting Procedures
721. General is en route on an instrument flight plan, air traffic

controllers will furnish this information to the pilot at
a. The accuracy of aircraft altimeters is subject to
least once while the aircraft is in the controllers area
the following factors:
of jurisdiction. In the case of an aircraft not equipped
1. Nonstandard temperatures of the atmosphere. with a radio, set to the elevation of the departure
2. Nonstandard atmospheric pressure. airport or use an appropriate altimeter setting
available prior to departure.
3. Aircraft static pressure systems (position
error); and 2. When the barometric pressure exceeds
31.00 inches Hg. The following procedures will be
4. Instrument error. placed in effect by NOTAM defining the geographic
b. EXTREME CAUTION SHOULD BE EXER- area affected:
CISED WHEN FLYING IN PROXIMITY TO (a) For all aircraft. Set 31.00 inches for en
OBSTRUCTIONS OR TERRAIN IN LOW TEM- route operations below 18,000 feet MSL. Maintain
PERATURES AND PRESSURES. This is especially this setting until beyond the affected area or until
true in extremely cold temperatures that cause a large reaching final approach segment. At the beginning of
differential between the Standard Day temperature the final approach segment, the current altimeter
and actual temperature. This circumstance can cause setting will be set, if possible. If not possible,
serious errors that result in the aircraft being 31.00 inches will remain set throughout the ap-
significantly lower than the indicated altitude. proach. Aircraft on departure or missed approach will
NOTE set 31.00 inches prior to reaching any mandatory/
Standard temperature at sea level is 15 degrees Celsius crossing altitude or 1,500 feet AGL, whichever is
(59 degrees Fahrenheit). The temperature gradient from lower. (Air traffic control will issue actual altimeter
sea level is minus 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees settings and advise pilots to set 31.00 inches in their
Fahrenheit) per 1,000 feet. Pilots should apply corrections
altimeters for en route operations below 18,000 feet
for static pressure systems and/or instruments, if
appreciable errors exist. MSL in affected areas.)
c. The adoption of a standard altimeter setting at (b) During preflight, barometric altimeters
the higher altitudes eliminates station barometer must be checked for normal operation to the extent
errors, some altimeter instrument errors, and errors possible.
caused by altimeter settings derived from different
(c) For aircraft with the capability of setting
geographical sources.
the current altimeter setting and operating into
airports with the capability of measuring the current
722. Procedures altimeter setting, no additional restrictions apply.
The cruising altitude or flight level of aircraft must be (d) For aircraft operating VFR, there are no
maintained by reference to an altimeter which must additional restrictions, however, extra diligence in
be set, when operating: flight planning and in operating in these conditions is
a. Below 18,000 feet MSL. essential.
1. When the barometric pressure is (e) Airports unable to accurately measure
31.00 inches Hg. or less. To the current reported barometric pressures above 31.00 inches of Hg. will
altimeter setting of a station along the route and report the barometric pressure as missing or in
within 100 NM of the aircraft, or if there is no station excess of 31.00 inches of Hg. Flight operations to
within this area, the current reported altimeter setting and from those airports are restricted to VFR weather
of an appropriate available station. When an aircraft conditions.
Altimeter Setting Procedures 721

AIM 4/3/14
(f) For aircraft operating IFR and unable to set b. At or above 18,000 feet MSL. To 29.92 inch-
the current altimeter setting, the following restric- es of mercury (standard setting). The lowest usable
tions apply: flight level is determined by the atmospheric pressure
in the area of operation as shown in TBL 721.
(1) To determine the suitability of depar-
TBL 721
ture alternate airports, destination airports, and Lowest Usable Flight Level
destination alternate airports, increase ceiling
requirements by 100 feet and visibility requirements Altimeter Setting Lowest Usable
by 1/4 statute mile for each 1/10 of an inch of Hg., or (Current Reported) Flight Level
any portion thereof, over 31.00 inches. These 29.92 or higher 180
adjusted values are then applied in accordance with 29.91 to 29.42 185
the requirements of the applicable operating 29.41 to 28.92 190
regulations and operations specifications.
28.91 to 28.42 195
EXAMPLE 28.41 to 27.92 200
Destination altimeter is 31.28 inches, ILS DH 250 feet
(2001/2 ). When flight planning, add 3003/4 to the c. Where the minimum altitude, as prescribed in
weather requirements which would become 50011/4 . 14 CFR Section 91.159 and 14 CFR Section 91.177,
is above 18,000 feet MSL, the lowest usable flight
(2) On approach, 31.00 inches will remain level must be the flight level equivalent of the
set. Decision height (DH) or minimum descent minimum altitude plus the number of feet specified in
altitude must be deemed to have been reached when TBL 722.
the published altitude is displayed on the altimeter.
TBL 722
Lowest Flight Level Correction Factor
NOTE
Although visibility is normally the limiting factor on an Altimeter Setting Correction Factor
approach, pilots should be aware that when reaching DH
the aircraft will be higher than indicated. Using the 29.92 or higher none
example above the aircraft would be approximately 29.91 to 29.42 500 feet
300 feet higher. 29.41 to 28.92 1000 feet
28.91 to 28.42 1500 feet
(3) These restrictions do not apply to
authorized Category II and III ILS operations nor do 28.41 to 27.92 2000 feet
they apply to certificate holders using approved QFE 27.91 to 27.42 2500 feet
altimetry systems.
EXAMPLE
The minimum safe altitude of a route is 19,000 feet MSL
(g) The FAA Regional Flight Standards and the altimeter setting is reported between 29.92 and
Division Manager of the affected area is authorized to 29.42 inches of mercury, the lowest usable flight level will
approve temporary waivers to permit emergency be 195, which is the flight level equivalent of 19,500 feet
resupply or emergency medical service operation. MSL (minimum altitude plus 500 feet).
722 Altimeter Setting Procedures

1/8/15
4/3/14 AIM
723. Altimeter Errors Celsius (C)), the outside air temperature cools from
+5 degrees C to 0 degrees C, the temperature error
a. Most pressure altimeters are subject to
will nevertheless cause the aircraft to be HIGHER
mechanical, elastic, temperature, and installation
than indicated. It is the extreme cold difference that
errors. (Detailed information regarding the use of
normally would be of concern to the pilot. Also, when
pressure altimeters is found in the Instrument Flying
flying in cold conditions over mountainous terrain,
Handbook, Chapter IV.) Although manufacturing
the pilot should exercise caution in flight planning
and installation specifications, as well as the periodic
both in regard to route and altitude to ensure adequate
test and inspections required by regulations (14 CFR en route and terminal area terrain clearance.
Part 43, Appendix E), act to reduce these errors, any
scale error may be observed in the following manner: NOTE
Non-standard temperatures can result in a change to
1. Set the current reported altimeter setting on
effective vertical paths and actual descent rates while
the altimeter setting scale. using aircraft Baro-VNAV equipment for vertical guidance
2. Altimeter should now read field elevation if on final approach segments. A higher than standard
you are located on the same reference level used to temperature will result in a steeper gradient and increased
actual descent rate. Indications of these differences are
establish the altimeter setting.
often not directly related to vertical speed indications.
3. Note the variation between the known field Conversely, a lower than standard temperature will result
elevation and the altimeter indication. If this variation in a shallower descent gradient and reduced actual descent
is in the order of plus or minus 75 feet, the accuracy rate. Pilots should consider potential consequences of
of the altimeter is questionable and the problem these effects on approach minimums, power settings, sight
picture, visual cues, etc., especially for high-altitude or
should be referred to an appropriately rated repair
terrain-challenged locations and during low-visibility
station for evaluation and possible correction. conditions.
b. Once in flight, it is very important to obtain
frequently current altimeter settings en route. If you d. TBL 723, derived from ICAO formulas,
do not reset your altimeter when flying from an area indicates how much error can exist when operating in
of high pressure into an area of low pressure, your cold temperatures. To use the table, find the reported
aircraft will be closer to the surface than your temperature in the left column, read across the top
altimeter indicates. An inch error in the altimeter row to locate the height above the airport/reporting
setting equals 1,000 feet of altitude. To quote an old station (i.e., subtract the airport/ reporting elevation
saying: GOING FROM A HIGH TO A LOW, from the intended flight altitude). The intersection of
LOOK OUT BELOW. the column and row is how much lower the aircraft
may actually be as a result of the possible cold
c. Temperature also has an effect on the accuracy temperature induced error.
of altimeters and your altitude. The crucial values to
consider are standard temperature versus the ambient e. Pilots are responsible to compensate for cold
(at altitude) temperature and the elevation above the temperature altimetry errors when operating into an
altitude setting reporting source. It is these airport with any published cold temperature
differences that cause the error in indicated restriction and a reported airport temperature at or
altitude. When the column of air is warmer than below the published temperature restriction. Pilots
standard, you are higher than your altimeter indicates. must ensure compensating aircraft are correcting on
Subsequently, when the column of air is colder than the proper segment or segments of the approach.
standard, you are lower than indicated. It is the Manually correct if compensating aircraft system is
magnitude of these differences that determine the inoperable. Pilots manually correcting, are respons-
magnitude of the error. When flying into a cooler air ible to calculate and apply a cold temperature altitude
mass while maintaining a constant indicated altitude, correction derived from TBL 723 to the affected
you are losing true altitude. However, flying into a approach segment or segments. Pilots must advise the
cooler air mass does not necessarily mean you will be cold temperature altitude correction to Air Traffic
lower than indicated if the difference is still on the Control (ATC). Pilots are not required to advise ATC
plus side. For example, while flying at 10,000 feet of a cold temperature altitude correction inside of the
(where STANDARD temperature is +5 degrees final approach fix.
Altimeter Setting Procedures 723

AIM 4/3/14
TBL 723
ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table
Height Above Airport in Feet
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
+10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 40 60 80 90
0 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 90 120 170 230 280
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 290 390 490

Reported Temp C
20 30 50 60 70 90 100 120 130 140 210 280 420 570 710
30 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 170 190 280 380 570 760 950
40 50 80 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 480 720 970 1210
50 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 590 890 1190 1500
EXAMPLE
Temperature10 degrees Celsius, and the aircraft altitude is 1,000 feet above the airport elevation. The chart shows that
the reported current altimeter setting may place the aircraft as much as 100 feet below the altitude indicated by the altimeter.
724. High Barometric Pressure 2. Departures. Advise pilots to set 31.00 inch-
es prior to reaching any mandatory/crossing altitude
a. Cold, dry air masses may produce barometric
or 1,500 feet, whichever is lower.
pressures in excess of 31.00 inches of Mercury, and
many altimeters do not have an accurate means of c. The altimeter error caused by the high pressure
being adjusted for settings of these levels. When the will be in the opposite direction to the error caused by
altimeter cannot be set to the higher pressure setting, the cold temperature.
the aircraft actual altitude will be higher than the
altimeter indicates. 725. Low Barometric Pressure
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 723, Altimeter Errors. When abnormally low barometric pressure condi-
tions occur (below 28.00), flight operations by
b. When the barometric pressure exceeds
aircraft unable to set the actual altimeter setting are
31.00 inches, air traffic controllers will issue the
not recommended.
actual altimeter setting, and:
NOTE
1. En Route/Arrivals. Advise pilots to remain The true altitude of the aircraft is lower than the indicated
set on 31.00 inches until reaching the final approach altitude if the pilot is unable to set the actual altimeter
segment. setting.
724 Altimeter Setting Procedures

4/3/14 AIM
Section 3. Wake Turbulence
731. General FIG 731

Wake Vortex Generation
a. Every aircraft generates a wake while in flight.
Initially, when pilots encountered this wake in flight,
the disturbance was attributed to prop wash. It is
known, however, that this disturbance is caused by a
pair of counterrotating vortices trailing from the
wing tips. The vortices from larger aircraft pose
problems to encountering aircraft. For instance, the
wake of these aircraft can impose rolling moments
exceeding the rollcontrol authority of the encounter-
ing aircraft. Further, turbulence generated within the
vortices can damage aircraft components and
equipment if encountered at close range. The pilot
must learn to envision the location of the vortex wake
generated by larger (transport category) aircraft and
adjust the flight path accordingly.
b. During ground operations and during takeoff, 733. Vortex Strength
jet engine blast (thrust stream turbulence) can cause
damage and upsets if encountered at close range. a. The strength of the vortex is governed by the
Exhaust velocity versus distance studies at various weight, speed, and shape of the wing of the generating
thrust levels have shown a need for light aircraft to aircraft. The vortex characteristics of any given
maintain an adequate separation behind large turbojet aircraft can also be changed by extension of flaps or
aircraft. Pilots of larger aircraft should be particularly other wing configuring devices as well as by change
careful to consider the effects of their jet blast on in speed. However, as the basic factor is weight, the
other aircraft, vehicles, and maintenance equipment vortex strength increases proportionately. Peak
during ground operations. vortex tangential speeds exceeding 300 feet per
second have been recorded. The greatest vortex
strength occurs when the generating aircraft is
732. Vortex Generation HEAVY, CLEAN, and SLOW.
b. Induced Roll
Lift is generated by the creation of a pressure
differential over the wing surface. The lowest 1. In rare instances a wake encounter could
pressure occurs over the upper wing surface and the cause inflight structural damage of catastrophic
highest pressure under the wing. This pressure proportions. However, the usual hazard is associated
differential triggers the roll up of the airflow aft of the with induced rolling moments which can exceed the
wing resulting in swirling air masses trailing rollcontrol authority of the encountering aircraft. In
downstream of the wing tips. After the roll up is flight experiments, aircraft have been intentionally
completed, the wake consists of two counterrotating flown directly up trailing vortex cores of larger
cylindrical vortices. (See FIG 731.) Most of the aircraft. It was shown that the capability of an aircraft
energy is within a few feet of the center of each to counteract the roll imposed by the wake vortex
vortex, but pilots should avoid a region within about primarily depends on the wingspan and counter
100 feet of the vortex core. control responsiveness of the encountering aircraft.
Wake Turbulence 731

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
1/8/15
4/3/14
2. Counter control is usually effective and wake location and thereby take avoidance precau-
induced roll minimal in cases where the wingspan tions.
and ailerons of the encountering aircraft extend
beyond the rotational flow field of the vortex. It is 1. An aircraft generates vortices from the
more difficult for aircraft with short wingspan moment it rotates on takeoff to touchdown, since
(relative to the generating aircraft) to counter the trailing vortices are a byproduct of wing lift. Prior to
imposed roll induced by vortex flow. Pilots of short takeoff or touchdown pilots should note the rotation
span aircraft, even of the high performance type, must or touchdown point of the preceding aircraft. (See
be especially alert to vortex encounters. FIG 733.)
(See FIG 732.) 2. The vortex circulation is outward, upward
and around the wing tips when viewed from either
FIG 732 ahead or behind the aircraft. Tests with large aircraft
Wake Encounter Counter Control have shown that the vortices remain spaced a bit less
than a wingspan apart, drifting with the wind, at
altitudes greater than a wingspan from the ground. In
COUNTER
CONTROL
view of this, if persistent vortex turbulence is
encountered, a slight change of altitude and lateral
position (preferably upwind) will provide a flight
path clear of the turbulence.
3. Flight tests have shown that the vortices from
larger (transport category) aircraft sink at a rate of
several hundred feet per minute, slowing their
descent and diminishing in strength with time and
distance behind the generating aircraft. Atmospheric
turbulence hastens breakup. Pilots should fly at or
above the preceding aircrafts flight path, altering
course as necessary to avoid the area behind and
3. The wake of larger aircraft requires the below the generating aircraft. (See FIG 734.)
respect of all pilots. However, vertical separation of 1,000 feet may be
considered safe.
734. Vortex Behavior 4. When the vortices of larger aircraft sink close
to the ground (within 100 to 200 feet), they tend to
a. Trailing vortices have certain behavioral move laterally over the ground at a speed of 2 or
characteristics which can help a pilot visualize the 3 knots. (See FIG 735.)
FIG 733
Wake Ends/Wake Begins
Touchdown Rotation
Wake Ends Wake Begins
732 Wake Turbulence

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 734
Vortex Flow Field
AVOID
Nominally 500-1000 Ft.
Sink Rate
Several Hundred Ft.,/Min.
FIG 735
Vortex Movement Near Ground No Wind
3K 3K
No Wind
FIG 736
Vortex Movement Near Ground with Cross Winds
3K Wind
6K 0 (3K - 3K)
(3K + 3K)
Wake Turbulence 733

AIM 4/3/14
5. There is a small segment of the aviation vortex encounters when conducting approach and
community that have become convinced that wake landing operations. The pilot has the ultimate
vortices may bounce up to twice their nominal responsibility for ensuring appropriate separations
steady state height. With a 200foot span aircraft, the and positioning of the aircraft in the terminal area to
bounce height could reach approximately 200 feet avoid the wake turbulence created by a preceding
AGL. This conviction is based on a single aircraft.
unsubstantiated report of an apparent coherent
vortical flow that was seen in the volume scan of a b. A crosswind will decrease the lateral movement
research sensor. No one can say what conditions of the upwind vortex and increase the movement of
cause vortex bouncing, how high they bounce, at the downwind vortex. Thus a light wind with a cross
what angle they bounce, or how many times a vortex runway component of 1 to 5 knots could result in the
may bounce. On the other hand, no one can say for upwind vortex remaining in the touchdown zone for
certain that vortices never bounce. Test data have a period of time and hasten the drift of the downwind
shown that vortices can rise with the air mass in which vortex toward another runway. (See FIG 736.)
they are embedded. Wind shear, particularly, can Similarly, a tailwind condition can move the vortices
cause vortex flow field tilting. Also, ambient of the preceding aircraft forward into the touchdown
thermal lifting and orographic effects (rising terrain zone. THE LIGHT QUARTERING TAILWIND
or tree lines) can cause a vortex flow field to rise. REQUIRES MAXIMUM CAUTION. Pilots should
Notwithstanding the foregoing, pilots are reminded be alert to large aircraft upwind from their approach
that they should be alert at all times for possible wake and takeoff flight paths. (See FIG 737.)
FIG 737
Vortex Movement in Ground Effect Tailwind
Tail Wind
Light Quartering
Tailwind Touchdown Point
734 Wake Turbulence

4/3/14 AIM
735. Operations Problem Areas 736. Vortex Avoidance Procedures

a. Under certain conditions, airport traffic control-
a. A wake encounter can be catastrophic. In 1972
lers apply procedures for separating IFR aircraft. If a
at Fort Worth a DC9 got too close to a DC10
pilot accepts a clearance to visually follow a
(two miles back), rolled, caught a wingtip, and
preceding aircraft, the pilot accepts responsibility for
cartwheeled coming to rest in an inverted position on
separation and wake turbulence avoidance. The
the runway. All aboard were killed. Serious and even
controllers will also provide to VFR aircraft, with
fatal GA accidents induced by wake vortices are not
whom they are in communication and which in the
uncommon. However, a wake encounter is not
towers opinion may be adversely affected by wake
necessarily hazardous. It can be one or more jolts with
turbulence from a larger aircraft, the position, altitude
varying severity depending upon the direction of the
and direction of flight of larger aircraft followed by
encounter, weight of the generating aircraft, size of
the phrase CAUTION WAKE TURBULENCE.
the encountering aircraft, distance from the generat-
After issuing the caution for wake turbulence, the
ing aircraft, and point of vortex encounter. The
airport traffic controllers generally do not provide
probability of induced roll increases when the
additional information to the following aircraft
encountering aircrafts heading is generally aligned
unless the airport traffic controllers know the
with the flight path of the generating aircraft.
following aircraft is overtaking the preceding
b. AVOID THE AREA BELOW AND BEHIND aircraft. WHETHER OR NOT A WARNING OR
THE GENERATING AIRCRAFT, ESPECIALLY INFORMATION HAS BEEN GIVEN, HOWEVER,
AT LOW ALTITUDE WHERE EVEN A THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO ADJUST AIR-
MOMENTARY WAKE ENCOUNTER COULD BE CRAFT OPERATIONS AND FLIGHT PATH AS
HAZARDOUS. This is not easy to do. Some NECESSARY TO PRECLUDE SERIOUS WAKE
accidents have occurred even though the pilot of the ENCOUNTERS. When any doubt exists about
trailing aircraft had carefully noted that the aircraft in maintaining safe separation distances between
front was at a considerably lower altitude. Unfortu- aircraft during approaches, pilots should ask the
nately, this does not ensure that the flight path of the control tower for updates on separation distance and
lead aircraft will be below that of the trailing aircraft. aircraft groundspeed.
b. The following vortex avoidance procedures are
c. Pilots should be particularly alert in calm wind recommended for the various situations:
conditions and situations where the vortices could:
1. Landing behind a larger aircraft same
1. Remain in the touchdown area. runway. Stay at or above the larger aircrafts final
approach flight pathnote its touchdown pointland
2. Drift from aircraft operating on a nearby beyond it.
runway. 2. Landing behind a larger aircraft when
parallel runway is closer than 2,500 feet. Consider
3. Sink into the takeoff or landing path from a possible drift to your runway. Stay at or above the
crossing runway. larger aircrafts final approach flight path note its
touchdown point.
4. Sink into the traffic pattern from other airport
operations. 3. Landing behind a larger aircraft crossing
runway. Cross above the larger aircrafts flight path.
5. Sink into the flight path of VFR aircraft
4. Landing behind a departing larger air-
operating on the hemispheric altitude 500 feet below.
craft same runway. Note the larger aircrafts
rotation point land well prior to rotation point.
d. Pilots of all aircraft should visualize the
location of the vortex trail behind larger aircraft and 5. Landing behind a departing larger air-
use proper vortex avoidance procedures to achieve craft crossing runway. Note the larger aircrafts
safe operation. It is equally important that pilots of rotation point if past the intersection continue the
larger aircraft plan or adjust their flight paths to approach land prior to the intersection. If larger
minimize vortex exposure to other aircraft. aircraft rotates prior to the intersection, avoid flight
Wake Turbulence 735

AIM 4/3/14
below the larger aircrafts flight path. Abandon the fixed wing aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft should use
approach unless a landing is ensured well before caution when operating behind or crossing behind
reaching the intersection. landing and departing helicopters.
6. Departing behind a larger aircraft. Note
the larger aircrafts rotation point and rotate prior to 738. Pilot Responsibility
the larger aircrafts rotation point. Continue climbing a. Government and industry groups are making
above the larger aircrafts climb path until turning concerted efforts to minimize or eliminate the
clear of the larger aircrafts wake. Avoid subsequent hazards of trailing vortices. However, the flight
headings which will cross below and behind a larger disciplines necessary to ensure vortex avoidance
aircraft. Be alert for any critical takeoff situation during VFR operations must be exercised by the pilot.
which could lead to a vortex encounter. Vortex visualization and avoidance procedures
7. Intersection takeoffs same runway. Be should be exercised by the pilot using the same degree
alert to adjacent larger aircraft operations, particular- of concern as in collision avoidance.
ly upwind of your runway. If intersection takeoff b. Wake turbulence may be encountered by
clearance is received, avoid subsequent heading aircraft in flight as well as when operating on the
which will cross below a larger aircrafts path. airport movement area.
8. Departing or landing after a larger REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Wake Turbulence.
aircraft executing a low approach, missed
approach, or touchandgo landing. Because c. Pilots are reminded that in operations conducted
vortices settle and move laterally near the ground, the behind all aircraft, acceptance of instructions from
vortex hazard may exist along the runway and in your ATC in the following situations is an acknowledg-
flight path after a larger aircraft has executed a low ment that the pilot will ensure safe takeoff and
approach, missed approach, or a touchandgo landing intervals and accepts the responsibility for
landing, particular in light quartering wind condi- providing wake turbulence separation.
tions. You should ensure that an interval of at least 1. Traffic information.
2 minutes has elapsed before your takeoff or landing.
2. Instructions to follow an aircraft; and
9. En route VFR (thousandfoot altitude plus
3. The acceptance of a visual approach
500 feet). Avoid flight below and behind a large
clearance.
aircrafts path. If a larger aircraft is observed above on
the same track (meeting or overtaking) adjust your d. For operations conducted behind heavy air-
position laterally, preferably upwind. craft, ATC will specify the word heavy when this
information is known. Pilots of heavy aircraft should
737. Helicopters always use the word heavy in radio communica-
tions.
In a slow hover taxi or stationary hover near the
e. Heavy and large jet aircraft operators should use
surface, helicopter main rotor(s) generate downwash
the following procedures during an approach to
producing high velocity outwash vortices to a
landing. These procedures establish a dependable
distance approximately three times the diameter of
baseline from which pilots of intrail, lighter aircraft
the rotor. When rotor downwash hits the surface, the
may reasonably expect to make effective flight path
resulting outwash vortices have behavioral character-
adjustments to avoid serious wake vortex turbulence.
istics similar to wing tip vortices produced by fixed
wing aircraft. However, the vortex circulation is 1. Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake
outward, upward, around, and away from the main vortices should make every attempt to fly on the
rotor(s) in all directions. Pilots of small aircraft established glidepath, not above it; or, if glidepath
should avoid operating within three rotor diameters guidance is not available, to fly as closely as possible
of any helicopter in a slow hover taxi or stationary to a 31 glidepath, not above it.
hover. In forward flight, departing or landing EXAMPLE
helicopters produce a pair of strong, highspeed Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at 5
trailing vortices similar to wing tip vortices of larger miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown.
736 Wake Turbulence

4/3/14 AIM
2. Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake respect to heavier preceding aircraft, especially when
vortices should fly as closely as possible to the there is any question of safe separation from wake
approach course centerline or to the extended turbulence.
centerline of the runway of intended landing as
appropriate to conditions. 739. Air Traffic Wake Turbulence
f. Pilots operating lighter aircraft on visual Separations
approaches intrail to aircraft producing strong wake a. Because of the possible effects of wake
vortices should use the following procedures to assist turbulence, controllers are required to apply no less
in avoiding wake turbulence. These procedures apply than specified minimum separation for aircraft
only to those aircraft that are on visual approaches. operating behind a heavy jet and, in certain instances,
1. Pilots of lighter aircraft should fly on or behind large nonheavy aircraft (i.e., B757 aircraft).
above the glidepath. Glidepath reference may be 1. Separation is applied to aircraft operating
furnished by an ILS, by a visual approach slope directly behind a heavy/B757 jet at the same altitude
system, by other groundbased approach slope or less than 1,000 feet below:
guidance systems, or by other means. In the absence
(a) Heavy jet behind heavy jet4 miles.
of visible glidepath guidance, pilots may very nearly
duplicate a 3degree glideslope by adhering to the (b) Large/heavy behind B757 4 miles.
3 to 1 glidepath principle.
(c) Small behind B757 5 miles.
EXAMPLE
Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at
(d) Small/large aircraft behind heavy jet
5 miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown. 5 miles.
2. If the pilot of the lighter following aircraft has 2. Also, separation, measured at the time the
visual contact with the preceding heavier aircraft and preceding aircraft is over the landing threshold, is
also with the runway, the pilot may further adjust for provided to small aircraft:
possible wake vortex turbulence by the following (a) Small aircraft landing behind heavy jet
practices: 6 miles.
(a) Pick a point of landing no less than (b) Small aircraft landing behind B757
1,000 feet from the arrival end of the runway. 5 miles.
(b) Establish a lineofsight to that landing (c) Small aircraft landing behind large
point that is above and in front of the heavier aircraft 4 miles.
preceding aircraft. REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Aircraft Classes.
(c) When possible, note the point of landing
of the heavier preceding aircraft and adjust point of 3. Additionally, appropriate time or distance
intended landing as necessary. intervals are provided to departing aircraft:
EXAMPLE (a) Two minutes or the appropriate 4 or 5 mile

A puff of smoke may appear at the 1,000foot markings of radar separation when takeoff behind a heavy/B757
the runway, showing that touchdown was that point; jet will be:
therefore, adjust point of intended landing to the (1) From the same threshold.
1,500foot markings.
(2) On a crossing runway and projected
(d) Maintain the lineofsight to the point of
flight paths will cross.
intended landing above and ahead of the heavier
preceding aircraft; maintain it to touchdown. (3) From the threshold of a parallel runway
when staggered ahead of that of the adjacent runway
(e) Land beyond the point of landing of the by less than 500 feet and when the runways are
preceding heavier aircraft. separated by less than 2,500 feet.
3. During visual approaches pilots may ask ATC NOTE
for updates on separation and groundspeed with Controllers may not reduce or waive these intervals.
Wake Turbulence 737

AIM 4/3/14
b. A 3minute interval will be provided when a runways separated by less than 2,500 feet.
small aircraft will takeoff: Controllers may not reduce or waive this interval.
1. From an intersection on the same runway d. Pilots may request additional separation i.e.,
(same or opposite direction) behind a departing large 2 minutes instead of 4 or 5 miles for wake turbulence
aircraft, avoidance. This request should be made as soon as
2. In the opposite direction on the same runway practical on ground control and at least before taxiing
behind a large aircraft takeoff or low/missed onto the runway.
approach. NOTE
NOTE 14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: The pilotincommand of
This 3minute interval may be waived upon specific pilot an aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final
request. authority as to the operation of that aircraft.
c. A 3minute interval will be provided for all e. Controllers may anticipate separation and need
aircraft taking off when the operations are as not withhold a takeoff clearance for an aircraft
described in subparagraph b1 and 2 above, the departing behind a large/heavy aircraft if there is
preceding aircraft is a heavy/B757 jet, and the reasonable assurance the required separation will
operations are on either the same runway or parallel exist when the departing aircraft starts takeoff roll.
738 Wake Turbulence

4/3/14 AIM
Section 4. Bird Hazards and Flight Over National

Refuges, Parks, and Forests
741. Migratory Bird Activity c. Windshield strikes have resulted in pilots

experiencing confusion, disorientation, loss of
a. Bird strike risk increases because of bird
communications, and aircraft control problems.
migration during the months of March through April,
Pilots are encouraged to review their emergency
and August through November.
procedures before flying in these areas.
b. The altitudes of migrating birds vary with winds
d. When encountering birds en route, climb to
aloft, weather fronts, terrain elevations, cloud
avoid collision, because birds in flocks generally
conditions, and other environmental variables. While
distribute themselves downward, with lead birds
over 90 percent of the reported bird strikes occur at or
being at the highest altitude.
below 3,000 feet AGL, strikes at higher altitudes are
common during migration. Ducks and geese are e. Avoid overflight of known areas of bird
frequently observed up to 7,000 feet AGL and pilots concentration and flying at low altitudes during bird
are cautioned to minimize en route flying at lower migration. Charted wildlife refuges and other natural
altitudes during migration. areas contain unusually high local concentration of
birds which may create a hazard to aircraft.
c. Considered the greatest potential hazard to
aircraft because of their size, abundance, or habit of
flying in dense flocks are gulls, waterfowl, vultures, 743. Reporting Bird Strikes
hawks, owls, egrets, blackbirds, and starlings. Pilots are urged to report any bird or other wildlife
Four major migratory flyways exist in the U.S. The strike using FAA Form 52007, Bird/Other Wildlife
Atlantic flyway parallels the Atlantic Coast. The Strike Report (Appendix 1). Additional forms are
Mississippi Flyway stretches from Canada through available at any FSS; at any FAA Regional Office or
the Great Lakes and follows the Mississippi River. at http://wildlifemitigation.tc.faa.gov. The data
The Central Flyway represents a broad area east of the derived from these reports are used to develop
Rockies, stretching from Canada through Central standards to cope with this potential hazard to aircraft
America. The Pacific Flyway follows the west coast and for documentation of necessary habitat control on
and overflies major parts of Washington, Oregon, and airports.
California. There are also numerous smaller flyways
which cross these major north-south migratory
744. Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife
routes.
Activities
742. Reducing Bird Strike Risks If you observe birds or other animals on or near the
runway, request airport management to disperse the
a. The most serious strikes are those involving wildlife before taking off. Also contact the nearest
ingestion into an engine (turboprops and turbine jet FAA ARTCC, FSS, or tower (including nonFederal
engines) or windshield strikes. These strikes can towers) regarding large flocks of birds and report the:
result in emergency situations requiring prompt
action by the pilot. a. Geographic location.
b. Engine ingestions may result in sudden loss of b. Bird type (geese, ducks, gulls, etc.).
power or engine failure. Review engine out c. Approximate numbers.
procedures, especially when operating from airports
d. Altitude.
with known bird hazards or when operating near high
bird concentrations. e. Direction of bird flight path.
Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests 741
AIM 4/3/14
745. Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other administered by the National Park Service, National
Wildlife Hazards Wildlife Refuges, Big Game Refuges, Game Ranges
and Wildlife Ranges administered by the U.S. Fish
Many airports advise pilots of other wildlife hazards
and Wildlife Service, and Wilderness and Primitive
caused by large animals on the runway through the
areas administered by the U.S. Forest Service.
A/FD and the NOTAM system. Collisions of landing
and departing aircraft and animals on the runway are NOTE
increasing and are not limited to rural airports. These FAA Advisory Circular AC 9136, Visual Flight
accidents have also occurred at several major Rules (VFR) Flight Near Noise-Sensitive Areas, defines
airports. Pilots should exercise extreme caution when the surface of a national park area (including parks,
forests, primitive areas, wilderness areas, recreational
warned of the presence of wildlife on and in the
areas, national seashores, national monuments, national
vicinity of airports. If you observe deer or other large lakeshores, and national wildlife refuge and range areas)
animals in close proximity to movement areas, advise as: the highest terrain within 2,000 feet laterally of the
the FSS, tower, or airport management. route of flight, or the upper-most rim of a canyon or valley.
c. Federal statutes prohibit certain types of flight
746. Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife
activity and/or provide altitude restrictions over
Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas
designated U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest
a. The landing of aircraft is prohibited on lands or Service Areas. These designated areas, for example:
waters administered by the National Park Service, Boundary Waters Canoe Wilderness Areas,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or U.S. Forest Service Minnesota; Haleakala National Park, Hawaii;
without authorization from the respective agency. Yosemite National Park, California; and Grand
Exceptions include: Canyon National Park, Arizona, are charted on
Sectional Charts.
1. When forced to land due to an emergency
beyond the control of the operator; d. Federal regulations also prohibit airdrops by
2. At officially designated landing sites; or parachute or other means of persons, cargo, or objects
from aircraft on lands administered by the three
3. An approved official business of the Federal agencies without authorization from the respective
Government. agency. Exceptions include:
b. Pilots are requested to maintain a minimum 1. Emergencies involving the safety of human
altitude of 2,000 feet above the surface of the life; or
following: National Parks, Monuments, Seashores,
Lakeshores, Recreation Areas and Scenic Riverways 2. Threat of serious property loss.
742 Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests
4/3/14 AIM
Section 5. Potential Flight Hazards
751. Accident Cause Factors entitled. It is a lot safer to pursue the right-of-way
angle after you have completed your flight.
a. The 10 most frequent cause factors for general
aviation accidents that involve the pilot-in-command
are: 752. VFR in Congested Areas
A high percentage of near midair collisions occur
1. Inadequate preflight preparation and/or
below 8,000 feet AGL and within 30 miles of an
planning.
airport. When operating VFR in these highly
2. Failure to obtain and/or maintain flying congested areas, whether you intend to land at an
speed. airport within the area or are just flying through, it is
recommended that extra vigilance be maintained and
3. Failure to maintain direction control. that you monitor an appropriate control frequency.
4. Improper level off. Normally the appropriate frequency is an approach
control frequency. By such monitoring action you can
5. Failure to see and avoid objects or get the picture of the traffic in your area. When the
obstructions. approach controller has radar, radar traffic advisories
may be given to VFR pilots upon request.
6. Mismanagement of fuel.
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 4115, Radar Traffic Information Service.
7. Improper inflight decisions or planning.
8. Misjudgment of distance and speed. 753. Obstructions To Flight
9. Selection of unsuitable terrain. a. General. Many structures exist that could
significantly affect the safety of your flight when
10. Improper operation of flight controls. operating below 500 feet AGL, and particularly
b. This list remains relatively stable and points out below 200 feet AGL. While 14 CFR Part 91.119
the need for continued refresher training to establish allows flight below 500 AGL when over sparsely
a higher level of flight proficiency for all pilots. A populated areas or open water, such operations are
part of the FAAs continuing effort to promote very dangerous. At and below 200 feet AGL there are
increased aviation safety is the Aviation Safety numerous power lines, antenna towers, etc., that are
Program. For information on Aviation Safety not marked and lighted as obstructions and; therefore,
Program activities contact your nearest Flight may not be seen in time to avoid a collision. Notices
Standards District Office. to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued on those lighted
structures experiencing temporary light outages.
c. Alertness. Be alert at all times, especially However, some time may pass before the FAA is
when the weather is good. Most pilots pay attention notified of these outages, and the NOTAM issued,
to business when they are operating in full IFR thus pilot vigilance is imperative.
weather conditions, but strangely, air collisions
almost invariably have occurred under ideal weather b. Antenna Towers. Extreme caution should be
conditions. Unlimited visibility appears to encourage exercised when flying less than 2,000 feet AGL
a sense of security which is not at all justified. because of numerous skeletal structures, such as radio
Considerable information of value may be obtained and television antenna towers, that exceed 1,000 feet
by listening to advisories being issued in the terminal AGL with some extending higher than 2,000 feet
area, even though controller workload may prevent a AGL. Most skeletal structures are supported by guy
pilot from obtaining individual service. wires which are very difficult to see in good weather
and can be invisible at dusk or during periods of
d. Giving Way. If you think another aircraft is too reduced visibility. These wires can extend about
close to you, give way instead of waiting for the other 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all
pilot to respect the right-of-way to which you may be skeletal structures should be avoided horizontally by
Potential Flight Hazards 751

AIM 4/3/14
at least 2,000 feet. Additionally, new towers may not should remain well clear of all unmanned free
be on your current chart because the information was balloons and flight below them should be avoided at
not received prior to the printing of the chart. all times.
c. Overhead Wires. Overhead transmission and b. Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free
utility lines often span approaches to runways, balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility
natural flyways such as lakes, rivers, gorges, and with which communication is established. Such
canyons, and cross other landmarks pilots frequently information will assist FAA ATC facilities to identify
follow such as highways, railroad tracks, etc. As with and flight follow unmanned free balloons operating
antenna towers, these high voltage/power lines or the in the airspace.
supporting structures of these lines may not always be
readily visible and the wires may be virtually
755. Unmanned Aircraft Systems
impossible to see under certain conditions. In some
locations, the supporting structures of overhead a. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), formerly
transmission lines are equipped with unique sequence referred to as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
flashing white strobe light systems to indicate that or drones, are having an increasing operational
there are wires between the structures. However, presence in the NAS. Once the exclusive domain of
many power lines do not require notice to the FAA the military, UAS are now being operated by various
and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. Many entities. Although these aircraft are unmanned,
of those that do require notice do not exceed 200 feet UAS are flown by a remotely located pilot and crew.
AGL or meet the Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Physical and performance characteristics of un-
Part 77 and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. manned aircraft (UA) vary greatly and unlike model
All pilots are cautioned to remain extremely vigilant aircraft that typically operate lower than 400 feet
for these power lines or their supporting structures AGL, UA may be found operating at virtually any
when following natural flyways or during the altitude and any speed. Sizes of UA can be as small
approach and landing phase. This is particularly as several pounds to as large as a commercial
important for seaplane and/or float equipped aircraft transport aircraft. UAS come in various categories
when landing on, or departing from, unfamiliar lakes including airplane, rotorcraft, poweredlift (tilt
or rivers. rotor), and lighterthanair. Propulsion systems of
UAS include a broad range of alternatives from
d. Other Objects/Structures. There are other
piston powered and turbojet engines to battery and
objects or structures that could adversely affect your
solarpowered electric motors.
flight such as construction cranes near an airport,
newly constructed buildings, new towers, etc. Many b. To ensure segregation of UAS operations from
of these structures do not meet charting requirements other aircraft, the military typically conducts UAS
or may not yet be charted because of the charting operations within restricted or other special use
cycle. Some structures do not require obstruction airspace. However, UAS operations are now being
marking and/or lighting and some may not be marked approved in the NAS outside of special use airspace
and lighted even though the FAA recommended it. through the use of FAAissued Certificates of Waiver
or Authorization (COA) or through the issuance of a
754. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned special airworthiness certificate. COA and special
Balloons airworthiness approvals authorize UAS flight
operations to be contained within specific geographic
a. The majority of unmanned free balloons boundaries and altitudes, usually require coordina-
currently being operated have, extending below tion with an ATC facility, and typically require the
them, either a suspension device to which the payload issuance of a NOTAM describing the operation to be
or instrument package is attached, or a trailing wire conducted. UAS approvals also require observers to
antenna, or both. In many instances these balloon provide seeandavoid capability to the UAS crew
subsystems may be invisible to the pilot until the and to provide the necessary compliance with 14 CFR
aircraft is close to the balloon, thereby creating a Section 91.113. For UAS operations approved at or
potentially dangerous situation. Therefore, good above FL180, UAS operate under the same
judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft requirements as that of manned aircraft (i.e., flights
752 Potential Flight Hazards

4/3/14 AIM
are operated under instrument flight rules, are in 756. Mountain Flying
communication with ATC, and are appropriately
equipped). a. Your first experience of flying over mountain-
ous terrain (particularly if most of your flight time has
c. UAS operations may be approved at either been over the flatlands of the midwest) could be a
controlled or uncontrolled airports and are typically never-to-be-forgotten nightmare if proper planning is
disseminated by NOTAM. In all cases, approved not done and if you are not aware of the potential
UAS operations must comply with all applicable hazards awaiting. Those familiar section lines are not
regulations and/or special provisions specified in the present in the mountains; those flat, level fields for
COA or in the operating limitations of the special forced landings are practically nonexistent; abrupt
airworthiness certificate. At uncontrolled airports, changes in wind direction and velocity occur; severe
UAS operations are advised to operate well clear of updrafts and downdrafts are common, particularly
all known manned aircraft operations. Pilots of near or above abrupt changes of terrain such as cliffs
manned aircraft are advised to follow normal or rugged areas; even the clouds look different and
operating procedures and are urged to monitor the can build up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying
CTAF for any potential UAS activity. At controlled need not be hazardous if you follow the recommenda-
airports, local ATC procedures may be in place to tions below.
handle UAS operations and should not require any
special procedures from manned aircraft entering or b. File a Flight Plan. Plan your route to avoid
departing the traffic pattern or operating in the topography which would prevent a safe forced
vicinity of the airport. landing. The route should be over populated areas and
well known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude
d. In addition to approved UAS operations should be maintained to permit gliding to a safe
described above, a recently approved agreement landing in the event of engine failure.
between the FAA and the Department of Defense
c. Dont fly a light aircraft when the winds aloft, at
authorizes small UAS operations wholly contained
your proposed altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour.
within Class G airspace, and in no instance, greater
Expect the winds to be of much greater velocity over
than 1200 feet AGL over military owned or leased
mountain passes than reported a few miles from them.
property. These operations do not require any special
Approach mountain passes with as much altitude as
authorization as long as the UA remains within the
possible. Downdrafts of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet per
lateral boundaries of the military installation as well
minute are not uncommon on the leeward side.
as other provisions including the issuance of a
NOTAM. Unlike special use airspace, these areas d. Dont fly near or above abrupt changes in
may not be depicted on an aeronautical chart. terrain. Severe turbulence can be expected, especially
in high wind conditions.
e. There are several factors a pilot should consider
regarding UAS activity in an effort to reduce e. Understand Mountain Obscuration. The
potential flight hazards. Pilots are urged to exercise term Mountain Obscuration (MTOS) is used to
increased vigilance when operating in the vicinity of describe a visibility condition that is distinguished
restricted or other special use airspace, military from IFR because ceilings, by definition, are
operations areas, and any military installation. Areas described as above ground level (AGL). In
with a preponderance of UAS activity are typically mountainous terrain clouds can form at altitudes
noted on sectional charts advising pilots of this significantly higher than the weather reporting
activity. Since the size of a UA can be very small, they station and at the same time nearby mountaintops
may be difficult to see and track. If a UA is may be obscured by low visibility. In these areas the
encountered during flight, as with manned aircraft, ground level can also vary greatly over a small area.
never assume that the pilot or crew of the UAS can see Beware if operating VFRontop. You could be
you, maintain increased vigilance with the UA and operating closer to the terrain than you think because
always be prepared for evasive action if necessary. the tops of mountains are hidden in a cloud deck
Always check NOTAMs for potential UAS activity below. MTOS areas are identified daily on The
along the intended route of flight and exercise Aviation Weather Center located at:
increased vigilance in areas specified in the NOTAM. http://www.aviationweather.gov.

AIM 4/3/14
f. Some canyons run into a dead end. Dont fly so decreases with altitude. As air density decreases,
far up a canyon that you get trapped. ALWAYS BE density altitude increases. The further effects of high
ABLE TO MAKE A 180 DEGREE TURN! temperature and high humidity are cumulative,
resulting in an increasing high density altitude
g. VFR flight operations may be conducted at
condition. High density altitude reduces all aircraft
night in mountainous terrain with the application of
performance parameters. To the pilot, this means that
sound judgment and common sense. Proper pre-flight
the normal horsepower output is reduced, propeller
planning, giving ample consideration to winds and
efficiency is reduced and a higher true airspeed is
weather, knowledge of the terrain and pilot
required to sustain the aircraft throughout its
experience in mountain flying are prerequisites for
operating parameters. It means an increase in runway
safety of flight. Continuous visual contact with the
length requirements for takeoff and landings, and
surface and obstructions is a major concern and flight
decreased rate of climb. An average small airplane,
operations under an overcast or in the vicinity of
for example, requiring 1,000 feet for takeoff at sea
clouds should be approached with extreme caution.
level under standard atmospheric conditions will
h. When landing at a high altitude field, the same require a takeoff run of approximately 2,000 feet at an
indicated airspeed should be used as at low elevation operational altitude of 5,000 feet.
fields. Remember: that due to the less dense air at NOTE
altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results A turbo-charged aircraft engine provides some slight
in higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and advantage in that it provides sea level horsepower up to a
more important, a longer landing distance. During specified altitude above sea level.
gusty wind conditions which often prevail at high 1. Density Altitude Advisories. At airports
altitude fields, a power approach and power landing with elevations of 2,000 feet and higher, control
is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster towers and FSSs will broadcast the advisory Check
groundspeed, your takeoff distance will increase Density Altitude when the temperature reaches a
considerably over that required at low altitudes. predetermined level. These advisories will be
i. Effects of Density Altitude. Performance broadcast on appropriate tower frequencies or, where
figures in the aircraft owners handbook for length of available, ATIS. FSSs will broadcast these advisories
takeoff run, horsepower, rate of climb, etc., are as a part of Local Airport Advisory, and on TWEB.
generally based on standard atmosphere conditions 2. These advisories are provided by air traffic
(59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius), pressure facilities, as a reminder to pilots that high
29.92 inches of mercury) at sea level. However, temperatures and high field elevations will cause
inexperienced pilots, as well as experienced pilots, significant changes in aircraft characteristics. The
may run into trouble when they encounter an pilot retains the responsibility to compute density
altogether different set of conditions. This is altitude, when appropriate, as a part of preflight
particularly true in hot weather and at higher duties.
elevations. Aircraft operations at altitudes above sea
level and at higher than standard temperatures are NOTE
commonplace in mountainous areas. Such operations All FSSs will compute the current density altitude upon
request.
quite often result in a drastic reduction of aircraft
performance capabilities because of the changing air j. Mountain Wave. Many pilots go all their lives
density. Density altitude is a measure of air density. without understanding what a mountain wave is.
It is not to be confused with pressure altitude, true Quite a few have lost their lives because of this lack
altitude or absolute altitude. It is not to be used as a of understanding. One need not be a licensed
height reference, but as a determining criteria in the meteorologist to understand the mountain wave
performance capability of an aircraft. Air density phenomenon.

4/3/14 AIM
1. Mountain waves occur when air is being condition and slope, elevation, aircraft weight, wind,
blown over a mountain range or even the ridge of a and temperature), typical takeoff acceleration should
sharp bluff area. As the air hits the upwind side of the allow the airplane to reach 70 percent of liftoff
range, it starts to climb, thus creating what is airspeed by the midpoint of the runway. The rule of
generally a smooth updraft which turns into a thumb is that should airplane acceleration not allow
turbulent downdraft as the air passes the crest of the the airspeed to reach this value by the midpoint, the
ridge. From this point, for many miles downwind, takeoff should be aborted, as it may not be possible to
there will be a series of downdrafts and updrafts. liftoff in the remaining runway.
Satellite photos of the Rockies have shown mountain
waves extending as far as 700 miles downwind of the Several points are important when considering using
range. Along the east coast area, such photos of the this rule of thumb:
Appalachian chain have picked up the mountain
wave phenomenon over a hundred miles eastward. a. Airspeed indicators in small airplanes are not
All it takes to form a mountain wave is wind blowing required to be evaluated at speeds below stalling, and
across the range at 15 knots or better at an intersection may not be usable at 70 percent of liftoff airspeed.
angle of not less than 30 degrees.
b. This rule of thumb is based on a uniform
surface condition. Puddles, soft spots, areas of tall
2. Pilots from flatland areas should understand
and/or wet grass, loose gravel, etc., may impede
a few things about mountain waves in order to stay
acceleration or even cause deceleration. Even if the
out of trouble. When approaching a mountain range
airplane achieves 70 percent of liftoff airspeed by the
from the upwind side (generally the west), there will
midpoint, the condition of the remainder of the runway
usually be a smooth updraft; therefore, it is not quite
may not allow further acceleration. The entire length
as dangerous an area as the lee of the range. From the
of the runway should be inspected prior to takeoff to
leeward side, it is always a good idea to add an extra
ensure a usable surface.
thousand feet or so of altitude because downdrafts
can exceed the climb capability of the aircraft. Never c. This rule of thumb applies only to runway
expect an updraft when approaching a mountain required for actual liftoff. In the event that obstacles
chain from the leeward. Always be prepared to cope affect the takeoff climb path, appropriate distance
with a downdraft and turbulence. must be available after liftoff to accelerate to best angle
of climb speed and to clear the obstacles. This will, in
3. When approaching a mountain ridge from the effect, require the airplane to accelerate to a higher
downwind side, it is recommended that the ridge be speed by midpoint, particularly if the obstacles are
approached at approximately a 45 degree angle to the close to the end of the runway. In addition, this
horizontal direction of the ridge. This permits a safer technique does not take into account the effects of
retreat from the ridge with less stress on the aircraft upslope or tailwinds on takeoff performance. These
should severe turbulence and downdraft be experi- factors will also require greater acceleration than
enced. If severe turbulence is encountered, normal and, under some circumstances, prevent
simultaneously reduce power and adjust pitch until takeoff entirely.
aircraft approaches maneuvering speed, then adjust
power and trim to maintain maneuvering speed and d. Use of this rule of thumb does not alleviate the
fly away from the turbulent area. pilots responsibility to comply with applicable
Federal Aviation Regulations, the limitations and
performance data provided in the FAA approved
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), or, in the absence of
757. Use of Runway Halfway Signs at an FAA approved AFM, other data provided by the
Unimproved Airports aircraft manufacturer.
When installed, runway halfway signs provide the In addition to their use during takeoff, runway
pilot with a reference point to judge takeoff halfway signs offer the pilot increased awareness of
acceleration trends. Assuming that the runway length his or her position along the runway during landing
is appropriate for takeoff (considering runway operations.

AIM 4/3/14
NOTE of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation.

No FAA standard exists for the appearance of the runway The CFR requires, in part, that aircraft operating on
halfway sign. FIG 751 shows a graphical depiction of the water . . . shall, insofar as possible, keep clear of
a typical runway halfway sign. all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation, and
shall give way to any vessel or other aircraft that is
758. Seaplane Safety given the rightofway . . . . This means that a
seaplane should avoid boats and commercial
a. Acquiring a seaplane class rating affords access shipping when on the water. If on a collision course,
to many areas not available to landplane pilots. the seaplane should slow, stop, or maneuver to the
Adding a seaplane class rating to your pilot certificate right, away from the bow of the oncoming vessel.
can be relatively uncomplicated and inexpensive. Also, while on the surface with an engine running, an
However, more effort is required to become a safe, aircraft must give way to all nonpowered vessels.
efficient, competent bush pilot. The natural hazards Since a seaplane in the water may not be as
of the backwoods have given way to modern maneuverable as one in the air, the aircraft on the
man-made hazards. Except for the far north, the water has right-of-way over one in the air, and one
available bodies of water are no longer the exclusive taking off has right-of-way over one landing. A
domain of the airman. Seaplane pilots must be seaplane is exempt from the USCG safety equipment
vigilant for hazards such as electric power lines, requirements, including the requirements for Person-
power, sail and rowboats, rafts, mooring lines, water al Flotation Devices (PFD). Requiring seaplanes on
skiers, swimmers, etc. the water to comply with USCG equipment
requirements in addition to the FAA equipment
FIG 751 requirements would be an unnecessary burden on
Typical Runway Halfway Sign seaplane owners and operators.
c. Unless they are under Federal jurisdiction,

navigable bodies of water are under the jurisdiction
of the state, or in a few cases, privately owned. Unless
they are specifically restricted, aircraft have as much
right to operate on these bodies of water as other
vessels. To avoid problems, check with Federal or
local officials in advance of operating on unfamiliar
waters. In addition to the agencies listed in
TBL 751, the nearest Flight Standards District
Office can usually offer some practical suggestions as
well as regulatory information. If you land on a
restricted body of water because of an inflight
emergency, or in ignorance of the restrictions you
have violated, report as quickly as practical to the
nearest local official having jurisdiction and explain
b. Seaplane pilots must have a thorough under- your situation.
standing of the right-of-way rules as they apply to
aircraft versus other vessels. Seaplane pilots are d. When operating a seaplane over or into remote
expected to know and adhere to both the U.S. Coast areas, appropriate attention should be given to
Guards (USCG) Navigation Rules, InternationalIn- survival gear. Minimum kits are recommended for
land, and 14 CFR Section 91.115, RightofWay summer and winter, and are required by law for flight
Rules; Water Operations. The navigation rules of the into sparsely settled areas of Canada and Alaska.
road are a set of collision avoidance rules as they Alaska State Department of Transportation and
apply to aircraft on the water. A seaplane is Canadian Ministry of Transport officials can provide
considered a vessel when on the water for the specific information on survival gear requirements.
purposes of these collision avoidance rules. In The kit should be assembled in one container and be
general, a seaplane on the water must keep well clear easily reachable and preferably floatable.

4/3/14 AIM
TBL 751 passengers can easily don and wear inflatable life
Jurisdictions Controlling Navigable Bodies of Water vests (when not inflated) provides maximum
Authority to Consult For Use of a Body of Water
effectiveness and allows for unrestricted movement.
It is imperative that passengers are briefed on the
Location Authority Contact
location and proper use of available PFDs prior to
Wilderness Area U.S. Department Local forest ranger leaving the dock.
of Agriculture,
Forest Service f. The FAA recommends that seaplane owners and
National Forest USDA Forest Local forest ranger operators obtain Advisory Circular (AC) 9169,
Service Seaplane Safety for 14 CFR Part 91 Operations, free
National Park U.S. Department Local park ranger from the U.S. Department of Transportation,
of the Interior,
National Park Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC121.23, Ard-
Service more East Business Center, 3341 Q 75th Avenue,
Indian Reservation USDI, Bureau of Local Bureau Landover, MD 20785; fax: (301) 3865394. The
Indian Affairs office USCG Navigation Rules InternationalInland
State Park State government Local state (COMDTINSTM 16672.2B) is available for a fee
or state forestry or aviation office for from the Government Printing Office by facsimile
park service further request to (202) 5122250, and can be ordered using
information
Mastercard or Visa.
Canadian National Supervised and Park
and Provincial restricted on an Superintendent in
Parks individual basis an emergency 759. Flight Operations in Volcanic Ash
from province to
province and by a. Severe volcanic eruptions which send ash and
different sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas into the upper atmosphere
departments of the
Canadian
occur somewhere around the world several times
government; each year. Flying into a volcanic ash cloud can be
consult Canadian exceedingly dangerous. A B747200 lost all four
Flight Information engines after such an encounter and a B747400 had
Manual and/or
Water Aerodrome the same nearly catastrophic experience. Piston
Supplement powered aircraft are less likely to lose power but
severe damage is almost certain to ensue after an
e. The FAA recommends that each seaplane owner encounter with a volcanic ash cloud which is only a
or operator provide flotation gear for occupants any few hours old.
time a seaplane operates on or near water. 14 CFR
b. Most important is to avoid any encounter with
Section 91.205(b)(12) requires approved flotation
volcanic ash. The ash plume may not be visible,
gear for aircraft operated for hire over water and
especially in instrument conditions or at night; and
beyond power-off gliding distance from shore.
even if visible, it is difficult to distinguish visually
FAA-approved gear differs from that required for
between an ash cloud and an ordinary weather cloud.
navigable waterways under USCG rules. FAA-ap-
Volcanic ash clouds are not displayed on airborne or
proved life vests are inflatable designs as compared
ATC radar. The pilot must rely on reports from air
to the USCGs noninflatable PFDs that may consist
traffic controllers and other pilots to determine the
of solid, bulky material. Such USCG PFDs are
location of the ash cloud and use that information to
impractical for seaplanes and other aircraft because
remain well clear of the area. Additionally, the
they may block passage through the relatively narrow
presence of a sulphur-like odor throughout the cabin
exits available to pilots and passengers. Life vests
may indicate the presence of SO2 emitted by volcanic
approved under Technical Standard Order (TSO)
activity, but may or may not indicate the presence of
TSOC13E contain fully inflatable compartments.
volcanic ash. Every attempt should be made to remain
The wearer inflates the compartments (AFTER
on the upwind side of the volcano.
exiting the aircraft) primarily by independent CO2
cartridges, with an oral inflation tube as a backup. The c. It is recommended that pilots encountering an
flotation gear also contains a water-activated, ash cloud should immediately reduce thrust to idle
self-illuminating signal light. The fact that pilots and (altitude permitting), and reverse course in order to

AIM 4/3/14
escape from the cloud. Ash clouds may extend for action. Wet ash on the runway may also reduce
hundreds of miles and pilots should not attempt to fly effectiveness of braking. It is recommended that
through or climb out of the cloud. In addition, the reverse thrust be limited to minimum practical to
following procedures are recommended: reduce the possibility of reduced visibility and engine
ingestion of airborne ash.
1. Disengage the autothrottle if engaged. This
will prevent the autothrottle from increasing engine h. When departing from airports where volcanic
thrust; ash has been deposited, it is recommended that pilots
avoid operating in visible airborne ash. Allow ash to
2. Turn on continuous ignition; settle before initiating takeoff roll. It is also
3. Turn on all accessory airbleeds including all recommended that flap extension be delayed until
air conditioning packs, nacelles, and wing anti-ice. initiating the before takeoff checklist and that a
This will provide an additional engine stall margin by rolling takeoff be executed to avoid blowing ash back
reducing engine pressure. into the air.
d. The following has been reported by flightcrews
who have experienced encounters with volcanic dust 7510. Emergency Airborne Inspection of
clouds: Other Aircraft
1. Smoke or dust appearing in the cockpit. a. Providing airborne assistance to another aircraft
may involve flying in very close proximity to that
2. An acrid odor similar to electrical smoke. aircraft. Most pilots receive little, if any, formal
3. Multiple engine malfunctions, such as training or instruction in this type of flying activity.
compressor stalls, increasing EGT, torching from Close proximity flying without sufficient time to plan
tailpipe, and flameouts. (i.e., in an emergency situation), coupled with the
stress involved in a perceived emergency can be
4. At night, St. Elmos fire or other static hazardous.
discharges accompanied by a bright orange glow in
b. The pilot in the best position to assess the
the engine inlets.
situation should take the responsibility of coordinat-
5. A fire warning in the forward cargo area. ing the airborne intercept and inspection, and take
into account the unique flight characteristics and
e. It may become necessary to shut down and then
differences of the category(s) of aircraft involved.
restart engines to prevent exceeding EGT limits.
Volcanic ash may block the pitot system and result in c. Some of the safety considerations are:
unreliable airspeed indications. 1. Area, direction and speed of the intercept;
f. If you see a volcanic eruption and have not been 2. Aerodynamic effects (i.e., rotorcraft down-
previously notified of it, you may have been the first wash);
person to observe it. In this case, immediately contact
ATC and alert them to the existence of the eruption. 3. Minimum safe separation distances;
If possible, use the Volcanic Activity Reporting form 4. Communications requirements, lost commu-
(VAR) depicted in Appendix 2 of this manual. nications procedures, coordination with ATC;
Items 1 through 8 of the VAR should be transmitted
immediately. The information requested in 5. Suitability of diverting the distressed aircraft
items 9 through 16 should be passed after landing. If to the nearest safe airport; and
a VAR form is not immediately available, relay 6. Emergency actions to terminate the intercept.
enough information to identify the position and
d. Close proximity, inflight inspection of another
nature of the volcanic activity. Do not become
aircraft is uniquely hazardous. The pilotin
unnecessarily alarmed if there is merely steam or very
command of the aircraft experiencing the
low-level eruptions of ash.
problem/emergency must not relinquish control of
g. When landing at airports where volcanic ash has the situation and/or jeopardize the safety of their
been deposited on the runway, be aware that even a aircraft. The maneuver must be accomplished with
thin layer of dry ash can be detrimental to braking minimum risk to both aircraft.

4/3/14 AIM
7511. Precipitation Static d. Static dischargers work on the principal of

creating a relatively easy path for discharging
a. Precipitation static is caused by aircraft in flight negative charges that develop on the aircraft by using
coming in contact with uncharged particles. These a discharger with fine metal points, carbon coated
particles can be rain, snow, fog, sleet, hail, volcanic rods, or carbon wicks rather than wait until a large
ash, dust; any solid or liquid particles. When the charge is developed and discharged off the trailing
aircraft strikes these neutral particles the positive edges of the aircraft that will interfere with avionics
element of the particle is reflected away from the equipment. This process offers approximately
aircraft and the negative particle adheres to the skin 50 decibels (dB) static noise reduction which is
of the aircraft. In a very short period of time a adequate in most cases to be below the threshold of
substantial negative charge will develop on the skin noise that would cause interference in avionics
of the aircraft. If the aircraft is not equipped with equipment.
static dischargers, or has an ineffective static
discharger system, when a sufficient negative voltage e. It is important to remember that precipitation
level is reached, the aircraft may go into static problems can only be corrected with the proper
CORONA. That is, it will discharge the static number of quality static dischargers, properly
electricity from the extremities of the aircraft, such as installed on a properly bonded aircraft. Pstatic is
the wing tips, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, indeed a problem in the all weather operation of the
antenna, propeller tips, etc. This discharge of static aircraft, but there are effective ways to combat it. All
electricity is what you will hear in your headphones possible methods of reducing the effects of Pstatic
and is what we call Pstatic. should be considered so as to provide the best
possible performance in the flight environment.
b. A review of pilot reports often shows different
symptoms with each problem that is encountered. f. A wide variety of discharger designs is available
The following list of problems is a summary of many on the commercial market. The inclusion of
pilot reports from many different aircraft. Each welldesigned dischargers may be expected to
problem was caused by Pstatic: improve airframe noise in Pstatic conditions by as
much as 50 dB. Essentially, the discharger provides
1. Complete loss of VHF communications. a path by which accumulated charge may leave the
airframe quietly. This is generally accomplished by
2. Erroneous magnetic compass readings providing a group of tiny corona points to permit
(30 percent in error). onset of coronacurrent flow at a low aircraft
potential. Additionally, aerodynamic design of
3. High pitched squeal on audio.
dischargers to permit corona to occur at the lowest
4. Motor boat sound on audio. possible atmospheric pressure also lowers the corona
threshold. In addition to permitting a lowpotential
5. Loss of all avionics in clouds. discharge, the discharger will minimize the radiation
of radio frequency (RF) energy which accompanies
6. VLF navigation system inoperative most of the corona discharge, in order to minimize effects of
the time. RF components at communications and navigation
frequencies on avionics performance. These effects
7. Erratic instrument readouts.
are reduced through resistive attachment of the
8. Weak transmissions and poor receptivity of corona point(s) to the airframe, preserving direct
radios. current connection but attenuating the higherfre-
quency components of the discharge.
9. St. Elmos Fire on windshield.
g. Each manufacturer of static dischargers offers
c. Each of these symptoms is caused by one information concerning appropriate discharger loca-
general problem on the airframe. This problem is the tion on specific airframes. Such locations emphasize
inability of the accumulated charge to flow easily to the trailing outboard surfaces of wings and horizontal
the wing tips and tail of the airframe, and properly tail surfaces, plus the tip of the vertical stabilizer,
discharge to the airstream. where charge tends to accumulate on the airframe.

AIM 4/3/14
Sufficient dischargers must be provided to allow for e. Pilots should report laser illumination activity to
currentcarrying capacity which will maintain the controlling Air Traffic Control facilities, Federal
airframe potential below the corona threshold of the Contract Towers or Flight Service Stations as soon as
trailing edges. possible after the event. The following information
should be included:
h. In order to achieve full performance of avionic
equipment, the static discharge system will require 1. UTC Date and Time of Event.
periodic maintenance. A pilot knowledgeable of
Pstatic causes and effects is an important element in 2. Call Sign or Aircraft Registration Number.
assuring optimum performance by early recognition 3. Type Aircraft.
of these types of problems.
4. Nearest Major City.
7512. Light Amplification by Stimulated 5. Altitude.
Emission of Radiation (Laser) Operations
and Reporting Illumination of Aircraft 6. Location of Event (Latitude/Longitude and/
or Fixed Radial Distance (FRD)).
a. Lasers have many applications. Of concern to
users of the National Airspace System are those laser 7. Brief Description of the Event and any other
events that may affect pilots, e.g., outdoor laser light Pertinent Information.
shows or demonstrations for entertainment and
advertisements at special events and theme parks. f. Pilots are also encouraged to complete the
Generally, the beams from these events appear as Laser Beam Exposure Questionnaire located
bright bluegreen in color; however, they may be red, on the FAA Laser Safety Initiative website at
yellow, or white. However, some laser systems http://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/lasers/
produce light which is invisible to the human eye. and submit electronically per the directions on the
questionnaire, as soon as possible after landing.
b. FAA regulations prohibit the disruption of
aviation activity by any person on the ground or in the g. When a laser event is reported to an air traffic
air. The FAA and the Food and Drug Administration facility, a general caution warning will be broad-
(the Federal agency that has the responsibility to casted on all appropriate frequencies every
enforce compliance with Federal requirements for five minutes for 20 minutes and broadcasted on the
laser systems and laser light show products) are ATIS for one hour following the report.
working together to ensure that operators of these PHRASEOLOGY
devices do not pose a hazard to aircraft operators. UNAUTHORIZED LASER ILLUMINATION EVENT,
c. Pilots should be aware that illumination from (UTC time), (location), (altitude), (color), (direction).
these laser operations are able to create temporary EXAMPLE
vision impairment miles from the actual location. In Unauthorized laser illumination event, at 0100z, 8 mile
addition, these operations can produce permanent eye final runway 18R at 3,000 feet, green laser from the
damage. Pilots should make themselves aware of southwest.
where these activities are being conducted and avoid REFERENCE
FAAO 7110.65, Unauthorized Laser Illumination of Aircraft,
these areas if possible. Para 10214.
FAAO 7210.3, Reporting Laser Illumination of Aircraft, Para 2127.
d. Recent and increasing incidents of unautho-
rized illumination of aircraft by lasers, as well as the h. When these activities become known to the
proliferation and increasing sophistication of laser FAA, Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued to
devices available to the general public, dictates that inform the aviation community of the events. Pilots
the FAA, in coordination with other government should consult NOTAMs or the Special Notices
agencies, take action to safeguard flights from these section of the Airport/Facility Directory for informa-
unauthorized illuminations. tion regarding these activities.

4/3/14 AIM
7513. Flying in Flat Light and White Out d. Never take off in a white out situation.
Conditions 1. Realize that in flat light conditions it may be
possible to depart but not to return to that site. During
a. Flat Light. Flat light is an optical illusion, also takeoff, make sure you have a reference point. Do not
known as sector or partial white out. It is not as lose sight of it until you have a departure reference
severe as white out but the condition causes pilots point in view. Be prepared to return to the takeoff
to lose their depthoffield and contrast in vision. reference if the departure reference does not come
Flat light conditions are usually accompanied by into view.
overcast skies inhibiting any visual clues. Such 2. Flat light is common to snow skiers. One way
conditions can occur anywhere in the world, to compensate for the lack of visual contrast and
primarily in snow covered areas but can occur in dust, depthoffield loss is by wearing amber tinted lenses
sand, mud flats, or on glassy water. Flat light can (also known as blue blockers). Special note of
completely obscure features of the terrain, creating an caution: Eyewear is not ideal for every pilot. Take
inability to distinguish distances and closure rates. into consideration personal factors age, light
As a result of this reflected light, it can give pilots the sensitivity, and ambient lighting conditions.
illusion that they are ascending or descending when
3. So what should a pilot do when all visual
they may actually be flying level. However, with
references are lost?
good judgment and proper training and planning, it is
possible to safely operate an aircraft in flat light (a) Trust the cockpit instruments.
conditions. (b) Execute a 180 degree turnaround and start
looking for outside references.
b. White Out. As defined in meteorological (c) Above all fly the aircraft.
terms, white out occurs when a person becomes
engulfed in a uniformly white glow. The glow is a e. Landing in Low Light Conditions. When
result of being surrounded by blowing snow, dust, landing in a low light condition use extreme
sand, mud or water. There are no shadows, no horizon caution. Look for intermediate reference points, in
or clouds and all depthoffield and orientation are addition to checkpoints along each leg of the route for
lost. A white out situation is severe in that there are course confirmation and timing. The lower the
no visual references. Flying is not recommended in ambient light becomes, the more reference points a
any white out situation. Flat light conditions can lead pilot should use.
to a white out environment quite rapidly, and both f. Airport Landings.
atmospheric conditions are insidious; they sneak up 1. Look for features around the airport or
on you as your visual references slowly begin to approach path that can be used in determining depth
disappear. White out has been the cause of several perception. Buildings, towers, vehicles or other
aviation accidents. aircraft serve well for this measurement. Use
something that will provide you with a sense of height
c. Self Induced White Out. This effect typically above the ground, in addition to orienting you to the
occurs when a helicopter takes off or lands on a runway.
snowcovered area. The rotor down wash picks up 2. Be cautious of snowdrifts and snow banks
particles and recirculates them through the rotor anything that can distinguish the edge of the runway.
down wash. The effect can vary in intensity Look for subtle changes in snow texture or shading to
depending upon the amount of light on the surface. identify ridges or changes in snow depth.
This can happen on the sunniest, brightest day with
good contrast everywhere. However, when it g. OffAirport Landings.
happens, there can be a complete loss of visual clues. 1. In the event of an offairport landing, pilots
If the pilot has not prepared for this immediate loss of have used a number of different visual cues to gain
visibility, the results can be disastrous. Good reference. Use whatever you must to create the
planning does not prevent one from encountering flat contrast you need. Natural references seem to work
light or white out conditions. best (trees, rocks, snow ribs, etc.)

AIM 4/3/14
(a) Over flight. colliding with someone traveling in the same

direction as you, than someone flying in the opposite
(b) Use of markers. direction.
(c) Weighted flags. j. Ceilings. Low ceilings have caught many pilots
(d) Smoke bombs. off guard. Clouds do not always form parallel to the
surface, or at the same altitude. Pilots may try to
(e) Any colored rags. compensate for this by flying with a slight bank and
(f) Dye markers. thus creating a descending turn.
k. Glaciers. Be conscious of your altitude when
(g) Koolaid.
flying over glaciers. The glaciers may be rising faster
(h) Trees or tree branches. than you are climbing.
2. It is difficult to determine the depth of snow
in areas that are level. Dropping items from the 7514. Operations in Ground Icing
aircraft to use as reference points should be used as a Conditions
visual aid only and not as a primary landing reference. a. The presence of aircraft airframe icing during
Unless your marker is biodegradable, be sure to takeoff, typically caused by improper or no deicing of
retrieve it after landing. Never put yourself in a the aircraft being accomplished prior to flight has
position where no visual references exist. contributed to many recent accidents in turbine
aircraft. The General Aviation Joint Steering
3. Abort landing if blowing snow obscures your
Committee (GAJSC) is the primary vehicle for
reference. Make your decisions early. Dont assume
governmentindustry cooperation, communication,
you can pick up a lost reference point when you get
and coordination on GA accident mitigation. The
closer.
Turbine Aircraft Operations Subgroup (TAOS)
4. Exercise extreme caution when flying from works to mitigate accidents in turbine accident
sunlight into shade. Physical awareness may tell you aviation. While there is sufficient information and
that you are flying straight but you may actually be in guidance currently available regarding the effects of
a spiral dive with centrifugal force pressing against icing on aircraft and methods for deicing, the TAOS
you. Having no visual references enhances this has developed a list of recommended actions to
illusion. Just because you have a good visual further assist pilots and operators in this area.
reference does not mean that its safe to continue.
While the efforts of the TAOS specifically focus on
There may be snowcovered terrain not visible in the
turbine aircraft, it is recognized that their recommen-
direction that you are traveling. Getting caught in a no
dations are applicable to and can be adapted for the
visual reference situation can be fatal.
pilot of a small, piston powered aircraft too.
h. Flying Around a Lake. b. The following recommendations are offered:
1. When flying along lakeshores, use them as a 1. Ensure that your aircrafts liftgenerating
reference point. Even if you can see the other side, surfaces are COMPLETELY free of contamination
realize that your depth perception may be poor. It is before flight through a tactile (hands on) check of the
easy to fly into the surface. If you must cross the lake, critical surfaces when feasible. Even when otherwise
check the altimeter frequently and maintain a safe permitted, operators should avoid smooth or polished
altitude while you still have a good reference. Dont frost on liftgenerating surfaces as an acceptable
descend below that altitude. preflight condition.
2. The same rules apply to seemingly flat areas 2. Review and refresh your cold weather
of snow. If you dont have good references, avoid standard operating procedures.
going there.
3. Review and be familiar with the Airplane
i. Other Traffic. Be on the look out for other Flight Manual (AFM) limitations and procedures
traffic in the area. Other aircraft may be using your necessary to deal with icing conditions prior to flight,
same reference point. Chances are greater of as well as in flight.

7/24/14
4/3/14 AIM
4. Protect your aircraft while on the ground, if bulletins:

possible, from sleet and freezing rain by taking http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/examiners_inspe
advantage of aircraft hangars. ctors/8400/fsat
5. Take full advantage of the opportunities
available at airports for deicing. Do not refuse deicing 7515. Avoid Flight in the Vicinity of
services simply because of cost. Exhaust Plumes (Smoke Stacks and
Cooling Towers)
6. Always consider canceling or delaying a
flight if weather conditions do not support a safe a. Flight Hazards Exist Around Exhaust
operation. Plumes. Exhaust plumes are defined as visible or
invisible emissions from power plants, industrial
c. If you havent already developed a set of production facilities, or other industrial systems that
Standard Operating Procedures for cold weather release large amounts of vertically directed unstable
operations, they should include: gases (effluent). High temperature exhaust plumes
1. Procedures based on information that is can cause significant air disturbances such as
applicable to the aircraft operated, such as AFM turbulence and vertical shear. Other identified
limitations and procedures; potential hazards include, but are not necessarily
limited to: reduced visibility, oxygen depletion,
2. Concise and easy to understand guidance that engine particulate contamination, exposure to
outlines best operational practices; gaseous oxides, and/or icing. Results of encountering
3. A systematic procedure for recognizing, a plume may include airframe damage, aircraft upset,
evaluating and addressing the associated icing risk, and/or engine damage/failure. These hazards are
and offer clear guidance to mitigate this risk; most critical during low altitude flight in calm and
cold air, especially in and around approach and
4. An aid (such as a checklist or reference cards) departure corridors or airport traffic areas.
that is readily available during normal daytoday
aircraft operations. Whether plumes are visible or invisible, the total
d. There are several sources for guidance relating extent of their turbulent affect is difficult to predict.
to airframe icing, including: Some studies do predict that the significant turbulent
effects of an exhaust plume can extend to heights of
1. http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/index.html over 1,000 feet above the height of the top of the stack
2. http://www.ibac.org/isbao/isbao.htm or cooling tower. Any effects will be more
pronounced in calm stable air where the plume is very
3. http://www.natasafety1st.org/bus_deice.htm hot and the surrounding area is still and cold.
4. Advisory Circular (AC) 9174, Pilot Guide, Fortunately, studies also predict that any amount of
Flight in Icing Conditions. crosswind will help to dissipate the effects. However,
the size of the tower or stack is not a good indicator
5. AC 13517, Pilot Guide Small Aircraft
of the predicted effect the plume may produce. The
Ground Deicing.
major effects are related to the heat or size of the
6. AC 1359, FAR Part 135 Icing Limitations. plume effluent, the ambient air temperature, and the
wind speed affecting the plume. Smaller aircraft can
7. AC 12060, Ground Deicing and Antiicing
expect to feel an effect at a higher altitude than
Program.
heavier aircraft.
8. AC 13516, Ground Deicing and Antiicing
b. When able, a pilot should steer clear of
Training and Checking.
exhaust plumes by flying on the upwind side of
The FAA Approved Deicing Program Updates is smokestacks or cooling towers. When a plume is
published annually as a Flight Standards Information visible via smoke or a condensation cloud, remain
Bulletin for Air Transportation and contains detailed clear and realize a plume may have both visible and
information on deicing and antiicing procedures and invisible characteristics. Exhaust stacks without
holdover times. It may be accessed at the following visible plumes may still be in full operation, and
web site by selecting the current years information airspace in the vicinity should be treated with caution.

7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
7/24/14
4/3/14
As with mountain wave turbulence or clear air The best available information on this phenomenon
turbulence, an invisible plume may be encountered must come from pilots via the PIREP reporting
unexpectedly. Cooling towers, power plant stacks, procedures. All pilots encountering hazardous
exhaust fans, and other similar structures are depicted plume conditions are urgently requested to report
in FIG 752. time, location, and intensity (light, moderate, severe,
Pilots are encouraged to exercise caution when flying or extreme) of the element to the FAA facility with
in the vicinity of exhaust plumes. Pilots are also which they are maintaining radio contact. If time and
encouraged to reference the Airport/Facility Direct- conditions permit, elements should be reported
ory where amplifying notes may caution pilots and according to the standards for other PIREPs and
identify the location of structure(s) emitting exhaust position reports (see GEN 3.5, PIREPS Relating to
plumes. Turbulence).
FIG 752
Plumes

4/3/14 AIM
Section 6. Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports
761. Aviation Safety Reporting Program described in AC 0046, Aviation Safety Reporting
Program.
a. The FAA has established a voluntary Aviation
Safety Reporting Program designed to stimulate the
762. Aircraft Accident and Incident
free and unrestricted flow of information concerning
Reporting
deficiencies and discrepancies in the aviation system.
This is a positive program intended to ensure the a. Occurrences Requiring Notification. The
safest possible system by identifying and correcting operator of an aircraft must immediately, and by the
unsafe conditions before they lead to accidents. The most expeditious means available, notify the nearest
primary objective of the program is to obtain National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Field
information to evaluate and enhance the safety and Office when:
efficiency of the present system.
1. An aircraft accident or any of the following
b. This cooperative safety reporting program listed incidents occur:
invites pilots, controllers, flight attendants, mainte- (a) Flight control system malfunction or
nance personnel and other users of the airspace failure.
system, or any other person, to file written reports of
actual or potential discrepancies and deficiencies (b) Inability of any required flight crew
involving the safety of aviation operations. The member to perform their normal flight duties as a
operations covered by the program include departure, result of injury or illness.
en route, approach, and landing operations and (c) Failure of structural components of a
procedures, air traffic control procedures and turbine engine excluding compressor and turbine
equipment, crew and air traffic control communica- blades and vanes.
tions, aircraft cabin operations, aircraft movement on
the airport, near midair collisions, aircraft mainte- (d) Inflight fire.
nance and record keeping and airport conditions or (e) Aircraft collide in flight.
services.
(f) Damage to property, other than the
c. The report should give the date, time, location, aircraft, estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair
persons and aircraft involved (if applicable), nature (including materials and labor) or fair market value in
of the event, and all pertinent details. the event of total loss, whichever is less.
d. To ensure receipt of this information, the (g) For large multi-engine aircraft (more than
program provides for the waiver of certain 12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff
disciplinary actions against persons, including pilots weight):
and air traffic controllers, who file timely written (1) Inflight failure of electrical systems
reports concerning potentially unsafe incidents. To be which requires the sustained use of an emergency bus
considered timely, reports must be delivered or powered by a back-up source such as a battery,
postmarked within 10 days of the incident unless that auxiliary power unit, or air-driven generator to retain
period is extended for good cause. Reports should be flight control or essential instruments;
submitted on NASA ARC Forms 277, which are
available free of charge, postage prepaid, at FAA (2) Inflight failure of hydraulic systems
Flight Standards District Offices and Flight Service that results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining
Stations, and from NASA, ASRS, PO Box 189, hydraulic or mechanical system for movement of
Moffet Field, CA 94035. flight control surfaces;
(3) Sustained loss of the power or thrust
e. The FAA utilizes the National Aeronautics and
produced by two or more engines; and
Space Administration (NASA) to act as an
independent third party to receive and analyze reports (4) An evacuation of aircraft in which an
submitted under the program. This program is emergency egress system is utilized.
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2. An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have (c) A report on an incident for which
been involved in an accident. notification is required as described in subpara-
graph a(1) must be filed only as requested by an
b. Manner of Notification. authorized representative of the NTSB.
1. The most expeditious method of notification 2. Each crewmember, if physically able at the
to the NTSB by the operator will be determined by the time the report is submitted, must attach a statement
circumstances existing at that time. The NTSB has setting forth the facts, conditions, and circumstances
advised that any of the following would be relating to the accident or incident as they appeared.
considered examples of the type of notification that If the crewmember is incapacitated, a statement must
would be acceptable: be submitted as soon as physically possible.
(a) Direct telephone notification. e. Where to File the Reports.
(b) Telegraphic notification. 1. The operator of an aircraft must file with the
NTSB Field Office nearest the accident or incident
(c) Notification to the FAA who would in turn any report required by this section.
notify the NTSB by direct communication; i.e., dis-
patch or telephone. 2. The NTSB Field Offices are listed under U.S.
Government in the telephone directories in the
c. Items to be Included in Notification. The following cities: Anchorage, AK; Atlanta, GA;
notification required above must contain the Chicago, IL; Denver, CO; Fort Worth, TX;
following information, if available: Los Angeles, CA; Miami, FL; Parsippany, NJ;
1. Type, nationality, and registration marks of Seattle, WA.
the aircraft.
763. Near Midair Collision Reporting
2. Name of owner and operator of the aircraft.
a. Purpose and Data Uses. The primary purpose
3. Name of the pilot-in-command. of the Near Midair Collision (NMAC) Reporting
Program is to provide information for use in
4. Date and time of the accident, or incident. enhancing the safety and efficiency of the National
5. Last point of departure, and point of intended Airspace System. Data obtained from NMAC reports
landing of the aircraft. are used by the FAA to improve the quality of FAA
services to users and to develop programs, policies,
6. Position of the aircraft with reference to some and procedures aimed at the reduction of NMAC
easily defined geographical point. occurrences. All NMAC reports are thoroughly
7. Number of persons aboard, number killed, investigated by Flight Standards Facilities in
and number seriously injured. coordination with Air Traffic Facilities. Data from
these investigations are transmitted to FAA Head-
8. Nature of the accident, or incident, the quarters in Washington, DC, where they are compiled
weather, and the extent of damage to the aircraft so far and analyzed, and where safety programs and
as is known; and recommendations are developed.
9. A description of any explosives, radioactive b. Definition. A near midair collision is defined
materials, or other dangerous articles carried. as an incident associated with the operation of an
aircraft in which a possibility of collision occurs as a
d. Followup Reports. result of proximity of less than 500 feet to another
1. The operator must file a report on NTSB aircraft, or a report is received from a pilot or a flight
Form 6120.1 or 6120.2, available from NTSB Field crew member stating that a collision hazard existed
Offices or from the NTSB, Washington, DC, 20594: between two or more aircraft.
(a) Within 10 days after an accident; c. Reporting Responsibility. It is the responsi-

bility of the pilot and/or flight crew to determine
(b) When, after 7 days, an overdue aircraft is whether a near midair collision did actually occur
still missing; and, if so, to initiate a NMAC report. Be specific, as
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ATC will not interpret a casual remark to mean that involved aircraft was provided ATC service. Both
a NMAC is being reported. The pilot should state I flight and ATC procedures will be evaluated. When
wish to report a near midair collision. the investigation reveals a violation of an FAA
regulation, enforcement action will be pursued.
d. Where to File Reports. Pilots and/or flight
crew members involved in NMAC occurrences are
urged to report each incident immediately: 764. Unidentified Flying Object (UFO)
Reports
1. By radio or telephone to the nearest FAA ATC
facility or FSS. a. Persons wanting to report UFO/unexplained
phenomena activity should contact a UFO/unex-
2. In writing, in lieu of the above, to the nearest plained phenomena reporting data collection center,
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). such as the National UFO Reporting Center, etc.
e. Items to be Reported. b. If concern is expressed that life or property
1. Date and time (UTC) of incident. might be endangered, report the activity to the local
law enforcement department.
2. Location of incident and altitude.
3. Identification and type of reporting aircraft, 765. Safety Alerts For Operators (SAFO)
aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. and Information For Operators (InFO)
4. Identification and type of other aircraft, a. SAFOs contain important safety information
aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. that is often time-critical. A SAFO may contain
5. Type of flight plans; station altimeter setting information and/or recommended (non-regulatory)
used. action to be taken by the respective operators or
parties identified in the SAFO. The audience for
6. Detailed weather conditions at altitude or SAFOs varies with each subject and may include: Air
flight level. carrier certificate holders, air operator certificate
7. Approximate courses of both aircraft: holders, general aviation operators, directors of
indicate if one or both aircraft were climbing or safety, directors of operations, directors of mainten-
descending. ance, fractional ownership program managers,
training center managers, accountable managers at
8. Reported separation in distance at first
repair stations, and other parties as applicable.
sighting, proximity at closest point horizontally and
vertically, and length of time in sight prior to evasive b. InFOs are similar to SAFOs, but contain
action. valuable information for operators that should help
them meet administrative requirements or certain
9. Degree of evasive action taken, if any (from
regulatory requirements with relatively low urgency
both aircraft, if possible).
or impact in safety.
10. Injuries, if any.
c. The SAFO and InFO system provides a means
f. Investigation. The FSDO in whose area the to rapidly distribute this information to operators and
incident occurred is responsible for the investigation can be found at:
and reporting of NMACs. http://www.faa.gov/other_visit/aviation_industry/
g. Existing radar, communication, and weather airline_operators/airline_safety/safo and
data will be examined in the conduct of the http://www.faa.gov/other_visit/aviation_industry/
investigation. When possible, all cockpit crew airline_operators/airline_safety/info
members will be interviewed regarding factors or search keyword FAA SAFO or FAA INFO. Free
involving the NMAC incident. Air traffic controllers electronic subscription is available on the ALL
will be interviewed in cases where one or more of the SAFOs or ALL InFOs page of the website.
Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports 763

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Chapter 8. Medical Facts for Pilots

Section 1. Fitness for Flight
811. Fitness For Flight b. Illness.

1. Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day
a. Medical Certification. living can seriously degrade performance of many
piloting tasks vital to safe flight. Illness can produce
1. All pilots except those flying gliders and free fever and distracting symptoms that can impair
air balloons must possess valid medical certificates in judgment, memory, alertness, and the ability to make
order to exercise the privileges of their airman calculations. Although symptoms from an illness
certificates. The periodic medical examinations may be under adequate control with a medication, the
required for medical certification are conducted by medication itself may decrease pilot performance.
designated Aviation Medical Examiners, who are
2. The safest rule is not to fly while suffering
physicians with a special interest in aviation safety
from any illness. If this rule is considered too
and training in aviation medicine.
stringent for a particular illness, the pilot should
contact an Aviation Medical Examiner for advice.
2. The standards for medical certification are
contained in 14 CFR Part 67. Pilots who have a c. Medication.
history of certain medical conditions described in 1. Pilot performance can be seriously degraded
these standards are mandatorily disqualified from by both prescribed and over-the-counter medications,
flying. These medical conditions include a as well as by the medical conditions for which they
personality disorder manifested by overt acts, a are taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers,
psychosis, alcoholism, drug dependence, epilepsy, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough-suppres-
an unexplained disturbance of consciousness, sant preparations, have primary effects that may
myocardial infarction, angina pectoris and diabetes impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination,
requiring medication for its control. Other medical vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others,
conditions may be temporarily disqualifying, such as such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle
acute infections, anemia, and peptic ulcer. Pilots who relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion
do not meet medical standards may still be qualified sickness, have side effects that may impair the same
under special issuance provisions or the exemption critical functions. Any medication that depresses the
process. This may require that either additional nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer or
medical information be provided or practical flight antihistamine, can make a pilot much more
tests be conducted. susceptible to hypoxia.
3. Student pilots should visit an Aviation 2. The CFRs prohibit pilots from performing
Medical Examiner as soon as possible in their flight crewmember duties while using any medication that
training in order to avoid unnecessary training affects the faculties in any way contrary to safety. The
expenses should they not meet the medical standards. safest rule is not to fly as a crewmember while taking
For the same reason, the student pilot who plans to any medication, unless approved to do so by the FAA.
enter commercial aviation should apply for the d. Alcohol.
highest class of medical certificate that might be 1. Extensive research has provided a number of
necessary in the pilots career. facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and
flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of
CAUTION
The CFRs prohibit a pilot who possesses a current beer or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills,
medical certificate from performing crewmember duties with the alcohol consumed in these drinks being
while the pilot has a known medical condition or increase detectable in the breath and blood for at least 3 hours.
of a known medical condition that would make the pilot Even after the body completely destroys a moderate
unable to meet the standards for the medical certificate. amount of alcohol, a pilot can still be severely
Fitness for Flight 811

AIM 4/3/14
impaired for many hours by hangover. There is ment and lack of concentration. There are many
simply no way of increasing the destruction of available treatments which can reverse the day time
alcohol or alleviating a hangover. Alcohol also symptoms and reduce the chance of an accident. OSA
renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorienta- can be easily treated. Most treatments are acceptable
tion and hypoxia. for medical certification upon demonstrating effect-
ive treatment. If you have any symptoms described
2. A consistently high alcohol related fatal above, or neck size over 17 inches in men or 16 inches
aircraft accident rate serves to emphasize that alcohol in women, or a body mass index greater than 30 you
and flying are a potentially lethal combination. The should be evaluated for sleep apnea by a sleep
CFRs prohibit pilots from performing crewmember medicine specialist.
duties within 8 hours after drinking any alcoholic (http://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/
beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. bmi/adult_bmi/english_bmi_calculator/bmi_calc
However, due to the slow destruction of alcohol, a ulator.html) With treatment you can avoid or delay
pilot may still be under influence 8 hours after the onset of these chronic illnesses and prolong a
drinking a moderate amount of alcohol. Therefore, an quality life.
excellent rule is to allow at least 12 to 24 hours
between bottle and throttle, depending on the f. Stress.
amount of alcoholic beverage consumed. 1. Stress from the pressures of everyday living
e. Fatigue. can impair pilot performance, often in very subtle
ways. Difficulties, particularly at work, can occupy
1. Fatigue continues to be one of the most thought processes enough to markedly decrease
treacherous hazards to flight safety, as it may not be alertness. Distraction can so interfere with judgment
apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into
Fatigue is best described as either acute (short-term) deteriorating weather conditions to keep on schedule.
or chronic (long-term). Stress and fatigue (see above) can be an extremely
hazardous combination.
2. A normal occurrence of everyday living,
acute fatigue is the tiredness felt after long periods of 2. Most pilots do not leave stress on the
physical and mental strain, including strenuous ground. Therefore, when more than usual difficul-
muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, ties are being experienced, a pilot should consider
strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of delaying flight until these difficulties are satisfac-
sleep. Consequently, coordination and alertness, so torily resolved.
vital to safe pilot performance, can be reduced. Acute g. Emotion.
fatigue is prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as
well as by regular exercise and proper nutrition. Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a
serious argument, death of a family member,
3. Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not separation or divorce, loss of job, and financial
enough time for full recovery between episodes of catastrophe, can render a pilot unable to fly an aircraft
acute fatigue. Performance continues to fall off, and safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and
judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness
risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue but also may lead to taking risks that border on
requires a prolonged period of rest. self-destruction. Any pilot who experiences an
emotionally upsetting event should not fly until
4. OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA (OSA).
satisfactorily recovered from it.
OSA is now recognized as an important preventable
factor identified in transportation accidents. OSA h. Personal Checklist. Aircraft accident statis-
interrupts the normal restorative sleep necessary for tics show that pilots should be conducting preflight
normal functioning and is associated with chronic checklists on themselves as well as their aircraft for
illnesses such as hypertension, heart attack, stroke, pilot impairment contributes to many more accidents
obesity, and diabetes. Symptoms include snoring, than failures of aircraft systems. A personal checklist,
excessive daytime sleepiness, intermittent prolonged which includes all of the categories of pilot
breathing pauses while sleeping, memory impair- impairment as discussed in this section, that can be
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4/3/14 AIM
easily committed to memory is being distributed by 5 to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon
the FAA in the form of a wallet-sized card. thereafter by unconsciousness.
i. PERSONAL CHECKLIST. Im physically 4. The altitude at which significant effects of
and mentally safe to fly; not being impaired by: hypoxia occur can be lowered by a number of factors.
Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from
exhaust fumes, lowered hemoglobin (anemia), and
Illness certain medications can reduce the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood to the degree that the amount of
Medication oxygen provided to body tissues will already be
equivalent to the oxygen provided to the tissues when
exposed to a cabin pressure altitude of several
Stress thousand feet. Small amounts of alcohol and low
doses of certain drugs, such as antihistamines,
Alcohol tranquilizers, sedatives and analgesics can, through
their depressant action, render the brain much more
Fatigue susceptible to hypoxia. Extreme heat and cold, fever,
and anxiety increase the bodys demand for oxygen,
Emotion and hence its susceptibility to hypoxia.
5. The effects of hypoxia are usually quite
difficult to recognize, especially when they occur
812. Effects of Altitude gradually. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in
an individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be
a. Hypoxia. greatly improved by experiencing and witnessing the
1. Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber
body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and flight. The FAA provides this opportunity through
other organs. Hypoxia from exposure to altitude is aviation physiology training, which is conducted at
due only to the reduced barometric pressures the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many
encountered at altitude, for the concentration of military facilities across the U.S. To attend the
oxygen in the atmosphere remains about 21 percent Physiological Training Program at the Civil
from the ground out to space. Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney Aeronautical
Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone
2. Although a deterioration in night vision (405) 9546212, or by writing Aerospace Medical
occurs at a cabin pressure altitude as low as Education Division, AAM400, CAMI, Mike
5,000 feet, other significant effects of altitude Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O. Box 25082,
hypoxia usually do not occur in the normal healthy Oklahoma City, OK 73125.
pilot below 12,000 feet. From 12,000 to 15,000 feet NOTE
of altitude, judgment, memory, alertness, coordina- To attend the physiological training program at one of the
tion and ability to make calculations are impaired, military installations having the training capability, an
and headache, drowsiness, dizziness and either a application form and a fee must be submitted. Full
sense of well-being (euphoria) or belligerence occur. particulars about location, fees, scheduling procedures,
The effects appear following increasingly shorter course content, individual requirements, etc., are con-
periods of exposure to increasing altitude. In fact, tained in the Physiological Training Application, Form
Number AC 31507, which is obtained by contacting the
pilot performance can seriously deteriorate within
accident prevention specialist or the office forms manager
15 minutes at 15,000 feet. in the nearest FAA office.
3. At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet, 6. Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that
the periphery of the visual field grays out to a point reduce tolerance to altitude, by enriching the inspired
where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system,
blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin
develops. The ability to take corrective and protective pressure altitude. For optimum protection, pilots are
action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above

AIM 4/3/14
10,000 feet during the day, and above 5,000 feet at 1. During ascent and descent, air pressure in the
night. The CFRs require that at the minimum, flight sinuses equalizes with the aircraft cabin pressure
crew be provided with and use supplemental oxygen through small openings that connect the sinuses to the
after 30 minutes of exposure to cabin pressure nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection,
altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000 feet and such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition
immediately on exposure to cabin pressure altitudes can produce enough congestion around an opening to
above 14,000 feet. Every occupant of the aircraft slow equalization, and as the difference in pressure
must be provided with supplemental oxygen at cabin between the sinus and cabin mounts, eventually plug
pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet. the opening. This sinus block occurs most
frequently during descent.
b. Ear Block.
2. A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses,
1. As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary
during ascent, the expanding air in the middle ear sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually
pushes the eustachian tube open, and by escaping produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A
down it to the nasal passages, equalizes in pressure maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth
with the cabin pressure. But during descent, the pilot ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal
must periodically open the eustachian tube to passages.
equalize pressure. This can be accomplished by
swallowing, yawning, tensing muscles in the throat, 3. A sinus block is prevented by not flying with
or if these do not work, by a combination of closing an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic
the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and attempting condition. Adequate protection is usually not
to blow through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver). provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce
congestion around the sinus openings. Oral decon-
2. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as gestants have side effects that can impair pilot
a cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can performance.
produce enough congestion around the eustachian
4. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after
tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the
landing, a physician should be consulted.
difference in pressure between the middle ear and
aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the d. Decompression Sickness After Scuba
eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult Diving.
if not impossible. The problem is commonly referred
to as an ear block. 1. A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after
scuba diving should allow the body sufficient time to
3. An ear block produces severe ear pain and rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving.
loss of hearing that can last from several hours to If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can
several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in occur during exposure to low altitude and create a
flight or after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the serious inflight emergency.
middle ear and become infected.
2. The recommended waiting time before going
4. An ear block is prevented by not flying with to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least
an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic 12 hours after diving which has not required
condition. Adequate protection is usually not controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving),
provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce and at least 24 hours after diving which has required
congestion around the eustachian tubes. Oral controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The
decongestants have side effects that can significantly waiting time before going to flight altitudes above
impair pilot performance. 8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any
SCUBA dive. These recommended altitudes are
5. If an ear block does not clear shortly after actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL)
landing, a physician should be consulted. and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into
consideration the risk of decompression of the
c. Sinus Block. aircraft during flight.

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813. Hyperventilation in Flight severe or continue after landing, medical treatment

should be sought.
a. Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in
the volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs, can 815. Illusions in Flight
occur subconsciously when a stressful situation is
encountered in flight. As hyperventilation blows a. Introduction. Many different illusions can be
off excessive carbon dioxide from the body, a pilot experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial
can experience symptoms of lightheadedness, disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors.
suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, Illusions rank among the most common factors cited
and coolness and react to them with even greater as contributing to fatal aircraft accidents.
hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result b. Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation.
from incoordination, disorientation, and painful
1. Various complex motions and forces and
muscle spasms. Finally, unconsciousness can occur.
certain visual scenes encountered in flight can create
b. The symptoms of hyperventilation subside illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorienta-
within a few minutes after the rate and depth of tion from these illusions can be prevented only by
breathing are consciously brought back under visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground
control. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the body or to flight instruments.
can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of 2. The leans. An abrupt correction of a banked
a paper bag held over the nose and mouth. attitude, which has been entered too slowly to
c. Early symptoms of hyperventilation and stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear,
hypoxia are similar. Moreover, hyperventilation and can create the illusion of banking in the opposite
hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft
pilot is using an oxygen system when symptoms are back into its original dangerous attitude, or if level
experienced, the oxygen regulator should immediate- flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the
ly be set to deliver 100 percent oxygen, and then the perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides.
system checked to assure that it has been functioning (a) Coriolis illusion. An abrupt head move-
effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of ment in a prolonged constant-rate turn that has ceased
breathing. stimulating the motion sensing system can create the
illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely
814. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver the
Flight aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop
rotation. This most overwhelming of all illusions in
a. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and flight may be prevented by not making sudden,
tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. When extreme head movements, particularly while making
breathed even in minute quantities over a period of prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR conditions.
time, it can significantly reduce the ability of the (b) Graveyard spin. A proper recovery
blood to carry oxygen. Consequently, effects of from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion
hypoxia occur. sensing system can create the illusion of spinning in
b. Most heaters in light aircraft work by air the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will
flowing over the manifold. Use of these heaters while return the aircraft to its original spin.
exhaust fumes are escaping through manifold cracks (c) Graveyard spiral. An observed loss of
and seals is responsible every year for several altitude during a coordinated constant-rate turn that
nonfatal and fatal aircraft accidents from carbon has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can
monoxide poisoning. create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings
c. A pilot who detects the odor of exhaust or level. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the
experiences symptoms of headache, drowsiness, or controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss
dizziness while using the heater should suspect of altitude.
carbon monoxide poisoning, and immediately shut (d) Somatogravic illusion. A rapid accel-
off the heater and open air vents. If symptoms are eration during takeoff can create the illusion of being

AIM 4/3/14
in a nose up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push risk of leveling out high and landing hard or
the aircraft into a nose low, or dive attitude. A rapid overshooting the runway.
deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttles can (c) Runway and terrain slopes illusion. An
have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can
pulling the aircraft into a nose up, or stall attitude. create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher
(e) Inversion illusion. An abrupt change altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not
from climb to straight and level flight can create the recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A
illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain,
will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude, or both, can have the opposite effect.
possibly intensifying this illusion. (d) Featureless terrain illusion. An
(f) Elevator illusion. An abrupt upward absence of ground features, as when landing over
vertical acceleration, usually by an updraft, can create water, darkened areas, and terrain made featureless
the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot by snow, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at
will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude. An a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does
abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually by a not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach.
downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the (e) Atmospheric illusions. Rain on the
disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose up windscreen can create the illusion of greater height,
attitude. and atmospheric haze the illusion of being at a greater
distance from the runway. The pilot who does not
(g) False horizon. Sloping cloud forma-
recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach.
tions, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with
Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching
ground lights and stars, and certain geometric
up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will
patterns of ground light can create illusions of not
steepen the approach, often quite abruptly.
being aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The
disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous (f) Ground lighting illusions. Lights along
attitude. a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on
moving trains can be mistaken for runway and
(h) Autokinesis. In the dark, a static light approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting
will appear to move about when stared at for many systems, especially where few lights illuminate the
seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less
aircraft in attempting to align it with the light. distance to the runway. The pilot who does not
3. Illusions Leading to Landing Errors. recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach.
Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few
(a) Various surface features and atmospheric lights to provide height cues may make a lower than
conditions encountered in landing can create illusions normal approach.
of incorrect height above and distance from the
runway threshold. Landing errors from these 816. Vision in Flight
illusions can be prevented by anticipating them
during approaches, aerial visual inspection of a. Introduction. Of the body senses, vision is the
unfamiliar airports before landing, using electronic most important for safe flight. Major factors that
glide slope or VASI systems when available, and determine how effectively vision can be used are the
maintaining optimum proficiency in landing level of illumination and the technique of scanning
procedures. the sky for other aircraft.
(b) Runway width illusion. A narrower- b. Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination.
than-usual runway can create the illusion that the 1. Under conditions of dim illumination, small
aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The print and colors on aeronautical charts and aircraft
pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a instruments become unreadable unless adequate
lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along cockpit lighting is available. Moreover, another
the approach path or landing short. A wider-than- aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless its
usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the navigation lights are on.

4/3/14 AIM
2. In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to 2. While the eyes can observe an approximate
light, a process called dark adaptation. Although 200 degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a
exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of
required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused
achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within messages to the brain. All other visual information
20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red that is not processed directly through the fovea will be
light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronauti- of less detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles
cal charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing which appears in sharp focus within the foveal center
the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is of vision would have to be as close as 7/10 of a mile
advisable only where optimum outside night vision in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal
capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit vision. Because the eyes can focus only on this
lighting must be available when needed for map and narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accom-
instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions. plished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye
Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin movements that bring successive areas of the sky into
pressure altitudes above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide the central visual field. Each movement should not
inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes, exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed
deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although
exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem
adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a
bright light, a pilot should close one eye when using scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then
a light to preserve some degree of night vision. adhere to it to assure optimum scanning.
3. Studies show that the time a pilot spends on
3. Excessive illumination, especially from light visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no more
reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, that 1/4 to 1/3 of the scan time outside, or no more than
clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce 4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every
glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the 16 seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained
eyes, and even temporary blindness. Sunglasses for to process sight information that is presented from
protection from glare should absorb at least left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning
85 percent of visible light (15 percent transmittance) over the left shoulder and proceed across the
and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with windshield to the right.
negligible image distortion from refractive and
prismatic errors. 4. Pilots should realize that their eyes may
require several seconds to refocus when switching
c. Scanning for Other Aircraft. views between items in the cockpit and distant
objects. The eyes will also tire more quickly when
1. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key forced to adjust to distances immediately after
factor in collision avoidance. It should be used close-up focus, as required for scanning the
continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat instrument panel. Eye fatigue can be reduced by
passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from looking from the instrument panel to the left wing
the cockpit. Although pilots must meet specific visual past the wing tip to the center of the first scan quadrant
acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye chart when beginning the exterior scan. After having
does not ensure that one will be able to efficiently spot scanned from left to right, allow the eyes to return to
other aircraft. Pilots must develop an effective the cabin along the right wing from its tip inward.
scanning technique which maximizes ones visual Once back inside, one should automatically com-
capabilities. The probability of spotting a potential mence the panel scan.
collision threat obviously increases with the time 5. Effective scanning also helps avoid empty-
spent looking outside the cockpit. Thus, one must use field myopia. This condition usually occurs when
timesharing techniques to efficiently scan the flying above the clouds or in a haze layer that
surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments provides nothing specific to focus on outside the
as well. aircraft. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a

AIM 4/3/14
comfortable focal distance which may range from pilot should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner
10 to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means looking prior to aerobatic training and be aware that poor
without seeing, which is dangerous. physical condition can reduce tolerance to accelera-
tive forces.
817. Aerobatic Flight f. The above information provides pilots with a
brief summary of the physiologic effects of G forces.
a. Pilots planning to engage in aerobatics should
It does not address methods of counteracting these
be aware of the physiological stresses associated with
effects. There are numerous references on the subject
accelerative forces during aerobatic maneuvers.
of G forces during aerobatics available to pilots.
Many prospective aerobatic trainees enthusiastically
Among these are G Effects on the Pilot During
enter aerobatic instruction but find their first
Aerobatics, FAAAM7228, and G Incapacita-
experiences with G forces to be unanticipated and
tion in Aerobatic Pilots: A Flight Hazard
very uncomfortable. To minimize or avoid potential
FAAAM8213. These are available from the
adverse effects, the aerobatic instructor and trainee
National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
must have a basic understanding of the physiology of
Virginia 22161.
G force adaptation.
REFERENCE
b. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over FAA AC 9161, A Hazard in Aerobatics: Effects of Gforces on Pilots.
maneuver result in the blood and body organs being
displaced toward the head. Depending on forces 818. Judgment Aspects of Collision
involved and individual tolerance, a pilot may Avoidance
experience discomfort, headache, red-out, and a. Introduction. The most important aspects of
even unconsciousness. vision and the techniques to scan for other aircraft are
c. Forces experienced with a rapid pull-up described in paragraph 816, Vision in Flight. Pilots
maneuver result in the blood and body organ should also be familiar with the following informa-
displacement toward the lower part of the body away tion to reduce the possibility of mid-air collisions.
from the head. Since the brain requires continuous b. Determining Relative Altitude. Use the
blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply, horizon as a reference point. If the other aircraft is
there is a physiologic limit to the time the pilot can above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight
tolerate higher forces before losing consciousness. path. If the aircraft appears to be below the horizon,
As the blood circulation to the brain decreases as a it is probably flying at a lower altitude.
result of forces involved, a pilot will experience
narrowing of visual fields, gray-out, black- c. Taking Appropriate Action. Pilots should be
out, and unconsciousness. Even a brief loss of familiar with rules on right-of-way, so if an aircraft is
consciousness in a maneuver can lead to improper on an obvious collision course, one can take
control movement causing structural failure of the immediate evasive action, preferably in compliance
aircraft or collision with another object or terrain. with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations.
d. In steep turns, the centrifugal forces tend to d. Consider Multiple Threats. The decision to
push the pilot into the seat, thereby resulting in blood climb, descend, or turn is a matter of personal
and body organ displacement toward the lower part of judgment, but one should anticipate that the other
the body as in the case of rapid pull-up maneuvers and pilot may also be making a quick maneuver. Watch
with the same physiologic effects and symptoms. the other aircraft during the maneuver and begin your
scanning again immediately since there may be other
e. Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to aircraft in the area.
imposed strains and stress, and with practice, any
e. Collision Course Targets. Any aircraft that
maneuver will have decreasing effect. Tolerance to
appears to have no relative motion and stays in one
G forces is dependent on human physiology and the
scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course.
individual pilot. These factors include the skeletal
Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion,
anatomy, the cardiovascular architecture, the nervous
but increases in size, take evasive action.
system, the quality of the blood, the general physical
state, and experience and recency of exposure. The f. Recognize High Hazard Areas.

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1. Airways, especially near VORs, and Class B, j. Visual Obstructions in the Cockpit.
Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas are places
1. Pilots need to move their heads to see around
where aircraft tend to cluster.
blind spots caused by fixed aircraft structures, such as
2. Remember, most collisions occur during days door posts, wings, etc. It will be necessary at times to
when the weather is good. Being in a radar maneuver the aircraft; e.g., lift a wing, to facilitate
environment still requires vigilance to avoid seeing.
collisions.
2. Pilots must ensure curtains and other cockpit
g. Cockpit Management. Studying maps, objects; e.g., maps on glare shield, are removed and
checklists, and manuals before flight, with other stowed during flight.
proper preflight planning; e.g., noting necessary
k. Lights On.
radio frequencies and organizing cockpit materials,
can reduce the amount of time required to look at 1. Day or night, use of exterior lights can greatly
these items during flight, permitting more scan time. increase the conspicuity of any aircraft.
h. Windshield Conditions. Dirty or bug- 2. Keep interior lights low at night.
smeared windshields can greatly reduce the ability of
l. ATC Support. ATC facilities often provide
pilots to see other aircraft. Keep a clean windshield.
radar traffic advisories on a workload-permitting
i. Visibility Conditions. Smoke, haze, dust, rain, basis. Flight through Class C and Class D airspace
and flying towards the sun can also greatly reduce the requires communication with ATC. Use this support
ability to detect targets. whenever possible or when required.

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Chapter 9. Aeronautical Charts and

Related Publications
Section 1. Types of Charts Available
911. General VFR. Cultural features include cities and towns,

roads, railroads, and other distinct landmarks. The
Civil aeronautical charts for the U.S. and its aeronautical information includes visual and radio
territories, and possessions are produced by Aero- aids to navigation, airports, controlled airspace,
nautical Navigation Products (AeroNav), specialuse airspace, obstructions, and related data.
http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/ Scale 1 inch = 6.86nm/1:500,000. 60 x 20 inches
aeronav which is part of FAAs Air Traffic folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised biannually, except
Organization, Mission Support Services. most Alaskan charts are revised annually.
(See FIG 911 and FIG 9113.)
912. Obtaining Aeronautical Charts
2. VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC). TACs
Public sales of charts and publications are available depict the airspace designated as Class B airspace.
through a network of FAA chart agents primarily While similar to sectional charts, TACs have more
located at or near major civil airports. A listing of detail because the scale is larger. The TAC should be
products, dates of latest editions and agents is used by pilots intending to operate to or from airfields
available on the AeroNav website at: within or near Class B or Class C airspace. Areas with
http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/ TAC coverage are indicated by a on the Sectional
aeronav. Chart indexes. Scale 1 inch = 3.43nm/1:250,000.
Charts are revised biannually, except Puerto
913. Selected Charts and Products RicoVirgin Islands which is revised annually.
Available (See FIG 911 and FIG 9113.)
VFR Navigation Charts 3. World Aeronautical Chart (WAC). WACs
IFR Navigation Charts cover land areas for navigation by moderate speed
Planning Charts aircraft operating at high altitudes. Included are city
Supplementary Charts and Publications tints, principal roads, railroads, distinctive land-
Digital Products marks, drainage patterns, and relief. Aeronautical
information includes visual and radio aids to
914. General Description of Each Chart navigation, airports, airways, specialuse airspace,
Series and obstructions. Because of a smaller scale, WACs
do not show as much detail as sectional or TACs, and;
a. VFR Navigation Charts.
therefore, are not recommended for exclusive use by
1. Sectional Aeronautical Charts. Sectional pilots of low speed, low altitude aircraft. Scale
Charts are designed for visual navigation of slow to 1 inch = 13.7nm/1:1,000,000. 60 x 20 inches folded
medium speed aircraft. The topographic information to 5 x 10 inches. WACs are revised annually, except
consists of contour lines, shaded relief, drainage for a few in Alaska, Mexico, and the Caribbean,
patterns, and an extensive selection of visual which are revised biennially.
checkpoints and landmarks used for flight under (See FIG 9114 and FIG 9115.)
Types of Charts Available 911

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FIG 911
Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for the Conterminous U.S.,
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands
4. U.S. Gulf Coast VFR Aeronautical Chart. Helicopter charts have a longer life span than other
The Gulf Coast Chart is designed primarily for chart products and may be current for several years.
helicopter operation in the Gulf of Mexico area. Helicopter Route Charts are updated as requested by
Information depicted includes offshore mineral the FAA. Scale 1 inch = 1.71nm/1:125,000. 34 x 30
leasing areas and blocks, oil drilling platforms, and inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. (See FIG 912.)
high density helicopter activity areas. Scale 1 inch =
13.7nm/1:1,000,000. 55 x 27 inches folded to b. IFR Navigation Charts.
5 x 10 inches. Revised annually.
1. IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts
5. Grand Canyon VFR Aeronautical Chart. (Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute low
Covers the Grand Canyon National Park area and is altitude charts provide aeronautical information for
designed to promote aviation safety, flight free zones, navigation under IFR conditions below 18,000 feet
and facilitate VFR navigation in this popular area. MSL. This fourcolor chart series includes airways;
The chart contains aeronautical information for limits of controlled airspace; VHF NAVAIDs with
general aviation VFR pilots on one side and frequency, identification, channel, geographic coor-
commercial VFR air tour operators on the other side. dinates; airports with terminal air/ground
communications; minimum en route and obstruction
6. Helicopter Route Charts. A threecolor clearance altitudes; airway distances; reporting
chart series which shows current aeronautical points; special use airspace; and military training
information useful to helicopter pilots navigating in routes. Scales vary from 1 inch = 5nm to 1 inch =
areas with high concentrations of helicopter activity. 20nm. 50 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Charts
Information depicted includes helicopter routes, four revised every 56 days. Area charts show congested
classes of heliports with associated frequency and terminal areas at a large scale. They are included with
lighting capabilities, NAVAIDs, and obstructions. In subscriptions to any conterminous U.S. Set Low (Full
addition, pictorial symbols, roads, and easily set, East or West sets).
identified geographical features are portrayed. (See FIG 913 and FIG 915.)
912 Types of Charts Available

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FIG 912
Helicopter Route Charts
FIG 913
Enroute Low Altitude Instrument Charts for the Conterminous U.S. (Includes Area Charts)

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FIG 914
Enroute High Altitude Charts for the Conterminous U.S.
2. IFR Enroute High Altitude Charts frequency, identification, channel, geographic coor-
(Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute high dinates; selected airports; reporting points. Scales
altitude charts are designed for navigation at or above vary from 1 inch = 45nm to 1 inch = 18nm. 55 x 20
18,000 feet MSL. This fourcolor chart series inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised every 56 days.
includes the jet route structure; VHF NAVAIDs with (See FIG 914 and FIG 916.)
FIG 915
Alaska Enroute Low Altitude Chart

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FIG 916
Alaskan Enroute High Altitude Chart
3. U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication single airport or more than one airport in a given
(TPP). TPPs are published in 24 looseleaf or geographic area.
perfect bound volumes covering the conterminous
(d) Airport Diagrams. Full page airport
U.S., Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. A Change
diagrams are designed to assist in the movement of
Notice is published at the midpoint between revisions
ground traffic at locations with complex runway/taxi-
in bound volume format and is available on the
way configurations and provide information for
internet for free download at the AeroNav web site.
updating geodetic position navigational systems
(See FIG 9111.) The TPPs include:
aboard aircraft. Airport diagrams are available for
free download at the AeroNav website.
(a) Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP)
Charts. IAP charts portray the aeronautical data that 4. Alaska Terminal Procedures Publication.
is required to execute instrument approaches to This publication contains all terminal flight proce-
airports. Each chart depicts the IAP, all related dures for civil and military aviation in Alaska.
navigation data, communications information, and an Included are IAP charts, DP charts, STAR charts,
airport sketch. Each procedure is designated for use airport diagrams, radar minimums, and supplementa-
with a specific electronic navigational aid, such as ry support data such as IFR alternate minimums,
ILS, VOR, NDB, RNAV, etc. takeoff minimums, rate of descent tables, rate of
climb tables and inoperative components tables.
(b) Instrument Departure Procedure (DP) Volume is 53/8 x 81/4 inch top bound. Publication
Charts. DP charts are designed to expedite revised every 56 days with provisions for a Terminal
clearance delivery and to facilitate transition between Change Notice, as required.
takeoff and en route operations. They furnish pilots
c. Planning Charts.
departure routing clearance information in graphic
and textual form. 1. U.S. IFR/VFR Low Altitude Planning
Chart. This chart is designed for prefight and
(c) Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) en route flight planning for IFR/VFR flights.
Charts. STAR charts are designed to expedite ATC Depiction includes low altitude airways and mileage,
arrival procedures and to facilitate transition between NAVAIDs, airports, special use airspace, cities, times
en route and instrument approach operations. They zones, major drainage, a directory of airports with
depict preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures in their airspace classification, and a mileage table
graphic and textual form. Each STAR procedure is showing great circle distances between major
presented as a separate chart and may serve either a airports. Scale 1 inch = 47nm/1:3,400,000. Chart

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revised annually, and is available either folded or FIG 918

unfolded for wall mounting. (See FIG 917.) U.S.VFR Wall Planning Chart
2. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Planning

Chart. This is a VFR planning chart on the reverse
side of the Puerto Rico Virgin Islands VFR Terminal
Area Chart. Information shown includes mileage
between airports of entry, a selection of special use
airspace and a directory of airports with their
available services. Scale 1 inch = 85nm/1:6,192,178.
60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Chart revised
annually. (See FIG 917.)
FIG 917
4. Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts.
Planning Charts This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected
TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the
associated TAC. Flyway planning charts depict flight
paths and altitudes recommended for use to bypass
high traffic areas. Ground references are provided as
a guide for visual orientation. Flyway planning charts
are designed for use in conjunction with TACs and
sectional charts and are not to be used for navigation.
Chart scale 1 inch = 3.43nm/1:250,000.
d. Supplementary Charts and Publications.
1. Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). This
7volume booklet series contains data on airports,
seaplane bases, heliports, NAVAIDs, communica-
tions data, weather data sources, airspace, special
notices, and operational procedures. Coverage
includes the conterminous U.S., Puerto Rico, and the
Virgin Islands. The A/FD shows data that cannot be
readily depicted in graphic form; e.g., airport hours of
operations, types of fuel available, runway widths,
lighting codes, etc. The A/FD also provides a means
for pilots to update visual charts between edition
dates (A/FD is published every 56 days while
Sectional Aeronautical and VFR Terminal Area
3. U.S. VFR Wall Planning Chart. This chart Charts are generally revised every six months). The
is designed for VFR preflight planning and provides Aeronautical Chart Bulletins (VFR Chart Update
aeronautical and topographic information of the Bulletins) are available for free download from the
conterminous U.S. The aeronautical information AeroNav web site. Volumes are sidebound 53/8 x
includes airports, radio aids to navigation, Class B 81/4 inches. (See FIG 9112.)
airspace and special use airspace. The topographic 2. Supplement Alaska. This is a civil/military
information includes city tint, populated places, flight information publication issued by FAA every
principal roads, drainage patterns, and shaded relief. 56 days. It is a single volume booklet designed for use
Scale 1 inch = 43 nm/ 1:3,100,000. The one-sided with appropriate IFR or VFR charts. The Supplement
chart is 59 x 36 inches and ships unfolded for wall Alaska contains an A/FD, airport sketches, commu-
mounting. Chart is revised biennially. (See nications data, weather data sources, airspace, listing
FIG 918.) of navigational facilities, and special notices and

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procedures. Volume is sidebound 53/8 x FIG 919

81/4 inches. North Atlantic Route Charts
3. Chart Supplement Pacific. This supple-

ment is designed for use with appropriate VFR or IFR
enroute charts. Included in this onevolume booklet
are the A/FD, communications data, weather data
sources, airspace, navigational facilities, special
notices, and Pacific area procedures. IAP charts, DP
charts, STAR charts, airport diagrams, radar
minimums, and supporting data for the Hawaiian and
Pacific Islands are included. The manual is published
every 56 days. Volume is sidebound 53/8 x
81/4 inches.
4. North Pacific Route Charts. These charts

are designed for FAA controllers to monitor
transoceanic flights. They show established intercon-
tinental air routes, including reporting points with FIG 9110
geographic positions. Composite Chart: Scale North Pacific Oceanic Route Charts
1 inch = 164nm/1:12,000,000. 48 x 411/2 inches.
Area Charts: Scale 1 inch = 95.9nm/1:7,000,000.
52 x 401/2 inches. All charts shipped unfolded.
Charts revised every 56 days. (See FIG 9110.)
5. North Atlantic Route Chart. Designed for

FAA controllers to monitor transatlantic flights, this
5color chart shows oceanic control areas, coastal
navigation aids, oceanic reporting points, and
NAVAID geographic coordinates. Full Size Chart:
Scale 1 inch = 113.1nm/1:8,250,000. Chart is shipped
flat only. Half Size Chart: Scale 1 inch =
150.8nm/1:11,000,000. Chart is 293/4 x
201/2 inches, shipped folded to 5 x 10 inches only.
Chart revised every 56 weeks. (See FIG 919.)
6. Airport Obstruction Charts (OC). The

OC is a 1:12,000 scale graphic depicting 14 CFR
Part 77, Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace,
surfaces, a representation of objects that penetrate 7. FAA Aeronautical Chart Users Guide.
these surfaces, aircraft movement and apron areas, A booklet designed to be used as a teaching aid and
navigational aids, prominent airport buildings, and a reference document. It describes the substantial
selection of roads and other planimetric detail in the amount of information provided on FAAs aeronauti-
airport vicinity. Also included are tabulations of cal charts and publications. It includes explanations
runway and other operational data. and illustrations of chart terms and symbols

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organized by chart type. The users guide is available ALLOW.DAT: Alaska low altitude airways data.
for free download at the AeroNav web site. PR.DAT: Puerto Rico airways data.
HAWAII.DAT: Hawaii airways data.
e. Digital Products.
BAHAMA.DAT: Bahamas routes data.
1. The Digital Aeronautical Information CD OCEANIC.DAT: Oceanic routes data.
(DAICD). The DAICD is a combination of the STARS.DAT: Standard terminal arrivals data.
NAVAID Digital Data File, the Digital Chart DP.DAT: Instrument departure procedures data.
Supplement, and the Digital Obstacle File on one LOPREF.DAT: Preferred low altitude IFR routes
Compact Disk. These three digital products are no data.
longer sold separately. The files are updated every HIPREF.DAT: Preferred high altitude IFR routes
56 days and are available by subscription only. data.
(a) The NAVAID Digital Data File. This ARF.DAT: Air route radar facilities data.
file contains a current listing of NAVAIDs that are ASR.DAT: Airport surveillance radar facilities data.
compatible with the National Airspace System. This 2. The National Flight Database (NFD)
file contains all NAVAIDs including ILS and its (ARINC 424 [Ver 13 & 15]). The NFD is a basic
components, in the U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin digital dataset, modeled to an international standard,
Islands plus bordering facilities in Canada, Mexico, which can be used as a basis to support GPS
and the Atlantic and Pacific areas. navigation. Initial data elements included are: Airport
(b) The Digital Obstacle File. This file and Helicopter Records, VHF and NDB Navigation
describes all obstacles of interest to aviation users in aids, en route waypoints and airways. Additional data
the U.S., with limited coverage of the Pacific, elements will be added in subsequent releases to
Caribbean, Canada, and Mexico. The obstacles are include: departure procedures, standard terminal
assigned unique numerical identifiers, accuracy arrivals, and GPS/RNAV instrument approach
codes, and listed in order of ascending latitude within procedures. The database is updated every 28 days.
each state or area. The data is available by subscription only and is
distributed on CDROM or by ftp download.
(c) The Digital Aeronautical Chart Supple-
ment (DACS). The DACS is specifically designed 3. digitalVisual Charts (dVC). These digi-
to provide digital airspace data not otherwise readily tal VFR charts are georeferenced images of FAA
available. The supplement includes a Change Notice Sectional Aeronautical, TAC, WAC, and Helicopter
for IAPFIX.dat at the midpoint between revisions. Route charts. Additional digital data may easily be
The Change Notice is available only by free overlaid on the raster image using commonly
download from the AeroNav website. available Geographic Information System software.
Data such as weather, temporary flight restrictions,
The DACS individual data files are:
obstacles, or other geospatial data can be combined
ENHIGH.DAT: High altitude airways (contermi- with dVC data to support a variety of needs. The file
nous U.S.) resolution is 300 dots per inch and the data is 8bit
ENLOW.DAT: Low altitude airways (conterminous color. The data is provided as a GeoTIFF and
U.S.) distributed on DVDR media and on the AeroNav
IAPFIX.DAT: Selected instrument approach proce- Products website. The root mean square error of the
dure NAVAID and fix data. transformation will not exceed two pixels. DVC
MTRFIX.DAT: Military training routes data. DVDs are updated every 28 days and are available by
ALHIGH.DAT: Alaska high altitude airways data. subscription only.

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FIG 9111
U.S. Terminal Publication Volumes

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FIG 9112
Airport/Facility Directory Geographic Areas
FIG 9113
Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for Alaska

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FIG 9114
World Aeronautical Charts for Alaska
FIG 9115
World Aeronautical Charts for the Conterminous U.S.
Mexico, and the Caribbean Areas

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915. Where and How to Get Charts of Jet Navigation Charts (JNC) and Universal Jet
Foreign Areas Navigation Charts (JNU)
Jet Navigation Charts (JNCA)
a. National GeospatialIntelligence Agency
Aerospace Planning Charts (ASC)
(NGA) Products. For the latest information regard-
Oceanic Planning Charts (OPC)
ing publication availability visit the NGA Web site:
Joint Operations Graphics Air (JOGA)
h t t p s : / / w w w. n g a . m i l / P r o d u c t s S e r v i c e s /
Standard Index Charts (SIC)
Aeronautical/Pages/default.aspx
Universal Plotting Sheet (VPOS)
1. Flight Information Publication (FLIP) Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation (PUB249)
Planning Documents. Plotting Sheets (VP30)
DialUp Electronic CHUM
General Planning (GP)
Area Planning b. Canadian Charts. Information on available
Area Planning Special Use Airspace Canadian charts and publications may be obtained
Planning Charts from designated FAA chart agents or by contacting
the:
2. FLIP Enroute Charts and Chart Supple-
ments. NAV CANADA
Aeronautical Publications
Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica Sales and Distribution Unit
U.S. IFR and VFR Supplements P.O. Box 9840, Station T
Flight Information Handbook Ottawa, Ontario K1G 6S8 Canada
Caribbean and South America Low Altitude Telephone: 6137446393 or 18667317827
Caribbean and South America High Altitude Fax: 6137447120 or 18667409992
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East
Low Altitude c. Mexican Charts. Information on available
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East Mexican charts and publications may be obtained by
High Altitude contacting:
Africa Direccin de Navigacion Aereo
Eastern Europe and Asia Blvd. Puerto Aereo 485
Area Arrival Charts Zona Federal Del Aeropuerto Intl
3. FLIP Instrument Approach Procedures 15620 Mexico D.F.
(IAPs). Mexico
Africa d. International Civil Aviation Organization

Canada and North Atlantic (ICAO). A free ICAO Publications and Audio
Caribbean and South America Visual Training Aids Catalogue is available from:
Eastern Europe and Asia International Civil Aviation Organization
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East ATTN: Document Sales Unit
Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica 999 University Street
VFR Arrival/Departure Routes Europe and Korea Montreal, Quebec
U.S. H3C 5H7, Canada
Telephone: (514) 9548022
4. Miscellaneous DOD Charts and Products.
Fax: (514) 9546769
Aeronautical Chart Updating Manual (CHUM) Email: sales_unit@icao.org
DOD Weather Plotting Charts (WPC) Internet: http://www.icao.org/cgi/goto.pl?icao/en/
Tactical Pilotage Charts (TPC) sales.htm
Operational Navigation Charts (ONC) Sitatex: YULCAYA
Global Navigation and Planning Charts (GNC) Telex: 0524513

4/3/14 AIM
Chapter 10. Helicopter Operations

Section 1. Helicopter IFR Operations
1011. Helicopter Flight Control Systems typically have a control panel for mode selection, and
system for indication of mode status. Autopilots may
a. The certification requirements for helicopters to or may not be installed with an associated Flight
operate under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are Director System (FD). Autopilots typically control
contained in 14 CFR Part 27, Airworthiness the helicopter about the roll and pitch axes (cyclic
Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, and 14 CFR control) but may also include yaw axis (pedal control)
Part 29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport and collective control servos.
Category Rotorcraft. To meet these requirements,
helicopter manufacturers usually utilize a set of 6. FDs, which provide visual guidance to the
stabilization and/or Automatic Flight Control pilot to fly specific selected lateral and vertical modes
Systems (AFCSs). of operation. The visual guidance is typically
provided as either a dual cue (commonly known as
b. Typically, these systems fall into the following a crosspointer) or single cue (commonly known
categories: as a veebar) presentation superimposed over the
1. Aerodynamic surfaces, which impart some attitude indicator. Some FDs also include a collective
stability or control capability not found in the basic cue. The pilot manipulates the helicopters controls to
VFR configuration. satisfy these commands, yielding the desired flight
path, or may couple the flight director to the autopilot
2. Trim systems, which provide a cyclic to perform automatic flight along the desired flight
centering effect. These systems typically involve a path. Typically, flight director mode control and
magnetic brake/spring device, and may also be indication is shared with the autopilot.
controlled by a fourway switch on the cyclic. This
is a system that supports hands on flying of the c. In order to be certificated for IFR operation, a
helicopter by the pilot. specific helicopter may require the use of one or more
of these systems, in any combination.
3. Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs),
which provide shortterm rate damping control d. In many cases, helicopters are certificated for
inputs to increase helicopter stability. Like trim IFR operations with either one or two pilots. Certain
systems, SAS supports hands on flying. equipment is required to be installed and functional
for two pilot operations, and typically, additional
4. Attitude Retention Systems (ATTs), which equipment is required for single pilot operation.
return the helicopter to a selected attitude after a These requirements are usually described in the
disturbance. Changes in desired attitude can be limitations section of the Rotorcraft Flight Manual
accomplished usually through a fourway beep (RFM).
switch, or by actuating a force trim switch on the
e. In addition, the RFM also typically defines
cyclic, setting the attitude manually, and releasing.
systems and functions that are required to be in
Attitude retention may be a SAS function, or may be
operation or engaged for IFR flight in either the single
the basic hands off autopilot function.
or two pilot configuration. Often, particularly in two
5. Autopilot Systems (APs), which provide for pilot operation, this level of augmentation is less than
hands off flight along specified lateral and vertical the full capability of the installed systems. Likewise,
paths, including heading, altitude, vertical speed, single pilot operation may require a higher level of
navigation tracking, and approach. These systems augmentation.
Helicopter IFR Operations 1011

AIM 4/3/14
f. The RFM also identifies other specific limita- director collective cue responds to glideslope
tions associated with IFR flight. Typically, these deviation, while the horizontal bar of the cross
limitations include, but are not limited to: pointer responds to airspeed deviations. The same
system, while flying an ILS in the twocue mode,
1. Minimum equipment required for IFR flight
provides for the horizontal bar to respond to
(in some cases, for both single pilot and two pilot
glideslope deviations. This concern is particularly
operations).
significant when operating using two pilots. Pilots
2. Vmini (minimum speed IFR). should have an established set of procedures and
NOTE responsibilities for the control of flight director/auto-
The manufacturer may also recommend a minimum IFR pilot modes for the various phases of flight. Not only
airspeed during instrument approach. does a full understanding of the system modes
3. Vnei (never exceed speed IFR). provide for a higher degree of accuracy in control of
the helicopter, it is the basis for crew identification of
4. Maximum approach angle. a faulty system.
5. Weight and center of gravity limits. i. Relief from the prohibition to takeoff with any
6. Aircraft configuration limitations (such as inoperative instruments or equipment may be
aircraft door positions and external loads). provided through a Minimum Equipment List (see
14 CFR Section 91.213 and 14 CFR Section 135.179,
7. Aircraft system limitations (generators, Inoperative Instruments and Equipment). In many
inverters, etc.). cases, a helicopter configured for single pilot IFR
8. System testing requirements (many avionics may depart IFR with certain equipment inoperative,
and AFCS/AP/FD systems incorporate a selftest provided a crew of two pilots is used. Pilots are
feature). cautioned to ensure the pilotincommand and
secondincommand meet the requirements of
9. Pilot action requirements (such as the pilot 14 CFR Section 61.58, PilotinCommand Profi-
must have his/her hands and feet on the controls ciency Check: Operation of Aircraft Requiring More
during certain operations, such as during instrument Than One Pilot Flight Crewmember, and 14 CFR
approach below certain altitudes). Section 61.55, SecondinCommand Qualifications,
g. It is very important that pilots be familiar with or 14 CFR Part 135, Operating Requirements:
the IFR requirements for their particular helicopter. Commuter and OnDemand Operations, Subpart E,
Within the same make, model and series of helicopter, Flight Crewmember Requirements, and Subpart G,
variations in the installed avionics may change the Crewmember Testing Requirements, as appropriate.
required equipment or the level of augmentation for
j. Experience has shown that modern AFCS/AP/
a particular operation.
FD equipment installed in IFR helicopters can, in
h. During flight operations, pilots must be aware some cases, be very complex. This complexity
of the mode of operation of the augmentation requires the pilot(s) to obtain and maintain a high
systems, and the control logic and functions level of knowledge of system operation, limitations,
employed. For example, during an ILS approach failure indications and reversionary modes. In some
using a particular system in the threecue mode cases, this may only be reliably accomplished
(lateral, vertical and collective cues), the flight through formal training.
1012 Helicopter IFR Operations

4/3/14 AIM
1012. Helicopter Instrument Approaches also be limited to no more than 70 KIAS. Use the
published minima, no reductions allowed.
a. Helicopters are capable of flying any published NOTE
14 CFR Part 97, Standard Instrument Approach Obstruction clearance surfaces are based on the aircraft
Procedures (SIAPs), for which they are properly speed and have been designed on these approaches for
equipped, subject to the following limitations and 70 knots. If the helicopter is flown at higher speeds, it may
conditions: fly outside of protected airspace. Some helicopters have a
VMINI greater than 70 knots; therefore, they cannot meet
1. Helicopters flying conventional (non the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of procedure.
Copter) SIAPs may reduce the visibility minima to Some helicopter autopilots, when used in the goaround
not less than one half the published Category A mode, are programmed with a VYI greater than 70 knots,
therefore when using the autopilot goaround mode,
landing visibility minima, or 1 / 4 statute mile
they cannot meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type
visibility/1200 RVR, whichever is greater unless the of approach. It may be possible to use the autopilot for the
procedure is annotated with Visibility Reduction missed approach in the other than the goaround mode
by Helicopters NA. This annotation means that and meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of
there are penetrations of the final approach obstacle approach. When operating at speeds other than VYI or VY,
identification surface (OIS) and that the 14 CFR performance data may not be available in the RFM to
Section 97.3 visibility reduction rule does not apply predict compliance with climb gradient requirements.
and you must take precaution to avoid any obstacles Pilots may use observed performance in similar
in the visual segment. No reduction in MDA/DA is weight/altitude/temperature/speed conditions to evaluate
permitted. The helicopter may initiate the final the suitability of performance. Pilots are cautioned to
monitor climb performance to ensure compliance with
approach segment at speeds up to the upper limit of
procedure requirements.
the highest approach category authorized by the
procedure, but must be slowed to no more than 4. TBL 1011 summarizes these require-
90 KIAS at the missed approach point (MAP) in ments.
order to apply the visibility reduction. Pilots are 5. Even with weather conditions reported at or
cautioned that such a decelerating approach may above landing minima, some combinations of
make early identification of wind shear on the reduced cockpit cutoff angle, minimal approach/
approach path difficult or impossible. If required, use runway lighting, and high MDA/DH coupled with a
the Inoperative Components and Visual Aids Table low visibility minima, the pilot may not be able to
provided in the front cover of the U.S. Terminal identify the required visual reference(s) during the
Procedures Volume to derive the Category A minima approach, or those references may only be visible in
before applying the 14 CFR Section 97.3(d1) rule. a very small portion of the pilots available field of
view. Even if identified by the pilot, these visual
2. Helicopters flying Copter SIAPs may use the references may not support normal maneuvering and
published minima, with no reductions allowed. The normal rates of descent to landing. The effect of such
maximum airspeed is 90 KIAS on any segment of the a combination may be exacerbated by other
approach or missed approach. conditions such as rain on the windshield, or
incomplete windshield defogging coverage.
3. Helicopters flying GPS Copter SIAPs must
limit airspeed to 90 KIAS or less when flying any 6. Pilots are cautioned to be prepared to execute
segment of the procedure, except speeds must be a missed approach even though weather conditions
limited to no more than 70 KIAS on the final and may be reported at or above landing minima.
missed approach segments. Military GPS Copter NOTE
SIAPs are limited to no more than 90 KIAS See paragraph 5421, Missed Approach, for additional
throughout the procedure. If annotated, holding may information on missed approach procedures.

AIM 4/3/14
TBL 1011
Helicopter Use of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
Procedure Helicopter Visibility Helicopter MDA/DA Maximum Speed Limitations

Minima
Conventional The greater of: one half As published for The helicopter may initiate the final
(nonCopter) the Category A visibility Category A approach segment at speeds up to
minima, 1/4 statute mile the upper limit of the highest
visibility, or 1200 RVR Approach Category authorized by
the procedure, but must be slowed
to no more than 90 KIAS at the
MAP in order to apply the visibility
reduction.
Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published
route/track.
GPS Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published route
or track, EXCEPT 70 KIAS when
on the final approach or missed
approach segment and, if annotated,
in holding. Military procedures are
limited to 90 KIAS for all segments.
NOTE 2. Combinations of high MDA/DH and low visibility

Several factors effect the ability of the pilot to acquire and minimum, such as a conventional nonprecision approach
maintain the visual references specified in 14 CFR with a reduced helicopter visibility minima (per 14 CFR
Section 91.175(c), even in cases where the flight visibility Section 97.3).
may be at the minimum derived by TBL 1011. These 3. Type, configuration, and intensity of approach and
factors include, but are not limited to: runway lighting systems.
1. Cockpit cutoff angle (the angle at which the cockpit or 4. Type of obscuring phenomenon and/or windshield
other airframe structure limits downward visibility below contamination.
the horizon).

4/3/14 AIM
1013. Helicopter Approach Procedures (e) At least one of the following visual
to VFR Heliports references must be visible or identifiable before the
pilot may proceed visually:
a. Helicopter approaches may be developed for (1) FATO or FATO lights.
heliports that do not meet the design standards for an
IFR heliport. The majority of IFR approaches to VFR (2) TLOF or TLOF lights.
heliports are developed in support of helicopter (3) Heliport Instrument Lighting System
emergency medical services (HEMS) operators. (HILS).
These approaches can be developed from conven-
tional NAVAIDs or a RNAV system (including GPS). (4) Heliport Approach Lighting System
They are developed either as a Special Approach (HALS) or leadin lights.
(pilot training is required for special procedures due (5) Visual Glideslope Indicator (VGSI).
to their unique characteristics) or a public approach
(no special training required). These instrument (6) Windsock or windsock light(s). See
procedures are developed as either an approach note below.
designed to a specific landing site, or an approach (7) Heliport beacon. See note below.
designed to a pointinspace.
(8) Other facilities or systems approved by
the Flight Technologies and Procedures Division
1. Approach to a specific landing site. The
approach is aligned to a missed approach point from (AFS400).
which a landing can be accomplished with a NOTE
maximum course change of 30 degrees. The visual Windsock lights and heliport beacons should be located
segment from the MAP to the landing site is evaluated within 500 ft of the TLOF.
for obstacle hazards. These procedures are annotated: 2. Approach to a PointinSpace (PinS). At
PROCEED VISUALLY FROM (NAMED MAP) locations where the MAP is located more than 2 SM
OR CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED MISSED from the landing site, or the path from the MAP to the
APPROACH. landing site is populated with obstructions which
require avoidance actions or requires turns greater
(a) This phrase requires the pilot to either than 30 degrees, a PinS procedure may be developed.
acquire and maintain visual contact with the landing These approaches are annotated PROCEED VFR
site at or prior to the MAP, or execute a missed FROM (NAMED MAP) OR CONDUCT THE
approach. The visibility minimum is based on the SPECIFIED MISSED APPROACH.
distance from the MAP to the landing site, among
(a) These procedures require the pilot, at or
other factors.
prior to the MAP, to determine if the published
minimum visibility, or the weather minimums
(b) The pilot is required to maintain the
required by the operating rule, or operations
published minimum visibility throughout the visual
specifications (whichever is higher) is available to
segment.
safely transition from IFR to VFR flight. If not, the
pilot must execute a missed approach. For Part 135
(c) Similar to an approach to a runway, the
operations, pilots may not begin the instrument
missed approach segment protection is not provided
approach unless the latest weather report indicates
between the MAP and the landing site, and obstacle
that the weather conditions are at or above the
or terrain avoidance from the MAP to the landing site
authorized IFR minimums or the VFR weather
is the responsibility of the pilot.
minimums (as required by the class of airspace,
operating rule and/or Operations Specifications)
(d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the
whichever is higher.
approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after
reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether (b) Visual contact with the landing site is not
proceeding visually and canceling IFR or complying required; however, the pilot must maintain the
with the missed approach instructions. See para- appropriate VFR weather minimums throughout the
graph 5115, Canceling IFR Flight Plan. visual segment. The visibility is limited to no lower

AIM 4/3/14
than that published in the procedure, until canceling 1. The large number (over 300) of waypoints in
IFR. the grid system makes it difficult to assign
phonetically pronounceable names to the waypoints
(c) IFR obstruction clearance areas are not that would be meaningful to pilots and controllers. A
applied to the VFR segment between the MAP and unique naming system was adopted that enables
the landing site. Obstacle or terrain avoidance from pilots and controllers to derive the fix position from
the MAP to the landing site is the responsibility of the the name. The fiveletter names are derived as
pilot. follows:
(d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the (a) The waypoints are divided into sets of
approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after 3 columns each. A threeletter identifier, identifying
reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether a geographical area or a NAVAID to the north,
proceeding VFR and canceling IFR, or complying represents each set.
with the missed approach instructions. See para-
graph 5115, Canceling IFR Flight Plan. (b) Each column in a set is named after its
position, i.e., left (L), center (C), and right (R).
(e) If the visual segment penetrates Class B,
C, or D airspace, pilots are responsible for obtaining (c) The rows of the grid are named
a Special VFR clearance, when required. alphabetically from north to south, starting with A for
the northern most row.
1014. The Gulf of Mexico Grid System EXAMPLE

LCHRC would be pronounced Lake Charles Romeo
a. On October 8, 1998, the Southwest Regional Charlie. The waypoint is in the righthand column of the
Office of the FAA, with assistance from the Lake Charles VOR set, in row C (third south from the
northern most row).
Helicopter Safety Advisory Conference (HSAC),
implemented the worlds first Instrument Flight 2. In December 2009, significant improvements
Rules (IFR) Grid System in the Gulf of Mexico. This to the Gulf of Mexico grid system were realized with
navigational route structure is completely indepen- the introduction of ATC separation services using
dent of groundbased navigation aids (NAVAIDs) ADSB. In cooperation with the oil and gas services
and was designed to facilitate helicopter IFR industry, HSAC and Helicopter Association Interna-
operations to offshore destinations. The Grid System tional (HAI), the FAA installed an infrastructure of
is defined by over 300 offshore waypoints located 20 ADSB ground stations, weather stations (AWOS)
minutes apart (latitude and longitude). Flight plan and VHF remote communication outlets (RCO)
routes are routinely defined by just 4 segments: throughout a large area of the Gulf of Mexico. This
departure point (lat/long), first en route grid infrastructure allows the FAAs Houston ARTCC to
waypoint, last en route grid waypoint prior to provide domesticlike air traffic control service in
approach procedure, and destination point (lat/long). the offshore area beyond 12nm from the coastline to
There are over 4,000 possible offshore landing sites. hundreds of miles offshore to aircraft equipped with
Upon reaching the waypoint prior to the destination, ADSB. Properly equipped aircraft can now be
the pilot may execute an Offshore Standard Approach authorized to receive more direct routing, domestic
Procedure (OSAP), a Helicopter En Route Descent en route separation minima and real time flight
Areas (HEDA) approach, or an Airborne Radar following. Operators who do not have authorization
Approach (ARA). For more information on these to receive ATC separation services using ADSB,
helicopter instrument procedures, refer to FAA AC will continue to use the low altitude grid system and
9080B, Approval of Offshore Standard Approach receive procedural separation from Houston ARTCC.
Procedures, Airborne Radar Approaches, and NonADSB equipped aircraft also benefit from
Helicopter En Route Descent Areas, on the FAA web improved VHF communication and expanded
site http://www.faa.gov under Advisory Circulars. weather information coverage.
The return flight plan is just the reverse with the
requested standalone GPS approach contained in the 3. Three requirements must be met for operators
remarks section. to file IFR flight plans utilizing the grid:

4/3/14 AIM
(a) The helicopter must be equipped for IFR Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) and
operations and equipped with IFR approved GPS Traffic Information.
navigational units.
(b) Flight crews must comply with the
(b) The operator must obtain prior written procedures prescribed in the Houston ARTCC Letter
approval from the appropriate Flight Standards of Agreement dated December 17, 2009, or later.
District Office through a Letter of Authorization or
NOTE
Operations Specification, as appropriate. The unique ADSB architecture in the Gulf of Mexico
(c) The operator must be a signatory to the depends upon reception of an aircrafts Mode C in addition
Houston ARTCC Letter of Agreement. to the other message elements described in 14 CFR 91.227.
Flight crews must be made aware that loss of Mode C also
4. Operators who wish to benefit from ADSB means that ATC will not receive the aircrafts ADSB
based ATC separation services must meet the signal.
following additional requirements:
5. FAA/AeroNav publishes the grid system
(a) The Operators installed ADSB Out waypoints on the IFR Gulf of Mexico Vertical Flight
equipment must meet the performance requirements Reference Chart. A commercial equivalent is also
of one of the following FAA Technical Standard available. The chart is updated annually and is
Orders (TSO), or later revisions: TSOC154c, available from a FAA chart agent or FAA directly,
Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) Automatic web site address:
Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) Equip- http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aerona
ment, or TSOC166b, Extended Squitter Automatic v.

4/3/14 AIM
Section 2. Special Operations
1021. Offshore Helicopter Operations (b) Arriving passengers and cargo should be
unloaded and cleared from the heliport and access
a. Introduction route prior to loading departing passengers and cargo.
The offshore environment offers unique applications (c) Where a flight crew consists of more than
and challenges for helicopter pilots. The mission one pilot, one crewmember should supervise the
demands, the nature of oil and gas exploration and unloading/loading process from outside the aircraft.
production facilities, and the flight environment
(weather, terrain, obstacles, traffic), demand special (d) Where practical, a designated facility
practices, techniques and procedures not found in employee should assist with loading/unloading, etc.
other flight operations. Several industry
organizations have risen to the task of reducing c. CraneHelicopter Operational Procedures
risks in offshore operations, including the Heli-
1. Background. Historical experience has
copter Safety Advisory Conference (HSAC)
shown that catastrophic consequences can occur
(http://www.hsac.org), and the Offshore Committee
when industry safe practices for crane/helicopter
of the Helicopter Association International (HAI)
operations are not observed. The following recom-
(http://www.rotor.com). The following recommended
mended practices are designed to minimize risks
practices for offshore helicopter operations are based
during crane and helicopter operations.
on guidance developed by HSAC for use in the Gulf
of Mexico, and provided here with their permission. 2. Recommended Practices
While not regulatory, these recommended practices
provide aviation and oil and gas industry operators (a) Personnel awareness
with useful information in developing procedures to
(1) Crane operators and pilots should
avoid certain hazards of offshore helicopter opera-
develop a mutual understanding and respect of the
tions.
others operational limitations and cooperate in the
NOTE spirit of safety;
Like all aviation practices, these recommended practices
are under constant review. In addition to normal (2) Pilots need to be aware that crane
procedures for comments, suggested changes, or correc- operators sometimes cannot release the load to cradle
tions to the AIM (contained in the Preface), any questions the crane boom, such as when attached to wire line
or feedback concerning these recommended procedures lubricators or supporting diving bells; and
may also be directed to the HSAC through the feedback
feature of the HSAC web site (http://www.hsac.org). (3) Crane operators need to be aware that
helicopters require warm up before takeoff, a
b. Passenger Management on and about
twominute cool down before shutdown, and cannot
Heliport Facilities
circle for extended lengths of time because of fuel
1. Background. Several incidents involving consumption.
offshore helicopter passengers have highlighted the
(b) It is recommended that when helicopters
potential for incidents and accidents on and about the
are approaching, maneuvering, taking off, or running
heliport area. The following practices will minimize
on the heliport, cranes be shutdown and the operator
risks to passengers and others involved in heliport
leave the cab. Cranes not in use must have their
operations.
booms cradled, if feasible. If in use, the cranes
2. Recommended Practices boom(s) are to be pointed away from the heliport and
the crane shutdown for helicopter operations.
(a) Heliport facilities should have a desig-
nated and posted passenger waiting area which is (c) Pilots will not approach, land on, takeoff,
clear of the heliport, heliport access points, and or have rotor blades turning on heliports of structures
stairways. not complying with the above practice.
Special Operations 1021

AIM 4/3/14
(d) It is recommended that cranes on offshore (e) Helicopter/tanker operations must not be
platforms, rigs, vessels, or any other facility, which conducted during product/cargo transfer.
could interfere with helicopter operations (including (f) Generally, permission will not be granted
approach/departure paths): to land on tankers during mooring operations or while
(1) Be equipped with a red rotating beacon maneuvering alongside another tanker.
or red high intensity strobe light connected to the e. Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard
system powering the crane, indicating the crane is Warning(s) Procedures
under power;
1. Background
(2) Be designed to allow the operator a
maximum view of the helideck area and should be (a) A number of operational hazards can
equipped with wideangle mirrors to eliminate blind develop on or near offshore helidecks or onshore
spots; and heliports that can be minimized through procedures
for proper notification or visual warning to pilots.
(3) Have their boom tips, headache balls, Examples of hazards include but are not limited to:
and hooks painted with high visibility international
orange. (1) Perforating operations: subpara-
graph f.
d. Helicopter/Tanker Operations
(2) H2S gas presence: subparagraph g.
1. Background. The interface of helicopters (3) Gas venting: subparagraph h; or,
and tankers during shipboard helicopter operations is
complex and may be hazardous unless appropriate (4) Closed helidecks or heliports: sub
procedures are coordinated among all parties. The paragraph i (unspecified cause).
following recommended practices are designed to (b) These and other operational hazards are
minimize risks during helicopter/tanker operations: currently minimized through timely dissemination of
2. Recommended Practices a written Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) for pilots by
helicopter companies and operators. A NOTAM
(a) Management, flight operations personnel, provides a written description of the hazard, time and
and pilots should be familiar with and apply the duration of occurrence, and other pertinent informa-
operating safety standards set forth in Guide to tion. ANY POTENTIAL HAZARD should be
Helicopter/Ship Operations, International Chamber communicated to helicopter operators or company
of Shipping, Third Edition, 589 (as amended), aviation departments as early as possible to allow the
establishing operational guidelines/standards and NOTAM to be activated.
safe practices sufficient to safeguard helicopter/tank-
er operations. (c) To supplement the existing NOTAM
procedure and further assist in reducing these
(b) Appropriate plans, approvals, and com- hazards, a standardized visual signal(s) on the
munications must be accomplished prior to reaching helideck/heliport will provide a positive indication to
the vessel, allowing tanker crews sufficient time to an approaching helicopter of the status of the landing
perform required safety preparations and position area. Recommended Practice(s) have been developed
crew members to receive or dispatch a helicopter to reinforce the NOTAM procedures and standardize
safely. visual signals.
(c) Appropriate approvals and direct commu- f. Drilling Rig Perforating Operations:
nications with the bridge of the tanker must be Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard
maintained throughout all helicopter/tanker opera- Warning(s)/Procedure(s)
tions.
1. Background. A critical step in the oil well
(d) Helicopter/tanker operations, including completion process is perforation, which involves the
landings/departures, must not be conducted until the use of explosive charges in the drill pipe to open the
helicopter pilotincommand has received and pipe to oil or gas deposits. Explosive charges used in
acknowledged permission from the bridge of the conjunction with perforation operations offshore can
tanker. potentially be prematurely detonated by radio
1022 Special Operations

4/3/14 AIM
transmissions, including those from helicopters. The transponders, radar altimeters, and DME equipment,
following practices are recommended. and ELTs.
2. Recommended Practices (2) Whenever possible, make radio calls to
the platform being approached or to the Flight
(a) Personnel Conducting Perforating
Following Communications Center at least one mile
Operations. Whenever perforating operations are
out on approach. Ensure all communications are
scheduled and operators are concerned that radio
complete outside the 1,000 foot hazard distance. If no
transmissions from helicopters in the vicinity may
response is received, or if the platform is not radio
jeopardize the operation, personnel conducting
equipped, further radio transmissions should not be
perforating operations should take the following
made until visual contact with the deck indicates it is
precautionary measures:
open for operation (no white X).
(1) Notify company aviation departments,
helicopter operators or bases, and nearby manned g. Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Helideck/Heliport
platforms of the pending perforation operation so the Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) system can be activated 1. Background. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas:
for the perforation operation and the temporary Hydrogen sulfide gas in higher concentrations
helideck closure. (300500 ppm) can cause loss of consciousness
(2) Close the deck and make the radio within a few seconds and presents a hazard to pilots
warning clearly visible to passing pilots, install a on/near offshore helidecks. When operating in
temporary marking (described in subpara- offshore areas that have been identified to have
graph 1021i1(b)) with the words NO RADIO concentrations of hydrogen sulfide gas, the following
stenciled in red on the legs of the diagonals. The practices are recommended.
letters should be 24 inches high and 12 inches wide. 2. Recommended Practices
(See FIG 1021.)
(a) Pilots
(3) The marker should be installed during
the time that charges may be affected by radio (1) Ensure approved protective air packs
transmissions. are available for emergency use by the crew on the
helicopter.
(b) Pilots
(2) If shutdown on a helideck, request the
(1) Pilots when operating within 1,000 feet supervisor in charge provide a briefing on location of
of a known perforation operation or observing the protective equipment and safety procedures.
white X with red NO RADIO warning indicating
perforation operations are underway will avoid radio (3) If while flying near a helideck and the
transmissions from or near the helideck (within visual red beacon alarm is observed or an unusually
1,000 feet) and will not land on the deck if the X is strong odor of rotten eggs is detected, immediately
present. In addition to communications radios, radio don the protective air pack, exit to an area upwind,
transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar, and notify the suspected source field of the hazard.
FIG 1021
Closed Helideck Marking No Radio

AIM 4/3/14
(b) Oil Field Supervisors 3. Oil Field Supervisors

(a) During venting of large amounts of
(1) If presence of hydrogen sulfide is
unignited raw gas, a red rotating beacon or red high
detected, a red rotating beacon or red high intensity
intensity strobe light adjacent to the primary helideck
strobe light adjacent to the primary helideck stairwell
stairwell or wind indicator should be turned on to
or wind indicator on the structure should be turned on
provide visible warning of hazard. If the beacon is to
to provide visual warning of hazard. If the beacon is
be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana
to be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana
Offshore Heliport Design Guide and FAA
Offshore Heliport Design Guide and FAA
Advisory Circular AC 150/53902A, Heliport
Advisory Circular AC 150/53902A, Heliport
Design Guide, should be reviewed to ensure proper
Design Guide, should be reviewed to ensure proper
clearance from the helideck.
clearance on the helideck.
(b) Notify nearby helicopter operators and
(2) Notify nearby helicopter operators and bases of the hazard for planned operations.
bases of the hazard and advise when hazard is cleared. (c) Wind socks or indicator should be clearly
visible to provide upward indication for the pilot.
(3) Provide a safety briefing to include
location of protective equipment to all arriving i. Helideck/Heliport Operational Warn-
personnel. ing(s)/Procedure(s) Closed Helidecks or
Heliports
(4) Wind socks or indicator should be 1. Background. A white X marked diago-
clearly visible to provide upwind indication for the nally from corner to corner across a helideck or
pilot. heliport touchdown area is the universally accepted
visual indicator that the landing area is closed for
h. Gas Venting Helideck/Heliport Operational safety of other reasons and that helicopter operations
Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures Operations are not permitted. The following practices are
Near Gas Vent Booms recommended.
1. Background. Ignited flare booms can re- (a) Permanent Closing. If a helideck or
lease a large volume of natural gas and create a hot heliport is to be permanently closed, X diagonals of
fire and intense heat with little time for the pilot to the same size and location as indicated above should
react. Likewise, unignited gas vents can release be used, but the markings should be painted on the
reasonably large volumes of methane gas under landing area.
certain conditions. Thus, operations conducted very NOTE
near unignited gas vents require precautions to White Decks: If a helideck is painted white, then
prevent inadvertent ingestion of combustible gases international orange or yellow markings can be used for
by the helicopter engine(s). The following practices the temporary or permanent diagonals.
are recommended. (b) Temporary Closing. A temporary
marker can be used for hazards of an interim nature.
2. Pilots This marker could be made from vinyl or other
durable material in the shape of a diagonal X. The
(a) Gas will drift upwards and downwind of marker should be white with legs at least 20 feet long
the vent. Plan the approach and takeoff to observe and and 3 feet in width. This marker is designed to be
avoid the area downwind of the vent, remaining as far quickly secured and removed from the deck using
away as practicable from the open end of the vent grommets and rope ties. The duration, time, location,
boom. and nature of these temporary closings should be
provided to and coordinated with company aviation
(b) Do not attempt to start or land on an departments, nearby helicopter bases, and helicopter
offshore helideck when the deck is downwind of a gas operators supporting the area. These markers MUST
vent unless properly trained personnel verify be removed when the hazard no longer exists.
conditions are safe. (See FIG 1022.)

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 1022
Closed Helideck Marking
j. Offshore (VFR) Operating Altitudes for (c) Area Agreements. See HSAC Area
Helicopters Agreement Maps for operating procedures for
onshore high density traffic locations.
1. Background. Midair collisions constitute
a significant percentage of total fatal offshore NOTE
helicopter accidents. A method of reducing this risk Pilots of helicopters operating VFR above 3,000 feet above
is the use of coordinated VFR cruising altitudes. To the surface should refer to the current Federal Aviation
Regulations (14 CFR Part 91), and paragraph 314,
enhance safety through standardized vertical separa-
Basic VFR Weather Minimums, of the AIM.
tion of helicopters when flying in the offshore
environment, it is recommended that helicopter (d) Landing Lights. Aircraft landing lights
operators flying in a particular area establish a should be on to enhance aircraft identification:
cooperatively developed Standard Operating Proce- (1) During takeoff and landings;
dure (SOP) for VFR operating altitudes. An example
of such an SOP is contained in this example. (2) In congested helicopter or fixed wing
traffic areas;
2. Recommended Practice Example
(3) During reduced visibility; or,
(a) Field Operations. Without compromis-
ing minimum safe operating altitudes, helicopters (4) Anytime safety could be enhanced.
working within an offshore field constituting a k. Offshore Helidecks/Landing Communica-
cluster should use altitudes not to exceed 500 feet. tions
(b) En Route Operations 1. Background. To enhance safety, and pro-
(1) Helicopters operating below 750 AGL vide appropriate time to prepare for helicopter
should avoid transitioning through offshore fields. operations, the following is recommended when
anticipating a landing on an offshore helideck.
(2) Helicopters en route to and from
offshore locations, below 3,000 feet, weather 2. Recommended Practices
permitting, should use en route altitudes as outlined (a) Before landing on an offshore helideck,
in TBL 1021. pilots are encouraged to establish communications
with the company owning or operating the helideck
TBL 1021
if frequencies exist for that purpose.
Magnetic Heading Altitude (b) When impracticable, or if frequencies do
0 to 179 750 not exist, pilots or operations personnel should
1750
attempt to contact the company owning or operating
the helideck by telephone. Contact should be made
2750
before the pilot departs home base/point of departure
180 359 1250 to advise of intentions and obtain landing permission
2250 if necessary.

AIM 4/3/14
NOTE helicopter is parked unless the light helicopter is

It is recommended that communications be established a property secured to the helideck and has main rotor
minimum of 10 minutes prior to planned arrival time. This tied down.
practice may be a requirement of some offshore
owner/operators. (e) Helideck owners/operators should ensure
NOTE that the helideck has a serviceable antiskid surface.
1. See subparagraph 1021d for Tanker Operations. 4. Weight and limitations markings on
2. Private use Heliport. Offshore heliports are privately helideck. The helideck weight limitations should be
owned/operated facilities and their use is limited to displayed by markings visible to the pilot (see State
persons having prior authorization to utilize the facility. of Louisiana Offshore Heliport Design Guide and
FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/53902A, Heliport
l. Two (2) Helicopter Operations on Offshore
Design Guide).
Helidecks
NOTE
1. Background. Standardized procedures can Some offshore helideck owners/operators have restrictions
enhance the safety of operating a second helicopter on the number of helicopters allowed on a helideck. When
on an offshore helideck, enabling pilots to helideck size permits, multiple (more than two) helicopter
determine/maintain minimum operational parame- operations are permitted by some operators.
ters. Orientation of the parked helicopter on the m. Helicopter Rapid Refueling Procedures
helideck, wind and other factors may prohibit (HRR)
multihelicopter operations. More conservative
Rotor Diameter (RD) clearances may be required 1. Background. Helicopter Rapid Refueling
under differing condition, i.e., temperature, wet deck, (HRR), engine(s)/rotors operating, can be conducted
wind (velocity/direction/gusts), obstacles, approach/ safely when utilizing trained personnel and observing
departure angles, etc. Operations are at the pilots safe practices. This recommended practice provides
discretion. minimum guidance for HRR as outlined in National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and industry
2. Recommended Practice. Helideck size, practices. For detailed guidance, please refer to
structural weight capability, and type of main rotor on National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Docu-
the parked and operating helicopter will aid in ment 407, Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servicing,
determining accessibility by a second helicopter. 1990 edition, including 1993 HRR Amendment.
Pilots should determine that multihelicopter deck
operations are permitted by the helideck owner/ NOTE
Certain operators prohibit HRR, or hot refueling, or
operator. may have specific procedures for certain aircraft or
3. Recommended Criteria refueling locations. See the General Operations Manual
and/or Operations Specifications to determine the
(a) Minimum onethird rotor diameter applicable procedures or limitations.
clearance (1/3 RD). The landing helicopter main- 2. Recommended Practices
tains a minimum 1/3 RD clearance between the tips of
its turning rotor and the closest part of a parked and (a) Only turbineengine helicopters fueled
secured helicopter (rotors stopped and tied down). with JET A or JET A1 with fueling ports located
below any engine exhausts may be fueled while an
(b) Three foot parking distance from deck onboard engine(s) is (are) operating.
edge (3). Helicopters operating on an offshore
helideck land or park the helicopter with a skid/wheel (b) Helicopter fueling while an onboard
assembly no closer than 3 feet from helideck edge. engine(s) is (are) operating should only be conducted
under the following conditions:
(c) Tiedowns. Main rotors on all helicopters
that are shut down be properly secured (tied down) to (1) A properly certificated and current pilot
prevent the rotor blades from turning. is at the controls and a trained refueler attending the
fuel nozzle during the entire fuel servicing process.
(d) Medium (transport) and larger helicopters The pilot monitors the fuel quantity and signals the
should not land on any offshore helideck where a light refueler when quantity is reached.

4/3/14 AIM
(2) No electrical storms (thunderstorms) NOTE

are present within 10 nautical miles. Lightning can 1. Marine vessels, barges etc.: Vessel motion presents
travel great distances beyond the actual thunder- additional potential hazards to helicopter operations
storm. (blade flex, aircraft movement).
2. See National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
(3) Passengers disembark the helicopter Document 407, Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servic-
and move to a safe location prior to HRR operations. ing for specifics regarding nonHRR (routine refueling
When the pilotincommand deems it necessary for operations).
passenger safety that they remain onboard, passen-
gers should be briefed on the evacuation route to 1022. Helicopter Night VFR Operations
follow to clear the area. a. Effect of Lighting on Seeing Conditions in
Night VFR Helicopter Operations
(4) Passengers not board or disembark
during HRR operations nor should cargo be loaded or NOTE
This guidance was developed to support safe night VFR
unloaded.
helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) opera-
tions. The principles of lighting and seeing conditions are
(5) Only designated personnel, trained in useful in any night VFR operation.
HRR operations should conduct HRR written
authorization to include safe handling of the fuel and While ceiling and visibility significantly affect safety
equipment. (See your Company Operations/Safety in night VFR operations, lighting conditions also
Manual for detailed instructions.) have a profound effect on safety. Even in conditions
in which visibility and ceiling are determined to be
(6) All doors, windows, and access points visual meteorological conditions, the ability to
allowing entry to the interior of the helicopter that are discern unlighted or low contrast objects and terrain
adjacent to or in the immediate vicinity of the fuel at night may be compromised. The ability to discern
inlet ports kept closed during HRR operations. these objects and terrain is the seeing condition, and
is related to the amount of natural and man made
(7) Pilots ensure that appropriate electrical/ lighting available, and the contrast, reflectivity, and
electronic equipment is placed in standbyoff texture of surface terrain and obstruction features. In
position, to preclude the possibility of electrical order to conduct operations safely, seeing conditions
discharge or other fire hazard, such as [i.e., weather must be accounted for in the planning and execution
radar is on standby and no radio transmissions are of night VFR operations.
made (keying of the microphone/transmitter)]. Night VFR seeing conditions can be described by
Remember, in addition to communications radios, identifying high lighting conditions and low
radio transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar, lighting conditions.
transponders, radar altimeters, DME equipment, and
ELTs. 1. High lighting conditions exist when one of
two sets of conditions are present:
(8) Smoking be prohibited in and around (a) The sky cover is less than broken (less
the helicopter during all HRR operations. than 5/8 cloud cover), the time is between the local
Moon rise and Moon set, and the lunar disk is at least
The HRR procedures are critical and present 50% illuminated; or
associated hazards requiring attention to detail
(b) The aircraft is operated over surface
regarding quality control, weather conditions, static
lighting which, at least, provides for the lighting of
electricity, bonding, and spill/fires potential.
prominent obstacles, the identification of terrain
Any activity associated with rotors turning features (shorelines, valleys, hills, mountains, slopes)
(i.e.; refueling embarking/disembarking, loading/ and a horizontal reference by which the pilot may
unloading baggage/freight; etc.) personnel should control the helicopter. For example, this surface
only approach the aircraft when authorized to do so. lighting may be the result of:
Approach should be made via safe approach (1) Extensive cultural lighting (manmade,
path/walkway or arc remain clear of all rotors. such as a builtup area of a city),

AIM 4/3/14
(2) Significant reflected cultural lighting horizon is geometrically exactly 90 degrees from the
(such as the illumination caused by the reflection of local vertical direction.
a major metropolitan areas lighting reflecting off a
cloud ceiling), or (b) Rise, Set. During the course of a day the
Earth rotates once on its axis causing the phenomena
(3) Limited cultural lighting combined of rising and setting. All celestial bodies, the Sun,
with a high level of natural reflectivity of celestial Moon, stars and planets, seem to appear in the sky at
illumination, such as that provided by a surface the horizon to the East of any particular place, then to
covered by snow or a desert surface. cross the sky and again disappear at the horizon to the
West. Because the Sun and Moon appear as circular
2. Low lighting conditions are those that do not disks and not as points of light, a definition of rise or
meet the high lighting conditions requirements. set must be very specific, because not all of either
3. Some areas may be considered a high lighting body is seen to rise or set at once.
environment only in specific circumstances. For (c) Sunrise and sunset refer to the times when
example, some surfaces, such as a forest with limited the upper edge of the disk of the Sun is on the horizon,
cultural lighting, normally have little reflectivity, considered unobstructed relative to the location of
requiring dependence on significant moonlight to interest. Atmospheric conditions are assumed to be
achieve a high lighting condition. However, when average, and the location is in a level region on the
that same forest is covered with snow, its reflectivity Earths surface.
may support a high lighting condition based only on
starlight. Similarly, a desolate area, with little cultural (d) Moonrise and moonset times are com-
lighting, such as a desert, may have such inherent puted for exactly the same circumstances as for
natural reflectivity that it may be considered a high sunrise and sunset. However, moonrise and moonset
lighting conditions area regardless of season, may occur at any time during a 24 hour period and,
provided the cloud cover does not prevent starlight consequently, it is often possible for the Moon to be
from being reflected from the surface. Other surfaces, seen during daylight, and to have moonless nights. It
such as areas of open water, may never have enough is also possible that a moonrise or moonset does not
reflectivity or cultural lighting to ever be character- occur relative to a specific place on a given date.
ized as a high lighting area.
(e) Transit. The transit time of a celestial
4. Through the accumulation of night flying body refers to the instant that its center crosses an
experience in a particular area, the operator will imaginary line in the sky the observers meridian
develop the ability to determine, prior to departure, running from north to south.
which areas can be considered supporting high or low
lighting conditions. Without that operational experi- (f) Twilight. Before sunrise and again after
ence, low lighting considerations should be applied sunset there are intervals of time, known as
by operators for both preflight planning and twilight, during which there is natural light
operations until high lighting conditions are observed provided by the upper atmosphere, which does
or determined to be regularly available. receive direct sunlight and reflects part of it toward
the Earths surface.
b. Astronomical Definitions and Background
Information for Night Operations (g) Civil twilight is defined to begin in the
morning, and to end in the evening when the center of
1. Definitions the Sun is geometrically 6 degrees below the horizon.
This is the limit at which twilight illumination is
(a) Horizon. Wherever one is located on or sufficient, under good weather conditions, for
near the Earths surface, the Earth is perceived as terrestrial objects to be clearly distinguished.
essentially flat and, therefore, as a plane. If there are
no visual obstructions, the apparent intersection of 2. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
the sky with the Earths (plane) surface is the horizon, applies these concepts and definitions in addressing
which appears as a circle centered at the observer. For the definition of night (Section 1.1), the requirement
rise/set computations, the observers eye is consid- for aircraft lighting (Section 91.209) and pilot
ered to be on the surface of the Earth, so that the recency of night experience (Section 61.67).

4/3/14 AIM
c. Information on Moon Phases and Changes in then back through partially illuminated to not
the Percentage of the Moon Illuminated illuminated again. There are eight distinct, tradition-
From any location on the Earth, the Moon appears to ally recognized stages, called phases. The phases
be a circular disk which, at any specific time, is designate both the degree to which the Moon is
illuminated to some degree by direct sunlight. During illuminated and the geometric appearance of the
each lunar orbit (a lunar month), we see the Moons illuminated part. These phases of the Moon, in the
appearance change from not visibly illuminated sequence of their occurrence (starting from New
through partially illuminated to fully illuminated, Moon), are listed in FIG 1023.
FIG 1023
Phases of the Moon
New Moon The Moons unilluminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon is not visible
(except during a solar eclipse).
Waxing Crescent The Moon appears to be partly but less than onehalf illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is increasing.
First Quarter Onehalf of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The
fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is increasing.
Waxing Gibbous The Moon appears to be more than onehalf but not fully illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is increasing.
Full Moon The Moons illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears to be
completely illuminated by direct sunlight.
Waning Gibbous The Moon appears to be more than onehalf but not fully
illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is
decreasing.
Last Quarter Onehalf of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The
fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is decreasing.
Waning Crescent The Moon appears to be partly but less than onehalf illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

AIM 4/3/14
1. The percent of the Moons surface illumi- TBL 1022

nated is a more refined, quantitative description of the Sample of Astronomical Data Available
Moons appearance than is the phase. Considering the from the Naval Observatory
Moon as a circular disk, at New Moon the percent The following information is provided for
illuminated is 0; at First and Last Quarters it is 50%; New Orleans, Orleans Parish, Louisiana
and at Full Moon it is 100%. During the crescent (longitude W90.1, latitude N30.0)
phases the percent illuminated is between 0 and 50%
and during gibbous phases it is between 50% and Tuesday Central Daylight Time
100%. 29 May 2007
2. For practical purposes, phases of the Moon
and the percent of the Moon illuminated are SUN
independent of the location on the Earth from where Begin civil twilight 5:34 a.m.
the Moon is observed. That is, all the phases occur at Sunrise 6:01 a.m.
the same time regardless of the observers position.
Sun transit 12:58 p.m.
3. For more detailed information, refer to the Sunset 7:55 p.m.
United States Naval Observatory site referenced End civil twilight 8:22 p.m.
below.
d. Access to Astronomical Data for Determina- MOON
tion of Moon Rise, Moon Set, and Percentage of Moonrise 5:10 p.m. on preceding day
Lunar Disk Illuminated Moonset 4:07 a.m.
1. Astronomical data for the determination of Moonrise 6:06 p.m.
Moon rise and set and Moon phase may be obtained Moon transit 11:26 p.m.
from the United States Naval Observatory using an Moonset 4:41 a.m. on following day
interactive query available at:
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/
Phase of the Moon on 29 May: waxing gibbous with
2. Click on Data Services, and then on 95% of the Moons visible disk illuminated.
Complete Sun and Moon Data for One Day. Full Moon on 31 May 2007 at 8:04 p.m. Central
Daylight Time.
3. You can obtain the times of sunrise, sunset,
moonrise, moonset, transits of the Sun and Moon, and
the beginning and end of civil twilight, along with 1023. Landing Zone Safety
information on the Moons phase by specifying the
a. This information is provided for use by
date and location in one of the two forms on this web
helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS)
page and clicking on the Get data button at the end
pilots, program managers, medical personnel, law
of the form. Form A is used for cities or towns in the
enforcement, fire, and rescue personnel to further
U.S. or its territories. Form B for all other locations.
their understanding of the safety issues concerning
An example of the data available from this site is
Landing Zones (LZs). It is recommended that HEMS
shown in TBL 1022.
operators establish working relationships with the
4. Additionally, a yearly table may be ground responder organizations they may come in
constructed for a particular location by using the contact with in their flight operations and share this
Table of Sunrise/Sunset, Moonrise/Moonset, or information in order to establish a common frame of
Twilight Times for an Entire Year selection. reference for LZ selection, operations, and safety.

4/3/14 AIM
b. The information provided is largely based on (a) Small Helicopter: Bell 206/407, Euro-
the booklet, LZ Preparing the Landing Zone, issued copter AS350/355, BO105, BK117.
by National Emergency Medical Services Pilots
(b) Medium Helicopter: Bell UH1 (Huey)
Association (NEMSPA), and the guidance developed
and derivatives (Bell 212/412), Bell 222/230/430
by the University of Tennessee Medical Centers
Sikorsky S76, Eurocopter SA365.
LIFESTAR program, and is used with their
permission. For additional information, go to (c) Large Helicopter: Boeing Chinook,
http://www.nemspa.org/. Eurocopter Puma, Sikorsky H60 series
(Blackhawk), SK92.
c. Information concerning the estimation of wind
velocity is based on the Beaufort Scale. See 3. The LZ should be level, firm and free of loose
http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/beaufort.html debris that could possibly blow up into the rotor
for more information. system.
d. Selecting a Scene LZ 4. The LZ should be clear of people, vehicles
and obstructions such as trees, poles and wires.
1. If the situation requires the use of a helicopter,
Remember that wires are difficult to see from the air.
first check to see if there is an area large enough to
The LZ must also be free of stumps, brush, post and
land a helicopter safely.
large rocks. See FIG 1025.
FIG 1024
FIG 1025
Recommended Minimum Landing Zone Dimensions
Landing Zone Hazards
5. Keep spectators back at least 200 feet. Keep

emergency vehicles 100 feet away and have fire
equipment (if available) standing by. Ground
personnel should wear eye protection, if available,
during landing and takeoff operations. To avoid loose
objects being blown around in the LZ, hats should be
removed; if helmets are worn, chin straps must be
securely fastened.
2. For the purposes of FIG 1024 the follow-
ing are provided as examples of relative helicopter 6. Fire fighters (if available) should wet down
size: the LZ if it is extremely dusty.

AIM 4/3/14
e. Helping the Flightcrew Locate the Scene 4. When the helicopter approaches the scene, it
1. If the LZ coordinator has access to a GPS unit, will normally orbit at least one time as the flight crew
the exact latitude and longitude of the LZ should be observes the wind direction and obstacles that could
relayed to the HEMS pilot. If unable to contact the interfere with the landing. This is often referred to as
pilot directly, relay the information to the HEMS the high reconnaissance maneuver.
ground communications specialist for relaying to the f. Wind Direction and Touchdown Area
pilot, so that they may locate your scene more
efficiently. Recognize that the aircraft may approach 1. Determine from which direction the wind is
from a direction different than the direct path from the blowing. Helicopters normally land and takeoff into
takeoff point to the scene, as the pilot may have to the wind.
detour around terrain, obstructions or weather 2. If contact can be established with the pilot,
en route. either directly or indirectly through the HEMS
2. Especially in daylight hours, mountainous ground communications specialist, describe the wind
and densely populated areas can make sighting a in terms of the direction the wind is from and the
scene from the air difficult. Often, the LZ coordinator speed.
on the ground will be asked if she or he can see or hear 3. Common natural sources of wind direction
the helicopter. information are smoke, dust, vegetation movement,
3. Flightcrews use a clock reference method for water streaks and waves. Flags, pennants, streamers
directing one anothers attention to a certain direction can also be used. When describing the direction, use
from the aircraft. The nose of the aircraft is always the compass direction from which the wind is
12 oclock, the right side is 3 oclock, etc. When the blowing (example: from the NorthWest).
LZ coordinator sees the aircraft, he/she should use
this method to assist the flightcrew by indicating the 4. Wind speed can be measured by small
scenes clock reference position from the nose of the handheld measurement devices, or an observers
aircraft. For example, Accident scene is located at estimate can be used to provide velocity information.
your 2 oclock position. See FIG 1026. The wind value should be reported in knots (nautical
miles per hour). If unable to numerically measure
FIG 1026 wind speed, use TBL 1023 to estimate velocity.
Clock System for Identifying Positions Also, report if the wind conditions are gusty, or if the
Relative to the Nose of the Aircraft
wind direction or velocity is variable or has changed
recently.
5. If any obstacle(s) exist, ensure their descrip-
tion, position and approximate height are
communicated to the pilot on the initial radio call.

4/3/14 AIM
TBL 1023
Table of Common References for Estimating Wind Velocity
Wind Wind Appearance of Wind Effects

(Knots) Classification On the Water On Land
Less than 1 Calm Sea surface smooth and mirrorlike Calm, smoke rises vertically
13 Light Air Scaly ripples, no foam crests Smoke drift indicates wind direction,
wind vanes are still
46 Light Breeze Small wavelets, crests glassy, no Wind felt on face, leaves rustle, vanes
breaking begin to move
710 Gentle Breeze Large wavelets, crests begin to break, Leaves and small twigs constantly
scattered whitecaps moving, light flags extended
1116 Moderate Breeze Small waves 14 ft. becoming longer, Dust, leaves, and loose paper lifted,
numerous whitecaps small tree branches move
1721 Fresh Breeze Moderate waves 48 ft. taking longer Small trees in leaf begin to sway
form, many whitecaps, some spray
2227 Strong Breeze Larger waves 813 ft., whitecaps Larger tree branches moving, whistling
common, more spray in wires
2833 Near Gale Sea heaps up, waves 1320 ft., white Whole trees moving, resistance felt
foam streaks off breakers walking against wind
3440 Gale Moderately high (1320 ft.) waves of Whole trees in motion, resistance felt
greater length, edges of crests begin to walking against wind
break into spindrift, foam blown in
streaks
4147 Strong Gale High waves (20 ft.), sea begins to roll, Slight structural damage occurs, slate
dense streaks of foam, spray may reduce blows off roofs
visibility
4855 Storm Very high waves (2030 ft.) with Seldom experienced on land, trees
overhanging crests, sea white with broken or uprooted, considerable
densely blown foam, heavy rolling, structural damage
lowered visibility
5663 Violent Storm Exceptionally high (3045 ft.) waves,
foam patches cover sea, visibility more
reduced
64+ Hurricane Air filled with foam, waves over 45 ft.,
sea completely white with driving spray,
visibility greatly reduced
EXAMPLE
Wind from the SouthEast, estimated speed 15 knots. Wind shifted from NorthEast about fifteen minutes ago, and is gusty.

AIM 4/3/14
g. Night LZs locations and do not affect the pilots night vision as
significantly.
1. There are several ways to light a night LZ:
3. As in Day LZ operations, ensure radio contact
(a) Mark the touchdown area with five lights
is accomplished between ground and air, if possible.
or road flares, one in each corner and one indicating
the direction of the wind. See FIG 1027. h. Ground Guide
FIG 1027 1. When the helicopter is in sight, one person
Recommended Lighting for should assist the LZ Coordinator by guiding the
Landing Zone Operations at Night helicopter into a safe landing area. In selecting an LZ
Coordinator, recognize that medical personnel
usually are very busy with the patient at this time. It
is recommended that the LZ Coordinator be someone
other than a medical responder, if possible. Eye
protection should be worn. The ground guide should
stand with his/her back to the wind and his/her arms
raised over his/her head (flashlights in each hand for
night operations.)
2. The pilot will confirm the LZ sighting by
radio. If possible, once the pilot has identified the LZ,
the ground guide should move out of the LZ.
3. As the helicopter turns into the wind and
NOTE
Road flares are an intense source of ignition and may be begins a descent, the LZ coordinator should provide
unsuitable or dangerous in certain conditions. In any case, assistance by means of radio contact, or utilize the
they must be closely managed and firefighting equipment unsafe signal to wave off the helicopter if the LZ is
should be present when used. Other light sources are not safe (see FIG 1028). The LZ Coordinator
preferred, if available. should be far enough from the touchdown area that
(b) If chemical light sticks may be used, care he/she can still maintain visual contact with the pilot.
should be taken to assure they are adequately secured i. Assisting the Crew
against being dislodged by the helicopters rotor
wash. 1. After the helicopter has landed, do not
approach the helicopter. The crew will approach you.
(c) Another method of marking a LZ uses four
emergency vehicles with their low beam headlights 2. Be prepared to assist the crew by providing
aimed toward the intended landing area. security for the helicopter. If asked to provide
security, allow no one but the crew to approach the
(d) A third method for marking a LZ uses two aircraft.
vehicles. Have the vehicles direct their headlight
beams into the wind, crossing at the center of the LZ. 3. Once the patient is prepared and ready to load,
(If fire/rescue personnel are available, the reflective allow the crew to open the doors to the helicopter and
stripes on their bunker gear will assist the pilot guide the loading of the patient.
greatly.)
4. When approaching or departing the helicop-
2. At night, spotlights, flood lights and hand ter, always be aware of the tail rotor and always
lights used to define the LZ are not to be pointed at the follow the directions of the crew. Working around a
helicopter. However, they are helpful when pointed running helicopter can be potentially dangerous. The
toward utility poles, trees or other hazards to the environment is very noisy and, with exhaust gases
landing aircraft. White lights such as spotlights, and rotor wash, often windy. In scene operations, the
flashbulbs and hibeam headlights ruin the pilots surface may be uneven, soft, or slippery which can
night vision and temporarily blind him. Red lights, lead to tripping. Be very careful of your footing in this
however, are very helpful in finding accident environment.

4/3/14 AIM
5. The tail rotor poses a special threat to the contamination of the crew. Patients/victims
working around a running helicopter. The tail rotor contaminated by hazardous materials may require
turns many times faster than the main rotor, and is special precautions in packaging before loading on
often invisible even at idle engine power. Avoid the aircraft for the medical crews protection, or may
walking towards the tail of a helicopter beyond the be transported by other means.
end of the cabin, unless specifically directed by the
crew. 4. Hazardous chemicals and gases may be fatal
to the unprotected person if inhaled or absorbed
NOTE through the skin.
Helicopters typically have doors on the sides of the cabin,
but many use aft mounted clamshell type doors for 5. Upon initial radio contact, the helicopter crew
loading and unloading patients on litters or stretchers. must be made aware of any hazardous gases in the
When using these doors, it is important to avoid moving any area. Never assume that the crew has already been
further aft than necessary to operate the doors and informed. If the aircraft were to fly through the
load/unload the patient. Again, always comply with the hazardous gases, the crew could be poisoned and/or
crews instructions.
the engines could develop mechanical problems.
j. General Rules
6. Poisonous or irritating gases may cling to a
1. When working around helicopters, always victims clothing and go unnoticed until the patient is
approach and depart from the front, never from the loaded and the doors of the helicopter are closed. To
rear. Approaching from the rear can increase your risk avoid possible compromise of the crew, all of these
of being struck by the tail rotor, which, when at patients must be decontaminated prior to loading.
operating engine speed, is nearly invisible.
l. Hand Signals
2. To prevent injury or damage from the main
rotor, never raise anything over your head. 1. If unable to make radio contact with the
HEMS pilot, use the following signals:
3. If the helicopter landed on a slope, approach
and depart from the down slope side only. FIG 1028
4. When the helicopter is loaded and ready for Recommended Landing Zone Ground Signals
take off, keep the departure path free of vehicles and
spectators. In an emergency, this area is needed to
execute a landing.
k. Hazardous Chemicals and Gases
1. Responding to accidents involving hazardous
materials requires special handling by fire/rescue
units on the ground. Equally important are the
preparations and considerations for helicopter
operations in these areas.
2. Hazardous materials of concern are those
which are toxic, poisonous, flammable, explosive,
irritating, or radioactive in nature. Helicopter
ambulance crews normally dont carry protective
suits or breathing apparatuses to protect them from
hazardous materials.
3. The helicopter ambulance crew must be told
of hazardous materials on the scene in order to avoid

AIM 4/3/14
m. Emergency Situations establish communications on 123.025 at least 10

1. In the event of a helicopter accident in the NMs from the LZ. After establishing contact on
vicinity of the LZ, consider the following: 123.025, they should contact the ground unit for
additional information. All helicopters should
(a) Emergency Exits: monitor 123.025 at all times.
(1) Doors and emergency exits are typical- (a) If the landing zone is not established by
ly prominently marked. If possible, operators should the ground unit when the first helicopter arrives,
familiarize ground responders with the door system then the first helicopter should establish altitude
on their helicopter in preparation for an emergency and orbit location requirements for the other
event. arriving helicopters. Recommended altitude separa-
(2) In the event of an accident during the LZ tion between helicopters is 500 feet (weather and
operation, be cautious of hazards such as sharp and airspace permitting). Helicopters can orbit on
jagged metal, plastic windows, glass, any rotating cardinal headings from the scene coordinates. (See
components, such as the rotors, and fire sources, such FIG 1029.)
as the fuel tank(s) and the engine.
(b) Upon landing in the LZ, the first
(b) Fire Suppression: helicopter should update the other helicopters on the
Helicopters used in HEMS operations are usually LZ conditions, i.e., space, hazards and terrain.
powered by turboshaft engines, which use jet fuel. (c) Before initiating any helicopter move-
Civil HEMS aircraft typically carry between 50 and ment to leave the LZ, all operators should attempt to
250 gallons of fuel, depending upon the size of the contact other helicopters on 123.025, and state their
helicopter, and planned flight duration, and the fuel position and route of flight intentions for departing
remaining after flying to the scene. Use water to the LZ.
control heat and use foam over fuel to keep vapors
from ignition sources. 2. Hospital Operations. Because many
hospitals require landing permission and have
1024. Emergency Medical Service (EMS) established procedures (frequencies to monitor,
Multiple Helicopter Operations primary and secondary routes for approaches and
departures, and orbiting areas if the heliport is
a. Background. EMS helicopter operators often occupied) pilots should always receive a briefing
overlap other EMS operator areas. Standardized from the appropriate facility (communication center,
procedures can enhance the safety of operating flight following, etc.) before proceeding to the
multiple helicopters to landing zones (LZs) and to hospital.
hospital heliports. Communication is the key to
successful operations and in maintaining organiza- (a) In the event of multiple helicopters
tion between helicopters, ground units and coming into the hospital heliport, the helicopter
communication centers. EMS helicopter operators nearest to the heliport should contact other inbound
which operate in the same areas should establish joint helicopters on 123.025 and establish intentions.
operating procedures and provide them to related Follow the guidelines established in the LZ
agencies. operations.
b. Recommended Procedures. (b) To facilitate approach times, the pilotin

command of the helicopter occupying the hospital
1. Landing Zone Operations. The first heli- heliport should advise any other operators whether
copter to arrive onscene should establish the patient will be off loaded with the rotor blades
communications with the ground unit at least 10 NMs turning or stopped, and the approximate time to do so.
from the LZ to receive a LZ briefing and to provide
ground control the number of helicopters that can be (c) Before making any helicopter movement
expected. An attempt should be made to contact other to leave the hospital heliport, all operators should
helicopters on 123.025 to pass on to them pertinent attempt to contact other helicopters on 123.025 and
LZ information and the ground units frequency. state their position and route of flight intentions for
Subsequent helicopters arriving on scene should departing the heliport.

4/3/14 AIM
FIG 1029
EMS Multiple Helicopter LZ/Heliport Operation
NOTE
If the LZ/hospital heliport weather conditions or airspace altitude restrictions prohibit the recommended vertical
separation, 1 NM separations should be kept between helicopter orbit areas.

4/3/14 AIM
Appendix 1. Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report
Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report Appendix 11

AIM 4/3/14
FOLD AND TAPE HERE
Appendix 12 Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report

4/3/14 AIM
Appendix 2. Volcanic Activity Reporting Form (VAR)
Email address: GVN@volcano.si.edu
Volcanic Activity Reporting Form (VAR) Appendix 21

4/3/14 AIM
Appendix 3. Abbreviations/Acronyms
As used in this manual, the following abbreviations/ Abbreviation/ Meaning

acronyms have the meanings indicated. Acronym
ASRS . . . . . . Aviation Safety Reporting System
Abbreviation/ Meaning
Acronym ATC . . . . . . . Air Traffic Control
AAWU . . . . . Alaskan Aviation Weather Unit ATCRBS . . . . Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System
AAS . . . . . . . Airport Advisory Service ATCSCC . . . . Air Traffic Control System Command
Center
AC . . . . . . . . Advisory Circular
ATCT . . . . . . Airport Traffic Control Tower
ACAR . . . . . Aircraft Communications Addressing and
Reporting System ATD . . . . . . . AlongTrack Distance
ADCUS . . . . Advise Customs ATIS . . . . . . . Automatic Terminal Information Service
ADDS . . . . . . Aviation Digital Data Service ATT . . . . . . . Attitude Retention System
ADF . . . . . . . Automatic Direction Finder AWC . . . . . . . Aviation Weather Center
ADIZ . . . . . . Air Defense Identification Zone AWOS . . . . . Automated Weather Observing System
ADSB . . . . . Automatic Dependent AWSS . . . . . . Automated Weather Sensor System
SurveillanceBroadcast AWTT . . . . . Aviation Weather Technology Transfer
AeroNav . . . . Aeronautical Navigation Products AWW . . . . . . Severe Weather Forecast Alert
AFB . . . . . . . Air Force Base BAASS . . . . . Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space
AFCS . . . . . . Automatic Flight Control System Studies
A/FD . . . . . . Airport/Facility Directory BBS . . . . . . . Bulletin Board System
AFIS . . . . . . . Automatic Flight Information Service BC . . . . . . . . Back Course
AFM . . . . . . . Aircraft Flight Manual BECMG . . . . Becoming group
AGL . . . . . . . Above Ground Level C/A . . . . . . . . Coarse Acquisition
AHRS . . . . . . Attitude Heading Reference System CARTS . . . . . Common Automated Radar Terminal
System (ARTS) (to include ARTS IIIE and
AIM . . . . . . . Aeronautical Information Manual
ARTS IIE)
AIRMET . . . Airmens Meteorological Information
CAT . . . . . . . Clear Air Turbulence
ALD . . . . . . . Available Landing Distance
CD . . . . . . . . Controller Display
ALS . . . . . . . Approach Light Systems
CDI . . . . . . . . Course Deviation Indicator
AMSL . . . . . Above Mean Sea Level
CDR . . . . . . . Coded Departure Route
ANP . . . . . . . Actual Navigation Performance
CERAP . . . . . Combined Center/RAPCON
AOCC . . . . . Airline Operations Control Center
CFA . . . . . . . Controlled Firing Area
AP . . . . . . . . Autopilot System
CFIT . . . . . . . Controlled Flight into Terrain
APV . . . . . . . Approach with Vertical Guidance
CFR . . . . . . . Code of Federal Regulations
AR . . . . . . . . Authorization Required COA . . . . . . . Certificate of Waiver or Authorization
ARENA . . . . Areas Noted for Attention CPDLC . . . . . Controller Pilot Data Link
ARFF IC . . . . Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Incident Communications
Commander
CTAF . . . . . . Common Traffic Advisory Frequency
ARINC . . . . . Aeronautical Radio Incorporated CVFP . . . . . . Charted Visual Flight Procedure
ARO . . . . . . . Airport Reservations Office CVRS . . . . . . Computerized Voice Reservation System
ARSA . . . . . . Airport Radar Service Area CWA . . . . . . . Center Weather Advisory
ARSR . . . . . . Air Route Surveillance Radar CWSU . . . . . Center Weather Service Unit
ARTCC . . . . . Air Route Traffic Control Center
DA . . . . . . . . Decision Altitude
ARTS . . . . . . Automated Radar Terminal System
DCA . . . . . . . Ronald Reagan Washington National
ASDEX . . . Airport Surface Detection Equipment Airport
Model X
DCP . . . . . . . Data Collection Package
ASOS . . . . . . Automated Surface Observing System
DER . . . . . . . Departure End of Runway
ASR . . . . . . . Airport Surveillance Radar
Abbreviations/Acronyms Appendix 31
AIM 4/3/14
Abbreviation/ Meaning Abbreviation/ Meaning

Acronym Acronym
DH . . . . . . . . Decision Height FSDO . . . . . . Flight Standards District Office
DME . . . . . . . Distance Measuring Equipment FSS . . . . . . . . Flight Service Station
DME/N . . . . . Standard DME GBAS . . . . . . Ground Based Augmentation System
DME/P . . . . . Precision DME GEO . . . . . . . Geostationary Satellite
DOD . . . . . . . Department of Defense GLS . . . . . . . GBAS Landing System
DP . . . . . . . . Instrument Departure Procedure GNSS . . . . . . Global Navigation Satellite System
DPU . . . . . . . Data Processor Unit GNSSP . . . . . Global Navigation Satellite System Panel
DRT . . . . . . . Diversion Recovery Tool GPS . . . . . . . Global Positioning System
DRVSM . . . . Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation GRI . . . . . . . . Group Repetition Interval
Minimum GSD . . . . . . . Geographical Situation Display
DUATS . . . . . Direct User Access Terminal System GUS . . . . . . . Ground Uplink Station
DVA . . . . . . . Diverse Vector Area HAT . . . . . . . Height Above Touchdown
DVFR . . . . . . Defense Visual Flight Rules HDTA . . . . . . High Density Traffic Airports
DVRSN . . . . Diversion HEMS . . . . . Helicopter Emergency Medical Services
EDCT . . . . . . Expect Departure Clearance Time HIRL . . . . . . High Intensity Runway Lights
EFAS . . . . . . En Route Flight Advisory Service HIWAS . . . . . Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory
EFV . . . . . . . Enhanced Flight Visibility Service
EFVS . . . . . . Enhanced Flight Vision System HRR . . . . . . . Helicopter Rapid Refueling Procedures
ELT . . . . . . . . Emergency Locator Transmitter HUD . . . . . . . HeadUp Display
EMAS . . . . . Engineered Materials Arresting System Hz . . . . . . . . . Hertz
EPE . . . . . . . Estimate of Position Error IAF . . . . . . . . Initial Approach Fix
ESV . . . . . . . Expanded Service Volume IAP . . . . . . . . Instrument Approach Procedure
ETA . . . . . . . Estimated Time of Arrival IAS . . . . . . . . Indicated Air Speed
ETD . . . . . . . Estimated Time of Departure IAWP . . . . . . Initial Approach Waypoint
ETE . . . . . . . Estimated Time En Route ICAO . . . . . . International Civil Aviation Organization
EWINS . . . . . Enhanced Weather Information System IF . . . . . . . . . Intermediate Fix
EWR . . . . . . . Newark International Airport IFIM . . . . . . . International Flight Information Manual
FA . . . . . . . . . Area Forecast IFR . . . . . . . . Instrument Flight Rules
FAA . . . . . . . Federal Aviation Administration ILS . . . . . . . . Instrument Landing System
FAF . . . . . . . . Final Approach Fix ILS/PRM . . . Instrument Landing System/Precision
FAROS . . . . . Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal Runway Monitor
FAWP . . . . . . Final Approach Waypoint IM . . . . . . . . . Inner Marker
FB . . . . . . . . . Flyby IMC . . . . . . . Instrument Meteorological Conditions
FCC . . . . . . . Federal Communications Commission InFO . . . . . . . Information For Operators
FD . . . . . . . . Flight Director System INS . . . . . . . . Inertial Navigation System
FDC . . . . . . . Flight Data Center IOC . . . . . . . . Initial Operational Capability
FDE . . . . . . . Fault Detection and Exclusion IR . . . . . . . . . IFR Military Training Route
FIR . . . . . . . . Flight Information Region IRU . . . . . . . . Inertial Reference Unit
FIS . . . . . . . . Flight Information Service ITWS . . . . . . Integrated Terminal Weather System
FISDL . . . . . Flight Information Services Data Link JFK . . . . . . . . John F. Kennedy International Airport
FLIP . . . . . . . Flight Information Publication kHz . . . . . . . . Kilohertz
FMS . . . . . . . Flight Management System LAA . . . . . . . Local Airport Advisory
FMSP . . . . . . Flight Management System Procedure LAAS . . . . . . Local Area Augmentation System
FO . . . . . . . . Flyover LAHSO . . . . Land and Hold Short Operations
FPA . . . . . . . . Flight Path Angle LAWRS . . . . Limited Aviation Weather Reporting
FPV . . . . . . . Flight Path Vector Station
FPNM . . . . . . Feet Per Nautical Mile LDA . . . . . . . Localizer Type Directional Aid
Appendix 32 Abbreviations/Acronyms
6/25/15
4/3/14 AIM

Acronym Acronym
LDA/PRM . . Localizer Type Directional Aid/Precision NEXRAD . . . Next Generation Weather Radar
Runway Monitor NFDC . . . . . . National Flight Data Center
LGA . . . . . . . LaGuardia Airport NGA . . . . . . . National GeospatialIntelligence Agency
LIRL . . . . . . . Low Intensity Runway Lights NM . . . . . . . . Nautical Mile
LLWAS . . . . . Low Level Wind Shear Alert System NMAC . . . . . Near Midair Collision
LLWAS NE . Low Level Wind Shear Alert System NOAA . . . . . National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Network Expansion Administration
LLWASRS . Low Level Wind Shear Alert System NOPAC . . . . North Pacific
Relocation/Sustainment
NoPT . . . . . . No Procedure Turn Required
LNAV . . . . . . Lateral Navigation
NOTAM . . . . Notice to Airmen
LOC . . . . . . . Localizer
NPA . . . . . . . Nonprecision Approach
LOP . . . . . . . Lineofposition
NRS . . . . . . . Navigation Reference System
LORAN . . . . Long Range Navigation System
NSA . . . . . . . National Security Area
LP . . . . . . . . . Localizer Performance
NSW . . . . . . . No Significant Weather
LPV . . . . . . . Localizer Performance with Vertical
NTAP . . . . . . Notices to Airmen Publication
Guidance
NTSB . . . . . . National Transportation Safety Board
LUAW . . . . . Line Up and Wait
NTZ . . . . . . . No Transgression Zone
LZ . . . . . . . . . Landing Zone
NWS . . . . . . . National Weather Service
MAHWP . . . Missed Approach Holding Waypoint
OAT . . . . . . . Outside Air Temperature
MAP . . . . . . . Missed Approach Point
OBS . . . . . . . Omnibearing Selector
MAWP . . . . . Missed Approach Waypoint
ODP . . . . . . . Obstacle Departure Procedure
MDA . . . . . . Minimum Descent Altitude
OIS . . . . . . . . Operational Information System
MEA . . . . . . . Minimum En Route Altitude
OIS . . . . . . . . Obstacle Identification Surface
MEARTS . . . Micro En Route Automated Radar
Tracking System OM . . . . . . . . Outer Marker
METAR . . . . Aviation Routine Weather Report ORD . . . . . . . Chicago OHare International Airport
MHz . . . . . . . Megahertz PA . . . . . . . . . Precision Approach
MIRL . . . . . . Medium Intensity Runway Lights PAPI . . . . . . . Precision Approach Path Indicator
MM . . . . . . . Middle Marker PAR . . . . . . . Precision Approach Radar
MOA . . . . . . Military Operations Area PAR . . . . . . . Preferred Arrival Route
MOCA . . . . . Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude PC . . . . . . . . . Personal Computer
MRA . . . . . . Minimum Reception Altitude P/CG . . . . . . . Pilot/Controller Glossary
MRB . . . . . . . Magnetic Reference Bearing PDC . . . . . . . Predeparture Clearance
MSA . . . . . . . Minimum Safe Altitude PFD . . . . . . . Personal Flotation Device
MSAW . . . . . Minimum Safe Altitude Warning PinS . . . . . . . PointinSpace
MSL . . . . . . . Mean Sea Level PIREP . . . . . . Pilot Weather Report
MTI . . . . . . . Moving Target Indicator POB . . . . . . . Persons on Board
MTOS . . . . . . Mountain Obscuration POFZ . . . . . . Precision Obstacle Free Zone
MTR . . . . . . . Military Training Route POI . . . . . . . . Principal Operations Inspector
MVA . . . . . . . Minimum Vectoring Altitude PPS . . . . . . . . Precise Positioning Service
MWA . . . . . . Mountain Wave Activity PRM . . . . . . . Precision Runway Monitor
MWO . . . . . . Meteorological Watch Office PT . . . . . . . . . Procedure Turn
NAS . . . . . . . National Airspace System QICP . . . . . . Qualified Internet Communications
NASA . . . . . . National Aeronautics and Space Provider
Administration RA . . . . . . . . Resolution Advisory
NAVAID . . . . Navigational Aid RAA . . . . . . . Remote Advisory Airport
NAVCEN . . . Coast Guard Navigation Center RAIM . . . . . . Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
NCWF . . . . . National Convective Weather Forecast STMP . . . . . . Special Traffic Management Program
NDB . . . . . . . Nondirectional Radio Beacon
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
6/25/15
4/3/14

Acronym Acronym
SWSL . . . . . . Supplemental Weather Service Locations TA . . . . . . . . . Traffic Advisory
RAIS . . . . . . Remote Airport Information Service TAA . . . . . . . Terminal Arrival Area
RBDT . . . . . . Ribbon Display Terminals TAC . . . . . . . Terminal Area Chart
RCAG . . . . . Remote Center Air/Ground TACAN . . . . Tactical Air Navigation
RCC . . . . . . . Rescue Coordination Center TAF . . . . . . . Aerodrome Forecast
RCLS . . . . . . Runway Centerline Lighting System TAS . . . . . . . True Air Speed
RCO . . . . . . . Remote Communications Outlet TCAS . . . . . . Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
RD . . . . . . . . Rotor Diameter System
REIL . . . . . . . Runway End Identifier Lights TCH . . . . . . . Threshold Crossing Height
REL . . . . . . . Runway Entrance Lights TD . . . . . . . . Time Difference
RFM . . . . . . . Rotorcraft Flight Manual TDLS . . . . . . Tower Data Link System
RIL . . . . . . . . Runway Intersection Lights TDWR . . . . . Terminal Doppler Weather Radar
RLIM . . . . . . Runway Light Intensity Monitor TDZ . . . . . . . Touchdown Zone
RMI . . . . . . . Radio Magnetic Indicator TDZE . . . . . . Touchdown Zone Elevation
RNAV . . . . . . Area Navigation TDZL . . . . . . Touchdown Zone Lights
RNP . . . . . . . Required Navigation Performance TEC . . . . . . . Tower En Route Control
ROC . . . . . . . Required Obstacle Clearance THL . . . . . . . Takeoff Hold Lights
RPAT . . . . . . RNP Parallel Approach Runway TIBS . . . . . . . Telephone Information Briefing Service
Transitions TIS . . . . . . . . Traffic Information Service
RVR . . . . . . . Runway Visual Range TISB . . . . . . Traffic Information ServiceBroadcast
RVSM . . . . . . Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum TLS . . . . . . . Transponder Landing System
RWSL . . . . . . Runway Status Light TPP . . . . . . . . Terminal Procedures Publications
SAFO . . . . . . Safety Alerts For Operators TRSA . . . . . . Terminal Radar Service Area
SAM . . . . . . . System Area Monitor TSO . . . . . . . Technical Standard Order
SAR . . . . . . . Search and Rescue TWEB . . . . . Transcribed Weather Broadcast
SAS . . . . . . . Stability Augmentation System TWIB . . . . . . Terminal Weather Information for Pilots
SBAS . . . . . . Satellitebased Augmentation System System
SCAT1 UA . . . . . . . . Unmanned Aircraft
DGPS . . . . . . Special Category I Differential GPS UAS . . . . . . . Unmanned Aircraft System
SDF . . . . . . . Simplified Directional Facility UAV . . . . . . . Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
SFL . . . . . . . . Sequenced Flashing Lights UFO . . . . . . . Unidentified Flying Object
SFR . . . . . . . Special Flight Rules UHF . . . . . . . Ultrahigh Frequency
SIAP . . . . . . . Standard Instrument Approach Procedure U.S. . . . . . . . United States
SID . . . . . . . . Standard Instrument Departure USCG . . . . . . United States Coast Guard
SIGMET . . . . Significant Meteorological Information UTC . . . . . . . Coordinated Universal Time
SM . . . . . . . . Statute Mile UWS . . . . . . . Urgent Weather SIGMET
SMGCS . . . . Surface Movement Guidance Control VAR . . . . . . . Volcanic Activity Reporting
System
VASI . . . . . . . Visual Approach Slope Indicator
SNR . . . . . . . Signaltonoise Ratio
VCOA . . . . . Visual Climb Over the Airport
SOIA . . . . . . Simultaneous Offset Instrument
Approaches VDA . . . . . . . Vertical Descent Angle
SOP . . . . . . . Standard Operating Procedure VDP . . . . . . . Visual Descent Point
SPC . . . . . . . Storm Prediction Center VFR . . . . . . . Visual Flight Rules
SPS . . . . . . . . Standard Positioning Service VGSI . . . . . . Visual Glide Slope Indicator
STAR . . . . . . Standard Terminal Arrival VHF . . . . . . . Very High Frequency
STARS . . . . . Standard Terminal Automation VIP . . . . . . . . Video Integrator Processor
Replacement System VMC . . . . . . Visual Meteorological Conditions
Appendix 34 Abbreviations/Acronyms
6/25/15
4/3/14 AIM

Acronym Acronym
VMINI . . . . . . Instrument flight minimum speed, utilized VVI . . . . . . . Vertical Velocity Indicator
in complying with minimum limit speed VY . . . . . . . . Speed for best rate of climb
requirements for instrument flight
VYI . . . . . . . . Instrument climb speed, utilized instead of
VNAV . . . . . . Vertical Navigation VY for compliance with the climb
VNE . . . . . . . Never exceed speed requirements for instrument flight
VNEI . . . . . . . Instrument flight never exceed speed, WA . . . . . . . . AIRMET
utilized instead of VNE for compliance with WAAS . . . . . Wide Area Augmentation System
maximum limit speed requirements for
instrument flight WAC . . . . . . . World Aeronautical Chart
VOR . . . . . . . Very High Frequency Omnidirectional WFO . . . . . . . Weather Forecast Office
Range WGS84 . . . . World Geodetic System of 1984
VORTAC . . . VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Air WMO . . . . . . World Meteorological Organization
Navigation WMS . . WideArea Master Station
VOT . . . . . . . VOR Test Facility WMSC . . . . . Weather Message Switching Center
VR . . . . . . . . VFR Military Training Route WMSCR . . . . Weather Message Switching Center
VREF . . . . . . . The reference landing approach speed, Replacement
usually about 1.3 times Vso plus 50 percent WP . . . . . . . . Waypoint
of the wind gust speed in excess of the
WRS . . . . . . . WideArea Ground Reference Station
mean wind speed.
WS . . . . . . . . SIGMET
VSO . . . . . . . . The stalling speed or the minimum steady
flight speed in the landing configuration at WSO . . . . . . Weather Service Office
maximum weight. WSP . . . . . . . Weather System Processor
VTF . . . . . . . Vector to Final WST . . . . . . . Convective Significant Meteorological
VV . . . . . . . . Vertical Visibility Information
WW . . . . . . . Severe Weather Watch Bulletin
6/25/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
PILOT/CONTROLLER
GLOSSARY
PURPOSE
a. This Glossary was compiled to promote a common understanding of the terms used in the Air Traffic
Control system. It includes those terms which are intended for pilot/controller communications. Those terms
most frequently used in pilot/controller communications are printed in bold italics. The definitions are primarily
defined in an operational sense applicable to both users and operators of the National Airspace System. Use of
the Glossary will preclude any misunderstandings concerning the systems design, function, and purpose.
b. Because of the international nature of flying, terms used in the Lexicon, published by the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), are included when they differ from FAA definitions. These terms are
followed by [ICAO]. For the readers convenience, there are also cross references to related terms in other parts
of the Glossary and to other documents, such as the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM).
c. This Glossary will be revised, as necessary, to maintain a common understanding of the system.
EXPLANATION OF CHANGES
d. Terms Added:
COLLABORATIVE TRAJECTORY OPTIONS PROGRAM (CTOP)
TRAJECTORY OPTIONS SET (TOS)
e. Terms Deleted:
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)
MLS CATEGORIES
f. Terms Modified:
COURSE
DECISION HEIGHT
GLIDESLOPE
PREARRANGED COORDINATION
PREARRANGED COORDINATION PROCEDURES
SIMULTANEOUS ILS APPROACHES
g. Editorial/format changes were made where necessary. Revision bars were not used due to the insignificant
nature of the changes.
PCG1
A
AAI ACLT
(See ARRIVAL AIRCRAFT INTERVAL.) (See ACTUAL CALCULATED LANDING TIME.)
AAR ACROBATIC FLIGHT An intentional maneuver
(See AIRPORT ARRIVAL RATE.) involving an abrupt change in an aircrafts attitude, an
abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration not
ABBREVIATED IFR FLIGHT PLANS An
necessary for normal flight.
authorization by ATC requiring pilots to submit only
(See ICAO term ACROBATIC FLIGHT.)
that information needed for the purpose of ATC. It
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
includes only a small portion of the usual IFR flight
plan information. In certain instances, this may be ACROBATIC FLIGHT [ICAO] Maneuvers inten-
only aircraft identification, location, and pilot tionally performed by an aircraft involving an abrupt
request. Other information may be requested if change in its attitude, an abnormal attitude, or an
needed by ATC for separation/control purposes. It is abnormal variation in speed.
frequently used by aircraft which are airborne and ACTIVE RUNWAY
desire an instrument approach or by aircraft which are (See RUNWAY IN USE/ACTIVE RUNWAY/DUTY
on the ground and desire a climb to VFR-on-top. RUNWAY.)
(See VFR-ON-TOP.)
(Refer to AIM.) ACTUAL CALCULATED LANDING TIME
ACLT is a flights frozen calculated landing time. An
ABEAM An aircraft is abeam a fix, point, or actual time determined at freeze calculated landing
object when that fix, point, or object is approximately time (FCLT) or meter list display interval (MLDI) for
90 degrees to the right or left of the aircraft track. the adapted vertex for each arrival aircraft based upon
Abeam indicates a general position rather than a runway configuration, airport acceptance rate, airport
precise point. arrival delay period, and other metered arrival
ABORT To terminate a preplanned aircraft aircraft. This time is either the vertex time of arrival
maneuver; e.g., an aborted takeoff. (VTA) of the aircraft or the tentative calculated
landing time (TCLT)/ACLT of the previous aircraft
ACC [ICAO] plus the arrival aircraft interval (AAI), whichever is
(See ICAO term AREA CONTROL CENTER.) later. This time will not be updated in response to the
ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE aircrafts progress.
The runway plus stopway length declared available ACTUAL NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
and suitable for the acceleration and deceleration of (ANP)
an airplane aborting a takeoff. (See REQUIRED NAVIGATION
ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE PERFORMANCE.)
[ICAO] The length of the take-off run available plus ADDITIONAL SERVICES Advisory information
the length of the stopway if provided. provided by ATC which includes but is not limited to
the following:
ACDO
(See AIR CARRIER DISTRICT OFFICE.) a. Traffic advisories.
b. Vectors, when requested by the pilot, to assist
ACKNOWLEDGE Let me know that you have
aircraft receiving traffic advisories to avoid observed
received and understood this message.
traffic.
ACL c. Altitude deviation information of 300 feet or
(See AIRCRAFT LIST.) more from an assigned altitude as observed on a
ACLS verified (reading correctly) automatic altitude
(See AUTOMATIC CARRIER LANDING readout (Mode C).
SYSTEM.) d. Advisories that traffic is no longer a factor.
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Pilot/Controller Glossary 7/24/14
e. Weather and chaff information. ADVISORY FREQUENCY The appropriate fre-

f. Weather assistance. quency to be used for Airport Advisory Service.
(See LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY.)
g. Bird activity information. (See UNICOM.)
h. Holding pattern surveillance. Additional ser- (Refer to ADVISORY CIRCULAR NO. 90-42.)
vices are provided to the extent possible contingent (Refer to AIM.)
only upon the controllers capability to fit them into
ADVISORY SERVICE Advice and information
the performance of higher priority duties and on the
provided by a facility to assist pilots in the safe
basis of limitations of the radar, volume of traffic,
conduct of flight and aircraft movement.
frequency congestion, and controller workload. The
(See ADDITIONAL SERVICES.)
controller has complete discretion for determining if
(See EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY
he/she is able to provide or continue to provide a SERVICE.)
service in a particular case. The controllers reason
(See LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY.)
not to provide or continue to provide a service in a
(See RADAR ADVISORY.)
particular case is not subject to question by the pilot
(See SAFETY ALERT.)
and need not be made known to him/her.
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.) (Refer to AIM.)
(Refer to AIM.)
AERIAL REFUELING A procedure used by the
ADF military to transfer fuel from one aircraft to another
(See AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER.) during flight.
(Refer to VFR/IFR Wall Planning Charts.)
ADIZ
(See AIR DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION ZONE.)
AERODROME A defined area on land or water
(including any buildings, installations and equip-
ADLY ment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for
(See ARRIVAL DELAY.) the arrival, departure, and movement of aircraft.
ADMINISTRATOR The Federal Aviation Admin- AERODROME BEACON [ICAO] Aeronautical

istrator or any person to whom he/she has delegated beacon used to indicate the location of an aerodrome
his/her authority in the matter concerned. from the air.
AERODROME CONTROL SERVICE [ICAO] Air
ADR traffic control service for aerodrome traffic.
(See AIRPORT DEPARTURE RATE.)
AERODROME CONTROL TOWER [ICAO] A
ADS [ICAO] unit established to provide air traffic control service
(See ICAO term AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT to aerodrome traffic.
SURVEILLANCE.)
AERODROME ELEVATION [ICAO] The eleva-
ADSB tion of the highest point of the landing area.
(See AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT AERODROME TRAFFIC CIRCUIT [ICAO] The
SURVEILLANCEBROADCAST.) specified path to be flown by aircraft operating in the
vicinity of an aerodrome.
ADSC
(See AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT AERONAUTICAL BEACON A visual NAVAID
SURVEILLANCECONTRACT.) displaying flashes of white and/or colored light to
indicate the location of an airport, a heliport, a
ADVISE INTENTIONS Tell me what you plan to landmark, a certain point of a Federal airway in
do. mountainous terrain, or an obstruction.
ADVISORY Advice and information provided to (See AIRPORT ROTATING BEACON.)
assist pilots in the safe conduct of flight and aircraft (Refer to AIM.)
movement. AERONAUTICAL CHART A map used in air
(See ADVISORY SERVICE.) navigation containing all or part of the following:
PCG A2
topographic features, hazards and obstructions, identification and frequencies of radio aids, selected
navigation aids, navigation routes, designated airports, distances, time zones, special use airspace,
airspace, and airports. Commonly used aeronautical and related information.
charts are: f. Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP) Charts
a. Sectional Aeronautical Charts (1:500,000) Portray the aeronautical data which is required to
Designed for visual navigation of slow or medium execute an instrument approach to an airport. These
speed aircraft. Topographic information on these charts depict the procedures, including all related
charts features the portrayal of relief and a judicious data, and the airport diagram. Each procedure is
selection of visual check points for VFR flight. designated for use with a specific type of electronic
Aeronautical information includes visual and radio navigation system including NDB, TACAN, VOR,
aids to navigation, airports, controlled airspace, ILS RNAV and GLS. These charts are identified by
restricted areas, obstructions, and related data. the type of navigational aid(s)/equipment required to
provide final approach guidance.
b. VFR Terminal Area Charts (1:250,000)
Depict Class B airspace which provides for the g. Instrument Departure Procedure (DP) Charts
control or segregation of all the aircraft within Class Designed to expedite clearance delivery and to
B airspace. The chart depicts topographic informa- facilitate transition between takeoff and en route
tion and aeronautical information which includes operations. Each DP is presented as a separate chart
visual and radio aids to navigation, airports, and may serve a single airport or more than one
controlled airspace, restricted areas, obstructions, airport in a given geographical location.
and related data. h. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Charts
c. World Aeronautical Charts (WAC) Designed to expedite air traffic control arrival
(1:1,000,000) Provide a standard series of aeronau- procedures and to facilitate transition between en
tical charts covering land areas of the world at a size route and instrument approach operations. Each
and scale convenient for navigation by moderate STAR procedure is presented as a separate chart and
speed aircraft. Topographic information includes may serve a single airport or more than one airport in
cities and towns, principal roads, railroads, distinc- a given geographical location.
tive landmarks, drainage, and relief. Aeronautical i. Airport Taxi Charts Designed to expedite the
information includes visual and radio aids to efficient and safe flow of ground traffic at an airport.
navigation, airports, airways, restricted areas, These charts are identified by the official airport
obstructions, and other pertinent data. name; e.g., Ronald Reagan Washington National
Airport.
d. En Route Low Altitude Charts Provide
(See ICAO term AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
aeronautical information for en route instrument
navigation (IFR) in the low altitude stratum. AERONAUTICAL CHART [ICAO] A representa-
Information includes the portrayal of airways, limits tion of a portion of the earth, its culture and relief,
of controlled airspace, position identification and specifically designated to meet the requirements of
frequencies of radio aids, selected airports, minimum air navigation.
en route and minimum obstruction clearance AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL
altitudes, airway distances, reporting points, re- (AIM) A primary FAA publication whose purpose
stricted areas, and related data. Area charts, which are is to instruct airmen about operating in the National
a part of this series, furnish terminal data at a larger Airspace System of the U.S. It provides basic flight
scale in congested areas. information, ATC Procedures and general instruc-
e. En Route High Altitude Charts Provide tional information concerning health, medical facts,
aeronautical information for en route instrument factors affecting flight safety, accident and hazard
navigation (IFR) in the high altitude stratum. reporting, and types of aeronautical charts and their
Information includes the portrayal of jet routes, use.
PCG A3
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICA- d. LandBased Air Defense Identification Zone.

TION (AIP) [ICAO] A publication issued by or with An ADIZ over U.S. metropolitan areas, which is
the authority of a State and containing aeronautical activated and deactivated as needed, with dimen-
information of a lasting character essential to air sions, activation dates and other relevant information
navigation. disseminated via NOTAM.
Note: ADIZ locations and operating and flight plan
A/FD
requirements for civil aircraft operations are speci-
(See AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.) fied in 14 CFR Part 99.
AFFIRMATIVE Yes. (Refer to AIM.)
AFIS AIR NAVIGATION FACILITY Any facility used
(See AUTOMATIC FLIGHT INFORMATION in, available for use in, or designed for use in, aid of
SERVICE ALASKA FSSs ONLY.) air navigation, including landing areas, lights, any
AFP apparatus or equipment for disseminating weather
information, for signaling, for radio-directional
(See AIRSPACE FLOW PROGRAM.)
finding, or for radio or other electrical communica-
AIM tion, and any other structure or mechanism having a
(See AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION similar purpose for guiding or controlling flight in the
MANUAL.) air or the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
(See NAVIGATIONAL AID.)
AIP [ICAO]
(See ICAO term AERONAUTICAL AIR ROUTE SURVEILLANCE RADAR Air route
INFORMATION PUBLICATION.) traffic control center (ARTCC) radar used primarily
to detect and display an aircrafts position while en
AIR CARRIER DISTRICT OFFICE An FAA field
route between terminal areas. The ARSR enables
office serving an assigned geographical area, staffed
controllers to provide radar air traffic control service
with Flight Standards personnel serving the aviation
when aircraft are within the ARSR coverage. In some
industry and the general public on matters related to
instances, ARSR may enable an ARTCC to provide
the certification and operation of scheduled air
terminal radar services similar to but usually more
carriers and other large aircraft operations.
limited than those provided by a radar approach
AIR DEFENSE EMERGENCY A military emer- control.
gency condition declared by a designated authority.
This condition exists when an attack upon the AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL CENTER A
continental U.S., Alaska, Canada, or U.S. installa- facility established to provide air traffic control
tions in Greenland by hostile aircraft or missiles is service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans
considered probable, is imminent, or is taking place. within controlled airspace and principally during the
en route phase of flight. When equipment capabilities
(Refer to AIM.)
and controller workload permit, certain advisory/as-
AIR DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION ZONE (ADIZ) sistance services may be provided to VFR aircraft.
The area of airspace over land or water, extending (See EN ROUTE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
upward from the surface, within which the ready SERVICES.)
identification, the location, and the control of aircraft (Refer to AIM.)
are required in the interest of national security.
AIR TAXI Used to describe a helicopter/VTOL
a. Domestic Air Defense Identification Zone. An aircraft movement conducted above the surface but
ADIZ within the United States along an international normally not above 100 feet AGL. The aircraft may
boundary of the United States. proceed either via hover taxi or flight at speeds more
b. Coastal Air Defense Identification Zone. An than 20 knots. The pilot is solely responsible for
ADIZ over the coastal waters of the United States. selecting a safe airspeed/altitude for the operation
c. Distant Early Warning Identification Zone being conducted.
(DEWIZ). An ADIZ over the coastal waters of the (See HOVER TAXI.)
State of Alaska. (Refer to AIM.)
PCG A4
AIR TRAFFIC Aircraft operating in the air or on an AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL CLEARANCE [ICAO]
airport surface, exclusive of loading ramps and Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under
parking areas. conditions specified by an air traffic control unit.
(See ICAO term AIR TRAFFIC.) Note 1: For convenience, the term air traffic control
clearance is frequently abbreviated to clearance
when used in appropriate contexts.
AIR TRAFFIC [ICAO] All aircraft in flight or
Note 2: The abbreviated term clearance may be
operating on the maneuvering area of an aerodrome. prefixed by the words taxi, takeoff, departure, en
route, approach or landing to indicate the particular
AIR TRAFFIC CLEARANCE An authorization by portion of flight to which the air traffic control clear-
air traffic control for the purpose of preventing ance relates.
collision between known aircraft, for an aircraft to AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE
proceed under specified traffic conditions within (See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL.)
controlled airspace. The pilot-in-command of an
aircraft may not deviate from the provisions of a AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE [ICAO] A
visual flight rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules service provided for the purpose of:
(IFR) air traffic clearance except in an emergency or a. Preventing collisions:
unless an amended clearance has been obtained. 1. Between aircraft; and
Additionally, the pilot may request a different 2. On the maneuvering area between aircraft
clearance from that which has been issued by air and obstructions.
traffic control (ATC) if information available to the
pilot makes another course of action more practicable b. Expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of
or if aircraft equipment limitations or company air traffic.
procedures forbid compliance with the clearance AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SPECIALIST A person
issued. Pilots may also request clarification or authorized to provide air traffic control service.
amendment, as appropriate, any time a clearance is (See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL.)
not fully understood, or considered unacceptable (See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.)
because of safety of flight. Controllers should, in (See ICAO term CONTROLLER.)
such instances and to the extent of operational
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM COMMAND
practicality and safety, honor the pilots request.
CENTER (ATCSCC) An Air Traffic Tactical
14 CFR Part 91.3(a) states: The pilot in command
Operations facility responsible for monitoring and
of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the
managing the flow of air traffic throughout the NAS,
final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.
producing a safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of
THE PILOT IS RESPONSIBLE TO REQUEST AN
traffic while minimizing delays. The following
AMENDED CLEARANCE if ATC issues a
functions are located at the ATCSCC:
clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a
rule or regulation, or in the pilots opinion, would a. Central Altitude Reservation Function
place the aircraft in jeopardy. (CARF). Responsible for coordinating, planning,
and approving special user requirements under the
(See ATC INSTRUCTIONS.) Altitude Reservation (ALTRV) concept.
(See ICAO term AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (See ALTITUDE RESERVATION.)
CLEARANCE.)
b. Airport Reservation Office (ARO).
Responsible for approving IFR flights at designated
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL A service operated by high density traffic airports (John F. Kennedy,
appropriate authority to promote the safe, orderly and LaGuardia, and Ronald Reagan Washington
expeditious flow of air traffic. National) during specified hours.
(See ICAO term AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (Refer to 14 CFR Part 93.)
SERVICE.) (Refer to AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.)
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c. U.S. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) Office. category. If it is necessary to maneuver at speeds in

Responsible for collecting, maintaining, and distrib- excess of the upper limit of a speed range for a
uting NOTAMs for the U.S. civilian and military, as category, the minimums for the category for that
well as international aviation communities. speed must be used. For example, an aircraft which
(See NOTICE TO AIRMEN.) falls in Category A, but is circling to land at a speed
d. Weather Unit. Monitor all aspects of weather in excess of 91 knots, must use the approach
for the U.S. that might affect aviation including cloud Category B minimums when circling to land. The
cover, visibility, winds, precipitation, thunderstorms, categories are as follows:
icing, turbulence, and more. Provide forecasts based a. Category A Speed less than 91 knots.
on observations and on discussions with meteorolo- b. Category B Speed 91 knots or more but less
gists from various National Weather Service offices, than 121 knots.
FAA facilities, airlines, and private weather services.
c. Category C Speed 121 knots or more but less
AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE A generic term meaning: than 141 knots.
a. Flight Information Service. d. Category D Speed 141 knots or more but less
b. Alerting Service. than 166 knots.
c. Air Traffic Advisory Service. e. Category E Speed 166 knots or more.
d. Air Traffic Control Service:
1. Area Control Service, AIRCRAFT CLASSES For the purposes of Wake
Turbulence Separation Minima, ATC classifies
2. Approach Control Service, or
aircraft as Heavy, Large, and Small as follows:
3. Airport Control Service.
a. Heavy Aircraft capable of takeoff weights of
AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE (ATS) ROUTES The 300,000 pounds or more whether or not they are
term ATS Route is a generic term that includes operating at this weight during a particular phase of
VOR Federal airways, colored Federal airways, flight.
jet routes, and RNAV routes. The term ATS b. Large Aircraft of more than 41,000 pounds,
route does not replace these more familiar route maximum certificated takeoff weight, up to but not
names, but serves only as an overall title when listing including 300,000 pounds.
the types of routes that comprise the United States
route structure. c. Small Aircraft of 41,000 pounds or less
maximum certificated takeoff weight.
AIRBORNE An aircraft is considered airborne (Refer to AIM.)
when all parts of the aircraft are off the ground.
AIRCRAFT CONFLICT Predicted conflict, within
AIRBORNE DELAY Amount of delay to be URET, of two aircraft, or between aircraft and
encountered in airborne holding. airspace. A Red alert is used for conflicts when the
predicted minimum separation is 5 nautical miles or
AIRCRAFT Device(s) that are used or intended to
less. A Yellow alert is used when the predicted
be used for flight in the air, and when used in air traffic
minimum separation is between 5 and approximately
control terminology, may include the flight crew.
12 nautical miles. A Blue alert is used for conflicts
(See ICAO term AIRCRAFT.) between an aircraft and predefined airspace.
AIRCRAFT [ICAO] Any machine that can derive (See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)
support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air
AIRCRAFT LIST (ACL) A view available with
other than the reactions of the air against the earths
URET that lists aircraft currently in or predicted to be
surface.
in a particular sectors airspace. The view contains
AIRCRAFT APPROACH CATEGORY A textual flight data information in line format and may
grouping of aircraft based on a speed of 1.3 times the be sorted into various orders based on the specific
stall speed in the landing configuration at maximum needs of the sector team.
gross landing weight. An aircraft must fit in only one (See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)
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AIRCRAFT SURGE LAUNCH AND the tower is not in operation, and on which a Flight
RECOVERY Procedures used at USAF bases to Service Station is located.
provide increased launch and recovery rates in (See LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY.)
instrument flight rules conditions. ASLAR is based (Refer to AIM.)
on:
AIRPORT ARRIVAL RATE (AAR) A dynamic
a. Reduced separation between aircraft which is input parameter specifying the number of arriving
based on time or distance. Standard arrival separation aircraft which an airport or airspace can accept from
applies between participants including multiple the ARTCC per hour. The AAR is used to calculate
flights until the DRAG point. The DRAG point is a the desired interval between successive arrival
published location on an ASLAR approach where aircraft.
aircraft landing second in a formation slows to a
predetermined airspeed. The DRAG point is the AIRPORT DEPARTURE RATE (ADR) A dynamic
reference point at which MARSA applies as parameter specifying the number of aircraft which
expanding elements effect separation within a flight can depart an airport and the airspace can accept per
or between subsequent participating flights. hour.
b. ASLAR procedures shall be covered in a Letter AIRPORT ELEVATION The highest point of an
of Agreement between the responsible USAF airports usable runways measured in feet from mean
military ATC facility and the concerned Federal sea level.
Aviation Administration facility. Initial Approach (See TOUCHDOWN ZONE ELEVATION.)
Fix spacing requirements are normally addressed as (See ICAO term AERODROME ELEVATION.)
a minimum. AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY A publication
AIRMENS METEOROLOGICAL designed primarily as a pilots operational manual
INFORMATION containing all airports, seaplane bases, and heliports
(See AIRMET.)
open to the public including communications data,
navigational facilities, and certain special notices and
AIRMET In-flight weather advisories issued only procedures. This publication is issued in seven
to amend the area forecast concerning weather volumes according to geographical area.
phenomena which are of operational interest to all
AIRPORT LIGHTING Various lighting aids that
aircraft and potentially hazardous to aircraft having
may be installed on an airport. Types of airport
limited capability because of lack of equipment,
lighting include:
instrumentation, or pilot qualifications. AIRMETs
concern weather of less severity than that covered by a. Approach Light System (ALS) An airport
SIGMETs or Convective SIGMETs. AIRMETs lighting facility which provides visual guidance to
cover moderate icing, moderate turbulence, sustained landing aircraft by radiating light beams in a
winds of 30 knots or more at the surface, widespread directional pattern by which the pilot aligns the
areas of ceilings less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility aircraft with the extended centerline of the runway on
less than 3 miles, and extensive mountain his/her final approach for landing. Condenser-
obscurement. Discharge Sequential Flashing Lights/Sequenced
(See AWW.) Flashing Lights may be installed in conjunction with
(See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.)
the ALS at some airports. Types of Approach Light
Systems are:
(See CWA.)
(See SIGMET.) 1. ALSF-1 Approach Light System with
(Refer to AIM.) Sequenced Flashing Lights in ILS Cat-I configura-
tion.
AIRPORT An area on land or water that is used or 2. ALSF-2 Approach Light System with
intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of Sequenced Flashing Lights in ILS Cat-II configura-
aircraft and includes its buildings and facilities, if tion. The ALSF-2 may operate as an SSALR when
any. weather conditions permit.
AIRPORT ADVISORY AREA The area within ten 3. SSALF Simplified Short Approach Light
miles of an airport without a control tower or where System with Sequenced Flashing Lights.
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4. SSALR Simplified Short Approach Light runway threshold, which provide rapid and positive
System with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights. identification of the approach end of a particular
5. MALSF Medium Intensity Approach Light runway.
System with Sequenced Flashing Lights. g. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) An
6. MALSR Medium Intensity Approach Light airport lighting facility providing vertical visual
System with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights. approach slope guidance to aircraft during approach
to landing by radiating a directional pattern of high
7. RLLS Runway Lead-in Light System intensity red and white focused light beams which
Consists of one or more series of flashing lights indicate to the pilot that he/she is on path if he/she
installed at or near ground level that provides positive sees red/white, above path if white/white, and
visual guidance along an approach path, either below path if red/red. Some airports serving large
curving or straight, where special problems exist with aircraft have three-bar VASIs which provide two
hazardous terrain, obstructions, or noise abatement visual glide paths to the same runway.
procedures.
h. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) An
8. RAIL Runway Alignment Indicator Lights airport lighting facility, similar to VASI, providing
Sequenced Flashing Lights which are installed only vertical approach slope guidance to aircraft during
in combination with other light systems. approach to landing. PAPIs consist of a single row of
9. ODALS Omnidirectional Approach Light- either two or four lights, normally installed on the left
ing System consists of seven omnidirectional side of the runway, and have an effective visual range
flashing lights located in the approach area of a of about 5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at
nonprecision runway. Five lights are located on the night. PAPIs radiate a directional pattern of high
runway centerline extended with the first light intensity red and white focused light beams which
located 300 feet from the threshold and extending at indicate that the pilot is on path if the pilot sees an
equal intervals up to 1,500 feet from the threshold. equal number of white lights and red lights, with
The other two lights are located, one on each side of white to the left of the red; above path if the pilot
the runway threshold, at a lateral distance of 40 feet sees more white than red lights; and below path if
from the runway edge, or 75 feet from the runway the pilot sees more red than white lights.
edge when installed on a runway equipped with a i. Boundary Lights Lights defining the perimeter
VASI. of an airport or landing area.
(Refer to FAAO JO 6850.2, VISUAL GUIDANCE (Refer to AIM.)
LIGHTING SYSTEMS.)
AIRPORT MARKING AIDS Markings used on
b. Runway Lights/Runway Edge Lights Lights runway and taxiway surfaces to identify a specific
having a prescribed angle of emission used to define runway, a runway threshold, a centerline, a hold line,
the lateral limits of a runway. Runway lights are etc. A runway should be marked in accordance with
uniformly spaced at intervals of approximately 200 its present usage such as:
feet, and the intensity may be controlled or preset.
a. Visual.
c. Touchdown Zone Lighting Two rows of b. Nonprecision instrument.
transverse light bars located symmetrically about the
runway centerline normally at 100 foot intervals. The c. Precision instrument.
basic system extends 3,000 feet along the runway. (Refer to AIM.)
d. Runway Centerline Lighting Flush centerline AIRPORT REFERENCE POINT (ARP) The
lights spaced at 50-foot intervals beginning 75 feet approximate geometric center of all usable runway
from the landing threshold and extending to within 75 surfaces.
feet of the opposite end of the runway. AIRPORT RESERVATION OFFICE Office
e. Threshold Lights Fixed green lights arranged responsible for monitoring the operation of slot
symmetrically left and right of the runway centerline, controlled airports. It receives and processes requests
identifying the runway threshold. for unscheduled operations at slot controlled airports.
f. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) Two AIRPORT ROTATING BEACON A visual
synchronized flashing lights, one on each side of the NAVAID operated at many airports. At civil airports,
PCG A8
alternating white and green flashes indicate the AIRSPACE FLOW PROGRAM (AFP) AFP is a
location of the airport. At military airports, the Traffic Management (TM) process administered by
beacons flash alternately white and green, but are the Air Traffic Control System Command Center
differentiated from civil beacons by dualpeaked (two (ATCSCC) where aircraft are assigned an Expect
quick) white flashes between the green flashes. Departure Clearance Time (EDCT) in order to
(See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.) manage capacity and demand for a specific area of the
(See SPECIAL VFR OPERATIONS.) National Airspace System (NAS). The purpose of the
(See ICAO term AERODROME BEACON.) program is to mitigate the effects of en route
(Refer to AIM.) constraints. It is a flexible program and may be
implemented in various forms depending upon the
AIRPORT STREAM FILTER (ASF) An on/off needs of the air traffic system.
filter that allows the conflict notification function to
be inhibited for arrival streams into single or multiple AIRSPACE HIERARCHY Within the airspace
airports to prevent nuisance alerts. classes, there is a hierarchy and, in the event of an
overlap of airspace: Class A preempts Class B, Class
AIRPORT SURFACE DETECTION EQUIPMENT B preempts Class C, Class C preempts Class D, Class
(ASDE) Surveillance equipment specifically de- D preempts Class E, and Class E preempts Class G.
signed to detect aircraft, vehicular traffic, and other
AIRSPEED The speed of an aircraft relative to its
objects, on the surface of an airport, and to present the
surrounding air mass. The unqualified term
image on a tower display. Used to augment visual
airspeed means one of the following:
observation by tower personnel of aircraft and/or
vehicular movements on runways and taxiways. a. Indicated Airspeed The speed shown on the
There are three ASDE systems deployed in the NAS: aircraft airspeed indicator. This is the speed used in
pilot/controller communications under the general
a. ASDE3 a Surface Movement Radar.
term airspeed.
b. ASDEX a system that uses a Xband Surface (Refer to 14 CFR Part 1.)
Movement Radar and multilateration. Data from b. True Airspeed The airspeed of an aircraft
these two sources are fused and presented on a digital relative to undisturbed air. Used primarily in flight
display. planning and en route portion of flight. When used in
c. ASDE3X an ASDEX system that uses the pilot/controller communications, it is referred to as
ASDE3 Surface Movement Radar. true airspeed and not shortened to airspeed.
AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE RADAR Approach AIRSTART The starting of an aircraft engine while
control radar used to detect and display an aircrafts the aircraft is airborne, preceded by engine shutdown
position in the terminal area. ASR provides range and during training flights or by actual engine failure.
azimuth information but does not provide elevation AIRWAY A Class E airspace area established in the
data. Coverage of the ASR can extend up to 60 miles. form of a corridor, the centerline of which is defined
AIRPORT TAXI CHARTS by radio navigational aids.
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.) (See FEDERAL AIRWAYS.)
(See ICAO term AIRWAY.)
AIRPORT TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE A (Refer to 14 CFR Part 71.)
service provided by a control tower for aircraft (Refer to AIM.)
operating on the movement area and in the vicinity of
AIRWAY [ICAO] A control area or portion thereof
an airport.
established in the form of corridor equipped with
(See MOVEMENT AREA.)
radio navigational aids.
(See TOWER.)
(See ICAO term AERODROME CONTROL AIRWAY BEACON Used to mark airway segments
SERVICE.) in remote mountain areas. The light flashes Morse
Code to identify the beacon site.
AIRPORT TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWER (Refer to AIM.)
(See TOWER.)
AIT
AIRSPACE CONFLICT Predicted conflict of an (See AUTOMATED INFORMATION
aircraft and active Special Activity Airspace (SAA). TRANSFER.)
PCG A9
ALERFA (Alert Phase) [ICAO] A situation wherein ALTITUDE The height of a level, point, or object
apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft and measured in feet Above Ground Level (AGL) or from
its occupants. Mean Sea Level (MSL).
(See FLIGHT LEVEL.)
ALERT A notification to a position that there
is an aircraft-to-aircraft or aircraft-to-airspace a. MSL Altitude Altitude expressed in feet
conflict, as detected by Automated Problem measured from mean sea level.
Detection (APD). b. AGL Altitude Altitude expressed in feet
measured above ground level.
ALERT AREA c. Indicated Altitude The altitude as shown by an
(See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.) altimeter. On a pressure or barometric altimeter it is
ALERT NOTICE A request originated by a flight altitude as shown uncorrected for instrument error
service station (FSS) or an air route traffic control and uncompensated for variation from standard
center (ARTCC) for an extensive communication atmospheric conditions.
search for overdue, unreported, or missing aircraft. (See ICAO term ALTITUDE.)
ALERTING SERVICE A service provided to notify ALTITUDE [ICAO] The vertical distance of a level,
appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need a point or an object considered as a point, measured
of search and rescue aid and assist such organizations from mean sea level (MSL).
as required. ALTITUDE READOUT An aircrafts altitude,
transmitted via the Mode C transponder feature, that
ALNOT
is visually displayed in 100-foot increments on a
(See ALERT NOTICE.) radar scope having readout capability.
ALONGTRACK DISTANCE (ATD) The distance (See ALPHANUMERIC DISPLAY.)
measured from a point-in-space by systems using (See AUTOMATED RADAR TERMINAL
area navigation reference capabilities that are not SYSTEMS.)
subject to slant range errors. (Refer to AIM.)
ALTITUDE RESERVATION Airspace utilization
ALPHANUMERIC DISPLAY Letters and numer-
under prescribed conditions normally employed for
als used to show identification, altitude, beacon code,
the mass movement of aircraft or other special user
and other information concerning a target on a radar
requirements which cannot otherwise be
display.
accomplished. ALTRVs are approved by the
(See AUTOMATED RADAR TERMINAL
appropriate FAA facility.
SYSTEMS.)
(See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM
ALTERNATE AERODROME [ICAO] An aero- COMMAND CENTER.)
drome to which an aircraft may proceed when it ALTITUDE RESTRICTION An altitude or alti-
becomes either impossible or inadvisable to proceed tudes, stated in the order flown, which are to be
to or to land at the aerodrome of intended landing. maintained until reaching a specific point or time.
Note: The aerodrome from which a flight departs Altitude restrictions may be issued by ATC due to
may also be an en-route or a destination alternate traffic, terrain, or other airspace considerations.
aerodrome for the flight.
ALTITUDE RESTRICTIONS ARE CANCELED
ALTERNATE AIRPORT An airport at which an Adherence to previously imposed altitude restric-
aircraft may land if a landing at the intended airport tions is no longer required during a climb or descent.
becomes inadvisable. ALTRV
(See ICAO term ALTERNATE AERODROME.) (See ALTITUDE RESERVATION.)
ALTIMETER SETTING The barometric pressure AMVER
reading used to adjust a pressure altimeter for (See AUTOMATED MUTUAL-ASSISTANCE
variations in existing atmospheric pressure or to the VESSEL RESCUE SYSTEM.)
standard altimeter setting (29.92). APB
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) (See AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION
(Refer to AIM.) BOUNDARY.)
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APD APPROACH SEQUENCE The order in which

(See AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION.) aircraft are positioned while on approach or awaiting
approach clearance.
APDIA
(See LANDING SEQUENCE.)
(See AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION
(See ICAO term APPROACH SEQUENCE.)
INHIBITED AREA.)
APPROACH SEQUENCE [ICAO] The order in
APPROACH CLEARANCE Authorization by
which two or more aircraft are cleared to approach to
ATC for a pilot to conduct an instrument approach.
land at the aerodrome.
The type of instrument approach for which a
clearance and other pertinent information is provided APPROACH SPEED The recommended speed
in the approach clearance when required. contained in aircraft manuals used by pilots when
(See CLEARED APPROACH.) making an approach to landing. This speed will vary
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH for different segments of an approach as well as for
PROCEDURE.) aircraft weight and configuration.
(Refer to AIM.) APPROACH WITH VERTICAL GUIDANCE
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) (APV) A term used to describe RNAV approach
APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY A terminal procedures that provide lateral and vertical guidance
ATC facility that provides approach control service in but do not meet the requirements to be considered a
a terminal area. precision approach.
(See APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE.) APPROPRIATE ATS AUTHORITY [ICAO] The
(See RADAR APPROACH CONTROL relevant authority designated by the State responsible
FACILITY.) for providing air traffic services in the airspace
APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE Air traffic concerned. In the United States, the appropriate ATS
control service provided by an approach control authority is the Program Director for Air Traffic
facility for arriving and departing VFR/IFR aircraft Planning and Procedures, ATP-1.
and, on occasion, en route aircraft. At some airports APPROPRIATE AUTHORITY
not served by an approach control facility, the
a. Regarding flight over the high seas: the relevant
ARTCC provides limited approach control service.
authority is the State of Registry.
(See ICAO term APPROACH CONTROL
SERVICE.) b. Regarding flight over other than the high seas:
(Refer to AIM.) the relevant authority is the State having sovereignty
over the territory being overflown.
APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE [ICAO] Air
traffic control service for arriving or departing APPROPRIATE OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
controlled flights. MINIMUM ALTITUDE Any of the following:
(See MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE.)
APPROACH GATE An imaginary point used (See MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDE.)
within ATC as a basis for vectoring aircraft to the (See MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE
final approach course. The gate will be established ALTITUDE.)
along the final approach course 1 mile from the final (See MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE.)
approach fix on the side away from the airport and
will be no closer than 5 miles from the landing APPROPRIATE TERRAIN CLEARANCE
threshold. MINIMUM ALTITUDE Any of the following:
APPROACH HOLD AREA The locations on (See MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDE.)
taxiways in the approach or departure areas of a (See MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE
runway designated to protect landing or departing ALTITUDE.)
aircraft. These locations are identified by signs and (See MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE.)
markings.
APRON A defined area on an airport or heliport
APPROACH LIGHT SYSTEM intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.) loading or unloading passengers or cargo, refueling,
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parking, or maintenance. With regard to seaplanes, a d. TERMINAL ARRIVAL AREA (TAA) The
ramp is used for access to the apron from the water. TAA is controlled airspace established in conjunction
(See ICAO term APRON.) with the Standard or Modified T and I RNAV
approach configurations. In the standard TAA, there
APRON [ICAO] A defined area, on a land are three areas: straight-in, left base, and right base.
aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for The arc boundaries of the three areas of the TAA are
purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail or published portions of the approach and allow aircraft
cargo, refueling, parking or maintenance. to transition from the en route structure direct to the
nearest IAF. TAAs will also eliminate or reduce
ARC The track over the ground of an aircraft flying feeder routes, departure extensions, and procedure
at a constant distance from a navigational aid by turns or course reversal.
reference to distance measuring equipment (DME).
1. STRAIGHT-IN AREA A 30NM arc
AREA CONTROL CENTER [ICAO] An air traffic centered on the IF bounded by a straight line
control facility primarily responsible for ATC extending through the IF perpendicular to the
services being provided IFR aircraft during the en intermediate course.
route phase of flight. The U.S. equivalent facility is 2. LEFT BASE AREA A 30NM arc centered
an air route traffic control center (ARTCC). on the right corner IAF. The area shares a boundary
AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) A method of with the straight-in area except that it extends out for
navigation which permits aircraft operation on any 30NM from the IAF and is bounded on the other side
desired flight path within the coverage of ground or by a line extending from the IF through the FAF to the
spacebased navigation aids or within the limits of arc.
the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination 3. RIGHT BASE AREA A 30NM arc centered
of these. on the left corner IAF. The area shares a boundary
Note: Area navigation includes performance with the straight-in area except that it extends out for
based navigation as well as other operations that 30NM from the IAF and is bounded on the other side
do not meet the definition of performancebased by a line extending from the IF through the FAF to the
navigation. arc.
AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) APPROACH AREA NAVI GATION (R NAV) G L O B A L

CONFIGURATION: POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) PRECISION
RUNWAY MONITORING (PRM) APPROACH A
a. STANDARD T An RNAV approach whose GPS approach, which requires vertical guidance,
design allows direct flight to any one of three initial used in lieu of an ILS PRM approach to conduct
approach fixes (IAF) and eliminates the need for approaches to parallel runways whose extended
procedure turns. The standard design is to align the centerlines are separated by less than 4,300 feet and
procedure on the extended centerline with the missed at least 3,000 feet, where simultaneous close parallel
approach point (MAP) at the runway threshold, the approaches are permitted. Also used in lieu of an ILS
final approach fix (FAF), and the initial approach/ PRM and/or LDA PRM approach to conduct
intermediate fix (IAF/IF). The other two IAFs will be Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach (SOIA)
established perpendicular to the IF. operations.
b. MODIFIED T An RNAV approach design for
single or multiple runways where terrain or ARINC An acronym for Aeronautical Radio, Inc.,
operational constraints do not allow for the standard a corporation largely owned by a group of airlines.
T. The T may be modified by increasing or ARINC is licensed by the FCC as an aeronautical
decreasing the angle from the corner IAF(s) to the IF station and contracted by the FAA to provide
or by eliminating one or both corner IAFs. communications support for air traffic control and
meteorological services in portions of international
c. STANDARD I An RNAV approach design for airspace.
a single runway with both corner IAFs eliminated.
Course reversal or radar vectoring may be required at ARMY AVIATION FLIGHT INFORMATION
busy terminals with multiple runways. BULLETIN A bulletin that provides air operation
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data covering Army, National Guard, and Army ASDA

Reserve aviation activities. (See ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE
AVAILABLE.)
ARO
ASDA [ICAO]
(See AIRPORT RESERVATION OFFICE.)
(See ICAO Term ACCELERATE-STOP
ARRESTING SYSTEM A safety device consisting DISTANCE AVAILABLE.)
of two major components, namely, engaging or ASDE
catching devices and energy absorption devices for (See AIRPORT SURFACE DETECTION
the purpose of arresting both tailhook and/or EQUIPMENT.)
nontailhook-equipped aircraft. It is used to prevent
ASF
aircraft from overrunning runways when the aircraft
(See AIRPORT STREAM FILTER.)
cannot be stopped after landing or during aborted
takeoff. Arresting systems have various names; e.g., ASLAR
arresting gear, hook device, wire barrier cable. (See AIRCRAFT SURGE LAUNCH AND
(See ABORT.) RECOVERY.)
(Refer to AIM.) ASP
(See ARRIVAL SEQUENCING PROGRAM.)
ARRIVAL AIRCRAFT INTERVAL An internally
generated program in hundredths of minutes based ASR
upon the AAR. AAI is the desired optimum interval (See AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE RADAR.)
between successive arrival aircraft over the vertex. ASR APPROACH
(See SURVEILLANCE APPROACH.)
ARRIVAL CENTER The ARTCC having jurisdic-
tion for the impacted airport. ASSOCIATED A radar target displaying a data
block with flight identification and altitude
ARRIVAL DELAY A parameter which specifies a information.
period of time in which no aircraft will be metered for (See UNASSOCIATED.)
arrival at the specified airport.
ATC
ARRIVAL SECTOR An operational control sector (See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL.)
containing one or more meter fixes. ATC ADVISES Used to prefix a message of
ARRIVAL SECTOR ADVISORY LIST An noncontrol information when it is relayed to an
ordered list of data on arrivals displayed at the aircraft by other than an air traffic controller.
PVD/MDM of the sector which controls the meter (See ADVISORY.)
fix. ATC ASSIGNED AIRSPACE Airspace of defined
vertical/lateral limits, assigned by ATC, for the
ARRIVAL SEQUENCING PROGRAM The auto-
purpose of providing air traffic segregation between
mated program designed to assist in sequencing
the specified activities being conducted within the
aircraft destined for the same airport.
assigned airspace and other IFR air traffic.
ARRIVAL TIME The time an aircraft touches down (See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.)
on arrival. ATC CLEARANCE
(See AIR TRAFFIC CLEARANCE.)
ARSR
(See AIR ROUTE SURVEILLANCE RADAR.) ATC CLEARS Used to prefix an ATC clearance
when it is relayed to an aircraft by other than an air
ARTCC traffic controller.
(See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
CENTER.)
ATC INSTRUCTIONS Directives issued by air
traffic control for the purpose of requiring a pilot to
ARTS take specific actions; e.g., Turn left heading two five
(See AUTOMATED RADAR TERMINAL zero, Go around, Clear the runway.
SYSTEMS.) (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
PCG A13
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ATC PREFERRED ROUTE NOTIFICATION ATIS

URET notification to the appropriate controller of the (See AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION
need to determine if an ATC preferred route needs to SERVICE.)
be applied, based on destination airport. ATIS [ICAO]
(See ROUTE ACTION NOTIFICATION.) (See ICAO Term AUTOMATIC TERMINAL
(See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.) INFORMATION SERVICE.)
ATC PREFERRED ROUTES Preferred routes that ATS ROUTE [ICAO] A specified route designed for
are not automatically applied by Host. channeling the flow of traffic as necessary for the
provision of air traffic services.
ATC REQUESTS Used to prefix an ATC request
Note: The term ATS Route is used to mean vari-
when it is relayed to an aircraft by other than an air ously, airway, advisory route, controlled or
traffic controller. uncontrolled route, arrival or departure, etc.
ATC SECURITY SERVICES Communications ATTENTION ALL USERS PAGE (AAUP)- The
and security tracking provided by an ATC facility in AAUP provides the pilot with additional information
support of the DHS, the DOD, or other Federal relative to conducting a specific operation, for
security elements in the interest of national security. example, PRM approaches and RNAV departures.
Such security services are only applicable within
designated areas. ATC security services do not AUTOLAND APPROACHAn autoland system
include ATC basic radar services or flight following. aids by providing control of aircraft systems during
a precision instrument approach to at least decision
ATC SECURITY SERVICES POSITION The altitude and possibly all the way to touchdown, as
position responsible for providing ATC security well as in some cases, through the landing rollout.
services as defined. This position does not provide The autoland system is a sub-system of the autopilot
ATC, IFR separation, or VFR flight following system from which control surface management
services, but is responsible for providing security occurs. The aircraft autopilot sends instructions to the
services in an area comprising airspace assigned to autoland system and monitors the autoland system
one or more ATC operating sectors. This position performance and integrity during its execution.
may be combined with control positions.
AUTOMATED INFORMATION TRANSFER A
ATC SECURITY TRACKING The continuous precoordinated process, specifically defined in
tracking of aircraft movement by an ATC facility in facility directives, during which a transfer of altitude
support of the DHS, the DOD, or other security control and/or radar identification is accomplished
elements for national security using radar (i.e., radar without verbal coordination between controllers
tracking) or other means (e.g., manual tracking) using information communicated in a full data block.
without providing basic radar services (including AUTOMATED MUTUAL-ASSISTANCE VESSEL
traffic advisories) or other ATC services not defined RESCUE SYSTEM A facility which can deliver, in
in this section. a matter of minutes, a surface picture (SURPIC) of
ATCAA vessels in the area of a potential or actual search and
(See ATC ASSIGNED AIRSPACE.) rescue incident, including their predicted positions
and their characteristics.
ATCRBS (See FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 1064, INFLIGHT
(See RADAR.) CONTINGENCIES.)
ATCSCC AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION (APD)
(See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM An Automation Processing capability that compares
COMMAND CENTER.) trajectories in order to predict conflicts.
ATCT AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION

(See TOWER.)
BOUNDARY (APB) The adapted distance beyond
a facilities boundary defining the airspace within
ATD which URET performs conflict detection.
(See ALONGTRACK DISTANCE.) (See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)
PCG A14
1/8/15
AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION IN- UNICOM frequency. Availability will be published

HIBITED AREA (APDIA) Airspace surrounding a in the Airport/Facility Directory and approach charts.
terminal area within which APD is inhibited for all
AUTOMATIC ALTITUDE REPORT
flights within that airspace.
(See ALTITUDE READOUT.)
AUTOMATED RADAR TERMINAL SYSTEMS
AUTOMATIC ALTITUDE REPORTING That
(ARTS) A generic term for several tracking systems
function of a transponder which responds to Mode C
included in the Terminal Automation Systems (TAS).
interrogations by transmitting the aircrafts altitude
ARTS plus a suffix roman numeral denotes a major
in 100-foot increments.
modification to that system.
a. ARTS IIIA. The Radar Tracking and Beacon AUTOMATIC CARRIER LANDING SYSTEM
Tracking Level (RT&BTL) of the modular, U.S. Navy final approach equipment consisting of
programmable automated radar terminal system. precision tracking radar coupled to a computer data
ARTS IIIA detects, tracks, and predicts primary as link to provide continuous information to the aircraft,
well as secondary radar-derived aircraft targets. This monitoring capability to the pilot, and a backup
more sophisticated computer-driven system up- approach system.
grades the existing ARTS III system by providing AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE
improved tracking, continuous data recording, and (ADS) [ICAO] A surveillance technique in which
fail-soft capabilities. aircraft automatically provide, via a data link, data
b. Common ARTS. Includes ARTS IIE, ARTS derived from onboard navigation and position
IIIE; and ARTS IIIE with ACD (see DTAS) which fixing systems, including aircraft identification, four
combines functionalities of the previous ARTS dimensional position and additional data as
systems. appropriate.
c. Programmable Indicator Data Processor AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE
(PIDP). The PIDP is a modification to the BROADCAST (ADS-B) A surveillance system in
AN/TPX42 interrogator system currently installed which an aircraft or vehicle to be detected is fitted
in fixed RAPCONs. The PIDP detects, tracks, and with cooperative equipment in the form of a data link
predicts secondary radar aircraft targets. These are transmitter. The aircraft or vehicle periodically
displayed by means of computergenerated symbols broadcasts its GPSderived position and other
and alphanumeric characters depicting flight identifi- information such as velocity over the data link, which
cation, aircraft altitude, ground speed, and flight plan is received by a groundbased transmitter/receiver
data. Although primary radar targets are not tracked, (transceiver) for processing and display at an air
they are displayed coincident with the secondary traffic control facility.
radar targets as well as with the other symbols and (See GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM.)
alphanumerics. The system has the capability of (See GROUNDBASED TRANSCEIVER.)
interfacing with ARTCCs.
AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE
AUTOMATED WEATHER SYSTEM Any of the CONTRACT (ADSC) A data link position
automated weather sensor platforms that collect reporting system, controlled by a ground station, that
weather data at airports and disseminate the weather establishes contracts with an aircrafts avionics that
information via radio and/or landline. The systems occur automatically whenever specific events occur,
currently consist of the Automated Surface Observ- or specific time intervals are reached.
ing System (ASOS), Automated Weather Sensor
System (AWSS) and Automated Weather Observa- AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER An aircraft
tion System (AWOS). radio navigation system which senses and indicates
the direction to a L/MF nondirectional radio beacon
AUTOMATED UNICOM Provides completely (NDB) ground transmitter. Direction is indicated to
automated weather, radio check capability and airport the pilot as a magnetic bearing or as a relative bearing
advisory information on an Automated UNICOM to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft depending on
system. These systems offer a variety of features, the type of indicator installed in the aircraft. In certain
typically selectable by microphone clicks, on the applications, such as military, ADF operations may
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be based on airborne and ground transmitters in the means of continuous and repetitive broadcasts
VHF/UHF frequency spectrum. throughout the day or a specified portion of the day.
(See BEARING.) AUTOROTATION A rotorcraft flight condition in
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) which the lifting rotor is driven entirely by action of
the air when the rotorcraft is in motion.
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT INFORMATION
SERVICE (AFIS) ALASKA FSSs ONLY The a. Autorotative Landing/Touchdown Autorota-
continuous broadcast of recorded noncontrol tion. Used by a pilot to indicate that the landing will
information at airports in Alaska where a FSS be made without applying power to the rotor.
provides local airport advisory service. The AFIS b. Low Level Autorotation. Commences at an
broadcast automates the repetitive transmission of altitude well below the traffic pattern, usually below
essential but routine information such as weather, 100 feet AGL and is used primarily for tactical
wind, altimeter, favored runway, breaking action, military training.
airport NOTAMs, and other applicable information. c. 180 degrees Autorotation. Initiated from a
The information is continuously broadcast over a downwind heading and is commenced well inside the
discrete VHF radio frequency (usually the ASOS/ normal traffic pattern. Go around may not be
AWSS/AWOS frequency.) possible during the latter part of this maneuver.
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION AVAILABLE LANDING DISTANCE (ALD) The
SERVICE The continuous broadcast of recorded portion of a runway available for landing and roll-out
noncontrol information in selected terminal areas. Its for aircraft cleared for LAHSO. This distance is
purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and to measured from the landing threshold to the
relieve frequency congestion by automating the hold-short point.
repetitive transmission of essential but routine AVIATION WEATHER SERVICE A service
information; e.g., Los Angeles information Alfa. provided by the National Weather Service (NWS) and
One three zero zero Coordinated Universal Time. FAA which collects and disseminates pertinent
Weather, measured ceiling two thousand overcast, weather information for pilots, aircraft operators, and
visibility three, haze, smoke, temperature seven one, ATC. Available aviation weather reports and
dew point five seven, wind two five zero at five, forecasts are displayed at each NWS office and FAA
altimeter two niner niner six. I-L-S Runway Two Five FSS.
Left approach in use, Runway Two Five Right closed,
(See EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY
advise you have Alfa. SERVICE.)
(See ICAO term AUTOMATIC TERMINAL (See TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST.)
INFORMATION SERVICE.)
(See WEATHER ADVISORY.)
(Refer to AIM.) (Refer to AIM.)
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION AWW
SERVICE [ICAO] The provision of current, routine (See SEVERE WEATHER FORECAST
information to arriving and departing aircraft by ALERTS.)
PCG A16
B
BACK-TAXI A term used by air traffic controllers BLIND VELOCITY [ICAO] The radial velocity of
to taxi an aircraft on the runway opposite to the traffic a moving target such that the target is not seen on
flow. The aircraft may be instructed to back-taxi to primary radars fitted with certain forms of fixed echo
the beginning of the runway or at some point before suppression.
reaching the runway end for the purpose of departure BLIND ZONE
or to exit the runway.
(See BLIND SPOT.)
BASE LEG BLOCKED Phraseology used to indicate that a
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) radio transmission has been distorted or interrupted
due to multiple simultaneous radio transmissions.
BEACON
(See AERONAUTICAL BEACON.) BOTTOM ALTITUDE In reference to published
(See AIRPORT ROTATING BEACON.) altitude restrictions on a STAR or STAR runway
(See AIRWAY BEACON.) transition, the lowest altitude authorized.
(See MARKER BEACON.) BOUNDARY LIGHTS
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) (See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
(See RADAR.) BRAKING ACTION (GOOD, FAIR, POOR, OR
BEARING The horizontal direction to or from any NIL) A report of conditions on the airport
point, usually measured clockwise from true north, movement area providing a pilot with a degree/
magnetic north, or some other reference point quality of braking that he/she might expect. Braking
through 360 degrees. action is reported in terms of good, fair, poor, or nil.
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) (See RUNWAY CONDITION READING.)
BRAKING ACTION ADVISORIES When tower
BELOW MINIMUMS Weather conditions below
controllers have received runway braking action
the minimums prescribed by regulation for the
reports which include the terms fair, poor, or
particular action involved; e.g., landing minimums,
nil, or whenever weather conditions are conducive
takeoff minimums.
to deteriorating or rapidly changing runway braking
BLAST FENCE A barrier that is used to divert or conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS
dissipate jet or propeller blast. broadcast the statement, Braking action advisories
are in effect on the ATIS broadcast. During the time
BLAST PAD A surface adjacent to the ends of a braking action advisories are in effect, ATC will issue
runway provided to reduce the erosive effect of jet the latest braking action report for the runway in use
blast and propeller wash. to each arriving and departing aircraft. Pilots should
be prepared for deteriorating braking conditions and
BLIND SPEED The rate of departure or closing of
should request current runway condition information
a target relative to the radar antenna at which
if not volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also
cancellation of the primary radar target by moving
be prepared to provide a descriptive runway
target indicator (MTI) circuits in the radar equipment
condition report to controllers after landing.
causes a reduction or complete loss of signal.
(See ICAO term BLIND VELOCITY.) BREAKOUT A technique to direct aircraft out of
the approach stream. In the context of simultaneous
BLIND SPOT An area from which radio (independent) parallel operations, a breakout is used
transmissions and/or radar echoes cannot be to direct threatened aircraft away from a deviating
received. The term is also used to describe portions aircraft.
of the airport not visible from the control tower.
BROADCAST Transmission of information for
BLIND TRANSMISSION which an acknowledgement is not expected.
(See TRANSMITTING IN THE BLIND.) (See ICAO term BROADCAST.)
PCG B1
BROADCAST [ICAO] A transmission of informa-

tion relating to air navigation that is not addressed to
a specific station or stations.
PCG B2
C
CALCULATED LANDING TIME A term that may CENRAP-PLUS
be used in place of tentative or actual calculated (See CENTER RADAR ARTS
landing time, whichever applies. PRESENTATION/PROCESSING-PLUS.)
CALL FOR RELEASE Wherein the overlying CENTER
ARTCC requires a terminal facility to initiate verbal (See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
coordination to secure ARTCC approval for release CENTER.)
of a departure into the en route environment. CENTERS AREA The specified airspace within
CALL UP Initial voice contact between a facility which an air route traffic control center (ARTCC)
and an aircraft, using the identification of the unit provides air traffic control and advisory service.
being called and the unit initiating the call. (See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
CENTER.)
(Refer to AIM.)
(Refer to AIM.)
CANADIAN MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFOR-
CENTER RADAR ARTS PRESENTATION/
MANCE SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE That
PROCESSING A computer program developed to
portion of Canadian domestic airspace within which
provide a back-up system for airport surveillance
MNPS separation may be applied.
radar in the event of a failure or malfunction. The
CARDINAL ALTITUDES Odd or Even program uses air route traffic control center radar for
thousand-foot altitudes or flight levels; e.g., 5,000, the processing and presentation of data on the ARTS
6,000, 7,000, FL 250, FL 260, FL 270. IIA or IIIA displays.
(See ALTITUDE.) CENTER RADAR ARTS PRESENTATION/
(See FLIGHT LEVEL.) PROCESSING-PLUS A computer program
CARDINAL FLIGHT LEVELS developed to provide a back-up system for airport
(See CARDINAL ALTITUDES.) surveillance radar in the event of a terminal secondary
radar system failure. The program uses a combination
CAT of Air Route Traffic Control Center Radar and
(See CLEAR-AIR TURBULENCE.) terminal airport surveillance radar primary targets
CATCH POINT A fix/waypoint that serves as a displayed simultaneously for the processing and
transition point from the high altitude waypoint presentation of data on the ARTS IIA or IIIA
navigation structure to an arrival procedure (STAR) displays.
or the low altitude groundbased navigation CENTER TRACON AUTOMATION SYSTEM
structure. (CTAS) A computerized set of programs designed
to aid Air Route Traffic Control Centers and
CEILING The heights above the earths surface of
TRACONs in the management and control of air
the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena
traffic.
that is reported as broken, overcast, or
obscuration, and not classified as thin or CENTER WEATHER ADVISORY An unsched-
partial. uled weather advisory issued by Center Weather
(See ICAO term CEILING.) Service Unit meteorologists for ATC use to alert
pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather
CEILING [ICAO] The height above the ground or conditions within the next 2 hours. A CWA may
water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below modify or redefine a SIGMET.
6,000 meters (20,000 feet) covering more than half
(See AWW.)
the sky.
(See AIRMET.)
CENRAP (See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.)
(See CENTER RADAR ARTS (See SIGMET.)
PRESENTATION/PROCESSING.) (Refer to AIM.)
PCG C1
CENTRAL EAST PACIFIC An organized route obtained and the pilot has established required visual
system between the U.S. West Coast and Hawaii. reference to the airport.
(See CIRCLE TO RUNWAY.)
CEP (See LANDING MINIMUMS.)
(See CENTRAL EAST PACIFIC.) (Refer to AIM.)
CIRCLE TO RUNWAY (RUNWAY NUMBER)
CERAP
Used by ATC to inform the pilot that he/she must
(See COMBINED CENTER-RAPCON.)
circle to land because the runway in use is other than
CERTIFIED TOWER RADAR DISPLAY (CTRD) the runway aligned with the instrument approach
A FAA radar display certified for use in the NAS. procedure. When the direction of the circling
maneuver in relation to the airport/runway is
CFR required, the controller will state the direction (eight
(See CALL FOR RELEASE.) cardinal compass points) and specify a left or right
downwind or base leg as appropriate; e.g., Cleared
CHAFF Thin, narrow metallic reflectors of various VOR Runway Three Six Approach circle to Runway
lengths and frequency responses, used to reflect radar Two Two, or Circle northwest of the airport for a
energy. These reflectors when dropped from aircraft right downwind to Runway Two Two.
and allowed to drift downward result in large targets (See CIRCLE-TO-LAND MANEUVER.)
on the radar display. (See LANDING MINIMUMS.)
(Refer to AIM.)
CHARTED VFR FLYWAYS Charted VFR Fly-
CIRCLING APPROACH
ways are flight paths recommended for use to bypass
(See CIRCLE-TO-LAND MANEUVER.)
areas heavily traversed by large turbine-powered
aircraft. Pilot compliance with recommended CIRCLING MANEUVER
flyways and associated altitudes is strictly voluntary. (See CIRCLE-TO-LAND MANEUVER.)
VFR Flyway Planning charts are published on the CIRCLING MINIMA
back of existing VFR Terminal Area charts. (See LANDING MINIMUMS.)
CLASS A AIRSPACE
CHARTED VISUAL FLIGHT PROCEDURE
(See CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.)
APPROACH An approach conducted while
operating on an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight CLASS B AIRSPACE
plan which authorizes the pilot of an aircraft to (See CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.)
proceed visually and clear of clouds to the airport via CLASS C AIRSPACE
visual landmarks and other information depicted on (See CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.)
a charted visual flight procedure. This approach must CLASS D AIRSPACE
be authorized and under the control of the appropriate (See CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.)
air traffic control facility. Weather minimums
CLASS E AIRSPACE
required are depicted on the chart.
CHASE An aircraft flown in proximity to another CLASS G AIRSPACE That airspace not designated
aircraft normally to observe its performance during as Class A, B, C, D or E.
training or testing. CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT) Turbulence
encountered in air where no clouds are present. This
CHASE AIRCRAFT
term is commonly applied to high-level turbulence
(See CHASE.) associated with wind shear. CAT is often encountered
CIRCLE-TO-LAND MANEUVER A maneuver in the vicinity of the jet stream.
initiated by the pilot to align the aircraft with a (See WIND SHEAR.)
runway for landing when a straight-in landing from (See JET STREAM.)
an instrument approach is not possible or is not CLEAR OF THE RUNWAY
desirable. At tower controlled airports, this maneuver a. Taxiing aircraft, which is approaching a
is made only after ATC authorization has been runway, is clear of the runway when all parts of the
PCG C2
aircraft are held short of the applicable runway approach procedure to an airport; e.g., Cleared ILS
holding position marking. Runway Three Six Approach.
b. A pilot or controller may consider an aircraft, (See APPROACH CLEARANCE.)
which is exiting or crossing a runway, to be clear of (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
PROCEDURE.)
the runway when all parts of the aircraft are beyond
the runway edge and there are no restrictions to its (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
continued movement beyond the applicable runway (Refer to AIM.)
holding position marking. CLEARED AS FILED Means the aircraft is cleared
c. Pilots and controllers shall exercise good to proceed in accordance with the route of flight filed
judgement to ensure that adequate separation exists in the flight plan. This clearance does not include the
between all aircraft on runways and taxiways at altitude, DP, or DP Transition.
airports with inadequate runway edge lines or (See REQUEST FULL ROUTE CLEARANCE.)
holding position markings. (Refer to AIM.)
CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF ATC authorization
CLEARANCE for an aircraft to depart. It is predicated on known
(See AIR TRAFFIC CLEARANCE.) traffic and known physical airport conditions.
CLEARANCE LIMIT The fix, point, or location to CLEARED FOR THE OPTION ATC authoriza-
which an aircraft is cleared when issued an air traffic tion for an aircraft to make a touch-and-go, low
clearance. approach, missed approach, stop and go, or full stop
(See ICAO term CLEARANCE LIMIT.) landing at the discretion of the pilot. It is normally
used in training so that an instructor can evaluate a
CLEARANCE LIMIT [ICAO] The point to which students performance under changing situations.
an aircraft is granted an air traffic control clearance. (See OPTION APPROACH.)
(Refer to AIM.)
CLEARANCE VOID IF NOT OFF BY (TIME)
Used by ATC to advise an aircraft that the departure CLEARED THROUGH ATC authorization for an
clearance is automatically canceled if takeoff is not aircraft to make intermediate stops at specified
made prior to a specified time. The pilot must obtain airports without refiling a flight plan while en route
a new clearance or cancel his/her IFR flight plan if not to the clearance limit.
off by the specified time. CLEARED TO LAND ATC authorization for an
(See ICAO term CLEARANCE VOID TIME.) aircraft to land. It is predicated on known traffic and
known physical airport conditions.
CLEARANCE VOID TIME [ICAO] A time
specified by an air traffic control unit at which a CLEARWAY An area beyond the takeoff runway
clearance ceases to be valid unless the aircraft under the control of airport authorities within which
concerned has already taken action to comply terrain or fixed obstacles may not extend above
therewith. specified limits. These areas may be required for
certain turbine-powered operations and the size and
CLEARED APPROACH ATC authorization for an upward slope of the clearway will differ depending on
aircraft to execute any standard or special instrument when the aircraft was certificated.
approach procedure for that airport. Normally, an (Refer to 14 CFR Part 1.)
aircraft will be cleared for a specific instrument
CLIMB TO VFR ATC authorization for an aircraft
approach procedure.
to climb to VFR conditions within Class B, C, D, and
(See CLEARED (Type of) APPROACH.)
E surface areas when the only weather limitation is
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH restricted visibility. The aircraft must remain clear of
PROCEDURE.)
clouds while climbing to VFR.
(See SPECIAL VFR CONDITIONS.)
CLEARED (Type of) APPROACH ATC authoriza- CLIMBOUT That portion of flight operation
tion for an aircraft to execute a specific instrument between takeoff and the initial cruising altitude.
PCG C3
7/24/14
CLIMB VIA An abbreviated ATC clearance that COASTAL FIX A navigation aid or intersection
requires compliance with the procedure lateral path, where an aircraft transitions between the domestic
associated speed restrictions, and altitude restrictions route structure and the oceanic route structure.
along the cleared route or procedure.
CODES The number assigned to a particular
CLOSE PARALLEL RUNWAYS Two parallel multiple pulse reply signal transmitted by a
runways whose extended centerlines are separated by transponder.
less than 4,300 feet and at least 3000 feet (750 feet for (See DISCRETE CODE.)
SOIA operations) that are authorized to conduct COLLABORATIVE TRAJECTORY OPTIONS
simultaneous independent approach operations. PROGRAM (CTOP)- CTOP is a traffic management
PRM and simultaneous close parallel appear in program administered by the Air Traffic Control
approach title. Dual communications, special pilot System Command Center (ATCSCC) that manages
training, an Attention All Users Page (AAUP), NTZ demand through constrained airspace, while consid-
monitoring by displays that have aural and visual ering operator preference with regard to both route
alerting algorithms are required. A high update rate and delay as defined in a Trajectory Options Set
surveillance sensor is required for certain runway or (TOS).
approach course spacing.
COMBINED CENTER-RAPCON An air traffic
CLOSED RUNWAY A runway that is unusable for facility which combines the functions of an ARTCC
aircraft operations. Only the airport management/ and a radar approach control facility.
military operations office can close a runway. (See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
CENTER.)
CLOSED TRAFFIC Successive operations involv- (See RADAR APPROACH CONTROL
ing takeoffs and landings or low approaches where FACILITY.)
the aircraft does not exit the traffic pattern.
COMMON POINT A significant point over which
CLOUD A cloud is a visible accumulation of two or more aircraft will report passing or have
minute water droplets and/or ice particles in the reported passing before proceeding on the same or
atmosphere above the Earths surface. Cloud differs diverging tracks. To establish/maintain longitudinal
from ground fog, fog, or ice fog only in that the latter separation, a controller may determine a common
are, by definition, in contact with the Earths surface. point not originally in the aircrafts flight plan and
then clear the aircraft to fly over the point.
CLT (See SIGNIFICANT POINT.)
(See CALCULATED LANDING TIME.) COMMON PORTION
(See COMMON ROUTE.)
CLUTTER In radar operations, clutter refers to the
reception and visual display of radar returns caused COMMON ROUTE That segment of a North
by precipitation, chaff, terrain, numerous aircraft American Route between the inland navigation
targets, or other phenomena. Such returns may limit facility and the coastal fix.
or preclude ATC from providing services based on
radar. OR
(See CHAFF.) COMMON ROUTE Typically the portion of a
(See GROUND CLUTTER.) RNAV STAR between the en route transition end
(See PRECIPITATION.) point and the runway transition start point; however,
the common route may only consist of a single point
(See TARGET.)
that joins the en route and runway transitions.
(See ICAO term RADAR CLUTTER.)
COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY FREQUENCY
CMNPS (CTAF) A frequency designed for the purpose of
(See CANADIAN MINIMUM NAVIGATION carrying out airport advisory practices while
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE.) operating to or from an airport without an operating
PCG C4
6/25/15
control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, the area concerned and half the vertical minimum is
Multicom, FSS, or tower frequency and is identified applied.
in appropriate aeronautical publications.
COMPULSORY REPORTING POINTS Reporting
(See DESIGNATED COMMON TRAFFIC
points which must be reported to ATC. They are
ADVISORY FREQUENCY (CTAF) AREA.)
designated on aeronautical charts by solid triangles or
(Refer to AC 90-42, Traffic Advisory Practices at
filed in a flight plan as fixes selected to define direct
Airports Without Operating Control Towers.)
routes. These points are geographical locations
COMPASS LOCATOR A low power, low or which are defined by navigation aids/fixes. Pilots
medium frequency (L/MF) radio beacon installed at should discontinue position reporting over compul-
the site of the outer or middle marker of an instrument sory reporting points when informed by ATC that
landing system (ILS). It can be used for navigation at their aircraft is in radar contact.
distances of approximately 15 miles or as authorized CONFIDENCE MANEUVER A confidence man-
in the approach procedure. euver consists of one or more turns, a climb or
a. Outer Compass Locator (LOM) A compass descent, or other maneuver to determine if the pilot
locator installed at the site of the outer marker of an in command (PIC) is able to receive and comply with
instrument landing system. ATC instructions.
(See OUTER MARKER.)
CONFLICT ALERT A function of certain air traffic
b. Middle Compass Locator (LMM) A compass control automated systems designed to alert radar
locator installed at the site of the middle marker of an controllers to existing or pending situations between
instrument landing system. tracked targets (known IFR or VFR aircraft) that
(See MIDDLE MARKER.) require his/her immediate attention/action.
(See ICAO term LOCATOR.) (See MODE C INTRUDER ALERT.)
COMPASS ROSE A circle, graduated in degrees, CONFLICT RESOLUTION The resolution of
printed on some charts or marked on the ground at an potential conflictions between aircraft that are radar
airport. It is used as a reference to either true or identified and in communication with ATC by
magnetic direction. ensuring that radar targets do not touch. Pertinent
traffic advisories shall be issued when this procedure
COMPLY WITH RESTRICTIONS An ATC is applied.
instruction that requires an aircraft being vectored Note: This procedure shall not be provided utilizing
back onto an arrival or departure procedure to comply mosaic radar systems.
with all altitude and/or speed restrictions depicted on
the procedure. This term may be used in lieu of CONFORMANCE The condition established when
repeating each remaining restriction that appears on an aircrafts actual position is within the conformance
the procedure. region constructed around that aircraft at its position,
according to the trajectory associated with the
COMPOSITE FLIGHT PLAN A flight plan which aircrafts Current Plan.
specifies VFR operation for one portion of flight and
IFR for another portion. It is used primarily in CONFORMANCE REGION A volume, bounded
military operations. laterally, vertically, and longitudinally, within which
(Refer to AIM.) an aircraft must be at a given time in order to be in
conformance with the Current Plan Trajectory for that
COMPOSITE ROUTE SYSTEM An organized aircraft. At a given time, the conformance region is
oceanic route structure, incorporating reduced lateral determined by the simultaneous application of the
spacing between routes, in which composite lateral, vertical, and longitudinal conformance
separation is authorized. bounds for the aircraft at the position defined by time
and aircrafts trajectory.
COMPOSITE SEPARATION A method of separat-
ing aircraft in a composite route system where, by CONSOLAN A low frequency, long-distance
management of route and altitude assignments, a NAVAID used principally for transoceanic naviga-
combination of half the lateral minimum specified for tions.
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7/24/14
CONTACT controller or group of controllers has air traffic

a. Establish communication with (followed by the control responsibility, normally within an air route
name of the facility and, if appropriate, the frequency traffic control center or an approach control facility.
to be used). Sectors are established based on predominant traffic
flows, altitude strata, and controller workload.
b. A flight condition wherein the pilot ascertains
Pilot-communications during operations within a
the attitude of his/her aircraft and navigates by visual
sector are normally maintained on discrete frequen-
reference to the surface.
cies assigned to the sector.
(See CONTACT APPROACH.)
(See DISCRETE FREQUENCY.)
(See RADAR CONTACT.)
CONTROL SLASH A radar beacon slash repre-
CONTACT APPROACH An approach wherein an senting the actual position of the associated aircraft.
aircraft on an IFR flight plan, having an air traffic Normally, the control slash is the one closest to the
control authorization, operating clear of clouds with interrogating radar beacon site. When ARTCC radar
at least 1 mile flight visibility and a reasonable is operating in narrowband (digitized) mode, the
expectation of continuing to the destination airport in control slash is converted to a target symbol.
those conditions, may deviate from the instrument
approach procedure and proceed to the destination CONTROLLED AIRSPACE An airspace of
airport by visual reference to the surface. This defined dimensions within which air traffic control
approach will only be authorized when requested by service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights
the pilot and the reported ground visibility at the in accordance with the airspace classification.
destination airport is at least 1 statute mile. a. Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers
(Refer to AIM.) Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E
CONTAMINATED RUNWAY A runway is airspace.
considered contaminated whenever standing water, b. Controlled airspace is also that airspace within
ice, snow, slush, frost in any form, heavy rubber, or which all aircraft operators are subject to certain pilot
other substances are present. A runway is contami- qualifications, operating rules, and equipment
nated with respect to rubber deposits or other requirements in 14 CFR Part 91 (for specific
friction-degrading substances when the average operating requirements, please refer to 14 CFR
friction value for any 500-foot segment of the runway Part 91). For IFR operations in any class of controlled
within the ALD fails below the recommended airspace, a pilot must file an IFR flight plan and
minimum friction level and the average friction value receive an appropriate ATC clearance. Each Class B,
in the adjacent 500-foot segments falls below the Class C, and Class D airspace area designated for an
maintenance planning friction level. airport contains at least one primary airport around
which the airspace is designated (for specific
CONTERMINOUS U.S. The 48 adjoining States designations and descriptions of the airspace classes,
and the District of Columbia. please refer to 14 CFR Part 71).
CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES The 49 States c. Controlled airspace in the United States is
located on the continent of North America and the designated as follows:
District of Columbia. 1. CLASS A Generally, that airspace from
CONTINUE When used as a control instruction 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600,
should be followed by another word or words including the airspace overlying the waters within 12
clarifying what is expected of the pilot. Example: nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States
continue taxi, continue descent, continue and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all persons
inbound, etc. must operate their aircraft under IFR.
2. CLASS B Generally, that airspace from the
CONTROL AREA [ICAO] A controlled airspace
surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nations
extending upwards from a specified limit above the
busiest airports in terms of airport operations or
earth.
passenger enplanements. The configuration of each
CONTROL SECTOR An airspace area of defined Class B airspace area is individually tailored and
horizontal and vertical dimensions for which a consists of a surface area and two or more layers
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6/25/15
(some Class B airspaces areas resemble upside-down airways, airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200
wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all feet AGL used to transition to/from the terminal or en
published instrument procedures once an aircraft route environment, en route domestic, and offshore
enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for airspace areas designated below 18,000 feet MSL.
all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class E
are so cleared receive separation services within the airspace begins at 14,500 MSL over the United
airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR States, including that airspace overlying the waters
operations is clear of clouds. within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48
3. CLASS C Generally, that airspace from the contiguous States and Alaska, up to, but not
surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation including 18,000 feet MSL, and the airspace above
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that FL 600.
have an operational control tower, are serviced by a CONTROLLED AIRSPACE [ICAO] An airspace
radar approach control, and that have a certain of defined dimensions within which air traffic control
number of IFR operations or passenger enplane- service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights
ments. Although the configuration of each Class C in accordance with the airspace classification.
area is individually tailored, the airspace usually Note: Controlled airspace is a generic term which
consists of a surface area with a 5 nautical mile (NM) covers ATS airspace Classes A, B, C, D, and E.
radius, a circle with a 10NM radius that extends no CONTROLLED TIME OF ARRIVAL Arrival time
lower than 1,200 feet up to 4,000 feet above the assigned during a Traffic Management Program. This
airport elevation and an outer area that is not charted. time may be modified due to adjustments or user
Each person must establish two-way radio commu- options.
nications with the ATC facility providing air traffic
CONTROLLER
services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter
(See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SPECIALIST.)
maintain those communications while within the
airspace. VFR aircraft are only separated from IFR CONTROLLER [ICAO] A person authorized to
aircraft within the airspace. provide air traffic control services.
(See OUTER AREA.) CONTROLLER PILOT DATA LINK
4. CLASS D Generally, that airspace from the COMMUNICATIONS (CPDLC) A twoway
surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation digital communications system that conveys textual
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that air traffic control messages between controllers and
have an operational control tower. The configuration pilots using ground or satellite-based radio relay
of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored stations.
and when instrument procedures are published, the CONVECTIVE SIGMET A weather advisory
airspace will normally be designed to contain the concerning convective weather significant to the
procedures. Arrival extensions for instrument safety of all aircraft. Convective SIGMETs are issued
approach procedures may be Class D or Class E for tornadoes, lines of thunderstorms, embedded
airspace. Unless otherwise authorized, each person thunderstorms of any intensity level, areas of
must establish two-way radio communications with thunderstorms greater than or equal to VIP level 4
the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to with an area coverage of 4/10 (40%) or more, and hail
3/ inch or greater.
entering the airspace and thereafter maintain those 4
communications while in the airspace. No separation (See AIRMET.)
services are provided to VFR aircraft. (See AWW.)
(See CWA.)
5. CLASS E Generally, if the airspace is not
(See SIGMET.)
Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is
(Refer to AIM.)
controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace. Class E
airspace extends upward from either the surface or a CONVECTIVE SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOG-
designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent ICAL INFORMATION
controlled airspace. When designated as a surface (See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.)
area, the airspace will be configured to contain all COORDINATES The intersection of lines of
instrument procedures. Also in this class are Federal reference, usually expressed in degrees/minutes/
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7/24/14
seconds of latitude and longitude, used to determine CROSS (FIX) AT OR ABOVE (ALTITUDE) Used
position or location. by ATC when an altitude restriction at a specified fix
is required. It does not prohibit the aircraft from
COORDINATION FIX The fix in relation to which crossing the fix at a higher altitude than specified;
facilities will handoff, transfer control of an aircraft, however, the higher altitude may not be one that will
or coordinate flight progress data. For terminal violate a succeeding altitude restriction or altitude
facilities, it may also serve as a clearance for arriving assignment.
aircraft.
(See ALTITUDE RESTRICTION.)
COPTER (Refer to AIM.)
(See HELICOPTER.) CROSS (FIX) AT OR BELOW (ALTITUDE)
CORRECTION An error has been made in the Used by ATC when a maximum crossing altitude at
transmission and the correct version follows. a specific fix is required. It does not prohibit the
aircraft from crossing the fix at a lower altitude;
COUPLED APPROACH An instrument approach however, it must be at or above the minimum IFR
performed by the aircraft autopilot, and/or visually altitude.
depicted on the flight director, which is receiving (See ALTITUDE RESTRICTION.)
position information and/or steering commands from (See MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDES.)
onboard navigational equipment. In general, coupled (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
non-precision approaches must be flown manually
(autopilot disengaged) at altitudes lower than 50 feet CROSSWIND
AGL below the minimum descent altitude, and a. When used concerning the traffic pattern, the
coupled precision approaches must be flown word means crosswind leg.
manually (autopilot disengaged) below 50 feet AGL (See TRAFFIC PATTERN.)
unless authorized to conduct autoland operations. b. When used concerning wind conditions, the
Coupled instrument approaches are commonly flown word means a wind not parallel to the runway or the
to the allowable IFR weather minima established by path of an aircraft.
the operator or PIC, or flown VFR for training and (See CROSSWIND COMPONENT.)
safety.
CROSSWIND COMPONENT The wind compo-
COURSE nent measured in knots at 90 degrees to the
a. The intended direction of flight in the horizontal longitudinal axis of the runway.
plane measured in degrees from north.
CRUISE Used in an ATC clearance to authorize a
b. The ILS localizer signal pattern usually pilot to conduct flight at any altitude from the
specified as the front course or the back course. minimum IFR altitude up to and including the
(See BEARING.) altitude specified in the clearance. The pilot may
(See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.) level off at any intermediate altitude within this block
(See RADIAL.) of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is to be
made at the discretion of the pilot. However, once the
CPDLC
pilot starts descent and verbally reports leaving an
(See CONTROLLER PILOT DATA LINK
altitude in the block, he/she may not return to that
COMMUNICATIONS.)
altitude without additional ATC clearance. Further, it
CPL [ICAO] is approval for the pilot to proceed to and make an
(See ICAO term CURRENT FLIGHT PLAN.) approach at destination airport and can be used in
conjunction with:
CRITICAL ENGINE The engine which, upon
failure, would most adversely affect the performance a. An airport clearance limit at locations with a
or handling qualities of an aircraft. standard/special instrument approach procedure. The
CFRs require that if an instrument letdown to an
CROSS (FIX) AT (ALTITUDE) Used by ATC airport is necessary, the pilot shall make the letdown
when a specific altitude restriction at a specified fix in accordance with a standard/special instrument
is required. approach procedure for that airport, or
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6/25/15
b. An airport clearance limit at locations that are from the traffic management system computer to the
within/below/outside controlled airspace and with- NAS en route computer and appears as an EDCT. In
out a standard/special instrument approach the event of a communication failure between the
procedure. Such a clearance is NOT AUTHORIZA- traffic management system computer and the NAS,
TION for the pilot to descend under IFR conditions the CT message can be manually entered by the TMC
below the applicable minimum IFR altitude nor does at the en route facility.
it imply that ATC is exercising control over aircraft
CTA
in Class G airspace; however, it provides a means for
(See CONTROLLED TIME OF ARRIVAL.)
the aircraft to proceed to destination airport, descend,
(See ICAO term CONTROL AREA.)
and land in accordance with applicable CFRs
governing VFR flight operations. Also, this provides CTAF
search and rescue protection until such time as the (See COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY
IFR flight plan is closed. FREQUENCY.)
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH CTAS
PROCEDURE.)
(See CENTER TRACON AUTOMATION
CRUISE CLIMB A climb technique employed by SYSTEM.)
aircraft, usually at a constant power setting, resulting CTOP
in an increase of altitude as the aircraft weight (See COLLABORATIVE TRAJECTORY
decreases. OPTIONS PROGRAM)
CRUISING ALTITUDE An altitude or flight level CTRD
maintained during en route level flight. This is a (See CERTIFIED TOWER RADAR DISPLAY.)
constant altitude and should not be confused with a
cruise clearance. CURRENT FLIGHT PLAN [ICAO] The flight
plan, including changes, if any, brought about by
(See ALTITUDE.)
subsequent clearances.
(See ICAO term CRUISING LEVEL.)
CURRENT PLAN The ATC clearance the aircraft
CRUISING LEVEL has received and is expected to fly.
(See CRUISING ALTITUDE.)
CVFP APPROACH
CRUISING LEVEL [ICAO] A level maintained (See CHARTED VISUAL FLIGHT PROCEDURE
during a significant portion of a flight. APPROACH.)
CT MESSAGE An EDCT time generated by the CWA
ATCSCC to regulate traffic at arrival airports. (See CENTER WEATHER ADVISORY and
Normally, a CT message is automatically transferred WEATHER ADVISORY.)
PCG C9
6/25/15
D
D-ATIS sea level (MSL)) on an instrument approach
(See DIGITAL-AUTOMATIC TERMINAL procedure (ILS, GLS, vertically guided RNAV) at
INFORMATION SERVICE.) which the pilot must decide whether to continue the
approach or initiate an immediate missed approach if
DA [ICAO] the pilot does not see the required visual references.
(See ICAO Term DECISION
ALTITUDE/DECISION HEIGHT.) DECISION HEIGHT With respect to the operation
of aircraft, means the height at which a decision must
DAIR be made during an ILS or PAR instrument approach
(See DIRECT ALTITUDE AND IDENTITY to either continue the approach or to execute a missed
READOUT.) approach.
DANGER AREA [ICAO] An airspace of defined (See ICAO term DECISION
dimensions within which activities dangerous to the ALTITUDE/DECISION HEIGHT.)
flight of aircraft may exist at specified times. DECODER The device used to decipher signals
Note: The term Danger Area is not used in received from ATCRBS transponders to effect their
reference to areas within the United States or any display as select codes.
of its possessions or territories.
(See CODES.)
DAS (See RADAR.)
(See DELAY ASSIGNMENT.) DEFENSE AREA- Any airspace of the contiguous
DATA BLOCK United States that is not an ADIZ in which the control
(See ALPHANUMERIC DISPLAY.)
of aircraft is required for reasons of national security.
DEAD RECKONING Dead reckoning, as applied DEFENSE VISUAL FLIGHT RULES Rules
to flying, is the navigation of an airplane solely by applicable to flights within an ADIZ conducted under
means of computations based on airspeed, course, the visual flight rules in 14 CFR Part 91.
heading, wind direction, and speed, groundspeed, (See AIR DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION ZONE.)
and elapsed time. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
DECISION ALTITUDE/DECISION HEIGHT
[ICAO Annex 6]- A specified altitude or height (A/H) DELAY ASSIGNMENT (DAS) Delays are distrib-
in the precision approach at which a missed approach uted to aircraft based on the traffic management
must be initiated if the required visual reference to program parameters. The delay assignment is
continue the approach has not been established. calculated in 15minute increments and appears as a
1. Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea table in Traffic Flow Management System (TFMS).
level and decision height (DH) is referenced to the DELAY INDEFINITE (REASON IF KNOWN)
threshold elevation. EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE (TIME) Used
2. Category II and III minima are expressed as a DH by ATC to inform a pilot when an accurate estimate
and not a DA. Minima is assessed by reference to a of the delay time and the reason for the delay cannot
radio altimeter and not a barometric altimeter, which immediately be determined; e.g., a disabled aircraft
makes the minima a DH. on the runway, terminal or center area saturation,
3. The required visual reference means that section of weather below landing minimums, etc.
the visual aids or of the approach area which should
(See EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE (TIME).)
have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to
have made an assessment of the aircraft position and DELAY TIME The amount of time that the arrival
rate of change of position, in relation to the desired must lose to cross the meter fix at the assigned meter
flight path. fix time. This is the difference between ACLT and
Decision altitude (DA) - A specified altitude (mean VTA.
PCG D1
7/24/14
DEPARTURE CENTER The ARTCC having and its occupants are threatened by grave and
jurisdiction for the airspace that generates a flight to imminent danger or require immediate assistance.
the impacted airport. DEVIATIONS
DEPARTURE CONTROL A function of an a. A departure from a current clearance, such as an
approach control facility providing air traffic control off course maneuver to avoid weather or turbulence.
service for departing IFR and, under certain b. Where specifically authorized in the CFRs and
conditions, VFR aircraft. requested by the pilot, ATC may permit pilots to
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.) deviate from certain regulations.
(Refer to AIM.)
DH
DEPARTURE SEQUENCING PROGRAM A (See DECISION HEIGHT.)
program designed to assist in achieving a specified
interval over a common point for departures. DH [ICAO]
(See ICAO Term DECISION ALTITUDE/
DEPARTURE TIME The time an aircraft becomes DECISION HEIGHT.)
airborne.
DIGITAL-AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMA-
DESCEND VIA An abbreviated ATC clearance that TION SERVICE (D-ATIS) The service provides
requires compliance with a published procedure text messages to aircraft, airlines, and other users
lateral path and associated speed restrictions and outside the standard reception range of conventional
provides a pilot-discretion descent to comply with ATIS via landline and data link communications to
published altitude restrictions. the cockpit. Also, the service provides a computer
synthesized voice message that can be transmitted to
DESCENT SPEED ADJUSTMENTS Speed decel-
all aircraft within range of existing transmitters. The
eration calculations made to determine an accurate
Terminal Data Link System (TDLS) D-ATIS
VTA. These calculations start at the transition point
application uses weather inputs from local automated
and use arrival speed segments to the vertex.
weather sources or manually entered meteorological
DESIGNATED COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY data together with preprogrammed menus to provide
FREQUENCY (CTAF) AREA- In Alaska, in standard information to users. Airports with D-ATIS
addition to being designated for the purpose of capability are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory.
carrying out airport advisory practices while DIGITAL TARGET A computergenerated symbol
operating to or from an airport without an operating representing an aircrafts position, based on a primary
airport traffic control tower, a CTAF may also be return or radar beacon reply, shown on a digital
designated for the purpose of carrying out advisory display.
practices for operations in and through areas with a
high volume of VFR traffic. DIGITAL TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEM
(DTAS) A system where digital radar and beacon
DESIRED COURSE data is presented on digital displays and the
a. True A predetermined desired course direction operational program monitors the system perfor-
to be followed (measured in degrees from true north). mance on a realtime basis.
b. Magnetic A predetermined desired course DIGITIZED TARGET A computergenerated
direction to be followed (measured in degrees from indication shown on an analog radar display resulting
local magnetic north). from a primary radar return or a radar beacon reply.
DESIRED TRACK The planned or intended track DIRECT Straight line flight between two naviga-
between two waypoints. It is measured in degrees tional aids, fixes, points, or any combination thereof.
from either magnetic or true north. The instantaneous When used by pilots in describing off-airway routes,
angle may change from point to point along the great points defining direct route segments become
circle track between waypoints. compulsory reporting points unless the aircraft is
DETRESFA (DISTRESS PHASE) [ICAO] The under radar contact.
code word used to designate an emergency phase DIRECT ALTITUDE AND IDENTITY READ-
wherein there is reasonable certainty that an aircraft OUT The DAIR System is a modification to the
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1/8/15
AN/TPX-42 Interrogator System. The Navy has two nautical miles, the slant range distance of an aircraft
adaptations of the DAIR System-Carrier Air Traffic from the DME navigational aid.
Control Direct Altitude and Identification Readout (See MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM.)
System for Aircraft Carriers and Radar Air Traffic (See TACAN.)
Control Facility Direct Altitude and Identity Readout (See VORTAC.)
System for land-based terminal operations. The DISTRESS A condition of being threatened by
DAIR detects, tracks, and predicts secondary radar serious and/or imminent danger and of requiring
aircraft targets. Targets are displayed by means of immediate assistance.
computer-generated symbols and alphanumeric
characters depicting flight identification, altitude, DIVE BRAKES
ground speed, and flight plan data. The DAIR System (See SPEED BRAKES.)
is capable of interfacing with ARTCCs. DIVERSE VECTOR AREA In a radar environ-
ment, that area in which a prescribed departure route
DIRECTLY BEHIND An aircraft is considered to
is not required as the only suitable route to avoid
be operating directly behind when it is following the
obstacles. The area in which random radar vectors
actual flight path of the lead aircraft over the surface
below the MVA/MIA, established in accordance with
of the earth except when applying wake turbulence
the TERPS criteria for diverse departures, obstacles
separation criteria.
and terrain avoidance, may be issued to departing
DISCRETE BEACON CODE aircraft.
(See DISCRETE CODE.) DIVERSION (DVRSN) Flights that are required to
DISCRETE CODE As used in the Air Traffic land at other than their original destination for
Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS), any one reasons beyond the control of the pilot/company, e.g.
of the 4096 selectable Mode 3/A aircraft transponder periods of significant weather.
codes except those ending in zero zero; e.g., discrete DME
codes: 0010, 1201, 2317, 7777; nondiscrete codes: (See DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT.)
0100, 1200, 7700. Nondiscrete codes are normally
reserved for radar facilities that are not equipped with DME FIX A geographical position determined by
discrete decoding capability and for other purposes reference to a navigational aid which provides
such as emergencies (7700), VFR aircraft (1200), etc. distance and azimuth information. It is defined by a
specific distance in nautical miles and a radial,
(See RADAR.)
azimuth, or course (i.e., localizer) in degrees
(Refer to AIM.)
magnetic from that aid.
DISCRETE FREQUENCY A separate radio (See DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT.)
frequency for use in direct pilot-controller commu- (See FIX.)
nications in air traffic control which reduces (See MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM.)
frequency congestion by controlling the number of DME SEPARATION Spacing of aircraft in terms of
aircraft operating on a particular frequency at one distances (nautical miles) determined by reference to
time. Discrete frequencies are normally designated distance measuring equipment (DME).
for each control sector in en route/terminal ATC (See DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT.)
facilities. Discrete frequencies are listed in the
Airport/Facility Directory and the DOD FLIP IFR En DOD FLIP Department of Defense Flight Informa-
Route Supplement. tion Publications used for flight planning, en route,
(See CONTROL SECTOR.) and terminal operations. FLIP is produced by the
National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (NGA) for
DISPLACED THRESHOLD A threshold that is world-wide use. United States Government Flight
located at a point on the runway other than the Information Publications (en route charts and
designated beginning of the runway. instrument approach procedure charts) are incorpo-
(See THRESHOLD.) rated in DOD FLIP for use in the National Airspace
(Refer to AIM.) System (NAS).
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT Equip- DOMESTIC AIRSPACE Airspace which overlies
ment (airborne and ground) used to measure, in the continental land mass of the United States plus
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7/24/14
Hawaii and U.S. possessions. Domestic airspace DUE REGARD A phase of flight wherein an
extends to 12 miles offshore. aircraft commander of a State-operated aircraft
assumes responsibility to separate his/her aircraft
DOWNBURST A strong downdraft which induces from all other aircraft.
an outburst of damaging winds on or near the ground. (See also FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 121, WORD
Damaging winds, either straight or curved, are highly MEANINGS.)
divergent. The sizes of downbursts vary from 1/2
mile or less to more than 10 miles. An intense DUTY RUNWAY
downburst often causes widespread damage. Damag- (See RUNWAY IN USE/ACTIVE RUNWAY/DUTY
ing winds, lasting 5 to 30 minutes, could reach speeds RUNWAY.)
as high as 120 knots. DVA
(See DIVERSE VECTOR AREA.)
DOWNWIND LEG
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) DVFR
(See DEFENSE VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
DP
DVFR FLIGHT PLAN A flight plan filed for a VFR
(See INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE.)
aircraft which intends to operate in airspace within
DRAG CHUTE A parachute device installed on which the ready identification, location, and control
certain aircraft which is deployed on landing roll to of aircraft are required in the interest of national
assist in deceleration of the aircraft. security.
DSP DVRSN
(See DIVERSION.)
(See DEPARTURE SEQUENCING PROGRAM.)
DYNAMIC Continuous review, evaluation, and
DT change to meet demands.
(See DELAY TIME.)
DYNAMIC RESTRICTIONS Those restrictions
DTAS imposed by the local facility on an as needed basis
(See DIGITAL TERMINAL AUTOMATION to manage unpredictable fluctuations in traffic
SYSTEM.) demands.
PCG D4
E
EAS EN ROUTE CHARTS
(See EN ROUTE AUTOMATION SYSTEM.) (See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
EDCT EN ROUTE DESCENT Descent from the en route
(See EXPECT DEPARTURE CLEARANCE cruising altitude which takes place along the route of
TIME.) flight.
EFC EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY SERVICE A
(See EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE (TIME).) service specifically designed to provide, upon pilot
request, timely weather information pertinent to
ELT his/her type of flight, intended route of flight, and
(See EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER.) altitude. The FSSs providing this service are listed in
EMERGENCY A distress or an urgency condition. the Airport/Facility Directory.
(See FLIGHT WATCH.)
EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER A (Refer to AIM.)
radio transmitter attached to the aircraft structure
which operates from its own power source on EN ROUTE HIGH ALTITUDE CHARTS
121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz. It aids in locating (See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
downed aircraft by radiating a downward sweeping EN ROUTE LOW ALTITUDE CHARTS
audio tone, 2-4 times per second. It is designed to (See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
function without human action after an accident.
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) EN ROUTE MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE WARN-
(Refer to AIM.) ING A function of the EAS that aids the controller
by providing an alert when a tracked aircraft is below
E-MSAW or predicted by the computer to go below a
(See EN ROUTE MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE predetermined minimum IFR altitude (MIA).
WARNING.)
EN ROUTE SPACING PROGRAM (ESP) A
EN ROUTE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SER- program designed to assist the exit sector in
VICES Air traffic control service provided aircraft achieving the required in-trail spacing.
on IFR flight plans, generally by centers, when these
aircraft are operating between departure and EN ROUTE TRANSITION
destination terminal areas. When equipment, capa- a. Conventional STARs/SIDs. The portion of a
bilities, and controller workload permit, certain SID/STAR that connects to one or more en route
advisory/assistance services may be provided to VFR airway/jet route.
aircraft. b. RNAV STARs/SIDs. The portion of a STAR
(See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL preceding the common route or point, or for a SID the
CENTER.) portion following, that is coded for a specific en route
(Refer to AIM.) fix, airway or jet route.
EN ROUTE AUTOMATION SYSTEM (EAS) The ESP
complex integrated environment consisting of (See EN ROUTE SPACING PROGRAM.)
situation display systems, surveillance systems and
flight data processing, remote devices, decision ESTABLISHEDTo be stable or fixed on a route,
support tools, and the related communications route segment, altitude, heading, etc.
equipment that form the heart of the automated IFR ESTIMATED ELAPSED TIME [ICAO] The
air traffic control system. It interfaces with automated estimated time required to proceed from one
terminal systems and is used in the control of en route significant point to another.
IFR aircraft. (See ICAO Term TOTAL ESTIMATED ELAPSED
(Refer to AIM.) TIME.)
PCG E1
ESTIMATED OFF-BLOCK TIME [ICAO] The upon receiving instructions to execute missed
estimated time at which the aircraft will commence approach.
movement associated with departure. (Refer to AIM.)
ESTIMATED POSITION ERROR (EPE) EXPECT (ALTITUDE) AT (TIME) or (FIX) Used
(See Required Navigation Performance) under certain conditions to provide a pilot with an
altitude to be used in the event of two-way
ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL The time the communications failure. It also provides altitude
flight is estimated to arrive at the gate (scheduled information to assist the pilot in planning.
operators) or the actual runway on times for (Refer to AIM.)
nonscheduled operators.
EXPECT DEPARTURE CLEARANCE TIME
ESTIMATED TIME EN ROUTE The estimated (EDCT) The runway release time assigned to an
flying time from departure point to destination aircraft in a traffic management program and shown
(lift-off to touchdown). on the flight progress strip as an EDCT.
ETA (See GROUND DELAY PROGRAM.)
(See ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL.) EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE (TIME) The
ETE time a pilot can expect to receive clearance beyond a
(See ESTIMATED TIME EN ROUTE.)
clearance limit.
EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE VIA (AIR-
EXECUTE MISSED APPROACH Instructions
WAYS, ROUTES OR FIXES) Used to inform a
issued to a pilot making an instrument approach
pilot of the routing he/she can expect if any part of the
which means continue inbound to the missed
route beyond a short range clearance limit differs
approach point and execute the missed approach
from that filed.
procedure as described on the Instrument Approach
Procedure Chart or as previously assigned by ATC. EXPEDITE Used by ATC when prompt com-
The pilot may climb immediately to the altitude pliance is required to avoid the development of an
specified in the missed approach procedure upon imminent situation. Expedite climb/descent normal-
making a missed approach. No turns should be ly indicates to a pilot that the approximate best rate
initiated prior to reaching the missed approach point. of climb/descent should be used without requiring an
When conducting an ASR or PAR approach, execute exceptional change in aircraft handling characteris-
the assigned missed approach procedure immediately tics.
PCG E2
F
FAF flight which require special flight plan filing and
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.) handling techniques.
FAST FILE An FSS system whereby a pilot files a a. Terminal Area Delay. A delay within a terminal
flight plan via telephone that is recorded and later area for touch-and-go, low approach, or other
transcribed for transmission to the appropriate air terminal area activity.
traffic facility. (Alaska only.) b. Special Use Airspace Delay. A delay within a
Military Operations Area, Restricted Area, Warning
FAWP Final Approach Waypoint Area, or ATC Assigned Airspace.
FCLT c. Aerial Refueling Delay. A delay within an
(See FREEZE CALCULATED LANDING TIME.) Aerial Refueling Track or Anchor.
FEATHERED PROPELLER A propeller whose FILED FLIGHT PLAN The flight plan as filed with
blades have been rotated so that the leading and an ATS unit by the pilot or his/her designated
trailing edges are nearly parallel with the aircraft representative without any subsequent changes or
flight path to stop or minimize drag and engine clearances.
rotation. Normally used to indicate shutdown of a FINAL Commonly used to mean that an aircraft is
reciprocating or turboprop engine due to malfunc- on the final approach course or is aligned with a
tion. landing area.
FEDERAL AIRWAYS (See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.)
(See LOW ALTITUDE AIRWAY STRUCTURE.) (See FINAL APPROACH-IFR.)
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
FEEDER FIX The fix depicted on Instrument APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
Approach Procedure Charts which establishes the
starting point of the feeder route. FINAL APPROACH [ICAO] That part of an
instrument approach procedure which commences at
FEEDER ROUTE A route depicted on instrument the specified final approach fix or point, or where
approach procedure charts to designate routes for such a fix or point is not specified.
aircraft to proceed from the en route structure to the a. At the end of the last procedure turn, base turn
initial approach fix (IAF). or inbound turn of a racetrack procedure, if specified;
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH or
PROCEDURE.)
b. At the point of interception of the last track
FERRY FLIGHT A flight for the purpose of: specified in the approach procedure; and ends at a
a. Returning an aircraft to base. point in the vicinity of an aerodrome from which:
b. Delivering an aircraft from one location to 1. A landing can be made; or
another. 2. A missed approach procedure is initiated.
c. Moving an aircraft to and from a maintenance FINAL APPROACH COURSE A bearing/radial/
base. Ferry flights, under certain conditions, may be track of an instrument approach leading to a runway
conducted under terms of a special flight permit. or an extended runway centerline all without regard
FIELD ELEVATION to distance.
(See AIRPORT ELEVATION.) FINAL APPROACH FIX The fix from which the
final approach (IFR) to an airport is executed and
FILED Normally used in conjunction with flight
which identifies the beginning of the final approach
plans, meaning a flight plan has been submitted to
segment. It is designated on Government charts by
ATC.
the Maltese Cross symbol for nonprecision
FILED EN ROUTE DELAY Any of the following approaches and the lightning bolt symbol,
preplanned delays at points/areas along the route of designating the PFAF, for precision approaches; or
PCG F1
when ATC directs a lower-than-published FINAL MONITOR AID A high resolution color
glideslope/path or vertical path intercept altitude, it is display that is equipped with the controller alert
the resultant actual point of the glideslope/path or system hardware/software used to monitor the no
vertical path intercept. transgression zone (NTZ) during simultaneous
(See FINAL APPROACH POINT.) parallel approach operations. The display includes
(See GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE.) alert algorithms providing the target predictors, a
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT color change alert when a target penetrates or is
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) predicted to penetrate the no transgression zone
(NTZ), synthesized voice alerts, and digital mapping.
FINAL APPROACH-IFR The flight path of an (See RADAR APPROACH.)
aircraft which is inbound to an airport on a final
instrument approach course, beginning at the final FINAL MONITOR CONTROLLER Air Traffic
approach fix or point and extending to the airport or Control Specialist assigned to radar monitor the
the point where a circle-to-land maneuver or a missed flight path of aircraft during simultaneous parallel
approach is executed. (approach courses spaced less than 9000 feet/9200
(See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.) feet above 5000 feet) and simultaneous close parallel
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.)
approach operations. Each runway is assigned a final
monitor controller during simultaneous parallel and
(See FINAL APPROACH POINT.)
simultaneous close parallel ILS approaches.
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) FIR
(See ICAO term FINAL APPROACH.) (See FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION.)
FINAL APPROACH POINT The point, applicable FIRST TIER CENTER The ARTCC immediately
only to a nonprecision approach with no depicted adjacent to the impacted center.
FAF (such as an on airport VOR), where the aircraft FISB
is established inbound on the final approach course (See FLIGHT INFORMATION
from the procedure turn and where the final approach SERVICEBROADCAST.)
descent may be commenced. The FAP serves as the
FAF and identifies the beginning of the final FIX A geographical position determined by visual
approach segment. reference to the surface, by reference to one or more
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.) radio NAVAIDs, by celestial plotting, or by another
navigational device.
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) FIX BALANCING A process whereby aircraft are
evenly distributed over several available arrival fixes
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT
reducing delays and controller workload.
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) FLAG A warning device incorporated in certain
airborne navigation and flight instruments indicating
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT [ICAO] That that:
segment of an instrument approach procedure in
which alignment and descent for landing are a. Instruments are inoperative or otherwise not
accomplished. operating satisfactorily, or
b. Signal strength or quality of the received signal
FINAL CONTROLLER The controller providing falls below acceptable values.
information and final approach guidance during PAR
and ASR approaches utilizing radar equipment. FLAG ALARM
(See RADAR APPROACH.) (See FLAG.)
FLAMEOUT An emergency condition caused by a
FINAL GUARD SERVICE A value added service
loss of engine power.
provided in conjunction with LAA/RAA only during
periods of significant and fast changing weather FLAMEOUT PATTERN An approach normally
conditions that may affect landing and takeoff conducted by a single-engine military aircraft
operations. experiencing loss or anticipating loss of engine
PCG F2
power or control. The standard overhead approach FLIGHT INSPECTION Inflight investigation and
starts at a relatively high altitude over a runway evaluation of a navigational aid to determine whether
(high key) followed by a continuous 180 degree it meets established tolerances.
turn to a high, wide position (low key) followed by (See FLIGHT CHECK.)
a continuous 180 degree turn final. The standard (See NAVIGATIONAL AID.)
straight-in pattern starts at a point that results in a
FLIGHT LEVEL A level of constant atmospheric
straight-in approach with a high rate of descent to the
pressure related to a reference datum of 29.92 inches
runway. Flameout approaches terminate in the type
of mercury. Each is stated in three digits that represent
approach requested by the pilot (normally fullstop).
hundreds of feet. For example, flight level (FL) 250
represents a barometric altimeter indication of
FLIGHT CHECK A call-sign prefix used by FAA
25,000 feet; FL 255, an indication of 25,500 feet.
aircraft engaged in flight inspection/certification of
(See ICAO term FLIGHT LEVEL.)
navigational aids and flight procedures. The word
recorded may be added as a suffix; e.g., Flight FLIGHT LEVEL [ICAO] A surface of constant
Check 320 recorded to indicate that an automated atmospheric pressure which is related to a specific
flight inspection is in progress in terminal areas. pressure datum, 1013.2 hPa (1013.2 mb), and is
(See FLIGHT INSPECTION.) separated from other such surfaces by specific
pressure intervals.
(Refer to AIM.)
Note 1: A pressure type altimeter calibrated in
accordance with the standard atmosphere:
FLIGHT FOLLOWING
a. When set to a QNH altimeter setting, will
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.) indicate altitude;
b. When set to a QFE altimeter setting, will
FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION An airspace of indicate height above the QFE reference datum;
defined dimensions within which Flight Information and
Service and Alerting Service are provided. c. When set to a pressure of 1013.2 hPa
(1013.2 mb), may be used to indicate flight levels.
a. Flight Information Service. A service provided Note 2: The terms height and altitude, used in
for the purpose of giving advice and information Note 1 above, indicate altimetric rather than
useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights. geometric heights and altitudes.
b. Alerting Service. A service provided to notify FLIGHT LINE A term used to describe the precise
appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need movement of a civil photogrammetric aircraft along
of search and rescue aid and to assist such a predetermined course(s) at a predetermined altitude
organizations as required. during the actual photographic run.
FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE A service FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A comput-

provided for the purpose of giving advice and er system that uses a large data base to allow routes
information useful for the safe and efficient conduct to be preprogrammed and fed into the system by
of flights. means of a data loader. The system is constantly
updated with respect to position accuracy by
reference to conventional navigation aids. The
FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE
sophisticated program and its associated data base
BROADCAST (FISB) A ground broadcast service
ensures that the most appropriate aids are automati-
provided through the ADSB Broadcast Services
cally selected during the information update cycle.
network over the UAT data link that operates on 978
MHz. The FISB system provides pilots and flight FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROCE-
crews of properly equipped aircraft with a cockpit DURE An arrival, departure, or approach procedure
display of certain aviation weather and aeronautical developed for use by aircraft with a slant (/) E or slant
information. (/) F equipment suffix.
PCG F3
FLIGHT PATH A line, course, or track along which Airport Advisory Service (AAS) and takes airport
an aircraft is flying or intended to be flown. weather observations.
(See COURSE.) (See FLIGHT PLAN AREA.)
(See TRACK.) (See TIE-IN FACILITY.)
FLIGHT STANDARDS DISTRICT OFFICE An
FLIGHT PLAN Specified information relating to FAA field office serving an assigned geographical
the intended flight of an aircraft that is filed orally or area and staffed with Flight Standards personnel who
in writing with an FSS or an ATC facility. serve the aviation industry and the general public on
(See FAST FILE.) matters relating to the certification and operation of
(See FILED.) air carrier and general aviation aircraft. Activities
(Refer to AIM.) include general surveillance of operational safety,
certification of airmen and aircraft, accident
FLIGHT PLAN AREA (FPA) The geographical prevention, investigation, enforcement, etc.
area assigned to a flight service station (FSS) for the
FLIGHT TEST A flight for the purpose of:
purpose of establishing primary responsibility for
services that may include search and rescue for VFR a. Investigating the operation/flight characteris-
aircraft, issuance of NOTAMs, pilot briefings, tics of an aircraft or aircraft component.
inflight services, broadcast services, emergency b. Evaluating an applicant for a pilot certificate or
services, flight data processing, international opera- rating.
tions, and aviation weather services. Large FLIGHT VISIBILITY
consolidated FSS facilities may combine FPAs into
(See VISIBILITY.)
larger areas of responsibility (AOR).
(See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.) FLIGHT WATCH A shortened term for use in
(See TIE-IN FACILITY.)
air-ground contacts to identify the flight service
station providing En Route Flight Advisory Service;
FLIGHT RECORDER A general term applied to e.g., Oakland Flight Watch.
any instrument or device that records information (See EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY
about the performance of an aircraft in flight or about SERVICE.)
conditions encountered in flight. Flight recorders FLIP
may make records of airspeed, outside air (See DOD FLIP.)
temperature, vertical acceleration, engine RPM,
manifold pressure, and other pertinent variables for a FLY HEADING (DEGREES) Informs the pilot of
given flight. the heading he/she should fly. The pilot may have to
turn to, or continue on, a specific compass direction
(See ICAO term FLIGHT RECORDER.)
in order to comply with the instructions. The pilot is
expected to turn in the shorter direction to the heading
FLIGHT RECORDER [ICAO] Any type of
unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of
complementing accident/incident investigation. FLY-BY WAYPOINT A fly-by waypoint requires
Note: See Annex 6 Part I, for specifications relating the use of turn anticipation to avoid overshoot of the
to flight recorders. next flight segment.
FLY-OVER WAYPOINT A fly-over waypoint
FLIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS) An air traffic precludes any turn until the waypoint is overflown
facility which provides pilot briefings, flight plan and is followed by an intercept maneuver of the next
processing, en route radio communications, search flight segment.
and rescue services, and assistance to lost aircraft and
FLY VISUAL TO AIRPORT
aircraft in emergency situations. FSS also relays ATC
clearances, processes Notices to Airmen, and (See PUBLISHED INSTRUMENT APPROACH
PROCEDURE VISUAL SEGMENT.)
broadcasts aviation weather and aeronautical inform-
ation. In addition, at selected locations, FSS provides FMA
En Route Flight Advisory Service (Flight Watch) and (See FINAL MONITOR AID.)
PCG F4
FMS with each radar update. This setting ensures a

(See FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.) constant time for each aircraft, necessary for the
metering controller to plan his/her delay technique.
FMSP
This setting can be either in distance from the meter
(See FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
fix or a prescribed flying time to the meter fix.
PROCEDURE.)
FREEZE SPEED PARAMETER A speed adapted
FORMATION FLIGHT More than one aircraft
for each aircraft to determine fast and slow aircraft.
which, by prior arrangement between the pilots,
Fast aircraft freeze on parameter FCLT and slow
operate as a single aircraft with regard to navigation
aircraft freeze on parameter MLDI.
and position reporting. Separation between aircraft
within the formation is the responsibility of the flight FRICTION MEASUREMENT A measurement of
leader and the pilots of the other aircraft in the flight. the friction characteristics of the runway pavement
This includes transition periods when aircraft within surface using continuous self-watering friction
the formation are maneuvering to attain separation measurement equipment in accordance with the
from each other to effect individual control and specifications, procedures and schedules contained
during join-up and breakaway. in AC 150/532012, Measurement, Construction,
a. A standard formation is one in which a and Maintenance of Skid Resistant Airport Pavement
proximity of no more than 1 mile laterally or Surfaces.
longitudinally and within 100 feet vertically from the FSDO
flight leader is maintained by each wingman. (See FLIGHT STANDARDS DISTRICT OFFICE.)
b. Nonstandard formations are those operating
FSPD
under any of the following conditions:
(See FREEZE SPEED PARAMETER.)
1. When the flight leader has requested and ATC
has approved other than standard formation FSS
dimensions. (See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.)
2. When operating within an authorized altitude FUEL DUMPING Airborne release of usable fuel.
reservation (ALTRV) or under the provisions of a This does not include the dropping of fuel tanks.
letter of agreement. (See JETTISONING OF EXTERNAL STORES.)
3. When the operations are conducted in FUEL REMAINING A phrase used by either pilots
airspace specifically designed for a special activity. or controllers when relating to the fuel remaining on
(See ALTITUDE RESERVATION.) board until actual fuel exhaustion. When transmitting
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) such information in response to either a controller
FRC question or pilot initiated cautionary advisory to air
traffic control, pilots will state the APPROXIMATE
(See REQUEST FULL ROUTE CLEARANCE.)
NUMBER OF MINUTES the flight can continue
FREEZE/FROZEN Terms used in referring to with the fuel remaining. All reserve fuel SHOULD
arrivals which have been assigned ACLTs and to the BE INCLUDED in the time stated, as should an
lists in which they are displayed. allowance for established fuel gauge system error.
FREEZE CALCULATED LANDING TIME A FUEL SIPHONING Unintentional release of fuel
dynamic parameter number of minutes prior to the caused by overflow, puncture, loose cap, etc.
meter fix calculated time of arrival for each aircraft
FUEL VENTING
when the TCLT is frozen and becomes an ACLT (i.e.,
(See FUEL SIPHONING.)
the VTA is updated and consequently the TCLT is
modified as appropriate until FCLT minutes prior to FUSED TARGET-
meter fix calculated time of arrival, at which time (See DIGITAL TARGET)
updating is suspended and an ACLT and a frozen
FUSION [STARS/CARTS]- the combination of all
meter fix crossing time (MFT) is assigned).
available surveillance sources (airport surveillance
FREEZE HORIZON The time or point at which an radar [ASR], air route surveillance radar [ARSR],
aircrafts STA becomes fixed and no longer fluctuates ADS-B, etc.) into the display of a single tracked
PCG F5
target for air traffic control separation services.

FUSION is the equivalent of the current
single-sensor radar display. FUSION performance is
characteristic of a single-sensor radar display system.
Terminal areas use mono-pulse secondary surveil-
lance radar (ASR 9, Mode S or ASR 11, MSSR).
PCG F6
6/25/15
G
GATE HOLD PROCEDURES Procedures at b. Visual ground aids, such as VASI, which
selected airports to hold aircraft at the gate or other provide vertical guidance for a VFR approach or for
ground location whenever departure delays exceed or the visual portion of an instrument approach and
are anticipated to exceed 15 minutes. The sequence landing.
for departure will be maintained in accordance with c. PAR. Used by ATC to inform an aircraft making
initial callup unless modified by flow control a PAR approach of its vertical position (elevation)
restrictions. Pilots should monitor the ground relative to the descent profile.
control/clearance delivery frequency for engine (See ICAO term GLIDEPATH.)
start/taxi advisories or new proposed start/taxi time
if the delay changes. GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE The
published minimum altitude to intercept the
GBT glideslope in the intermediate segment of an
(See GROUNDBASED TRANSCEIVER.) instrument approach. Government charts use the
lightning bolt symbol to identify this intercept point.
GCA This intersection is called the Precise Final Approach
(See GROUND CONTROLLED APPROACH.) fix (PFAF). ATC directs a higher altitude, the
GDP resultant intercept becomes the PFAF.
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.)
(See GROUND DELAY PROGRAM.)
GENERAL AVIATION That portion of civil APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
aviation that does not include scheduled or GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
unscheduled air carriers or commercial space (GNSS) [ICAO] GNSS refers collectively to the
operations. worldwide positioning, navigation, and timing
(See ICAO term GENERAL AVIATION.) determination capability available from one or more
GENERAL AVIATION [ICAO] All civil aviation satellite constellation in conjunction with a network
operations other than scheduled air services and of ground stations.
nonscheduled air transport operations for remunera- GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
tion or hire. MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE (GNSS
MEA) The minimum en route IFR altitude on a
GEO MAP The digitized map markings associated published ATS route or route segment which assures
with the ASR-9 Radar System. acceptable Global Navigation Satellite System
GLIDEPATH reception and meets obstacle clearance requirements.
(See GLIDESLOPE.) (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
GLIDEPATH [ICAO] A descent profile determined
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) GPS
for vertical guidance during a final approach.
refers to the worldwide positioning, navigation
GLIDEPATH INTERCEPT ALTITUDE and timing determination capability available
(See GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE.) from the U.S. satellite constellation. The service
provided by GPS for civil use is defined in the
GLIDESLOPE Provides vertical guidance for
aircraft during approach and landing. The glideslope/ GPS Standard Positioning System Performance
glidepath is based on the following: Standard. GPS is composed of space, control,
and user elements.
a. Electronic components emitting signals which
provide vertical guidance by reference to airborne GNSS [ICAO]
instruments during instrument approaches such as (See GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
ILS or SYSTEM .)
PCG G1
GNSS MEA ground clutter is minimized by the use of moving

(See GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE target indicator (MTI) circuits in the radar equipment
SYSTEM MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR resulting in a radar presentation which displays only
ALTITUDE.) targets which are in motion.
(See CLUTTER.)
GO AHEAD Proceed with your message. Not to be
used for any other purpose. GROUND COMMUNICATION OUTLET (GCO)
GO AROUND Instructions for a pilot to abandon An unstaffed, remotely controlled, ground/ground
his/her approach to landing. Additional instructions communications facility. Pilots at uncontrolled
may follow. Unless otherwise advised by ATC, a airports may contact ATC and FSS via VHF to a
VFR aircraft or an aircraft conducting visual telephone connection to obtain an instrument
approach should overfly the runway while climbing clearance or close a VFR or IFR flight plan. They may
to traffic pattern altitude and enter the traffic pattern also get an updated weather briefing prior to takeoff.
via the crosswind leg. A pilot on an IFR flight plan Pilots will use four key clicks on the VHF radio to
making an instrument approach should execute the contact the appropriate ATC facility or six key
published missed approach procedure or proceed as clicks to contact the FSS. The GCO system is
instructed by ATC; e.g., Go around (additional intended to be used only on the ground.
instructions if required). GROUND CONTROLLED APPROACH A radar
(See LOW APPROACH.) approach system operated from the ground by air
(See MISSED APPROACH.) traffic control personnel transmitting instructions to
GPD the pilot by radio. The approach may be conducted
(See GRAPHIC PLAN DISPLAY.)
with surveillance radar (ASR) only or with both
surveillance and precision approach radar (PAR).
GPS Usage of the term GCA by pilots is discouraged
(See GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM.) except when referring to a GCA facility. Pilots should
GRAPHIC PLAN DISPLAY (GPD) A view specifically request a PAR approach when a
available with URET that provides a graphic display precision radar approach is desired or request an
of aircraft, traffic, and notification of predicted ASR or surveillance approach when a nonpreci-
conflicts. Graphic routes for Current Plans and Trial sion radar approach is desired.
Plans are displayed upon controller request. (See RADAR APPROACH.)
(See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.) GROUND DELAY PROGRAM (GDP) A traffic
GROSS NAVIGATION ERROR (GNE) A lateral management process administered by the ATCSCC;
deviation from a cleared track, normally in excess of when aircraft are held on the ground. The purpose of
25 Nautical Miles (NM). More stringent standards the program is to support the TM mission and limit
(for example, 10NM in some parts of the North airborne holding. It is a flexible program and may be
Atlantic region) may be used in certain regions to implemented in various forms depending upon the
support reductions in lateral separation. needs of the AT system. Ground delay programs
provide for equitable assignment of delays to all
GROUNDBASED TRANSCEIVER (GBT) The system users.
groundbased transmitter/receiver (transceiver) re-
ceives automatic dependent surveillancebroadcast GROUND SPEED The speed of an aircraft relative
messages, which are forwarded to an air traffic to the surface of the earth.
control facility for processing and display with other
GROUND STOP (GS) The GS is a process that
radar targets on the plan position indicator (radar
requires aircraft that meet a specific criteria to remain
display).
on the ground. The criteria may be airport specific,
(See AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT airspace specific, or equipment specific; for example,
SURVEILLANCE-BROADCAST.)
all departures to San Francisco, or all departures
GROUND CLUTTER A pattern produced on the entering Yorktown sector, or all Category I and II
radar scope by ground returns which may degrade aircraft going to Charlotte. GSs normally occur with
other radar returns in the affected area. The effect of little or no warning.
PCG G2
GROUND VISIBILITY
(See VISIBILITY.)
GS
(See GROUND STOP.)
PCG G3
H
HAA HEIGHT ABOVE LANDING The height above a
(See HEIGHT ABOVE AIRPORT.) designated helicopter landing area used for helicopter
instrument approach procedures.
HAL (Refer to 14 CFR Part 97.)
(See HEIGHT ABOVE LANDING.)
HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN The height of
HANDOFF An action taken to transfer the radar the Decision Height or Minimum Descent Altitude
identification of an aircraft from one controller to above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown
another if the aircraft will enter the receiving zone (first 3,000 feet of the runway). HAT is
controllers airspace and radio communications with published on instrument approach charts in conjunc-
the aircraft will be transferred. tion with all straight-in minimums.
(See DECISION HEIGHT.)
HAR (See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.)
(See HIGH ALTITUDE REDESIGN.) HELICOPTER A heavier-than-air aircraft sup-
HAT ported in flight chiefly by the reactions of the air on
one or more power-driven rotors on substantially
(See HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN.)
vertical axes.
HAVE NUMBERS Used by pilots to inform ATC HELIPAD A small, designated area, usually with a
that they have received runway, wind, and altimeter prepared surface, on a heliport, airport, landing/take-
information only. off area, apron/ramp, or movement area used for
takeoff, landing, or parking of helicopters.
HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISO-
RY SERVICE Continuous recorded hazardous HELIPORT An area of land, water, or structure used
inflight weather forecasts broadcasted to airborne or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of
pilots over selected VOR outlets defined as an helicopters and includes its buildings and facilities if
HIWAS BROADCAST AREA. any.
HELIPORT REFERENCE POINT (HRP) The
HAZARDOUS WEATHER INFORMATION
geographic center of a heliport.
Summary of significant meteorological information
(SIGMET/WS), convective significant meteorologi- HERTZ The standard radio equivalent of frequency
cal information (convective SIGMET/WST), urgent in cycles per second of an electromagnetic wave.
pilot weather reports (urgent PIREP/UUA), center Kilohertz (kHz) is a frequency of one thousand cycles
weather advisories (CWA), airmens meteorological per second. Megahertz (MHz) is a frequency of one
information (AIRMET/WA) and any other weather million cycles per second.
such as isolated thunderstorms that are rapidly HF
developing and increasing in intensity, or low (See HIGH FREQUENCY.)
ceilings and visibilities that are becoming wide-
spread which is considered significant and are not HF COMMUNICATIONS
included in a current hazardous weather advisory. (See HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS.)
HIGH ALTITUDE REDESIGN (HAR) A level of
HEAVY (AIRCRAFT)
nonrestrictive routing (NRR) service for aircraft
(See AIRCRAFT CLASSES.) that have all waypoints associated with the HAR
HEIGHT ABOVE AIRPORT The height of the program in their flight management systems or
Minimum Descent Altitude above the published RNAV equipage.
airport elevation. This is published in conjunction HIGH FREQUENCY The frequency band between
with circling minimums. 3 and 30 MHz.
(See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.) (See HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS.)
PCG H1
HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS High altitude that will permit a normal descent to the final
radio frequencies (HF) between 3 and 30 MHz used approach fix altitude. The hold in lieu of procedure
for air-to-ground voice communication in overseas turn is a required maneuver (the same as a procedure
operations. turn) unless the aircraft is being radar vectored to the
final approach course, when NoPT is shown on the
HIGH SPEED EXIT approach chart, or when the pilot requests or the
(See HIGH SPEED TAXIWAY.) controller advises the pilot to make a straightin
HIGH SPEED TAXIWAY A long radius taxiway approach.
designed and provided with lighting or marking to HOLD PROCEDURE A predetermined maneuver
define the path of aircraft, traveling at high speed (up which keeps aircraft within a specified airspace while
to 60 knots), from the runway center to a point on the awaiting further clearance from air traffic control.
center of a taxiway. Also referred to as long radius Also used during ground operations to keep aircraft
exit or turn-off taxiway. The high speed taxiway is within a specified area or at a specified point while
designed to expedite aircraft turning off the runway awaiting further clearance from air traffic control.
after landing, thus reducing runway occupancy time.
(See HOLDING FIX.)
HIGH SPEED TURNOFF (Refer to AIM.)
(See HIGH SPEED TAXIWAY.)
HOLDING FIX A specified fix identifiable to a
HIWAS pilot by NAVAIDs or visual reference to the ground
(See HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER used as a reference point in establishing and
ADVISORY SERVICE.) maintaining the position of an aircraft while holding.
(See FIX.)
HIWAS AREA (See VISUAL HOLDING.)
(See HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER (Refer to AIM.)
ADVISORY SERVICE.)
HOLDING POINT [ICAO] A specified location,
HIWAS BROADCAST AREA A geographical area
identified by visual or other means, in the vicinity of
of responsibility including one or more HIWAS
which the position of an aircraft in flight is
outlet areas assigned to a FSS for hazardous weather
maintained in accordance with air traffic control
advisory broadcasting.
clearances.
HIWAS OUTLET AREA An area defined as a 150
HOLDING PROCEDURE
NM radius of a HIWAS outlet, expanded as necessary
to provide coverage. (See HOLD PROCEDURE.)
HOLD FOR RELEASE Used by ATC to delay an HOLD-SHORT POINT A point on the runway
aircraft for traffic management reasons; i.e., weather, beyond which a landing aircraft with a LAHSO
traffic volume, etc. Hold for release instructions clearance is not authorized to proceed. This point
(including departure delay information) are used to may be located prior to an intersecting runway,
inform a pilot or a controller (either directly or taxiway, predetermined point, or approach/departure
through an authorized relay) that an IFR departure flight path.
clearance is not valid until a release time or additional HOLD-SHORT POSITION LIGHTS Flashing
instructions have been received. in-pavement white lights located at specified
(See ICAO term HOLDING POINT.) hold-short points.
HOLD IN LIEU OF PROCEDURE TURN A hold HOLD-SHORT POSITION MARKING The
in lieu of procedure turn shall be established over a painted runway marking located at the hold-short
final or intermediate fix when an approach can be point on all LAHSO runways.
made from a properly aligned holding pattern. The
hold in lieu of procedure turn permits the pilot to HOLD-SHORT POSITION SIGNS Red and white
align with the final or intermediate segment of the holding position signs located alongside the
approach and/or descend in the holding pattern to an hold-short point.
PCG H2
HOMING Flight toward a NAVAID, without HOVER TAXI Used to describe a helicopter/VTOL
correcting for wind, by adjusting the aircraft heading aircraft movement conducted above the surface and
to maintain a relative bearing of zero degrees. in ground effect at airspeeds less than approximately
(See BEARING.) 20 knots. The actual height may vary, and some
(See ICAO term HOMING.) helicopters may require hover taxi above 25 feet AGL
to reduce ground effect turbulence or provide
HOMING [ICAO] The procedure of using the
clearance for cargo slingloads.
direction-finding equipment of one radio station with
the emission of another radio station, where at least (See AIR TAXI.)
one of the stations is mobile, and whereby the mobile (See HOVER CHECK.)
station proceeds continuously towards the other (Refer to AIM.)
station.
HOW DO YOU HEAR ME? A question relating to
HOVER CHECK Used to describe when a the quality of the transmission or to determine how
helicopter/VTOL aircraft requires a stabilized hover well the transmission is being received.
to conduct a performance/power check prior to hover
taxi, air taxi, or takeoff. Altitude of the hover will HZ
vary based on the purpose of the check. (See HERTZ.)
PCG H3
I
I SAY AGAIN The message will be repeated. controller to confirm an aircraft identity or to identify
an aircraft.
IAF
(Refer to AIM.)
(See INITIAL APPROACH FIX.)
IDENT FEATURE The special feature in the Air
IAP Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS)
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH equipment. It is used to immediately distinguish one
PROCEDURE.) displayed beacon target from other beacon targets.
IAWP Initial Approach Waypoint (See IDENT.)
IF
ICAO
(See INTERMEDIATE FIX.)
(See ICAO Term INTERNATIONAL CIVIL
AVIATION ORGANIZATION.) IFIM
(See INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT INFORMATION
ICING The accumulation of airframe ice. MANUAL.)
Types of icing are: IF NO TRANSMISSION RECEIVED FOR
a. Rime Ice Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by (TIME) Used by ATC in radar approaches to prefix
the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled procedures which should be followed by the pilot in
water droplets. event of lost communications.
b. Clear Ice A glossy, clear, or translucent ice (See LOST COMMUNICATIONS.)
formed by the relatively slow freezing or large IFR
supercooled water droplets. (See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.)
c. Mixed A mixture of clear ice and rime ice. IFR AIRCRAFT An aircraft conducting flight in
accordance with instrument flight rules.
Intensity of icing:
a. Trace Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of IFR CONDITIONS Weather conditions below the
accumulation is slightly greater than the rate of minimum for flight under visual flight rules.
sublimation. Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not (See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL
CONDITIONS.)
utilized unless encountered for an extended period of
time (over 1 hour). IFR DEPARTURE PROCEDURE
b. Light The rate of accumulation may create a (See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.)
problem if flight is prolonged in this environment
(Refer to AIM.)
(over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing
equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does IFR FLIGHT
not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing (See IFR AIRCRAFT.)
equipment is used. IFR LANDING MINIMUMS
c. Moderate The rate of accumulation is such that (See LANDING MINIMUMS.)
even short encounters become potentially hazardous
IFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES (IR) Routes
and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or flight
used by the Department of Defense and associated
diversion is necessary.
Reserve and Air Guard units for the purpose of
d. Severe The rate of accumulation is such that conducting low-altitude navigation and tactical
deicing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or training in both IFR and VFR weather conditions
control the hazard. Immediate flight diversion is below 10,000 feet MSL at airspeeds in excess of 250
necessary. knots IAS.
IDENT A request for a pilot to activate the aircraft IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND DEPARTURE
transponder identification feature. This will help the PROCEDURES Title 14 Code of Federal
PCG I1
Regulations Part 91, prescribes standard takeoff rules than 1,200 feet with autoland or HUD to touchdown
for certain civil users. At some airports, obstructions and noted on authorization (no touchdown zone and
or other factors require the establishment of centerline lighting are required). 5. Category III:
nonstandard takeoff minimums, departure proce- a. IIIA.An ILS approach procedure which
dures, or both to assist pilots in avoiding obstacles provides for approach without a decision height
during climb to the minimum en route altitude. Those minimum and with runway visual range of not less
airports are listed in FAA/DOD Instrument Approach than 700 feet.
Procedures (IAPs) Charts under a section entitled
b. IIIB.An ILS approach procedure which
IFR Takeoff Minimums and Departure Procedures.
provides for approach without a decision height
The FAA/DOD IAP chart legend illustrates the
minimum and with runway visual range of not less
symbol used to alert the pilot to nonstandard takeoff
than 150 feet.
minimums and departure procedures. When depart-
ing IFR from such airports or from any airports where c. IIIC.An ILS approach procedure which
there are no departure procedures, DPs, or ATC provides for approach without a decision height
facilities available, pilots should advise ATC of any minimum and without runway visual range
departure limitations. Controllers may query a pilot minimum.
to determine acceptable departure directions, turns, ILS PRM APPROACH An instrument landing
or headings after takeoff. Pilots should be familiar system (ILS) approach conducted to parallel runways
with the departure procedures and must assure that whose extended centerlines are separated by less than
their aircraft can meet or exceed any specified climb 4,300 feet and at least 3,000 feet where independent
gradients. closely spaced approaches are permitted. Also used
IF/IAWP Intermediate Fix/Initial Approach Way- in conjunction with an LDA PRM, RNAV PRM or
point. The waypoint where the final approach course GLS PRM approach to conduct Simultaneous Offset
of a T approach meets the crossbar of the T. When Instrument Approach (SOIA) operations. No
designated (in conjunction with a TAA) this Transgression Zone (NTZ) monitoring is required to
waypoint will be used as an IAWP when approaching conduct these approaches. ATC utilizes an enhanced
the airport from certain directions, and as an IFWP display with alerting and, with certain runway
when beginning the approach from another IAWP. spacing, a high update rate PRM surveillance sensor.
Use of a secondary monitor frequency, pilot PRM
IFWP Intermediate Fix Waypoint training, and publication of an Attention All Users
ILS Page are also required for all PRM approaches.
(Refer to AIM)
(See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.)
IM
ILS CATEGORIES 1. Category I. An ILS approach
procedure which provides for approach to a height (See INNER MARKER.)
above touchdown of not less than 200 feet and with IMC
runway visual range of not less than 1,800 feet. (See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL
2. Special Authorization Category I. An ILS CONDITIONS.)
approach procedure which provides for approach to
IMMEDIATELY Used by ATC or pilots when such
a height above touchdown of not less than 150 feet
action compliance is required to avoid an imminent
and with runway visual range of not less than 1,400
situation.
feet, HUD to DH. 3. Category II. An ILS approach
procedure which provides for approach to a height INCERFA (Uncertainty Phase) [ICAO] A situation
above touchdown of not less than 100 feet and with wherein uncertainty exists as to the safety of an
runway visual range of not less than 1,200 feet (with aircraft and its occupants.
autoland or HUD to touchdown and noted on
INCREASE SPEED TO (SPEED)
authorization, RVR 1,000 feet). 4. Special
(See SPEED ADJUSTMENT.)
Authorization Category II with Reduced Lighting.
An ILS approach procedure which provides for INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM An RNAV
approach to a height above touchdown of not less system which is a form of self-contained navigation.
than 100 feet and with runway visual range of not less (See Area Navigation/RNAV.)
PCG I2
INFLIGHT REFUELING INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE A

(See AERIAL REFUELING.) series of predetermined maneuvers for the orderly
transfer of an aircraft under instrument flight
INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORY conditions from the beginning of the initial approach
(See WEATHER ADVISORY.) to a landing or to a point from which a landing may
INFORMATION REQUEST A request originated be made visually. It is prescribed and approved for a
by an FSS for information concerning an overdue specific airport by competent authority.
VFR aircraft. (See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
INITIAL APPROACH FIX The fixes depicted on (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
instrument approach procedure charts that identify (Refer to AIM.)
the beginning of the initial approach segment(s). a. U.S. civil standard instrument approach
(See FIX.) procedures are approved by the FAA as prescribed
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT under 14 CFR Part 97 and are available for public
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) use.
INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT b. U.S. military standard instrument approach
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT procedures are approved and published by the
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) Department of Defense.
INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT [ICAO] That c. Special instrument approach procedures are
segment of an instrument approach procedure approved by the FAA for individual operators but are
between the initial approach fix and the intermediate not published in 14 CFR Part 97 for public use.
approach fix or, where applicable, the final approach (See ICAO term INSTRUMENT APPROACH
fix or point. PROCEDURE.)
INSTRUMENT APPROACH OPERATIONS
INLAND NAVIGATION FACILITY A navigation
[ICAO]* An approach and landing using instruments
aid on a North American Route at which the common
for navigation guidance based on an instrument
route and/or the noncommon route begins or ends.
approach procedure. There are two methods for
INNER MARKER A marker beacon used with an executing instrument approach operations:
ILS (CAT II) precision approach located between the a. A twodimensional (2D) instrument approach
middle marker and the end of the ILS runway, operation, using lateral navigation guidance only;
transmitting a radiation pattern keyed at six dots per and
second and indicating to the pilot, both aurally and
b. A threedimensional (3D) instrument approach
visually, that he/she is at the designated decision
operation, using both lateral and vertical navigation
height (DH), normally 100 feet above the touchdown
guidance.
zone elevation, on the ILS CAT II approach. It also
Note: Lateral and vertical navigation guidance
marks progress during a CAT III approach.
refers to the guidance provided either by:
(See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.) a) a groundbased radio navigation aid; or
(Refer to AIM.) b) computergenerated navigation data from
groundbased, spacebased, selfcontained
INNER MARKER BEACON navigation aids or a combination of these.
(See INNER MARKER.)
(See ICAO term INSTRUMENT APPROACH
INREQ PROCEDURE.)
(See INFORMATION REQUEST.) INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE
INS [ICAO] A series of predetermined maneuvers by
reference to flight instruments with specified
(See INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM.)
protection from obstacles from the initial approach
INSTRUMENT APPROACH fix, or where applicable, from the beginning of a
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH defined arrival route to a point from which a landing
PROCEDURE.) can be completed and thereafter, if a landing is not
PCG I3
completed, to a position at which holding or en route c. Outer Marker.

obstacle clearance criteria apply. (See OUTER MARKER.)
(See ICAO term INSTRUMENT APPROACH d. Middle Marker.
OPERATIONS) (See MIDDLE MARKER.)
INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES e. Approach Lights.
CHARTS (See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.) (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(Refer to AIM.)
INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE
(DP) A preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL CONDI-
departure procedure published for pilot use, in TIONS Meteorological conditions expressed in
graphic or textual format, that provides obstruction terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling
clearance from the terminal area to the appropriate en less than the minima specified for visual meteorolog-
route structure. There are two types of DP, Obstacle ical conditions.
Departure Procedure (ODP), printed either textually (See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.)
or graphically, and, Standard Instrument Departure (See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
(SID), which is always printed graphically. (See VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND CONDITIONS.)
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.) INSTRUMENT RUNWAY A runway equipped
(See OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.) with electronic and visual navigation aids for which
(See STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES.) a precision or nonprecision approach procedure
(Refer to AIM.) having straight-in landing minimums has been
INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE (DP) approved.
CHARTS (See ICAO term INSTRUMENT RUNWAY.)
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.) INSTRUMENT RUNWAY [ICAO] One of the
INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES Rules governing following types of runways intended for the
the procedures for conducting instrument flight. Also operation of aircraft using instrument approach
a term used by pilots and controllers to indicate type procedures:
of flight plan. a. Nonprecision Approach RunwayAn instru-
(See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL ment runway served by visual aids and a nonvisual
CONDITIONS.) aid providing at least directional guidance adequate
(See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.) for a straight-in approach.
(See VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL b. Precision Approach Runway, Category IAn
CONDITIONS.) instrument runway served by ILS and visual aids
(See ICAO term INSTRUMENT FLIGHT intended for operations down to 60 m (200 feet)
RULES.) decision height and down to an RVR of the order of
(Refer to AIM.) 800 m.
INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES [ICAO] A set of c. Precision Approach Runway, Category IIAn
rules governing the conduct of flight under instrument runway served by ILS and visual aids
instrument meteorological conditions. intended for operations down to 30 m (100 feet)
decision height and down to an RVR of the order of
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM A precision 400 m.
instrument approach system which normally consists d. Precision Approach Runway, Category IIIAn
of the following electronic components and visual instrument runway served by ILS to and along the
aids: surface of the runway and:
a. Localizer. 1. Intended for operations down to an RVR of
(See LOCALIZER.) the order of 200 m (no decision height being
b. Glideslope. applicable) using visual aids during the final phase of
(See GLIDESLOPE.) landing;
PCG I4
2. Intended for operations down to an RVR of b. A landing rights airport at which specific
the order of 50 m (no decision height being permission to land must be obtained from customs
applicable) using visual aids for taxiing; authorities in advance of contemplated use.
3. Intended for operations without reliance on c. Airports designated under the Convention on
visual reference for landing or taxiing. International Civil Aviation as an airport for use by
Note 1: See Annex 10 Volume I, Part I, Chapter 3, international commercial air transport and/or interna-
for related ILS specifications. tional general aviation.
(See ICAO term INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT.)
Note 2: Visual aids need not necessarily be (Refer to AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.)
matched to the scale of nonvisual aids provided.
(Refer to IFIM.)
The criterion for the selection of visual aids is the
conditions in which operations are intended to be INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT [ICAO] Any airport
conducted. designated by the Contracting State in whose
territory it is situated as an airport of entry and
INTEGRITY The ability of a system to provide departure for international air traffic, where the
timely warnings to users when the system should not formalities incident to customs, immigration, public
be used for navigation. health, animal and plant quarantine and similar
procedures are carried out.
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGA-
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) NIZATION [ICAO] A specialized agency of the
United Nations whose objective is to develop the
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT principles and techniques of international air
[ICAO] That segment of an instrument approach navigation and to foster planning and development of
procedure between either the intermediate approach international civil air transport.
fix and the final approach fix or point, or between the a. Regions include:
end of a reversal, race track or dead reckoning track
1. African-Indian Ocean Region
procedure and the final approach fix or point, as
appropriate. 2. Caribbean Region
3. European Region
INTERMEDIATE FIX The fix that identifies the 4. Middle East/Asia Region
beginning of the intermediate approach segment of an
5. North American Region
instrument approach procedure. The fix is not
normally identified on the instrument approach chart 6. North Atlantic Region
as an intermediate fix (IF). 7. Pacific Region
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT 8. South American Region
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT INFORMATION
INTERMEDIATE LANDING On the rare occasion MANUAL A publication designed primarily as a
that this option is requested, it should be approved. pilots preflight planning guide for flights into
The departure center, however, must advise the foreign airspace and for flights returning to the U.S.
ATCSCC so that the appropriate delay is carried over from foreign locations.
and assigned at the intermediate airport. An INTERROGATOR The ground-based surveillance
intermediate landing airport within the arrival center radar beacon transmitter-receiver, which normally
will not be accepted without coordination with and scans in synchronism with a primary radar,
the approval of the ATCSCC. transmitting discrete radio signals which repetitious-
ly request all transponders on the mode being used to
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT Relating to interna- reply. The replies received are mixed with the
tional flight, it means: primary radar returns and displayed on the same plan
a. An airport of entry which has been designated position indicator (radar scope). Also, applied to the
by the Secretary of Treasury or Commissioner of airborne element of the TACAN/DME system.
Customs as an international airport for customs (See TRANSPONDER.)
service. (Refer to AIM.)
PCG I5
INTERSECTING RUNWAYS Two or more INTERSECTION DEPARTURE A departure from

runways which cross or meet within their lengths. any runway intersection except the end of the runway.
(See INTERSECTION.) (See INTERSECTION.)
INTERSECTION TAKEOFF
INTERSECTION (See INTERSECTION DEPARTURE.)
a. A point defined by any combination of courses, IR
radials, or bearings of two or more navigational aids. (See IFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.)
b. Used to describe the point where two runways, ISR Indicates the confidence level of the track
a runway and a taxiway, or two taxiways cross or requires 5NM separation. 3NM separation, 1 1/2NM
meet. separation, and target resolution cannot be used.
PCG I6
J
JAMMING Electronic or mechanical interference route; e.g., J105.
which may disrupt the display of aircraft on radar or (See Class A AIRSPACE.)
the transmission/reception of radio communications/ (Refer to 14 CFR Part 71.)
navigation.
JET STREAM A migrating stream of high-speed
winds present at high altitudes.
JET BLAST Jet engine exhaust (thrust stream
turbulence). JETTISONING OF EXTERNAL STORES Air-
(See WAKE TURBULENCE.)
borne release of external stores; e.g., tiptanks,
ordnance.
(See FUEL DUMPING.)
JET ROUTE A route designed to serve aircraft
operations from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including
flight level 450. The routes are referred to as J JOINT USE RESTRICTED AREA
routes with numbering to identify the designated (See RESTRICTED AREA.)
PCG J1
K
KNOWN TRAFFIC With respect to ATC clear-
ances, means aircraft whose altitude, position, and
intentions are known to ATC.
PCG K1
L
LAA LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE (LDA) The
(See LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY.) runway length declared available and suitable for a
landing airplane.
LAAS (See ICAO term LANDING DISTANCE
(See LOW ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM.) AVAILABLE.)
LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE [ICAO] The
LAHSO An acronym for Land and Hold Short length of runway which is declared available and
Operation. These operations include landing and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
holding short of an intersecting runway, a taxiway, a
predetermined point, or an approach/departure LANDING MINIMUMS The minimum visibility
flightpath. prescribed for landing a civil aircraft while using an
instrument approach procedure. The minimum
LAHSO-DRY Land and hold short operations on applies with other limitations set forth in 14 CFR
runways that are dry. Part 91 with respect to the Minimum Descent
Altitude (MDA) or Decision Height (DH) prescribed
LAHSO-WET Land and hold short operations on in the instrument approach procedures as follows:
runways that are wet (but not contaminated). a. Straight-in landing minimums. A statement of
MDA and visibility, or DH and visibility, required for
LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS a straight-in landing on a specified runway, or
Operations which include simultaneous takeoffs and b. Circling minimums. A statement of MDA and
landings and/or simultaneous landings when a visibility required for the circle-to-land maneuver.
landing aircraft is able and is instructed by the Note: Descent below the MDA or DH must meet the
controller to hold-short of the intersecting runway/ conditions stated in 14 CFR Section 91.175.
taxiway or designated hold-short point. Pilots are
(See CIRCLE-TO-LAND MANEUVER.)
expected to promptly inform the controller if the hold
(See DECISION HEIGHT.)
short clearance cannot be accepted.
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
(See PARALLEL RUNWAYS.) PROCEDURE.)
(Refer to AIM.) (See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.)
(See STRAIGHT-IN LANDING.)
LANDING AREA Any locality either on land, (See VISIBILITY.)
water, or structures, including airports/heliports and (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
intermediate landing fields, which is used, or
intended to be used, for the landing and takeoff of LANDING ROLL The distance from the point of
aircraft whether or not facilities are provided for the touchdown to the point where the aircraft can be
shelter, servicing, or for receiving or discharging brought to a stop or exit the runway.
passengers or cargo. LANDING SEQUENCE The order in which
(See ICAO term LANDING AREA.) aircraft are positioned for landing.
(See APPROACH SEQUENCE.)
LANDING AREA [ICAO] That part of a movement
area intended for the landing or take-off of aircraft. LAST ASSIGNED ALTITUDE The last altitude/
flight level assigned by ATC and acknowledged by
LANDING DIRECTION INDICATOR A device the pilot.
which visually indicates the direction in which (See MAINTAIN.)
landings and takeoffs should be made. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(See TETRAHEDRON.) LATERAL NAVIGATION (LNAV) A function of
(Refer to AIM.) area navigation (RNAV) equipment which calculates,
PCG L1
displays, and provides lateral guidance to a profile or LINE UP AND WAIT (LUAW) Used by ATC to
path. inform a pilot to taxi onto the departure runway to line
up and wait. It is not authorization for takeoff. It is
LATERAL SEPARATION The lateral spacing of used when takeoff clearance cannot immediately be
aircraft at the same altitude by requiring operation on issued because of traffic or other reasons.
different routes or in different geographical locations.
(See CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF.)
(See SEPARATION.)
LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY (LAA) A service
LDA
provided by facilities, which are located on the
(See LOCALIZER TYPE DIRECTIONAL AID.) landing airport, have a discrete groundtoair
(See LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE.) communication frequency or the tower frequency
(See ICAO Term LANDING DISTANCE when the tower is closed, automated weather
AVAILABLE.) reporting with voice broadcasting, and a continuous
LF ASOS/AWSS/AWOS data display, other continuous
(See LOW FREQUENCY.) direct reading instruments, or manual observations
available to the specialist.
LIGHTED AIRPORT An airport where runway and (See AIRPORT ADVISORY AREA.)
obstruction lighting is available.
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.) LOCAL TRAFFIC Aircraft operating in the traffic
(Refer to AIM.) pattern or within sight of the tower, or aircraft known
to be departing or arriving from flight in local practice
LIGHT GUN A handheld directional light signaling areas, or aircraft executing practice instrument
device which emits a brilliant narrow beam of white, approaches at the airport.
green, or red light as selected by the tower controller. (See TRAFFIC PATTERN.)
The color and type of light transmitted can be used to
approve or disapprove anticipated pilot actions where LOCALIZER The component of an ILS which
radio communication is not available. The light gun provides course guidance to the runway.
is used for controlling traffic operating in the vicinity (See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.)
of the airport and on the airport movement area. (See ICAO term LOCALIZER COURSE.)
LIGHT-SPORT AIRCRAFT (LSA)- An LOCALIZER COURSE [ICAO] The locus of

FAA-registered aircraft, other than a helicopter or points, in any given horizontal plane, at which the
powered-lift, that meets certain weight and DDM (difference in depth of modulation) is zero.
performance. Principally it is a single engine aircraft
with a maximum of two seats and weighing no more LOCALIZER OFFSET An angular offset of the
than 1,430 pounds if intended for operation on water, localizer aligned with 3_ of the runway alignment.
or 1,320 pounds if not. They must be of simple design LOCALIZER TYPE DIRECTIONAL AID A
(fixed landing gear (except if intended for operations localizer with an angular offset that exceeds 3_. of the
on water or a glider) piston powered, runway alignment used for nonprecision instrument
non-pressurized, with a fixed or ground adjustable approaches with utility and accuracy comparable to
propeller), Performance is also limited to a maximum a localizer but which are not part of a complete ILS.
airspeed in level flight of not more than 120 knots
(Refer to AIM.)
CAS, have a maximum never-exceed speed of not
more than 120 knots CAS for a glider, and have a LOCALIZER TYPE DIRECTIONAL AID (LDA)
maximum stalling speed, without the use of PRECISION RUNWAY MONITOR (PRM)
lift-enhancing devices (VS1 ) of not more than APPROACH An approach, which includes a
45 knots CAS. They may be certificated as either glidslope, used in conjunction with an ILS PRM,
Experimental LSA or as a Special LSA aircraft. A RNAV PRM or GLS PRM approach to an adjacent
minimum of a sport pilot certificate is required to runway to conduct Simultaneous Offset Instrument
operate light-sport aircraft. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 1, Approaches (SOIA) to parallel runways whose
1.1.) centerlines are separated by less than 3,000 feet and
PCG L2
at least 750 feet. NTZ monitoring is required to event of lost communications during a radar approach
conduct these approaches. when weather reports indicate that an aircraft will
(See SIMULTANEOUS OFFSET INSTRUMENT likely encounter IFR weather conditions during the
APPROACH (SOIA).) approach.
(Refer to AIM) (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(Refer to AIM.)
LOCALIZER USABLE DISTANCE The maxi-
mum distance from the localizer transmitter at a LOW ALTITUDE AIRWAY STRUCTURE The
specified altitude, as verified by flight inspection, at network of airways serving aircraft operations up to
which reliable course information is continuously but not including 18,000 feet MSL.
received. (See AIRWAY.)
LOCATOR [ICAO] An LM/MF NDB used as an aid LOW ALTITUDE ALERT, CHECK YOUR ALTI-
to final approach. TUDE IMMEDIATELY
Note: A locator usually has an average radius of (See SAFETY ALERT.)
rated coverage of between 18.5 and 46.3 km (10
LOW ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM An auto-
and 25 NM).
mated function of the TPX-42 that alerts the
LONG RANGE NAVIGATION controller when a Mode C transponder equipped
(See LORAN.) aircraft on an IFR flight plan is below a
predetermined minimum safe altitude. If requested
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION The longitudi- by the pilot, Low Altitude Alert System monitoring
nal spacing of aircraft at the same altitude by a is also available to VFR Mode C transponder
minimum distance expressed in units of time or equipped aircraft.
miles.
(See SEPARATION.) LOW APPROACH An approach over an airport or
(Refer to AIM.)
runway following an instrument approach or a VFR
approach including the go-around maneuver where
LORAN An electronic navigational system by the pilot intentionally does not make contact with the
which hyperbolic lines of position are determined by runway.
measuring the difference in the time of reception of (Refer to AIM.)
synchronized pulse signals from two fixed transmit-
ters. Loran A operates in the 1750-1950 kHz LOW FREQUENCY The frequency band between
frequency band. Loran C and D operate in the 30 and 300 kHz.
100-110 kHz frequency band. In 2010, the U.S. Coast (Refer to AIM.)
Guard terminated all U.S. LORAN-C transmissions. LPV A type of approach with vertical guidance
(Refer to AIM.) (APV) based on WAAS, published on RNAV (GPS)
approach charts. This procedure takes advantage of
LOST COMMUNICATIONS Loss of the ability to
the precise lateral guidance available from WAAS.
communicate by radio. Aircraft are sometimes
The minima is published as a decision altitude (DA).
referred to as NORDO (No Radio). Standard pilot
procedures are specified in 14 CFR Part 91. Radar LUAW
controllers issue procedures for pilots to follow in the (See LINE UP AND WAIT.)
PCG L3
M
MAA requires familiarity with the subject. Terrorists
(See MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE.) choose MANPADS because the weapons are low
cost, highly mobile, require minimal setup time, and
MACH NUMBER The ratio of true airspeed to the are easy to use and maintain. Although the weapons
speed of sound; e.g., MACH .82, MACH 1.6. have limited range, and their accuracy is affected by
(See AIRSPEED.) poor visibility and adverse weather, they can be fired
MACH TECHNIQUE [ICAO] Describes a control from anywhere on land or from boats where there is
technique used by air traffic control whereby turbojet unrestricted visibility to the target.
aircraft operating successively along suitable routes MANDATORY ALTITUDE An altitude depicted
are cleared to maintain appropriate MACH numbers on an instrument Approach Procedure Chart
for a relevant portion of the en route phase of flight. requiring the aircraft to maintain altitude at the
The principle objective is to achieve improved depicted value.
utilization of the airspace and to ensure that
separation between successive aircraft does not MANPADS
decrease below the established minima. (See MAN PORTABLE AIR DEFENSE
SYSTEMS.)
MAHWP Missed Approach Holding Waypoint
MAP
MAINTAIN (See MISSED APPROACH POINT.)
a. Concerning altitude/flight level, the term MARKER BEACON An electronic navigation
means to remain at the altitude/flight level specified. facility transmitting a 75 MHz vertical fan or
The phrase climb and or descend and normally boneshaped radiation pattern. Marker beacons are
precedes maintain and the altitude assignment; identified by their modulation frequency and keying
e.g., descend and maintain 5,000. code, and when received by compatible airborne
b. Concerning other ATC instructions, the term is equipment, indicate to the pilot, both aurally and
used in its literal sense; e.g., maintain VFR. visually, that he/she is passing over the facility.
(See INNER MARKER.)
MAINTENANCE PLANNING FRICTION (See MIDDLE MARKER.)
LEVEL The friction level specified in (See OUTER MARKER.)
AC 150/5320-12, Measurement, Construction, and (Refer to AIM.)
Maintenance of Skid Resistant Airport Pavement
Surfaces, which represents the friction value below MARSA
which the runway pavement surface remains (See MILITARY AUTHORITY ASSUMES
acceptable for any category or class of aircraft RESPONSIBILITY FOR SEPARATION OF
operations but which is beginning to show signs of AIRCRAFT.)
deterioration. This value will vary depending on the MAWP Missed Approach Waypoint
particular friction measurement equipment used.
MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE A pub-
MAKE SHORT APPROACH Used by ATC to lished altitude representing the maximum usable
inform a pilot to alter his/her traffic pattern so as to altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or
make a short final approach. route segment. It is the highest altitude on a Federal
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) airway, jet route, area navigation low or high route,
or other direct route for which an MEA is designated
MAN PORTABLE AIR DEFENSE SYSTEMS
in 14 CFR Part 95 at which adequate reception of
(MANPADS) MANPADS are lightweight, shoul-
navigation aid signals is assured.
derlaunched, missile systems used to bring down
aircraft and create mass casualties. The potential for MAYDAY The international radiotelephony distress
MANPADS use against airborne aircraft is real and signal. When repeated three times, it indicates
PCG M1
7/24/14
imminent and grave danger and that immediate METERING AIRPORTS Airports adapted for
assistance is requested. metering and for which optimum flight paths are
(See PAN-PAN.) defined. A maximum of 15 airports may be adapted.
(Refer to AIM.)
METERING FIX A fix along an established route
MCA from over which aircraft will be metered prior to
(See MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE.) entering terminal airspace. Normally, this fix should
be established at a distance from the airport which
MDA
will facilitate a profile descent 10,000 feet above
(See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.) airport elevation (AAE) or above.
MEA
METERING POSITION(S) Adapted PVDs/
MDMs and associated D positions eligible for
MEARTS display of a metering position list. A maximum of
(See MICRO-EN ROUTE AUTOMATED RADAR four PVDs/MDMs may be adapted.
TRACKING SYSTEM.)
METERING POSITION LIST An ordered list of
METEOROLOGICAL IMPACT STATEMENT data on arrivals for a selected metering airport
An unscheduled planning forecast describing displayed on a metering position PVD/MDM.
conditions expected to begin within 4 to 12 hours
which may impact the flow of air traffic in a specific MFT
centers (ARTCC) area. (See METER FIX TIME/SLOT TIME.)
METER FIX ARC A semicircle, equidistant from MHA

a meter fix, usually in low altitude relatively close to (See MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE.)
the meter fix, used to help CTAS/HOST calculate a MIA
meter time, and determine appropriate sector meter (See MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDES.)
list assignments for aircraft not on an established
arrival route or assigned a meter fix. MICROBURST A small downburst with outbursts
of damaging winds extending 2.5 miles or less. In
METER FIX TIME/SLOT TIME A calculated time spite of its small horizontal scale, an intense
to depart the meter fix in order to cross the vertex at microburst could induce wind speeds as high as 150
the ACLT. This time reflects descent speed knots
adjustment and any applicable time that must be (Refer to AIM.)
absorbed prior to crossing the meter fix.
MICRO-EN ROUTE AUTOMATED RADAR
METER LIST TRACKING SYSTEM (MEARTS) An automated
(See ARRIVAL SECTOR ADVISORY LIST.) radar and radar beacon tracking system capable of
METER LIST DISPLAY INTERVAL A dynamic employing both short-range (ASR) and long-range
parameter which controls the number of minutes (ARSR) radars. This microcomputer driven system
prior to the flight plan calculated time of arrival at the provides improved tracking, continuous data record-
meter fix for each aircraft, at which time the TCLT is ing, and use of full digital radar displays.
frozen and becomes an ACLT; i.e., the VTA is MID RVR
updated and consequently the TCLT modified as (See VISIBILITY.)
appropriate until frozen at which time updating is
suspended and an ACLT is assigned. When frozen, MIDDLE COMPASS LOCATOR
the flight entry is inserted into the arrival sectors (See COMPASS LOCATOR.)
meter list for display on the sector PVD/MDM.
MIDDLE MARKER A marker beacon that defines
MLDI is used if filed true airspeed is less than or
a point along the glideslope of an ILS normally
equal to freeze speed parameters (FSPD).
located at or near the point of decision height (ILS
METERING A method of time-regulating arrival Category I). It is keyed to transmit alternate dots and
traffic flow into a terminal area so as not to exceed a dashes, with the alternate dots and dashes keyed at the
predetermined terminal acceptance rate. rate of 95 dot/dash combinations per minute on a
PCG M2
6/25/15
1300 Hz tone, which is received aurally and visually which assures acceptable navigational signal cover-
by compatible airborne equipment. age and meets obstacle clearance requirements
(See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.) between those fixes. The MEA prescribed for a
(See MARKER BEACON.) Federal airway or segment thereof, area navigation
(Refer to AIM.) low or high route, or other direct route applies to the
entire width of the airway, segment, or route between
MILES-IN-TRAIL A specified distance between the radio fixes defining the airway, segment, or route.
aircraft, normally, in the same stratum associated (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
with the same destination or route of flight. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 95.)
MILITARY AUTHORITY ASSUMES RESPONSI- (Refer to AIM.)
BILITY FOR SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT A
condition whereby the military services involved MINIMUM FRICTION LEVEL The friction level
assume responsibility for separation between specified in AC 150/5320-12, Measurement,
participating military aircraft in the ATC system. It is Construction, and Maintenance of Skid Resistant
used only for required IFR operations which are Airport Pavement Surfaces, that represents the
specified in letters of agreement or other appropriate minimum recommended wet pavement surface
FAA or military documents. friction value for any turbojet aircraft engaged in
LAHSO. This value will vary with the particular
MILITARY LANDING ZONE A landing strip used friction measurement equipment used.
exclusively by the military for training. A military
landing zone does not carry a runway designation. MINIMUM FUEL Indicates that an aircrafts fuel
MILITARY OPERATIONS AREA supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the
destination, it can accept little or no delay. This is not
(See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.)
an emergency situation but merely indicates an
MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES Airspace of emergency situation is possible should any undue
defined vertical and lateral dimensions established delay occur.
for the conduct of military flight training at airspeeds (Refer to AIM.)
in excess of 250 knots IAS.
(See IFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.) MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE The lowest
(See VFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.) altitude prescribed for a holding pattern which
assures navigational signal coverage, communica-
MINIMA tions, and meets obstacle clearance requirements.
(See MINIMUMS.)
MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDES (MIA) Minimum
MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE The lowest
altitudes for IFR operations as prescribed in 14 CFR
altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must cross
Part 91. These altitudes are published on aeronautical
when proceeding in the direction of a higher
charts and prescribed in 14 CFR Part 95 for airways
minimum en route IFR altitude (MEA).
and routes, and in 14 CFR Part 97 for standard
(See MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE.) instrument approach procedures. If no applicable
MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE The lowest minimum altitude is prescribed in 14 CFR Part 95 or
altitude, expressed in feet above mean sea level, to 14 CFR Part 97, the following minimum IFR
which descent is authorized on final approach or altitude applies:
during circle-to-land maneuvering in execution of a a. In designated mountainous areas, 2,000 feet
standard instrument approach procedure where no above the highest obstacle within a horizontal
electronic glideslope is provided. distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be
(See NONPRECISION APPROACH flown; or
PROCEDURE.)
b. Other than mountainous areas, 1,000 feet above
MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE (MEA) the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4
The lowest published altitude between radio fixes nautical miles from the course to be flown; or
PCG M3
7/24/14
c. As otherwise authorized by the Administrator MINIMUM RECEPTION ALTITUDE The lowest

or assigned by ATC. altitude at which an intersection can be determined.
(See MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE.) (Refer to 14 CFR Part 95.)
MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE
(See MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE
ALTITUDE.) a. The minimum altitude specified in 14 CFR
(See MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE.) Part 91 for various aircraft operations.
(See MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE.) b. Altitudes depicted on approach charts which
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance for
emergency use within a specified distance from the
navigation facility upon which a procedure is
MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
predicated. These altitudes will be identified as
SPECIFICATION A set of standards which require
Minimum Sector Altitudes or Emergency Safe
aircraft to have a minimum navigation performance
Altitudes and are established as follows:
capability in order to operate in MNPS designated
airspace. In addition, aircraft must be certified by 1. Minimum Sector Altitudes. Altitudes de-
their State of Registry for MNPS operation. picted on approach charts which provide at least
1,000 feet of obstacle clearance within a 25-mile
MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE radius of the navigation facility upon which the
SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE Designated airspace procedure is predicated. Sectors depicted on
in which MNPS procedures are applied between approach charts must be at least 90 degrees in scope.
MNPS certified and equipped aircraft. Under certain These altitudes are for emergency use only and do not
conditions, non-MNPS aircraft can operate in necessarily assure acceptable navigational signal
MNPSA. However, standard oceanic separation coverage.
minima is provided between the non-MNPS aircraft (See ICAO term Minimum Sector Altitude.)
and other traffic. Currently, the only designated 2. Emergency Safe Altitudes. Altitudes de-
MNPSA is described as follows: picted on approach charts which provide at least
a. Between FL 285 and FL 420; 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance in nonmountainous
areas and 2,000 feet of obstacle clearance in
b. Between latitudes 27_N and the North Pole; designated mountainous areas within a 100-mile
radius of the navigation facility upon which the
c. In the east, the eastern boundaries of the CTAs procedure is predicated and normally used only in
Santa Maria Oceanic, Shanwick Oceanic, and military procedures. These altitudes are identified on
Reykjavik; published procedures as Emergency Safe Alti-
d. In the west, the western boundaries of CTAs tudes.
Reykjavik and Gander Oceanic and New York
Oceanic excluding the area west of 60_W and south MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE WARNING A
of 38_30N. function of the ARTS III computer that aids the
controller by alerting him/her when a tracked Mode
C equipped aircraft is below or is predicted by the
MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE ALTI- computer to go below a predetermined minimum safe
TUDE (MOCA) The lowest published altitude in altitude.
effect between radio fixes on VOR airways,
(Refer to AIM.)
off-airway routes, or route segments which meets
obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route
MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE [ICAO] The
segment and which assures acceptable navigational
lowest altitude which may be used under emergency
signal coverage only within 25 statute (22 nautical)
conditions which will provide a minimum clearance
miles of a VOR.
of 300 m (1,000 feet) above all obstacles located in
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) an area contained within a sector of a circle of 46 km
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 95.) (25 NM) radius centered on a radio aid to navigation.
PCG M4
6/25/15
MINIMUMS Weather condition requirements missed approach procedure shall be executed if the
established for a particular operation or type of required visual reference does not exist.
operation; e.g., IFR takeoff or landing, alternate (See MISSED APPROACH.)
airport for IFR flight plans, VFR flight, etc. (See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
(See IFR CONDITIONS.) APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE [ICAO] The
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.) procedure to be followed if the approach cannot be
(See LANDING MINIMUMS.) continued.
(See VFR CONDITIONS.)
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT
(Refer to AIM.) (See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE (MVA)
MLDI
The lowest MSL altitude at which an IFR aircraft will
(See METER LIST DISPLAY INTERVAL.)
be vectored by a radar controller, except as otherwise
authorized for radar approaches, departures, and MM
missed approaches. The altitude meets IFR obstacle (See MIDDLE MARKER.)
clearance criteria. It may be lower than the published MNPS
MEA along an airway or J-route segment. It may be (See MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
utilized for radar vectoring only upon the controllers SPECIFICATION.)
determination that an adequate radar return is being
received from the aircraft being controlled. Charts MNPSA
depicting minimum vectoring altitudes are normally (See MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
available only to the controllers and not to pilots. SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE.)
(Refer to AIM.) MOA
(See MILITARY OPERATIONS AREA.)
MINUTES-IN-TRAIL A specified interval be-
tween aircraft expressed in time. This method would MOCA
more likely be utilized regardless of altitude. (See MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE
ALTITUDE.)
MIS
(See METEOROLOGICAL IMPACT MODE The letter or number assigned to a specific
STATEMENT.) pulse spacing of radio signals transmitted or received
by ground interrogator or airborne transponder
MISSED APPROACH components of the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon
a. A maneuver conducted by a pilot when an System (ATCRBS). Mode A (military Mode 3) and
instrument approach cannot be completed to a Mode C (altitude reporting) are used in air traffic
landing. The route of flight and altitude are shown on control.
instrument approach procedure charts. A pilot (See INTERROGATOR.)
executing a missed approach prior to the Missed (See RADAR.)
Approach Point (MAP) must continue along the final (See TRANSPONDER.)
approach to the MAP. (See ICAO term MODE.)
b. A term used by the pilot to inform ATC that (Refer to AIM.)
he/she is executing the missed approach. MODE (SSR MODE) [ICAO] The letter or number
c. At locations where ATC radar service is assigned to a specific pulse spacing of the
provided, the pilot should conform to radar vectors interrogation signals transmitted by an interrogator.
when provided by ATC in lieu of the published There are 4 modes, A, B, C and D specified in Annex
missed approach procedure. 10, corresponding to four different interrogation
(See MISSED APPROACH POINT.) pulse spacings.
(Refer to AIM.)
MODE C INTRUDER ALERT A function of
MISSED APPROACH POINT A point prescribed certain air traffic control automated systems designed
in each instrument approach procedure at which a to alert radar controllers to existing or pending
PCG M5
7/24/14
situations between a tracked target (known IFR or tower, specific approval for entry onto the movement
VFR aircraft) and an untracked target (unknown IFR area must be obtained from ATC.
or VFR aircraft) that requires immediate attention/ (See ICAO term MOVEMENT AREA.)
action.
MOVEMENT AREA [ICAO] That part of an
(See CONFLICT ALERT.) aerodrome to be used for the takeoff, landing and
taxiing of aircraft, consisting of the maneuvering area
MONITOR (When used with communication
and the apron(s).
transfer) listen on a specific frequency and stand by
for instructions. Under normal circumstances do not MOVING TARGET INDICATOR An electronic
establish communications. device which will permit radar scope presentation
only from targets which are in motion. A partial
MONITOR ALERT (MA) A function of the TFMS remedy for ground clutter.
that provides traffic management personnel with a MRA
tool for predicting potential capacity problems in
(See MINIMUM RECEPTION ALTITUDE.)
individual operational sectors. The MA is an
indication that traffic management personnel need to MSA
analyze a particular sector for actual activity and to (See MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE.)
determine the required action(s), if any, needed to MSAW
control the demand. (See MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE WARNING.)
MONITOR ALERT PARAMETER (MAP) The MTI
number designated for use in monitor alert (See MOVING TARGET INDICATOR.)
processing by the TFMS. The MAP is designated for MTR
each operational sector for increments of 15 minutes.
(See MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.)
MOSAIC/MULTISENSOR MODE Accepts posi- MULTICOM A mobile service not open to public
tional data from multiple radar or ADSB sites. correspondence used to provide communications
Targets are displayed from a single source within a essential to conduct the activities being performed by
radar sort box according to the hierarchy of the or directed from private aircraft.
sources assigned.
MULTIPLE RUNWAYS The utilization of a
dedicated arrival runway(s) for departures and a
MOVEMENT AREA The runways, taxiways, and
dedicated departure runway(s) for arrivals when
other areas of an airport/heliport which are utilized
feasible to reduce delays and enhance capacity.
for taxiing/hover taxiing, air taxiing, takeoff, and
landing of aircraft, exclusive of loading ramps and MVA
parking areas. At those airports/heliports with a (See MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE.)
PCG M6
N
NAS b. L Low altitude.
(See NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM.) c. H High altitude.
NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM The common Note: The normal service range for T, L, and H class
network of U.S. airspace; air navigation facilities, aids is found in the AIM. Certain operational
equipment and services, airports or landing areas; requirements make it necessary to use some of
these aids at greater service ranges than
aeronautical charts, information and services; rules,
specified. Extended range is made possible
regulations and procedures, technical information, through flight inspection determinations. Some
and manpower and material. Included are system aids also have lesser service range due to location,
components shared jointly with the military. terrain, frequency protection, etc. Restrictions to
service range are listed in Airport/Facility
NATIONAL BEACON CODE ALLOCATION
Directory.
PLAN AIRSPACE Airspace over United States
territory located within the North American continent NAVIGABLE AIRSPACE Airspace at and above
between Canada and Mexico, including adjacent the minimum flight altitudes prescribed in the CFRs
territorial waters outward to about boundaries of including airspace needed for safe takeoff and
oceanic control areas (CTA)/Flight Information landing.
Regions (FIR). (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(See FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION.)
NAVIGATION REFERENCE SYSTEM (NRS)
NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA CENTER A facility in The NRS is a system of waypoints developed for use
Washington D.C., established by FAA to operate a within the United States for flight planning and
central aeronautical information service for the navigation without reference to ground based
collection, validation, and dissemination of navigational aids. The NRS waypoints are located in
aeronautical data in support of the activities of a grid pattern along defined latitude and longitude
government, industry, and the aviation community. lines. The initial use of the NRS will be in the high
The information is published in the National Flight altitude environment in conjunction with the High
Data Digest. Altitude Redesign initiative. The NRS waypoints are
(See NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA DIGEST.) intended for use by aircraft capable of pointtopoint
NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA DIGEST A daily navigation.
(except weekends and Federal holidays) publication NAVIGATION SPECIFICATION [ICAO] A set of
of flight information appropriate to aeronautical aircraft and flight crew requirements needed to
charts, aeronautical publications, Notices to Airmen, support performancebased navigation operations
or other media serving the purpose of providing within a defined airspace. There are two kinds of
operational flight data essential to safe and efficient navigation specifications:
aircraft operations.
a. RNP specification. A navigation specification
NATIONAL SEARCH AND RESCUE PLAN An based on area navigation that includes the
interagency agreement which provides for the requirement for performance monitoring and
effective utilization of all available facilities in all alerting, designated by the prefix RNP; e.g., RNP 4,
types of search and rescue missions. RNP APCH.
NAVAID b. RNAV specification. A navigation specifica-
(See NAVIGATIONAL AID.) tion based on area navigation that does not include the
requirement for performance monitoring and alert-
NAVAID CLASSES VOR, VORTAC, and TACAN ing, designated by the prefix RNAV; e.g., RNAV 5,
aids are classed according to their operational use. RNAV 1.
The three classes of NAVAIDs are: Note: The Performancebased Navigation Manual
a. T Terminal. (Doc 9613), Volume II contains detailed guidance
PCG N1
on navigation specifications. NO GYRO VECTOR

(See NO GYRO APPROACH.)
NAVIGATIONAL AID Any visual or electronic NO TRANSGRESSION ZONE (NTZ) The NTZ is
device airborne or on the surface which provides a 2,000 foot wide zone, located equidistant between
point-to-point guidance information or position data parallel runway or SOIA final approach courses in
to aircraft in flight. which flight is normally not allowed.
(See AIR NAVIGATION FACILITY.) NONAPPROACH CONTROL TOWER Author-
NBCAP AIRSPACE izes aircraft to land or takeoff at the airport controlled
(See NATIONAL BEACON CODE ALLOCATION by the tower or to transit the Class D airspace. The
PLAN AIRSPACE.) primary function of a nonapproach control tower is
the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and on
NDB the landing area. Nonapproach control towers also
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) separate aircraft operating under instrument flight
NEGATIVE No, or permission not granted, or rules clearances from approach controls and centers.
that is not correct. They provide ground control services to aircraft,
vehicles, personnel, and equipment on the airport
NEGATIVE CONTACT Used by pilots to inform
movement area.
ATC that:
NONCOMMON ROUTE/PORTION That segment
a. Previously issued traffic is not in sight. It may
of a North American Route between the inland
be followed by the pilots request for the controller to
navigation facility and a designated North American
provide assistance in avoiding the traffic.
terminal.
b. They were unable to contact ATC on a
particular frequency. NONCOMPOSITE SEPARATION Separation in
accordance with minima other than the composite
NFDC separation minimum specified for the area con-
(See NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA CENTER.) cerned.
NFDD NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON An L/MF or UHF
(See NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA DIGEST.) radio beacon transmitting nondirectional signals
NIGHT The time between the end of evening civil whereby the pilot of an aircraft equipped with
twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight, direction finding equipment can determine his/her
as published in the Air Almanac, converted to local bearing to or from the radio beacon and home on or
time. track to or from the station. When the radio beacon is
installed in conjunction with the Instrument Landing
(See ICAO term NIGHT.)
System marker, it is normally called a Compass
NIGHT [ICAO] The hours between the end of Locator.
evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning (See AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER.)
civil twilight or such other period between sunset and (See COMPASS LOCATOR.)
sunrise as may be specified by the appropriate
NONMOVEMENT AREAS Taxiways and apron
authority.
(ramp) areas not under the control of air traffic.
Note: Civil twilight ends in the evening when the
center of the suns disk is 6 degrees below the NONPRECISION APPROACH
horizon and begins in the morning when the center (See NONPRECISION APPROACH
of the suns disk is 6 degrees below the horizon. PROCEDURE.)
NO GYRO APPROACH A radar approach/vector NONPRECISION APPROACH PROCEDURE A

provided in case of a malfunctioning gyro-compass standard instrument approach procedure in which no
or directional gyro. Instead of providing the pilot electronic glideslope is provided; e.g., VOR,
with headings to be flown, the controller observes the TACAN, NDB, LOC, ASR, LDA, or SDF
radar track and issues control instructions turn approaches.
right/left or stop turn as appropriate. NONRADAR Precedes other terms and generally
(Refer to AIM.) means without the use of radar, such as:
PCG N2
a. Nonradar Approach. Used to describe NORDO (No Radio) Aircraft that cannot or do not
instrument approaches for which course guidance on communicate by radio when radio communication is
final approach is not provided by ground-based required are referred to as NORDO.
precision or surveillance radar. Radar vectors to the (See LOST COMMUNICATIONS.)
final approach course may or may not be provided by NORMAL OPERATING ZONE (NOZ) The NOZ
ATC. Examples of nonradar approaches are VOR, is the operating zone within which aircraft flight
NDB, TACAN, ILS, RNAV, and GLS approaches. remains during normal independent simultaneous
(See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.) parallel ILS approaches.
(See FINAL APPROACH-IFR.) NORTH AMERICAN ROUTE A numerically
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH coded route preplanned over existing airway and
PROCEDURE.) route systems to and from specific coastal fixes
(See RADAR APPROACH.) serving the North Atlantic. North American Routes
b. Nonradar Approach Control. An ATC facility consist of the following:
providing approach control service without the use of a. Common Route/Portion. That segment of a
radar. North American Route between the inland navigation
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.) facility and the coastal fix.
(See APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE.) b. Noncommon Route/Portion. That segment of a
c. Nonradar Arrival. An aircraft arriving at an North American Route between the inland navigation
airport without radar service or at an airport served by facility and a designated North American terminal.
a radar facility and radar contact has not been c. Inland Navigation Facility. A navigation aid on
established or has been terminated due to a lack of a North American Route at which the common route
radar service to the airport. and/or the noncommon route begins or ends.
(See RADAR ARRIVAL.) d. Coastal Fix. A navigation aid or intersection
(See RADAR SERVICE.) where an aircraft transitions between the domestic
route structure and the oceanic route structure.
d. Nonradar Route. A flight path or route over
which the pilot is performing his/her own navigation. NORTH AMERICAN ROUTE PROGRAM (NRP)
The pilot may be receiving radar separation, radar The NRP is a set of rules and procedures which are
monitoring, or other ATC services while on a designed to increase the flexibility of user flight
nonradar route. planning within published guidelines.
(See RADAR ROUTE.) NORTH MARK A beacon data block sent by the
host computer to be displayed by the ARTS on a 360
e. Nonradar Separation. The spacing of aircraft in degree bearing at a locally selected radar azimuth and
accordance with established minima without the use distance. The North Mark is used to ensure correct
of radar; e.g., vertical, lateral, or longitudinal range/azimuth orientation during periods of
separation. CENRAP.
(See RADAR SEPARATION.)
NORTH PACIFIC An organized route system
(See ICAO term NONRADAR SEPARATION.)
between the Alaskan west coast and Japan.
NONRADAR SEPARATION [ICAO] The NOTAM
separation used when aircraft position information is (See NOTICE TO AIRMEN.)
derived from sources other than radar. NOTAM [ICAO] A notice containing information
NONRESTRICTIVE ROUTING (NRR) Portions concerning the establishment, condition or change in
of a proposed route of flight where a user can flight any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or
plan the most advantageous flight path with no hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to
requirement to make reference to groundbased personnel concerned with flight operations.
NAVAIDs. a. I Distribution Distribution by means of
telecommunication.
NOPAC b. II Distribution Distribution by means other
(See NORTH PACIFIC.) than telecommunications.
PCG N3
NOTICE TO AIRMEN A notice containing for the pilot, which contains current NOTAM
information (not known sufficiently in advance to information considered essential to the safety of
publicize by other means) concerning the flight as well as supplemental data to other
establishment, condition, or change in any aeronautical publications. The contraction NTAP is
component (facility, service, or procedure of, or used in NOTAM text.
hazard in the National Airspace System) the timely (See NOTICE TO AIRMEN.)
knowledge of which is essential to personnel
concerned with flight operations. NRR
(See NONRESTRICTIVE ROUTING.)
a. NOTAM(D) A NOTAM given (in addition to
local dissemination) distant dissemination beyond NRS
the area of responsibility of the Flight Service (See NAVIGATION REFERENCE SYSTEM.)
Station. These NOTAMs will be stored and available
until canceled. NTAP
b. FDC NOTAM A NOTAM regulatory in (See NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION.)
nature, transmitted by USNOF and given system NUMEROUS TARGETS VICINITY (LOCA-
wide dissemination. TION) A traffic advisory issued by ATC to advise
(See ICAO term NOTAM.) pilots that targets on the radar scope are too numerous
NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION A to issue individually.
publication issued every 28 days, designed primarily (See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
PCG N4
O
OBSTACLE An existing object, object of natural (b) 180 feet, plus the wingspan of the most
growth, or terrain at a fixed geographical location or demanding airplane, plus 20 feet per 1,000 feet of
which may be expected at a fixed location within a airport elevation.
prescribed area with reference to which vertical 2. For runways serving only small airplanes:
clearance is or must be provided during flight (a) 300 feet for precision instrument run-
operation. ways.
OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURE (ODP) (b) 250 feet for other runways serving small
A preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) departure airplanes with approach speeds of 50 knots, or more.
procedure printed for pilot use in textual or graphic (c) 120 feet for other runways serving small
form to provide obstruction clearance via the least airplanes with approach speeds of less than 50 knots.
onerous route from the terminal area to the b. Inner-approach OFZ. The inner-approach OFZ
appropriate en route structure. ODPs are recom- is a defined volume of airspace centered on the
mended for obstruction clearance and may be flown approach area. The inner-approach OFZ applies only
without ATC clearance unless an alternate departure to runways with an approach lighting system. The
procedure (SID or radar vector) has been specifically inner-approach OFZ begins 200 feet from the runway
assigned by ATC. threshold at the same elevation as the runway
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND threshold and extends 200 feet beyond the last light
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.) unit in the approach lighting system. The width of the
(See STANDARD INSTRUMENT inner-approach OFZ is the same as the runway OFZ
DEPARTURES.) and rises at a slope of 50 (horizontal) to 1 (vertical)
(Refer to AIM.) from the beginning.
c. Inner-transitional OFZ. The inner transitional
OBSTACLE FREE ZONE The OFZ is a three surface OFZ is a defined volume of airspace along the
dimensional volume of airspace which protects for sides of the runway and inner-approach OFZ and
the transition of aircraft to and from the runway. The applies only to precision instrument runways. The
OFZ clearing standard precludes taxiing and parked inner-transitional surface OFZ slopes 3 (horizontal)
airplanes and object penetrations, except for to 1 (vertical) out from the edges of the runway OFZ
frangible NAVAID locations that are fixed by and inner-approach OFZ to a height of 150 feet above
function. Additionally, vehicles, equipment, and the established airport elevation.
personnel may be authorized by air traffic control to (Refer to AC 150/5300-13, Chapter 3.)
enter the area using the provisions of FAAO JO (Refer to FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 315,
7110.65, Para 315, VEHICLES/EQUIPMENT/ VEHICLES/EQUIPMENT/PERSONNEL ON
PERSONNEL ON RUNWAYS. The runway OFZ RUNWAYS.)
and when applicable, the inner-approach OFZ, and
OBSTRUCTION Any object/obstacle exceeding
the inner-transitional OFZ, comprise the OFZ.
the obstruction standards specified by 14 CFR
a. Runway OFZ. The runway OFZ is a defined Part 77, Subpart C.
volume of airspace centered above the runway. The
OBSTRUCTION LIGHT A light or one of a group
runway OFZ is the airspace above a surface whose
of lights, usually red or white, frequently mounted on
elevation at any point is the same as the elevation of
a surface structure or natural terrain to warn pilots of
the nearest point on the runway centerline. The
the presence of an obstruction.
runway OFZ extends 200 feet beyond each end of the
runway. The width is as follows: OCEANIC AIRSPACE Airspace over the oceans of
the world, considered international airspace, where
1. For runways serving large airplanes, the
oceanic separation and procedures per the Interna-
greater of:
tional Civil Aviation Organization are applied.
(a) 400 feet, or Responsibility for the provisions of air traffic control
PCG O1
service in this airspace is delegated to various OM

countries, based generally upon geographic proximi- (See OUTER MARKER.)
ty and the availability of the required resources.
ON COURSE
OCEANIC DISPLAY AND PLANNING SYS- a. Used to indicate that an aircraft is established on
TEM An automated digital display system which the route centerline.
provides flight data processing, conflict probe, and
b. Used by ATC to advise a pilot making a radar
situation display for oceanic air traffic control.
approach that his/her aircraft is lined up on the final
OCEANIC NAVIGATIONAL ERROR REPORT A approach course.
report filed when an aircraft exiting oceanic airspace (See ON-COURSE INDICATION.)
has been observed by radar to be off course. ONER
ON-COURSE INDICATION An indication on an
reporting parameters and procedures are contained in
instrument, which provides the pilot a visual means
FAAO 7110.82, Monitoring of Navigational Perfor-
of determining that the aircraft is located on the
mance In Oceanic Areas.
centerline of a given navigational track, or an
OCEANIC PUBLISHED ROUTE A route estab- indication on a radar scope that an aircraft is on a
lished in international airspace and charted or given track.
described in flight information publications, such as
ONE-MINUTE WEATHER The most recent one
Route Charts, DOD Enroute Charts, Chart Supple-
minute updated weather broadcast received by a pilot
ments, NOTAMs, and Track Messages.
from an uncontrolled airport ASOS/AWSS/AWOS.
OCEANIC TRANSITION ROUTE An ATS route
ONER
established for the purpose of transitioning aircraft
(See OCEANIC NAVIGATIONAL ERROR
to/from an organized track system.
REPORT.)
ODAPS OPERATIONAL
(See OCEANIC DISPLAY AND PLANNING (See DUE REGARD.)
SYSTEM.)
OPERATIONS SPECIFICATIONS [ICAO] The
ODP
authorizations, conditions and limitations associated
(See OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURE.) with the air operator certificate and subject to the
OFF COURSE A term used to describe a situation conditions in the operations manual.
where an aircraft has reported a position fix or is OPPOSITE DIRECTION AIRCRAFT Aircraft are
observed on radar at a point not on the ATC-approved operating in opposite directions when:
route of flight.
a. They are following the same track in reciprocal
OFF-ROUTE VECTOR A vector by ATC which directions; or
takes an aircraft off a previously assigned route. b. Their tracks are parallel and the aircraft are
Altitudes assigned by ATC during such vectors flying in reciprocal directions; or
provide required obstacle clearance.
c. Their tracks intersect at an angle of more than
OFFSET PARALLEL RUNWAYS Staggered 135_.
runways having centerlines which are parallel.
OPTION APPROACH An approach requested and
OFFSHORE/CONTROL AIRSPACE AREA That conducted by a pilot which will result in either a
portion of airspace between the U.S. 12 NM limit and touch-and-go, missed approach, low approach,
the oceanic CTA/FIR boundary within which air stop-and-go, or full stop landing.
traffic control is exercised. These areas are (See CLEARED FOR THE OPTION.)
established to provide air traffic control services. (Refer to AIM.)
Offshore/Control Airspace Areas may be classified
as either Class A airspace or Class E airspace. ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM A series of ATS
routes which are fixed and charted; i.e., CEP,
OFT NOPAC, or flexible and described by NOTAM; i.e.,
(See OUTER FIX TIME.) NAT TRACK MESSAGE.
PCG O2
OROCA An off-route altitude which provides OUTER FIX ARC A semicircle, usually about a
obstruction clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in 5070 mile radius from a meter fix, usually in high
nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer altitude, which is used by CTAS/HOST to calculate
in designated mountainous areas within the United outer fix times and determine appropriate sector
States. This altitude may not provide signal coverage meter list assignments for aircraft on an established
from ground-based navigational aids, air traffic arrival route that will traverse the arc.
control radar, or communications coverage.
OUTER FIX TIME A calculated time to depart the
OTR outer fix in order to cross the vertex at the ACLT. The
(See OCEANIC TRANSITION ROUTE.) time reflects descent speed adjustments and any
applicable delay time that must be absorbed prior to
OTS crossing the meter fix.
(See ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM.)
OUTER MARKER A marker beacon at or near the
OUT The conversation is ended and no response is glideslope intercept altitude of an ILS approach. It is
expected. keyed to transmit two dashes per second on a 400 Hz
tone, which is received aurally and visually by
OUTER AREA (associated with Class C airspace)
compatible airborne equipment. The OM is normally
Nonregulatory airspace surrounding designated
located four to seven miles from the runway threshold
Class C airspace airports wherein ATC provides radar
on the extended centerline of the runway.
vectoring and sequencing on a full-time basis for all
(See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.)
IFR and participating VFR aircraft. The service
(See MARKER BEACON.)
provided in the outer area is called Class C service
which includes: IFR/IFRstandard IFR separation; (Refer to AIM.)
IFR/VFRtraffic advisories and conflict resolution; OVER My transmission is ended; I expect a
and VFR/VFRtraffic advisories and, as appropriate, response.
safety alerts. The normal radius will be 20 nautical
miles with some variations based on site-specific OVERHEAD MANEUVER A series of predeter-
requirements. The outer area extends outward from mined maneuvers prescribed for aircraft (often in
the primary Class C airspace airport and extends from formation) for entry into the visual flight rules (VFR)
the lower limits of radar/radio coverage up to the traffic pattern and to proceed to a landing. An
ceiling of the approach controls delegated airspace overhead maneuver is not an instrument flight rules
excluding the Class C charted area and other airspace (IFR) approach procedure. An aircraft executing an
as appropriate. overhead maneuver is considered VFR and the IFR
flight plan is cancelled when the aircraft reaches the
(See CONFLICT RESOLUTION.)
initial point on the initial approach portion of the
maneuver. The pattern usually specifies the
OUTER COMPASS LOCATOR following:
(See COMPASS LOCATOR.) a. The radio contact required of the pilot.
OUTER FIX A general term used within ATC to b. The speed to be maintained.
describe fixes in the terminal area, other than the final c. An initial approach 3 to 5 miles in length.
approach fix. Aircraft are normally cleared to these d. An elliptical pattern consisting of two 180
fixes by an Air Route Traffic Control Center or an degree turns.
Approach Control Facility. Aircraft are normally
e. A break point at which the first 180 degree turn
cleared from these fixes to the final approach fix or
is started.
final approach course.
f. The direction of turns.
OR g. Altitude (at least 500 feet above the convention-
OUTER FIX An adapted fix along the converted al pattern).
route of flight, prior to the meter fix, for which h. A Roll-out on final approach not less than 1/4
crossing times are calculated and displayed in the mile from the landing threshold and not less than 300
metering position list. feet above the ground.
PCG O3
OVERLYING CENTER The ARTCC facility that

is responsible for arrival/departure operations at a
specific terminal.
PCG O4
P
P TIME PERFORMANCEBASED NAVIGATION (PBN)
(See PROPOSED DEPARTURE TIME.) [ICAO] Area navigation based on performance
requirements for aircraft operating along an ATS
P-ACP route, on an instrument approach procedure or in a
(See PREARRANGED COORDINATION designated airspace.
PROCEDURES.)
Note: Performance requirements are expressed in
PAN-PAN The international radio-telephony urgen- navigation specifications (RNAV specification,
cy signal. When repeated three times, indicates RNP specification) in terms of accuracy, integrity,
uncertainty or alert followed by the nature of the continuity, availability, and functionality needed for
the proposed operation in the context of a
urgency.
particular airspace concept.
(See MAYDAY.)
(Refer to AIM.) PERMANENT ECHO Radar signals reflected from
fixed objects on the earths surface; e.g., buildings,
PAR
towers, terrain. Permanent echoes are distinguished
(See PRECISION APPROACH RADAR.)
from ground clutter by being definable locations
PAR [ICAO] rather than large areas. Under certain conditions they
(See ICAO Term PRECISION APPROACH may be used to check radar alignment.
RADAR.)
PHOTO RECONNAISSANCE Military activity
PARALLEL ILS APPROACHES Approaches to that requires locating individual photo targets and
parallel runways by IFR aircraft which, when navigating to the targets at a preplanned angle and
established inbound toward the airport on the altitude. The activity normally requires a lateral route
adjacent final approach courses, are radar-separated width of 16 NM and altitude range of 1,500 feet to
by at least 2 miles. 10,000 feet AGL.
(See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.) PILOT BRIEFING A service provided by the FSS
(See SIMULTANEOUS ILS APPROACHES.) to assist pilots in flight planning. Briefing items may
PARALLEL OFFSET ROUTE A parallel track to include weather information, NOTAMS, military
the left or right of the designated or established activities, flow control information, and other items
airway/route. Normally associated with Area Navi- as requested.
gation (RNAV) operations. (Refer to AIM.)
(See AREA NAVIGATION.) PILOT IN COMMAND The pilot responsible for
PARALLEL RUNWAYS Two or more runways at the operation and safety of an aircraft during flight
the same airport whose centerlines are parallel. In time.
addition to runway number, parallel runways are (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
designated as L (left) and R (right) or, if three parallel PILOT WEATHER REPORT A report of meteoro-
runways exist, L (left), C (center), and R (right). logical phenomena encountered by aircraft in flight.
PBCT (Refer to AIM.)
(See PROPOSED BOUNDARY CROSSING PILOTS DISCRETION When used in conjunc-
TIME.) tion with altitude assignments, means that ATC has
PBN offered the pilot the option of starting climb or
(See ICAO Term PERFORMANCEBASED descent whenever he/she wishes and conducting the
NAVIGATION.) climb or descent at any rate he/she wishes. He/she
may temporarily level off at any intermediate
PDC altitude. However, once he/she has vacated an
(See PREDEPARTURE CLEARANCE.) altitude, he/she may not return to that altitude.
PCG P1
7/24/14
PIREP PREARRANGED COORDINATION A standard-

(See PILOT WEATHER REPORT.) ized procedure which permits an air traffic controller
to enter the airspace assigned to another air traffic
PITCH POINT A fix/waypoint that serves as a controller without verbal coordination. The proce-
transition point from a departure procedure or the low dures are defined in a facility directive which ensures
altitude groundbased navigation structure into the approved separation between aircraft.
high altitude waypoint system.
PREARRANGED COORDINATION PROCE-
PLANS DISPLAY A display available in URET DURES A facilitys standardized procedure that
that provides detailed flight plan and predicted describes the process by which one controller shall
conflict information in textual format for requested allow an aircraft to penetrate or transit another
Current Plans and all Trial Plans. controllers airspace in a manner that assures
(See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.) approved separation without individual coordination
POFZ for each aircraft.
(See PRECISION OBSTACLE FREE ZONE.) PRECIPITATION Any or all forms of water
particles (rain, sleet, hail, or snow) that fall from the
POINT OUT
atmosphere and reach the surface.
(See RADAR POINT OUT.)
PRECIPITATION RADAR WEATHER DE-
POINTTOPOINT (PTP) A level of NRR service SCRIPTIONS Existing radar systems cannot detect
for aircraft that is based on traditional waypoints in turbulence. However, there is a direct correlation
their FMSs or RNAV equipage. between the degree of turbulence and other weather
POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE A system of features associated with thunderstorms and the
organized routes between Iceland and Alaska which weather radar precipitation intensity. Controllers will
overlie Canadian MNPS Airspace. issue (where capable) precipitation intensity as
observed by radar when using weather and radar
POSITION REPORT A report over a known processor (WARP) or NAS ground based digital
location as transmitted by an aircraft to ATC. radars with weather capabilities. When precipitation
(Refer to AIM.) intensity information is not available, the intensity
POSITION SYMBOL A computer-generated will be described as UNKNOWN. When intensity
indication shown on a radar display to indicate the levels can be determined, they shall be described as:
mode of tracking. a. LIGHT (< 30 dBZ)
POSITIVE CONTROL The separation of all air b. MODERATE (30 to 40 dBZ)
traffic within designated airspace by air traffic c. HEAVY (> 40 to 50 dBZ)
control. d. EXTREME (> 50 dBZ)
PRACTICE INSTRUMENT APPROACH An (Refer to AC 0045, Aviation Weather Services.)
instrument approach procedure conducted by a VFR PRECISION APPROACH
or an IFR aircraft for the purpose of pilot training or (See PRECISION APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
proficiency demonstrations.
PRECISION APPROACH PROCEDURE A
PREDEPARTURE CLEARANCE An application standard instrument approach procedure in which an
with the Terminal Data Link System (TDLS) that electronic glideslope/or other type of glidepath is
provides clearance information to subscribers, provided ; e.g., ILS, PAR, and GLS.
through a service provider, in text to the cockpit or (See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.)
gate printer. (See PRECISION APPROACH RADAR.)
PCG P2
PRECISION APPROACH RADAR Radar equip- system, or other FMA with the same capability,
ment in some ATC facilities operated by the FAA presents (NTZ) surveillance track data to controllers
and/or the military services at joint-use civil/military along with detailed maps depicting approaches and
locations and separate military installations to detect no transgression zone and is required for all
and display azimuth, elevation, and range of aircraft simultaneous close parallel PRM NTZ monitoring
on the final approach course to a runway. This operations.
equipment may be used to monitor certain nonradar (Refer to AIM)
approaches, but is primarily used to conduct a PREDICTIVE WIND SHEAR ALERT SYSTEM
precision instrument approach (PAR) wherein the (PWS) A selfcontained system used onboard some
controller issues guidance instructions to the pilot aircraft to alert the flight crew to the presence of a
based on the aircrafts position in relation to the final potential wind shear. PWS systems typically monitor
approach course (azimuth), the glidepath (elevation), 3 miles ahead and 25 degrees left and right of the
and the distance (range) from the touchdown point on aircrafts heading at or below 1200 AGL. Departing
the runway as displayed on the radar scope. flights may receive a wind shear alert after they start
Note: The abbreviation PAR is also used to the takeoff roll and may elect to abort the takeoff.
denote preferential arrival routes in ARTCC Aircraft on approach receiving an alert may elect to
computers. go around or perform a wind shear escape maneuver.
(See GLIDEPATH.)
PREFERENTIAL ROUTES Preferential routes
(See PAR.) (PDRs, PARs, and PDARs) are adapted in ARTCC
(See PREFERENTIAL ROUTES.) computers to accomplish inter/intrafacility controller
(See ICAO term PRECISION APPROACH coordination and to assure that flight data is posted at
RADAR.) the proper control positions. Locations having a need
(Refer to AIM.) for these specific inbound and outbound routes
PRECISION APPROACH RADAR [ICAO] Pri- normally publish such routes in local facility
mary radar equipment used to determine the position bulletins, and their use by pilots minimizes flight
of an aircraft during final approach, in terms of lateral plan route amendments. When the workload or traffic
and vertical deviations relative to a nominal approach situation permits, controllers normally provide radar
path, and in range relative to touchdown. vectors or assign requested routes to minimize
Note: Precision approach radars are designed to
circuitous routing. Preferential routes are usually
enable pilots of aircraft to be given guidance by confined to one ARTCCs area and are referred to by
radio communication during the final stages of the the following names or acronyms:
approach to land. a. Preferential Departure Route (PDR). A specific
departure route from an airport or terminal area to an
PRECISION OBSTACLE FREE ZONE (POFZ) en route point where there is no further need for flow
An 800 foot wide by 200 foot long area centered on control. It may be included in an Instrument
the runway centerline adjacent to the threshold Departure Procedure (DP) or a Preferred IFR Route.
designed to protect aircraft flying precision b. Preferential Arrival Route (PAR). A specific
approaches from ground vehicles and other aircraft arrival route from an appropriate en route point to an
when ceiling is less than 250 feet or visibility is less airport or terminal area. It may be included in a
than 3/4 statute mile (or runway visual range below Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) or a Preferred IFR
4,000 feet.) Route. The abbreviation PAR is used primarily
PRECISION RUNWAY MONITOR (PRM) within the ARTCC and should not be confused with
SYSTEM Provides air traffic controllers the abbreviation for Precision Approach Radar.
monitoring the NTZ during simultaneous close c. Preferential Departure and Arrival Route
parallel PRM approaches with precision, high update (PDAR). A route between two terminals which are
rate secondary surveillance data. The high update rate within or immediately adjacent to one ARTCCs area.
surveillance sensor component of the PRM system is PDARs are not synonymous with Preferred IFR
only required for specific runway or approach course Routes but may be listed as such as they do
separation. The high resolution color monitoring accomplish essentially the same purpose.
display, Final Monitor Aid (FMA) of the PRM (See PREFERRED IFR ROUTES.)
PCG P3
PREFERRED IFR ROUTES Routes established followed by a turn in the opposite direction to permit
between busier airports to increase system efficiency the aircraft to intercept and proceed along the
and capacity. They normally extend through one or reciprocal of the designated track.
more ARTCC areas and are designed to achieve Note 1: Procedure turns are designated left or
balanced traffic flows among high density terminals. right according to the direction of the initial turn.
IFR clearances are issued on the basis of these routes Note 2: Procedure turns may be designated as
except when severe weather avoidance procedures or being made either in level flight or while
other factors dictate otherwise. Preferred IFR Routes descending, according to the circumstances of
are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory. If a flight each individual approach procedure.
is planned to or from an area having such routes but PROCEDURE TURN INBOUND That point of a
the departure or arrival point is not listed in the procedure turn maneuver where course reversal has
Airport/Facility Directory, pilots may use that part of been completed and an aircraft is established inbound
a Preferred IFR Route which is appropriate for the on the intermediate approach segment or final
departure or arrival point that is listed. Preferred IFR approach course. A report of procedure turn
Routes are correlated with DPs and STARs and may inbound is normally used by ATC as a position
be defined by airways, jet routes, direct routes report for separation purposes.
between NAVAIDs, Waypoints, NAVAID radials/ (See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.)
DME, or any combinations thereof. (See PROCEDURE TURN.)
(See CENTERS AREA.) (See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
(See INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
PROCEDURE.) PROFILE DESCENT An uninterrupted descent
(See PREFERENTIAL ROUTES.) (except where level flight is required for speed
(See STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL.) adjustment; e.g., 250 knots at 10,000 feet MSL) from
(Refer to AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.) cruising altitude/level to interception of a glideslope
(Refer to NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION.) or to a minimum altitude specified for the initial or
PRE-FLIGHT PILOT BRIEFING intermediate approach segment of a nonprecision
(See PILOT BRIEFING.) instrument approach. The profile descent normally
terminates at the approach gate or where the
PREVAILING VISIBILITY glideslope or other appropriate minimum altitude is
(See VISIBILITY.) intercepted.
PRIMARY RADAR TARGET An analog or digital PROGRESS REPORT
target, exclusive of a secondary radar target, (See POSITION REPORT.)
presented on a radar display. PROGRESSIVE TAXI Precise taxi instructions
PRM given to a pilot unfamiliar with the airport or issued
(See ILS PRM APPROACH and PRECISION in stages as the aircraft proceeds along the taxi route.
RUNWAY MONITOR SYSTEM.) PROHIBITED AREA
PROCEDURE TURN The maneuver prescribed (See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.)
when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish (See ICAO term PROHIBITED AREA.)
an aircraft on the intermediate approach segment or PROHIBITED AREA [ICAO] An airspace of
final approach course. The outbound course, defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial
direction of turn, distance within which the turn must waters of a State, within which the flight of aircraft
be completed, and minimum altitude are specified in is prohibited.
the procedure. However, unless otherwise restricted, PROMINENT OBSTACLE An obstacle that meets
the point at which the turn may be commenced and one or more of the following conditions:
the type and rate of turn are left to the discretion of the a. An obstacle which stands out beyond the
pilot. adjacent surface of surrounding terrain and immedi-
(See ICAO term PROCEDURE TURN.) ately projects a noticeable hazard to aircraft in flight.
PROCEDURE TURN [ICAO] A maneuver in b. An obstacle, not characterized as low and close
which a turn is made away from a designated track in, whose height is no less than 300 feet above the
PCG P4
departure end of takeoff runway (DER) elevation, is inhibited from automatic adapted route alteration by
within 10NM from the DER, and that penetrates that ERAM.
airport/heliports diverse departure obstacle clear-
PT
ance surface (OCS).
(See PROCEDURE TURN.)
c. An obstacle beyond 10NM from an airport/heli-
port that requires an obstacle departure procedure PTP
(ODP) to ensure obstacle avoidance. (See POINTTOPOINT.)
(See OBSTACLE.) PTS
(See OBSTRUCTION.) (See POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE.)
PROPOSED BOUNDARY CROSSING TIME PUBLISHED INSTRUMENT APPROACH
Each center has a PBCT parameter for each internal PROCEDURE VISUAL SEGMENT A segment on
airport. Proposed internal flight plans are transmitted an IAP chart annotated as Fly Visual to Airport or
to the adjacent center if the flight time along the Fly Visual. A dashed arrow will indicate the visual
proposed route from the departure airport to the flight path on the profile and plan view with an
center boundary is less than or equal to the value of associated note on the approximate heading and
PBCT or if airport adaptation specifies transmission distance. The visual segment should be flown as a
regardless of PBCT. dead reckoning course while maintaining visual
PROPOSED DEPARTURE TIME The time that the conditions.
aircraft expects to become airborne.
PUBLISHED ROUTE A route for which an IFR
PROTECTED AIRSPACE The airspace on either altitude has been established and published; e.g.,
side of an oceanic route/track that is equal to one-half Federal Airways, Jet Routes, Area Navigation
the lateral separation minimum except where Routes, Specified Direct Routes.
reduction of protected airspace has been authorized.
PWS
PROTECTED SEGMENT- The protected segment is (See PREDICTIVE WIND SHEAR ALERT
a segment on the amended TFM route that is to be SYSTEM.)
PCG P5
Q
Q ROUTE Q is the designator assigned to as follows: NE quadrant 000-089, SE quadrant
published RNAV routes used by the United States. 090-179, SW quadrant 180-269, NW quadrant
270-359.
QNE The barometric pressure used for the standard
altimeter setting (29.92 inches Hg.). QUEUING
(See STAGING/QUEUING.)
QNH The barometric pressure as reported by a
particular station. QUICK LOOK A feature of the EAS and ARTS
which provides the controller the capability to
QUADRANT A quarter part of a circle, centered on display full data blocks of tracked aircraft from other
a NAVAID, oriented clockwise from magnetic north control positions.
PCG Q1
R
RAA RADAR APPROACH An instrument approach
(See REMOTE AIRPORT ADVISORY.) procedure which utilizes Precision Approach Radar
(PAR) or Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR).
RADAR A device which, by measuring the time (See AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE RADAR.)
interval between transmission and reception of radio (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
pulses and correlating the angular orientation of the PROCEDURE.)
radiated antenna beam or beams in azimuth and/or (See PRECISION APPROACH RADAR.)
elevation, provides information on range, azimuth, (See SURVEILLANCE APPROACH.)
and/or elevation of objects in the path of the (See ICAO term RADAR APPROACH.)
transmitted pulses. (Refer to AIM.)
a. Primary Radar A radar system in which a RADAR APPROACH [ICAO] An approach,
minute portion of a radio pulse transmitted from a site executed by an aircraft, under the direction of a radar
is reflected by an object and then received back at that controller.
site for processing and display at an air traffic control
facility. RADAR APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY A
terminal ATC facility that uses radar and nonradar
b. Secondary Radar/Radar Beacon (ATCRBS) A capabilities to provide approach control services to
radar system in which the object to be detected is aircraft arriving, departing, or transiting airspace
fitted with cooperative equipment in the form of a controlled by the facility.
radio receiver/transmitter (transponder). Radar
(See APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE.)
pulses transmitted from the searching transmitter/re-
ceiver (interrogator) site are received in the a. Provides radar ATC services to aircraft
cooperative equipment and used to trigger a operating in the vicinity of one or more civil and/or
distinctive transmission from the transponder. This military airports in a terminal area. The facility may
reply transmission, rather than a reflected signal, is provide services of a ground controlled approach
then received back at the transmitter/receiver site for (GCA); i.e., ASR and PAR approaches. A radar
processing and display at an air traffic control facility. approach control facility may be operated by FAA,
USAF, US Army, USN, USMC, or jointly by FAA
(See INTERROGATOR.)
and a military service. Specific facility nomencla-
(See TRANSPONDER.)
tures are used for administrative purposes only and
(See ICAO term RADAR.) are related to the physical location of the facility and
(Refer to AIM.) the operating service generally as follows:
RADAR [ICAO] A radio detection device which 1. Army Radar Approach Control (ARAC)
provides information on range, azimuth and/or (Army).
elevation of objects. 2. Radar Air Traffic Control Facility (RATCF)
a. Primary Radar Radar system which uses (Navy/FAA).
reflected radio signals. 3. Radar Approach Control (RAPCON) (Air
b. Secondary Radar Radar system wherein a Force/FAA).
radio signal transmitted from a radar station initiates 4. Terminal Radar Approach Control
the transmission of a radio signal from another (TRACON) (FAA).
station. 5. Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) (FAA).
(Only those towers delegated approach control
RADAR ADVISORY The provision of advice and authority.)
information based on radar observations.
(See ADVISORY SERVICE.) RADAR ARRIVAL An aircraft arriving at an
airport served by a radar facility and in radar contact
RADAR ALTIMETER with the facility.
(See RADIO ALTIMETER.) (See NONRADAR.)
PCG R1
RADAR BEACON wherein the controller retains and correlates the

(See RADAR.) aircraft identity with the appropriate target or target
symbol displayed on the radar scope.
RADAR CLUTTER [ICAO] The visual indication
(See RADAR CONTACT.)
on a radar display of unwanted signals.
(See RADAR SERVICE.)
RADAR CONTACT (Refer to AIM.)
a. Used by ATC to inform an aircraft that it is RADAR IDENTIFICATION The process of
identified on the radar display and radar flight ascertaining that an observed radar target is the radar
following will be provided until radar identification return from a particular aircraft.
is terminated. Radar service may also be provided (See RADAR CONTACT.)
within the limits of necessity and capability. When a (See RADAR SERVICE.)
pilot is informed of radar contact, he/she (See ICAO term RADAR IDENTIFICATION.)
automatically discontinues reporting over compulso-
ry reporting points. RADAR IDENTIFICATION [ICAO] The process
of correlating a particular radar blip or radar position
(See RADAR CONTACT LOST.)
symbol with a specific aircraft.
(See RADAR FLIGHT FOLLOWING.)
(See RADAR SERVICE.) RADAR IDENTIFIED AIRCRAFT An aircraft, the
(See RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.) position of which has been correlated with an
(Refer to AIM.) observed target or symbol on the radar display.
b. The term used to inform the controller that the (See RADAR CONTACT.)
aircraft is identified and approval is granted for the (See RADAR CONTACT LOST.)
aircraft to enter the receiving controllers airspace. RADAR MONITORING
(See ICAO term RADAR CONTACT.) (See RADAR SERVICE.)
RADAR CONTACT [ICAO] The situation which RADAR NAVIGATIONAL GUIDANCE
exists when the radar blip or radar position symbol of (See RADAR SERVICE.)
a particular aircraft is seen and identified on a radar RADAR POINT OUT An action taken by a
display. controller to transfer the radar identification of an
RADAR CONTACT LOST Used by ATC to inform aircraft to another controller if the aircraft will or may
a pilot that radar data used to determine the aircrafts enter the airspace or protected airspace of another
position is no longer being received, or is no longer controller and radio communications will not be
reliable and radar service is no longer being provided. transferred.
The loss may be attributed to several factors RADAR REQUIRED A term displayed on charts
including the aircraft merging with weather or ground and approach plates and included in FDC NOTAMs
clutter, the aircraft operating below radar line of sight to alert pilots that segments of either an instrument
coverage, the aircraft entering an area of poor radar approach procedure or a route are not navigable
return, failure of the aircraft transponder, or failure of because of either the absence or unusability of a
the ground radar equipment. NAVAID. The pilot can expect to be provided radar
(See CLUTTER.) navigational guidance while transiting segments
(See RADAR CONTACT.) labeled with this term.
RADAR ENVIRONMENT An area in which radar (See RADAR ROUTE.)
service may be provided. (See RADAR SERVICE.)
(See ADDITIONAL SERVICES.) RADAR ROUTE A flight path or route over which
(See RADAR CONTACT.) an aircraft is vectored. Navigational guidance and
(See RADAR SERVICE.) altitude assignments are provided by ATC.
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.) (See FLIGHT PATH.)
(See ROUTE.)
RADAR FLIGHT FOLLOWING The observation
of the progress of radar identified aircraft, whose RADAR SEPARATION
primary navigation is being provided by the pilot, (See RADAR SERVICE.)
PCG R2
RADAR SERVICE A term which encompasses one other airports, is instructed to change to tower or
or more of the following services based on the use of advisory frequency.
radar which can be provided by a controller to a pilot d. An aircraft completes a radar approach.
of a radar identified aircraft.
RADAR SURVEILLANCE The radar observation
a. Radar Monitoring The radar flight-following of a given geographical area for the purpose of
of aircraft, whose primary navigation is being performing some radar function.
performed by the pilot, to observe and note deviations
from its authorized flight path, airway, or route. RADAR TRAFFIC ADVISORIES Advisories
When being applied specifically to radar monitoring issued to alert pilots to known or observed radar
of instrument approaches; i.e., with precision traffic which may affect the intended route of flight
approach radar (PAR) or radar monitoring of of their aircraft.
simultaneous ILS,RNAV and GLS approaches, it (See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
includes advice and instructions whenever an aircraft RADAR TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE
nears or exceeds the prescribed PAR safety limit or
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
simultaneous ILS RNAV and GLS no transgression
zone. RADAR VECTORING [ICAO] Provision of
(See ADDITIONAL SERVICES.) navigational guidance to aircraft in the form of
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.) specific headings, based on the use of radar.
b. Radar Navigational Guidance Vectoring RADIAL A magnetic bearing extending from a
aircraft to provide course guidance. VOR/VORTAC/TACAN navigation facility.
c. Radar Separation Radar spacing of aircraft in RADIO
accordance with established minima. a. A device used for communication.
(See ICAO term RADAR SERVICE.)
b. Used to refer to a flight service station; e.g.,
RADAR SERVICE [ICAO] Term used to indicate Seattle Radio is used to call Seattle FSS.
a service provided directly by means of radar. RADIO ALTIMETER Aircraft equipment which
a. Monitoring The use of radar for the purpose of makes use of the reflection of radio waves from the
providing aircraft with information and advice ground to determine the height of the aircraft above
relative to significant deviations from nominal flight the surface.
path.
RADIO BEACON
b. Separation The separation used when aircraft (See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.)
position information is derived from radar sources.
RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING
RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED Used by ATC (See RADAR.)
to inform a pilot that he/she will no longer be
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR An aircraft
provided any of the services that could be received
navigational instrument coupled with a gyro compass
while in radar contact. Radar service is automatically
or similar compass that indicates the direction of a
terminated, and the pilot is not advised in the
selected NAVAID and indicates bearing with respect
following cases:
to the heading of the aircraft.
a. An aircraft cancels its IFR flight plan, except
within Class B airspace, Class C airspace, a TRSA, RAIS
or where Basic Radar service is provided. (See REMOTE AIRPORT INFORMATION
SERVICE.)
b. An aircraft conducting an instrument, visual, or
contact approach has landed or has been instructed to RAMP
change to advisory frequency. (See APRON.)
c. An arriving VFR aircraft, receiving radar RANDOM ALTITUDE An altitude inappropriate
service to a tower-controlled airport within Class B for direction of flight and/or not in accordance with
airspace, Class C airspace, a TRSA, or where FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 451, VERTICAL
sequencing service is provided, has landed; or to all SEPARATION MINIMA.
PCG R3
RANDOM ROUTE Any route not established or REMOTE AIRPORT ADVISORY (RAA) A
charted/published or not otherwise available to all remote service which may be provided by facilities,
users. which are not located on the landing airport, but have
a discrete groundtoair communication frequency
RC
or tower frequency when the tower is closed,
(See ROAD RECONNAISSANCE.) automated weather reporting with voice available to
RCAG the pilot at the landing airport, and a continuous
(See REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS ASOS/AWSS/AWOS data display, other direct
AIR/GROUND FACILITY.) reading instruments, or manual observation is
available to the FSS specialist.
RCC
(See RESCUE COORDINATION CENTER.) REMOTE AIRPORT INFORMATION SERVICE
RCO (RAIS) A temporary service provided by facilities,
(See REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS OUTLET.)
which are not located on the landing airport, but have
communication capability and automated weather
RCR reporting available to the pilot at the landing airport.
(See RUNWAY CONDITION READING.)
REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS AIR/GROUND
READ BACK Repeat my message back to me. FACILITY An unmanned VHF/UHF transmitter/
RECEIVER AUTONOMOUS INTEGRITY MON- receiver facility which is used to expand ARTCC
ITORING (RAIM) A technique whereby a civil air/ground communications coverage and to facilitate
GNSS receiver/processor determines the integrity of direct contact between pilots and controllers. RCAG
the GNSS navigation signals without reference to facilities are sometimes not equipped with emergen-
sensors or non-DoD integrity systems other than the cy frequencies 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz.
receiver itself. This determination is achieved by a (Refer to AIM.)
consistency check among redundant pseudorange
measurements. REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS OUTLET An
unmanned communications facility remotely con-
RECEIVING CONTROLLER A controller/facility trolled by air traffic personnel. RCOs serve FSSs.
receiving control of an aircraft from another RTRs serve terminal ATC facilities. An RCO or RTR
controller/facility. may be UHF or VHF and will extend the
RECEIVING FACILITY communication range of the air traffic facility. There
(See RECEIVING CONTROLLER.) are several classes of RCOs and RTRs. The class is
determined by the number of transmitters or
RECONFORMANCE The automated process of receivers. Classes A through G are used primarily for
bringing an aircrafts Current Plan Trajectory into air/ground purposes. RCO and RTR class O
conformance with its track. facilities are nonprotected outlets subject to
REDUCE SPEED TO (SPEED) undetected and prolonged outages. RCO (Os) and
(See SPEED ADJUSTMENT.) RTR (Os) were established for the express purpose
of providing ground-to-ground communications
REIL between air traffic control specialists and pilots
(See RUNWAY END IDENTIFIER LIGHTS.) located at a satellite airport for delivering en route
clearances, issuing departure authorizations, and
RELEASE TIME A departure time restriction
acknowledging instrument flight rules cancellations
issued to a pilot by ATC (either directly or through an
or departure/landing times. As a secondary function,
authorized relay) when necessary to separate a
they may be used for advisory purposes whenever the
departing aircraft from other traffic.
aircraft is below the coverage of the primary
(See ICAO term RELEASE TIME.)
air/ground frequency.
RELEASE TIME [ICAO] Time prior to which an
aircraft should be given further clearance or prior to REMOTE TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER
which it should not proceed in case of radio failure. (See REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS OUTLET.)
PCG R4
REPORT Used to instruct pilots to advise ATC of displays, and provides vertical guidance to a profile
specified information; e.g., Report passing Hamil- or path.
ton VOR. RESCUE COORDINATION CENTER A search
REPORTING POINT A geographical location in and rescue (SAR) facility equipped and manned to
relation to which the position of an aircraft is coordinate and control SAR operations in an area
reported. designated by the SAR plan. The U.S. Coast Guard
(See COMPULSORY REPORTING POINTS.) and the U.S. Air Force have responsibility for the
(See ICAO term REPORTING POINT.) operation of RCCs.
(Refer to AIM.) (See ICAO term RESCUE CO-ORDINATION
CENTRE.)
REPORTING POINT [ICAO] A specified geo-
RESCUE CO-ORDINATION CENTRE [ICAO] A
graphical location in relation to which the position of
unit responsible for promoting efficient organization
an aircraft can be reported.
of search and rescue service and for coordinating the
REQUEST FULL ROUTE CLEARANCE Used conduct of search and rescue operations within a
by pilots to request that the entire route of flight be search and rescue region.
read verbatim in an ATC clearance. Such request RESOLUTION ADVISORYA display indication
should be made to preclude receiving an ATC given to the pilot by the traffic alert and collision
clearance based on the original filed flight plan when avoidance systems (TCAS II) recommending a
a filed IFR flight plan has been revised by the pilot, maneuver to increase vertical separation relative to an
company, or operations prior to departure. intruding aircraft. Positive, negative, and vertical
REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE speed limit (VSL) advisories constitute the resolution
(RNP) A statement of the navigational performance advisories. A resolution advisory is also classified as
necessary for operation within a defined airspace. corrective or preventive
The following terms are commonly associated with RESTRICTED AREA
RNP: (See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.)
a. Required Navigation Performance Level or (See ICAO term RESTRICTED AREA.)
Type (RNP-X). A value, in nautical miles (NM), from RESTRICTED AREA [ICAO] An airspace of
the intended horizontal position within which an defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial
aircraft would be at least 95-percent of the total flying waters of a State, within which the flight of aircraft
time. is restricted in accordance with certain specified
b. Required Navigation Performance (RNP) conditions.
Airspace. A generic term designating airspace, route RESUME NORMAL SPEED Used by ATC to
(s), leg (s), operation (s), or procedure (s) where advise a pilot to resume an aircrafts normal operating
minimum required navigational performance (RNP) speed. It is issued to terminate a speed adjustment
have been established. where no published speed restrictions apply. It does
c. Actual Navigation Performance (ANP). A not delete speed restrictions in published procedures
measure of the current estimated navigational of upcoming segments of flight. This does not relieve
performance. Also referred to as Estimated Position the pilot of those speed restrictions, which are
Error (EPE). applicable to 14 CFR Section 91.117.
d. Estimated Position Error (EPE). A measure of RESUME OWN NAVIGATION Used by ATC to
the current estimated navigational performance. Also advise a pilot to resume his/her own navigational
referred to as Actual Navigation Performance (ANP). responsibility. It is issued after completion of a radar
e. Lateral Navigation (LNAV). A function of area vector or when radar contact is lost while the aircraft
navigation (RNAV) equipment which calculates, is being radar vectored.
displays, and provides lateral guidance to a profile or (See RADAR CONTACT LOST.)
path. (See RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.)
f. Vertical Navigation (VNAV). A function of area RESUME PUBLISHED SPEED- Used by ATC to
navigation (RNAV) equipment which calculates, advise a pilot to resume published speed restrictions
PCG R5
that are applicable to a SID, STAR, or other navigational fixes, two NAVAIDs, or a fix and a
instrument procedure. It is issued to terminate a speed NAVAID.
adjustment where speed restrictions are published on (See FIX.)
a charted procedure. (See ROUTE.)
(See ICAO term ROUTE SEGMENT.)
RMI
ROUTE SEGMENT [ICAO] A portion of a route to
(See RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR.)
be flown, as defined by two consecutive significant
RNAV points specified in a flight plan.
(See AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV).) RSA
(See RUNWAY SAFETY AREA.)
RNAV APPROACH An instrument approach RTR
procedure which relies on aircraft area navigation (See REMOTE TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER.)
equipment for navigational guidance.
(See AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV).)
RUNWAY A defined rectangular area on a land
airport prepared for the landing and takeoff run of
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
aircraft along its length. Runways are normally
PROCEDURE.)
numbered in relation to their magnetic direction
ROAD RECONNAISSANCE Military activity rounded off to the nearest 10 degrees; e.g., Runway
requiring navigation along roads, railroads, and 1, Runway 25.
rivers. Reconnaissance route/route segments are (See PARALLEL RUNWAYS.)
seldom along a straight line and normally require a (See ICAO term RUNWAY.)
lateral route width of 10 NM to 30 NM and an altitude RUNWAY [ICAO] A defined rectangular area on a
range of 500 feet to 10,000 feet AGL. land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off
of aircraft.
ROGER I have received all of your last
transmission. It should not be used to answer a RUNWAY CENTERLINE LIGHTING
question requiring a yes or a no answer. (See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
(See AFFIRMATIVE.) RUNWAY CONDITION READING Numerical
(See NEGATIVE.) decelerometer readings relayed by air traffic
controllers at USAF and certain civil bases for use by
ROLLOUT RVR the pilot in determining runway braking action.
(See VISIBILITY.) These readings are routinely relayed only to USAF
and Air National Guard Aircraft.
ROUTE A defined path, consisting of one or more (See BRAKING ACTION.)
courses in a horizontal plane, which aircraft traverse RUNWAY END IDENTIFIER LIGHTS
over the surface of the earth. (See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
(See AIRWAY.)
RUNWAY ENTRANCE LIGHTS (REL)An array
(See JET ROUTE.)
of red lights which include the first light at the hold
(See PUBLISHED ROUTE.) line followed by a series of evenly spaced lights to the
(See UNPUBLISHED ROUTE.) runway edge aligned with the taxiway centerline, and
one additional light at the runway centerline in line
ROUTE ACTION NOTIFICATION URET notifi- with the last two lights before the runway edge.
cation that a PAR/PDR/PDAR has been applied to the
flight plan. RUNWAY GRADIENT The average slope, mea-
sured in percent, between two ends or points on a
(See ATC PREFERRED ROUTE
runway. Runway gradient is depicted on Government
NOTIFICATION.)
aerodrome sketches when total runway gradient
(See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)
exceeds 0.3%.
ROUTE SEGMENT As used in Air Traffic Control, RUNWAY HEADING The magnetic direction that
a part of a route that can be defined by two corresponds with the runway centerline extended, not
PCG R6
the painted runway number. When cleared to fly or a. Cleared, graded, and have no potentially
maintain runway heading, pilots are expected to fly hazardous ruts, humps, depressions, or other surface
or maintain the heading that corresponds with the variations;
extended centerline of the departure runway. Drift b. Drained by grading or storm sewers to prevent
correction shall not be applied; e.g., Runway 4, actual water accumulation;
magnetic heading of the runway centerline 044, fly c. Capable, under dry conditions, of supporting
044. snow removal equipment, aircraft rescue and
RUNWAY IN USE/ACTIVE RUNWAY/DUTY firefighting equipment, and the occasional passage of
RUNWAY Any runway or runways currently being aircraft without causing structural damage to the
used for takeoff or landing. When multiple runways aircraft; and,
are used, they are all considered active runways. In d. Free of objects, except for objects that need to
the metering sense, a selectable adapted item which be located in the runway safety area because of their
specifies the landing runway configuration or function. These objects shall be constructed on low
direction of traffic flow. The adapted optimum flight impact resistant supports (frangible mounted struc-
plan from each transition fix to the vertex is tures) to the lowest practical height with the frangible
determined by the runway configuration for arrival point no higher than 3 inches above grade.
metering processing purposes. (Refer to AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design,
Chapter 3.)
RUNWAY LIGHTS
RUNWAY STATUS LIGHTS (RWSL)
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
SYSTEMThe RWSL is a system of runway and
RUNWAY MARKINGS taxiway lighting to provide pilots increased
(See AIRPORT MARKING AIDS.) situational awareness by illuminating runway entry
lights (REL) when the runway is unsafe for entry or
RUNWAY OVERRUN In military aviation exclu- crossing, and take-off hold lights (THL) when the
sively, a stabilized or paved area beyond the end of a runway is unsafe for departure.
runway, of the same width as the runway plus
RUNWAY TRANSITION
shoulders, centered on the extended runway
centerline. a. Conventional STARs/SIDs. The portion of a
STAR/SID that serves a particular runway or
RUNWAY PROFILE DESCENT An instrument runways at an airport.
flight rules (IFR) air traffic control arrival procedure b. RNAV STARs/SIDs. Defines a path(s) from
to a runway published for pilot use in graphic and/or the common route to the final point(s) on a STAR. For
textual form and may be associated with a STAR. a SID, the common route that serves a particular
Runway Profile Descents provide routing and may runway or runways at an airport.
depict crossing altitudes, speed restrictions, and
RUNWAY USE PROGRAM A noise abatement
headings to be flown from the en route structure to the
runway selection plan designed to enhance noise
point where the pilot will receive clearance for and
abatement efforts with regard to airport communities
execute an instrument approach procedure. A
for arriving and departing aircraft. These plans are
Runway Profile Descent may apply to more than one
developed into runway use programs and apply to all
runway if so stated on the chart.
turbojet aircraft 12,500 pounds or heavier; turbojet
(Refer to AIM.)
aircraft less than 12,500 pounds are included only if
RUNWAY SAFETY AREA A defined surface the airport proprietor determines that the aircraft
surrounding the runway prepared, or suitable, for creates a noise problem. Runway use programs are
reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event coordinated with FAA offices, and safety criteria
of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the used in these programs are developed by the Office of
runway. The dimensions of the RSA vary and can be Flight Operations. Runway use programs are
determined by using the criteria contained within administered by the Air Traffic Service as Formal
AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design, Chapter 3. or Informal programs.
Figure 31 in AC 150/5300-13 depicts the RSA. The a. Formal Runway Use Program An approved
design standards dictate that the RSA shall be: noise abatement program which is defined and
PCG R7
acknowledged in a Letter of Understanding between Letter of Understanding, and participation in the

Flight Operations, Air Traffic Service, the airport program is voluntary for aircraft operators/pilots.
proprietor, and the users. Once established, participa-
RUNWAY VISIBILITY VALUE
tion in the program is mandatory for aircraft operators
and pilots as provided for in 14 CFR Section 91.129. (See VISIBILITY.)
b. Informal Runway Use Program An approved RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

noise abatement program which does not require a (See VISIBILITY.)
PCG R8
S
SAA or aircraft/other tangible object) that safety logic has
(See SPECIAL ACTIVITY AIRSPACE.) predicted will result in an imminent collision, based
upon the current set of Safety Logic parameters.
SAFETY ALERT A safety alert issued by ATC to
b. FALSE ALERT
aircraft under their control if ATC is aware the aircraft
is at an altitude which, in the controllers judgment, 1. Alerts generated by one or more false
places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain, surfaceradar targets that the system has interpreted
obstructions, or other aircraft. The controller may as real tracks and placed into safety logic.
discontinue the issuance of further alerts if the pilot 2. Alerts in which the safety logic software did
advises he/she is taking action to correct the situation not perform correctly, based upon the design
or has the other aircraft in sight. specifications and the current set of Safety Logic
parameters.
a. Terrain/Obstruction Alert A safety alert issued
by ATC to aircraft under their control if ATC is aware 3. The alert is generated by surface radar targets
the aircraft is at an altitude which, in the controllers caused by moderate or greater precipitation.
judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to c. NUISANCE ALERT An alert in which one or
terrain/obstructions; e.g., Low Altitude Alert, check more of the following is true:
your altitude immediately. 1. The alert is generated by a known situation
b. Aircraft Conflict Alert A safety alert issued by that is not considered an unsafe operation, such as
ATC to aircraft under their control if ATC is aware of LAHSO or other approved operations.
an aircraft that is not under their control at an altitude 2. The alert is generated by inaccurate secon-
which, in the controllers judgment, places both dary radar data received by the Safety Logic System.
aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other. With the 3. One or more of the aircraft involved in the
alert, ATC will offer the pilot an alternate course of alert is not intending to use a runway (for example,
action when feasible; e.g., Traffic Alert, advise you helicopter, pipeline patrol, nonMode C overflight,
turn right heading zero niner zero or climb to eight etc.).
thousand immediately. d. VALID NONALERT A situation in which
Note: The issuance of a safety alert is contingent the safety logic software correctly determines that an
upon the capability of the controller to have an alert is not required, based upon the design
awareness of an unsafe condition. The course of specifications and the current set of Safety Logic
action provided will be predicated on other traffic parameters.
under ATC control. Once the alert is issued, it is
e. INVALID NONALERT A situation in which
solely the pilots prerogative to determine what
course of action, if any, he/she will take.
the safety logic software did not issue an alert when
an alert was required, based upon the design
SAFETY LOGIC SYSTEM A software enhance- specifications.
ment to ASDE3, ASDEX, and ASDE3X, that SAIL BACK A maneuver during high wind
predicts the path of aircraft landing and/or departing, conditions (usually with power off) where float plane
and/or vehicular movements on runways. Visual and movement is controlled by water rudders/opening
aural alarms are activated when the safety logic and closing cabin doors.
projects a potential collision. The Airport Movement SAME DIRECTION AIRCRAFT Aircraft are
Area Safety System (AMASS) is a safety logic operating in the same direction when:
system enhancement to the ASDE3. The Safety
a. They are following the same track in the same
Logic System for ASDEX and ASDE3X is an
direction; or
integral part of the software program.
b. Their tracks are parallel and the aircraft are
SAFETY LOGIC SYSTEM ALERTS flying in the same direction; or
a. ALERT An actual situation involving two real c. Their tracks intersect at an angle of less than 45
safety logic tracks (aircraft/aircraft, aircraft/vehicle, degrees.
PCG S1
SAR employed during an SAR Mission; e.g., a Civil Air

(See SEARCH AND RESCUE.) Patrol Wing, or a Coast Guard Station.
(See SEARCH AND RESCUE.)
SAY AGAIN Used to request a repeat of the last
transmission. Usually specifies transmission or SECNOT
portion thereof not understood or received; e.g., Say (See SECURITY NOTICE.)
again all after ABRAM VOR. SECONDARY RADAR TARGET A target derived
SAY ALTITUDE Used by ATC to ascertain an from a transponder return presented on a radar
aircrafts specific altitude/flight level. When the display.
aircraft is climbing or descending, the pilot should SECTIONAL AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
state the indicated altitude rounded to the nearest 100 (See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
feet. SECTOR LIST DROP INTERVAL A parameter
SAY HEADING Used by ATC to request an aircraft number of minutes after the meter fix time when
heading. The pilot should state the actual heading of arrival aircraft will be deleted from the arrival sector
the aircraft. list.
SCHEDULED TIME OF ARRIVAL (STA) A STA SECURITY NOTICE (SECNOT) A SECNOT is a
is the desired time that an aircraft should cross a request originated by the Air Traffic Security
certain point (landing or metering fix). It takes other Coordinator (ATSC) for an extensive communica-
traffic and airspace configuration into account. A tions search for aircraft involved, or suspected of
STA time shows the results of the TMA scheduler being involved, in a security violation, or are
that has calculated an arrival time according to considered a security risk. A SECNOT will include
parameters such as optimized spacing, aircraft the aircraft identification, search area, and expiration
performance, and weather. time. The search area, as defined by the ATSC, could
be a single airport, multiple airports, a radius of an
SDF airport or fix, or a route of flight. Once the expiration
(See SIMPLIFIED DIRECTIONAL FACILITY.) time has been reached, the SECNOT is considered to
SEA LANE A designated portion of water outlined be cancelled.
by visual surface markers for and intended to be used SECURITY SERVICES AIRSPACE Areas
by aircraft designed to operate on water. established through the regulatory process or by
NOTAM, issued by the Administrator under title 14,
SEARCH AND RESCUE A service which seeks
CFR, sections 99.7, 91.141, and 91.139, which
missing aircraft and assists those found to be in need
specify that ATC security services are required; i.e.,
of assistance. It is a cooperative effort using the
ADIZ or temporary flight rules areas.
facilities and services of available Federal, state and
local agencies. The U.S. Coast Guard is responsible SEE AND AVOID When weather conditions
for coordination of search and rescue for the Maritime permit, pilots operating IFR or VFR are required to
Region, and the U.S. Air Force is responsible for observe and maneuver to avoid other aircraft.
search and rescue for the Inland Region. Information Right-of-way rules are contained in 14 CFR Part 91.
pertinent to search and rescue should be passed SEGMENTED CIRCLE A system of visual
through any air traffic facility or be transmitted indicators designed to provide traffic pattern
directly to the Rescue Coordination Center by information at airports without operating control
telephone. towers.
(See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.) (Refer to AIM.)
(See RESCUE COORDINATION CENTER.) SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT APPROACH
(Refer to AIM.) PROCEDURE An instrument approach procedure
SEARCH AND RESCUE FACILITY A facility may have as many as four separate segments
responsible for maintaining and operating a search depending on how the approach procedure is
and rescue (SAR) service to render aid to persons and structured.
property in distress. It is any SAR unit, station, NET, a. Initial Approach The segment between the
or other operational activity which can be usefully initial approach fix and the intermediate fix or the
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point where the aircraft is established on the SEVERE WEATHER FORECAST ALERTS
intermediate course or final approach course. Preliminary messages issued in order to alert users
(See ICAO term INITIAL APPROACH that a Severe Weather Watch Bulletin (WW) is being
SEGMENT.) issued. These messages define areas of possible
severe thunderstorms or tornado activity. The
b. Intermediate Approach The segment between
messages are unscheduled and issued as required by
the intermediate fix or point and the final approach
the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) at Norman,
fix.
Oklahoma.
(See ICAO term INTERMEDIATE APPROACH
(See AIRMET.)
SEGMENT.)
c. Final Approach The segment between the final (See CWA.)
approach fix or point and the runway, airport, or (See SIGMET.)
missed approach point.
(See ICAO term FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT.) SFA
(See SINGLE FREQUENCY APPROACH.)
d. Missed Approach The segment between the
missed approach point or the point of arrival at SFO
decision height and the missed approach fix at the (See SIMULATED FLAMEOUT.)
prescribed altitude.
SHF
(See SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY.)
(See ICAO term MISSED APPROACH
PROCEDURE.) SHORT RANGE CLEARANCE A clearance
issued to a departing IFR flight which authorizes IFR
SEPARATION In air traffic control, the spacing of flight to a specific fix short of the destination while
aircraft to achieve their safe and orderly movement in air traffic control facilities are coordinating and
flight and while landing and taking off. obtaining the complete clearance.
(See SEPARATION MINIMA.)
SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT
(See ICAO term SEPARATION.) An aircraft which, at some weight within its approved
operating weight, is capable of operating from a
SEPARATION [ICAO] Spacing between aircraft,
runway in compliance with the applicable STOL
levels or tracks.
characteristics, airworthiness, operations, noise, and
pollution standards.
SEPARATION MINIMA The minimum longitudi-
(See VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING
nal, lateral, or vertical distances by which aircraft are
AIRCRAFT.)
spaced through the application of air traffic control
procedures. SIAP
(See SEPARATION.) (See STANDARD INSTRUMENT APPROACH
PROCEDURE.)
SERVICE A generic term that designates functions
or assistance available from or rendered by air traffic SID
control. For example, Class C service would denote (See STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE.)
the ATC services provided within a Class C airspace SIDESTEP MANEUVER A visual maneuver
area. accomplished by a pilot at the completion of an
instrument approach to permit a straight-in landing
SEVERE WEATHER AVOIDANCE PLAN An on a parallel runway not more than 1,200 feet to either
approved plan to minimize the affect of severe side of the runway to which the instrument approach
weather on traffic flows in impacted terminal and/or was conducted.
ARTCC areas. SWAP is normally implemented to (Refer to AIM.)
provide the least disruption to the ATC system when
flight through portions of airspace is difficult or SIGMET A weather advisory issued concerning
impossible due to severe weather. weather significant to the safety of all aircraft.
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SIGMET advisories cover severe and extreme include aural and visual alerts and predictive aircraft
turbulence, severe icing, and widespread dust or position software, communications override, ATC
sandstorms that reduce visibility to less than 3 miles. procedures, an Attention All Users Page (AAUP),
(See AIRMET.) PRM in the approach name, and appropriate ground
(See AWW.) based and airborne equipment. High update rate
(See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.) surveillance sensor required for certain runway or
(See CWA.) approach course separations.
(See ICAO term SIGMET INFORMATION.) SIMULTANEOUS (CONVERGING)
(Refer to AIM.) DEPENDENT APPROACHES-An approach
SIGMET INFORMATION [ICAO] Information operation permitting ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to
issued by a meteorological watch office concerning runways or missed approach courses that intersect
the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified where required minimum spacing between the
en-route weather phenomena which may affect the aircraft on each final approach course is required.
safety of aircraft operations. SIMULTANEOUS (CONVERGING)
SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL INFOR- INDEPENDENT APPROACHES- An approach
MATION operation permitting ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to
(See SIGMET.) non-parallel runways where approach procedure
design maintains the required aircraft spacing
SIGNIFICANT POINT A point, whether a named throughout the approach and missed approach and
intersection, a NAVAID, a fix derived from a hence the operations may be conducted
NAVAID(s), or geographical coordinate expressed in independently.
degrees of latitude and longitude, which is
established for the purpose of providing separation, SIMULTANEOUS ILS APPROACHES An
as a reporting point, or to delineate a route of flight. approach system permitting simultaneous ILS
approaches to airports having parallel runways
SIMPLIFIED DIRECTIONAL FACILITY A separated by at least 4,300 feet between centerlines.
NAVAID used for nonprecision instrument Integral parts of a total system are ILS, radar,
approaches. The final approach course is similar to communications, ATC procedures, and appropriate
that of an ILS localizer except that the SDF course airborne equipment.
may be offset from the runway, generally not more (See PARALLEL RUNWAYS.)
than 3 degrees, and the course may be wider than the (Refer to AIM.)
localizer, resulting in a lower degree of accuracy.
SIMULTANEOUS OFFSET INSTRUMENT
(Refer to AIM.)
APPROACH (SOIA) An instrument landing
SIMULATED FLAMEOUT A practice approach system comprised of an ILS PRM, RNAV PRM or
by a jet aircraft (normally military) at idle thrust to a GLS PRM approach to one runway and an offset
runway. The approach may start at a runway (high LDA PRM with glideslope or an RNAV PRM or
key) and may continue on a relatively high and wide GLS PRM approach utilizing vertical guidance to
downwind leg with a continuous turn to final. It another where parallel runway spaced less than 3,000
terminates in landing or low approach. The purpose feet and at least 750 feet apart. The approach courses
of this approach is to simulate a flameout. converge by 2.5 to 3 degrees. Simultaneous close
(See FLAMEOUT.) parallel PRM approach procedures apply up to the
SIMULTANEOUS CLOSE PARALLEL point where the approach course separation becomes
APPROACHES- A simultaneous, independent 3,000 feet, at the offset MAP. From the offset MAP
approach operation permitting ILS/RNAV/GLS to the runway threshold, visual separation by the
approaches to airports having parallel runways aircraft conducting the offset approach is utilized.
separated by at least 3,000 feet and less than 4300 feet (Refer to AIM)
between centerlines. Aircraft are permitted to pass SIMULTANEOUS (PARALLEL) DEPENDENT
each other during these simultaneous operations. APPROACHES- An approach operation permitting
Integral parts of a total system are radar, NTZ ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to adjacent parallel
monitoring with enhanced FMA color displays that runways where prescribed diagonal spacing must be
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6/25/15
maintained. Aircraft are not permitted to pass each SPECIAL ACTIVITY AIRSPACE (SAA) Any
other during simultaneous dependent operations. airspace with defined dimensions within the National
Integral parts of a total system ATC procedures, and Airspace System wherein limitations may be
appropriate airborne and ground based equipment. imposed upon aircraft operations. This airspace may
be restricted areas, prohibited areas, military
SINGLE DIRECTION ROUTES Preferred IFR
operations areas, air ATC assigned airspace, and any
Routes which are sometimes depicted on high
other designated airspace areas. The dimensions of
altitude en route charts and which are normally flown
this airspace are programmed into URET and can be
in one direction only.
designated as either active or inactive by screen entry.
(See PREFERRED IFR ROUTES.) Aircraft trajectories are constantly tested against the
(Refer to AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.) dimensions of active areas and alerts issued to the
SINGLE FREQUENCY APPROACH A service applicable sectors when violations are predicted.
provided under a letter of agreement to military (See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)
single-piloted turbojet aircraft which permits use of SPECIAL EMERGENCY A condition of air piracy
a single UHF frequency during approach for landing. or other hostile act by a person(s) aboard an aircraft
Pilots will not normally be required to change which threatens the safety of the aircraft or its
frequency from the beginning of the approach to passengers.
touchdown except that pilots conducting an en route
descent are required to change frequency when SPECIAL INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCE-
control is transferred from the air route traffic control DURE
center to the terminal facility. The abbreviation (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
SFA in the DOD FLIP IFR Supplement under SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE Airspace of defined
Communications indicates this service is available dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the
at an aerodrome. earth wherein activities must be confined because of
their nature and/or wherein limitations may be
SINGLE-PILOTED AIRCRAFT A military imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of
turbojet aircraft possessing one set of flight controls, those activities. Types of special use airspace are:
tandem cockpits, or two sets of flight controls but
operated by one pilot is considered single-piloted by a. Alert Area Airspace which may contain a high
ATC when determining the appropriate air traffic volume of pilot training activities or an unusual type
service to be applied. of aerial activity, neither of which is hazardous to
aircraft. Alert Areas are depicted on aeronautical
(See SINGLE FREQUENCY APPROACH.)
charts for the information of nonparticipating pilots.
SKYSPOTTER A pilot who has received All activities within an Alert Area are conducted in
specialized training in observing and reporting accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations, and
inflight weather phenomena. pilots of participating aircraft as well as pilots
transiting the area are equally responsible for
SLASH A radar beacon reply displayed as an collision avoidance.
elongated target.
b. Controlled Firing Area Airspace wherein
SLDI activities are conducted under conditions so
(See SECTOR LIST DROP INTERVAL.) controlled as to eliminate hazards to nonparticipating
aircraft and to ensure the safety of persons and
SLOT TIME property on the ground.
(See METER FIX TIME/SLOT TIME.)
c. Military Operations Area (MOA) A MOA is
SLOW TAXI To taxi a float plane at low power or airspace established outside of Class A airspace area
low RPM. to separate or segregate certain nonhazardous
military activities from IFR traffic and to identify for
SN VFR traffic where these activities are conducted.
(See SYSTEM STRATEGIC NAVIGATION.) (Refer to AIM.)
SPEAK SLOWER Used in verbal communications d. Prohibited Area Airspace designated under
as a request to reduce speech rate. 14 CFR Part 73 within which no person may operate
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an aircraft without the permission of the using value for the purpose of providing desired spacing.
agency. Pilots are expected to maintain a speed of plus or
(Refer to AIM.) minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the specified
(Refer to En Route Charts.) speed. Examples of speed adjustments are:
e. Restricted Area Airspace designated under a. Increase/reduce speed to Mach point
14 CFR Part 73, within which the flight of aircraft, (number.)
while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restriction. b. Increase/reduce speed to (speed in knots) or
Most restricted areas are designated joint use and Increase/reduce speed (number of knots) knots.
IFR/VFR operations in the area may be authorized by
the controlling ATC facility when it is not being SPEED BRAKES Moveable aerodynamic devices
utilized by the using agency. Restricted areas are on aircraft that reduce airspeed during descent and
depicted on en route charts. Where joint use is landing.
authorized, the name of the ATC controlling facility
SPEED SEGMENTS Portions of the arrival route
is also shown.
between the transition point and the vertex along the
optimum flight path for which speeds and altitudes
(Refer to AIM.) are specified. There is one set of arrival speed
f. Warning Area A warning area is airspace of segments adapted from each transition point to each
defined dimensions extending from 3 nautical miles vertex. Each set may contain up to six segments.
outward from the coast of the United States, that
contains activity that may be hazardous to SQUAWK (Mode, Code, Function) Activate
nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of such specific modes/codes/functions on the aircraft
warning area is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the transponder; e.g., Squawk three/alpha, two one zero
potential danger. A warning area may be located over five, low.
domestic or international waters or both. (See TRANSPONDER.)
SPECIAL VFR CONDITIONS Meteorological STA

conditions that are less than those required for basic (See SCHEDULED TIME OF ARRIVAL.)
VFR flight in Class B, C, D, or E surface areas and
in which some aircraft are permitted flight under STAGING/QUEUING The placement, integration,
visual flight rules. and segregation of departure aircraft in designated
(See SPECIAL VFR OPERATIONS.)
movement areas of an airport by departure fix, EDCT,
and/or restriction.
SPECIAL VFR FLIGHT [ICAO] A VFR flight STAND BY Means the controller or pilot must
cleared by air traffic control to operate within Class pause for a few seconds, usually to attend to other
B, C, D, and E surface areas in metrological duties of a higher priority. Also means to wait as in
conditions below VMC. stand by for clearance. The caller should
reestablish contact if a delay is lengthy. Stand by is
SPECIAL VFR OPERATIONS Aircraft operating not an approval or denial.
in accordance with clearances within Class B, C, D,
and E surface areas in weather conditions less than the STANDARD INSTRUMENT APPROACH PRO-
basic VFR weather minima. Such operations must be CEDURE (SIAP)
requested by the pilot and approved by ATC. (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
(See SPECIAL VFR CONDITIONS.) STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE (SID)
(See ICAO term SPECIAL VFR FLIGHT.) A preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) air traffic
SPEED control (ATC) departure procedure printed for
(See AIRSPEED.)
pilot/controller use in graphic form to provide
obstacle clearance and a transition from the terminal
(See GROUND SPEED.)
area to the appropriate en route structure. SIDs are
SPEED ADJUSTMENT An ATC procedure used to primarily designed for system enhancement to
request pilots to adjust aircraft speed to a specific expedite traffic flow and to reduce pilot/controller
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workload. ATC clearance must always be received sea lane for takeoff. The STEP TURN maneuver
prior to flying a SID. should only be used upon pilot request.
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND STEPDOWN FIX A fix permitting additional
descent within a segment of an instrument approach
(See OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURE.)
procedure by identifying a point at which a
(Refer to AIM.) controlling obstacle has been safely overflown.
STANDARD RATE TURN A turn of three degrees STEREO ROUTE A routinely used route of flight
per second. established by users and ARTCCs identified by a
STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL A coded name; e.g., ALPHA 2. These routes minimize
preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) air traffic flight plan handling and communications.
control arrival procedure published for pilot use in STOL AIRCRAFT
graphic and/or textual form. STARs provide (See SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
transition from the en route structure to an outer fix AIRCRAFT.)
or an instrument approach fix/arrival waypoint in the
STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK Used by ATC to
terminal area.
inform an aircraft to turn-off the automatic altitude
STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL CHARTS reporting feature of its transponder. It is issued when
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.) the verbally reported altitude varies 300 feet or more
from the automatic altitude report.
STANDARD TERMINAL AUTOMATION RE- (See ALTITUDE READOUT.)
PLACEMENT SYSTEM (STARS) (See TRANSPONDER.)
(See DTAS.)
STOP AND GO A procedure wherein an aircraft
STAR will land, make a complete stop on the runway, and
(See STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL.) then commence a takeoff from that point.
(See LOW APPROACH.)
STATE AIRCRAFT Aircraft used in military,
(See OPTION APPROACH.)
customs and police service, in the exclusive service
of any government, or of any political subdivision, STOP BURST
thereof including the government of any state, (See STOP STREAM.)
territory, or possession of the United States or the
STOP BUZZER
District of Columbia, but not including any
(See STOP STREAM.)
government-owned aircraft engaged in carrying
persons or property for commercial purposes. STOP SQUAWK (Mode or Code) Used by ATC to
tell the pilot to turn specified functions of the aircraft
STATIC RESTRICTIONS Those restrictions that transponder off.
are usually not subject to change, fixed, in place, (See STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK.)
and/or published. (See TRANSPONDER.)
STATIONARY RESERVATIONS Altitude STOP STREAM Used by ATC to request a pilot to
reservations which encompass activities in a fixed suspend electronic attack activity.
area. Stationary reservations may include activities, (See JAMMING.)
such as special tests of weapons systems or
equipment, certain U.S. Navy carrier, fleet, and STOPOVER FLIGHT PLAN A flight plan format
anti-submarine operations, rocket, missile and drone which permits in a single submission the filing of a
operations, and certain aerial refueling or similar sequence of flight plans through interim full-stop
operations. destinations to a final destination.
STEP TAXI To taxi a float plane at full power or STOPWAY An area beyond the takeoff runway no
high RPM. less wide than the runway and centered upon the
extended centerline of the runway, able to support the
STEP TURN A maneuver used to put a float plane airplane during an aborted takeoff, without causing
in a planing configuration prior to entering an active structural damage to the airplane, and designated by
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the airport authorities for use in decelerating the operate from 5031 MHz to 5091 MHz in this
airplane during an aborted takeoff. spectrum.
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH IFR An instrument SUPPLEMENTAL WEATHER SERVICE
approach wherein final approach is begun without LOCATION Airport facilities staffed with contract
first having executed a procedure turn, not personnel who take weather observations and
necessarily completed with a straight-in landing or provide current local weather to pilots via telephone
made to straight-in landing minimums. or radio. (All other services are provided by the parent
(See LANDING MINIMUMS.) FSS.)
(See STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH VFR.)
(See STRAIGHT-IN LANDING.) SUPPS Refers to ICAO Document 7030 Regional
Supplementary Procedures. SUPPS contain
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH VFR Entry into the procedures for each ICAO Region which are unique
traffic pattern by interception of the extended runway to that Region and are not covered in the worldwide
centerline (final approach course) without executing provisions identified in the ICAO Air Navigation
any other portion of the traffic pattern. Plan. Procedures contained in Chapter 8 are based in
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) part on those published in SUPPS.
STRAIGHT-IN LANDING A landing made on a SURFACE AREA The airspace contained by the
runway aligned within 30_ of the final approach lateral boundary of the Class B, C, D, or E airspace
course following completion of an instrument designated for an airport that begins at the surface and
approach. extends upward.
(See STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH IFR.)
SURPIC A description of surface vessels in the area
STRAIGHT-IN LANDING MINIMUMS of a Search and Rescue incident including their
(See LANDING MINIMUMS.) predicted positions and their characteristics.
(Refer to FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 1064,
STRAIGHT-IN MINIMUMS
INFLIGHT CONTINGENCIES.)
(See STRAIGHT-IN LANDING MINIMUMS.)
SURVEILLANCE APPROACH An instrument
STRATEGIC PLANNING Planning whereby
approach wherein the air traffic controller issues
solutions are sought to resolve potential conflicts.
instructions, for pilot compliance, based on aircraft
SUBSTITUTE ROUTE A route assigned to pilots position in relation to the final approach course
when any part of an airway or route is unusable (azimuth), and the distance (range) from the end of
because of NAVAID status. These routes consist of: the runway as displayed on the controllers radar
scope. The controller will provide recommended
a. Substitute routes which are shown on U.S.
altitudes on final approach if requested by the pilot.
Government charts.
(Refer to AIM.)
b. Routes defined by ATC as specific NAVAID
radials or courses. SWAP
c. Routes defined by ATC as direct to or between (See SEVERE WEATHER AVOIDANCE PLAN.)
NAVAIDs.
SWSL
SUNSET AND SUNRISE The mean solar times of (See SUPPLEMENTAL WEATHER SERVICE
sunset and sunrise as published in the Nautical LOCATION.)
Almanac, converted to local standard time for the
locality concerned. Within Alaska, the end of evening SYSTEM STRATEGIC NAVIGATION Military
civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil activity accomplished by navigating along a
twilight, as defined for each locality. preplanned route using internal aircraft systems to
maintain a desired track. This activity normally
SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY The frequency band requires a lateral route width of 10 NM and altitude
between 3 and 30 gigahertz (GHz). The elevation and range of 1,000 feet to 6,000 feet AGL with some route
azimuth stations of the microwave landing system segments that permit terrain following.
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T
TACAN this pertains to the act of becoming airborne after
(See TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION.) departing a takeoff area.
TACAN-ONLY AIRCRAFT An aircraft, normally TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA) The
military, possessing TACAN with DME but no VOR runway length declared available and suitable for the
navigational system capability. Clearances must ground run of an airplane taking off.
specify TACAN or VORTAC fixes and approaches. (See ICAO term TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE.)
TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION An ultra-high TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE [ICAO] The length
frequency electronic rho-theta air navigation aid of runway declared available and suitable for the
which provides suitably equipped aircraft a ground run of an aeroplane take-off.
continuous indication of bearing and distance to the TARGET The indication shown on an analog
TACAN station. display resulting from a primary radar return or a
(See VORTAC.) radar beacon reply.
(Refer to AIM.) (See ASSOCIATED.)
(See DIGITAL TARGET.)
TAILWIND Any wind more than 90 degrees to the (See DIGITIZED RADAR TARGET.)
longitudinal axis of the runway. The magnetic (See FUSED TARGET)
direction of the runway shall be used as the basis for
(See PRIMARY RADAR TARGET.)
determining the longitudinal axis.
(See RADAR.)
TAKEOFF AREA (See SECONDARY RADAR TARGET.)
(See LANDING AREA.) (See TARGET SYMBOL.)
(See ICAO term TARGET.)
TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA) The (See UNASSOCIATED.)
takeoff run available plus the length of any remaining
runway or clearway beyond the far end of the takeoff TARGET [ICAO] In radar:
run available. a. Generally, any discrete object which reflects or
(See ICAO term TAKEOFF DISTANCE retransmits energy back to the radar equipment.
AVAILABLE.) b. Specifically, an object of radar search or
surveillance.
TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE [ICAO] The
length of the takeoff run available plus the length of TARGET RESOLUTION A process to ensure that
the clearway, if provided. correlated radar targets do not touch. Target
resolution must be applied as follows:
TAKEOFF HOLD LIGHTS (THL) The THL
a. Between the edges of two primary targets or the
system is composed of in-pavement lighting in a
edges of the ASR-9/11 primary target symbol.
double, longitudinal row of lights aligned either side
of the runway centerline. The lights are focused b. Between the end of the beacon control slash and
toward the arrival end of the runway at the line up the edge of a primary target.
and wait point, and they extend for 1,500 feet in c. Between the ends of two beacon control slashes.
front of the holding aircraft. Illuminated red lights Note 1: Mandatory traffic advisories and safety
indicate to an aircraft in position for takeoff or rolling alerts must be issued when this procedure is used.
that it is unsafe to takeoff because the runway is Note 2: This procedure must not be used when
occupied or about to be occupied by an aircraft or utilizing mosaic radar systems or multisensor
vehicle. mode.
TAKEOFF ROLL The process whereby an aircraft TARGET SYMBOL A computer-generated indica-
is aligned with the runway centerline and the aircraft tion shown on a radar display resulting from a
is moving with the intent to take off. For helicopters, primary radar return or a radar beacon reply.
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TARMAC DELAY The holding of an aircraft on the TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTION (TFR) A
ground either before departure or after landing with TFR is a regulatory action issued by the FAA via the
no opportunity for its passengers to deplane. U.S. NOTAM System, under the authority of United
States Code, Title 49. TFRs are issued within the
TARMAC DELAY AIRCRAFT An aircraft whose
sovereign airspace of the United States and its
pilotincommand has requested to taxi to the ramp,
territories to restrict certain aircraft from operating
gate, or alternate deplaning area to comply with the
within a defined area on a temporary basis to protect
Threehour Tarmac Rule.
persons or property in the air or on the ground. While
TARMAC DELAY REQUEST A request by the not all inclusive, TFRs may be issued for disaster or
pilotincommand to taxi to the ramp, gate, or hazard situations such as: toxic gas leaks or spills,
alternate deplaning location to comply with the fumes from flammable agents, aircraft accident/in-
Threehour Tarmac Rule. cident sites, aviation or ground resources engaged in
wildlife suppression, or aircraft relief activities
TAS following a disaster. TFRs may also be issued in
(See TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEMS.) support of VIP movements; for reasons of national
TAWS security; or when determined necessary for the
(See TERRAIN AWARENESS WARNING management of air traffic in the vicinity of aerial
SYSTEM.) demonstrations or major sporting events. NAS users
or other interested parties should contact a FSS for
TAXI The movement of an airplane under its own TFR information. Additionally, TFR information can
power on the surface of an airport (14 CFR be found in automated briefings, NOTAM publica-
Section 135.100 [Note]). Also, it describes the tions, and on the internet at http://www.faa.gov. The
surface movement of helicopters equipped with FAA also distributes TFR information to aviation
wheels. user groups for further dissemination.
(See AIR TAXI.)
TENTATIVE CALCULATED LANDING TIME A
(See HOVER TAXI.)
projected time calculated for adapted vertex for each
(Refer to 14 CFR Section 135.100.)
arrival aircraft based upon runway configuration,
(Refer to AIM.) airport acceptance rate, airport arrival delay period,
TAXI PATTERNS Patterns established to illustrate and other metered arrival aircraft. This time is either
the desired flow of ground traffic for the different the VTA of the aircraft or the TCLT/ACLT of the
runways or airport areas available for use. previous aircraft plus the AAI, whichever is later.
This time will be updated in response to an aircrafts
TCAS progress and its current relationship to other arrivals.
(See TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM.) TERMINAL AREA A general term used to describe
airspace in which approach control service or airport
TCH traffic control service is provided.
(See THRESHOLD CROSSING HEIGHT.)
TERMINAL AREA FACILITY A facility provid-
TCLT ing air traffic control service for arriving and
(See TENTATIVE CALCULATED LANDING departing IFR, VFR, Special VFR, and on occasion
TIME.) en route aircraft.
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.)
TDLS
(See TOWER.)
(See TERMINAL DATA LINK SYSTEM.)
TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEMS (TAS)
TDZE TAS is used to identify the numerous automated
(See TOUCHDOWN ZONE ELEVATION.) tracking systems including ARTS IIE, ARTS IIIA,
TELEPHONE INFORMATION BRIEFING SER- ARTS IIIE, STARS, and MEARTS.
VICE A continuous telephone recording of TERMINAL DATA LINK SYSTEM (TDLS) A
meteorological and/or aeronautical information. system that provides Digital Automatic Terminal
(Refer to AIM.) Information Service (DATIS) both on a specified
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radio frequency and also, for subscribers, in a text d. Class B Service This service provides, in
message via data link to the cockpit or to a gate addition to basic radar service, approved separation
printer. TDLS also provides Predeparture Clear- of aircraft based on IFR, VFR, and/or weight, and
ances (PDC), at selected airports, to subscribers, sequencing of VFR arrivals to the primary airport(s).
through a service provider, in text to the cockpit or to (See CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.)
a gate printer. In addition, TDLS will emulate the (See TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREA.)
Flight Data Input/Output (FDIO) information within (Refer to AIM.)
the control tower. (Refer to AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.)
TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREA Airspace TERMINAL-VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI-

surrounding designated airports wherein ATC DIRECTIONAL RANGE STATION A very high
provides radar vectoring, sequencing, and separation frequency terminal omnirange station located on or
on a full-time basis for all IFR and participating VFR near an airport and used as an approach aid.
aircraft. The AIM contains an explanation of TRSA. (See NAVIGATIONAL AID.)
TRSAs are depicted on VFR aeronautical charts. (See VOR.)
Pilot participation is urged but is not mandatory. TERRAIN AWARENESS WARNING SYSTEM
(TAWS) An onboard, terrain proximity alerting
TERMINAL VFR RADAR SERVICE A national system providing the aircrew Low Altitude
program instituted to extend the terminal radar warnings to allow immediate pilot action.
services provided instrument flight rules (IFR)
TERRAIN FOLLOWING The flight of a military
aircraft to visual flight rules (VFR) aircraft. The
aircraft maintaining a constant AGL altitude above
program is divided into four types service referred to
the terrain or the highest obstruction. The altitude of
as basic radar service, terminal radar service area
the aircraft will constantly change with the varying
(TRSA) service, Class B service and Class C service.
terrain and/or obstruction.
The type of service provided at a particular location
is contained in the Airport/Facility Directory. TETRAHEDRON A device normally located on
uncontrolled airports and used as a landing direction
a. Basic Radar Service These services are
indicator. The small end of a tetrahedron points in the
provided for VFR aircraft by all commissioned
direction of landing. At controlled airports, the
terminal radar facilities. Basic radar service includes
tetrahedron, if installed, should be disregarded
safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited radar
because tower instructions supersede the indicator.
vectoring when requested by the pilot, and
(See SEGMENTED CIRCLE.)
sequencing at locations where procedures have been
(Refer to AIM.)
established for this purpose and/or when covered by
a letter of agreement. The purpose of this service is to TF
adjust the flow of arriving IFR and VFR aircraft into (See TERRAIN FOLLOWING.)
the traffic pattern in a safe and orderly manner and to THAT IS CORRECT The understanding you have
provide traffic advisories to departing VFR aircraft. is right.
b. TRSA Service This service provides, in THREEHOUR TARMAC RULE Rule that relates
addition to basic radar service, sequencing of all IFR to Department of Transportation (DOT) requirements
and participating VFR aircraft to the primary airport placed on airlines when tarmac delays are anticipated
and separation between all participating VFR to reach 3 hours.
aircraft. The purpose of this service is to provide
separation between all participating VFR aircraft and 360 OVERHEAD
all IFR aircraft operating within the area defined as a (See OVERHEAD MANEUVER.)
TRSA. THRESHOLD The beginning of that portion of the
c. Class C Service This service provides, in runway usable for landing.
addition to basic radar service, approved separation (See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
between IFR and VFR aircraft, and sequencing of (See DISPLACED THRESHOLD.)
VFR aircraft, and sequencing of VFR arrivals to the THRESHOLD CROSSING HEIGHT The
primary airport. theoretical height above the runway threshold at
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7/24/14
which the aircrafts glideslope antenna would be if TODA

the aircraft maintains the trajectory established by the (See TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE.)
mean ILS glideslope or the altitude at which the (See ICAO term TAKEOFF DISTANCE
calculated glidepath of an RNAV or GPS approaches. AVAILABLE.)
(See GLIDESLOPE.) TOI
(See THRESHOLD.) (See TRACK OF INTEREST.)
THRESHOLD LIGHTS TOP ALTITUDE In reference to SID published
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.) altitude restrictions the charted maintain altitude
contained in the procedure description or assigned by
TIBS ATC.
(See TELEPHONE INFORMATION BRIEFING TORA
SERVICE.)
(See TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE.)
TIE-IN FACILITY The FSS primarily responsible (See ICAO term TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE.)
for providing FSS services, including telecommu- TORCHING The burning of fuel at the end of an
ni ca ti on s se rv i ce s fo r la nd in g f ac il it ie s o r exhaust pipe or stack of a reciprocating aircraft
navigational aids located within the boundaries of a engine, the result of an excessive richness in the fuel
flight plan area (FPA). Three-letter identifiers are air mixture.
assigned to each FSS/FPA and are annotated as tie-in
facilities in A/FDs, the Alaska Supplement, the TOS
Pacific Supplement, and FAA Order JO 7350.8, (See TRAJECTORY OPTIONS SET)
Location Identifiers. Large consolidated FSS TOTAL ESTIMATED ELAPSED TIME [ICAO]
facilities may have many tie-in facilities or FSS For IFR flights, the estimated time required from
sectors within one facility. take-off to arrive over that designated point, defined
(See FLIGHT PLAN AREA.) by reference to navigation aids, from which it is
(See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.) intended that an instrument approach procedure will
be commenced, or, if no navigation aid is associated
TIME GROUP Four digits representing the hour with the destination aerodrome, to arrive over the
and minutes from the Coordinated Universal Time destination aerodrome. For VFR flights, the
(UTC) clock. FAA uses UTC for all operations. The estimated time required from take-off to arrive over
term ZULU may be used to denote UTC. The word the destination aerodrome.
local or the time zone equivalent shall be used to (See ICAO term ESTIMATED ELAPSED TIME.)
denote local when local time is given during radio and
TOUCH-AND-GO An operation by an aircraft that
telephone communications. When written, a time
lands and departs on a runway without stopping or
zone designator is used to indicate local time; e.g.
exiting the runway.
0205M (Mountain). The local time may be based
on the 24-hour clock system. The day begins at 0000 TOUCH-AND-GO LANDING
and ends at 2359. (See TOUCH-AND-GO.)
TISB TOUCHDOWN
(See TRAFFIC INFORMATION a. The point at which an aircraft first makes
SERVICEBROADCAST.) contact with the landing surface.
b. Concerning a precision radar approach (PAR),
TMA it is the point where the glide path intercepts the
(See TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ADVISOR.) landing surface.
(See ICAO term TOUCHDOWN.)
TMPA
(See TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PROGRAM TOUCHDOWN [ICAO] The point where the
ALERT.) nominal glide path intercepts the runway.
Note: Touchdown as defined above is only a datum
TMU and is not necessarily the actual point at which the
(See TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT UNIT.) aircraft will touch the runway.
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TOUCHDOWN RVR TPX-42 A numeric beacon decoder equipment/

(See VISIBILITY.) system. It is designed to be added to terminal radar
systems for beacon decoding. It provides rapid target
TOUCHDOWN ZONE The first 3,000 feet of the identification, reinforcement of the primary radar
runway beginning at the threshold. The area is used target, and altitude information from Mode C.
for determination of Touchdown Zone Elevation in (See AUTOMATED RADAR TERMINAL
the development of straight-in landing minimums for SYSTEMS.)
instrument approaches. (See TRANSPONDER.)
(See ICAO term TOUCHDOWN ZONE.)
TRACEABLE PRESSURE STANDARD The
TOUCHDOWN ZONE [ICAO] The portion of a facility station pressure instrument, with certifica-
runway, beyond the threshold, where it is intended tion/calibration traceable to the National Institute of
landing aircraft first contact the runway. Standards and Technology. Traceable pressure
standards may be mercurial barometers, commis-
TOUCHDOWN ZONE ELEVATION The highest sioned ASOS/AWSS or dual transducer AWOS, or
elevation in the first 3,000 feet of the landing surface. portable pressure standards or DASI.
TDZE is indicated on the instrument approach
procedure chart when straight-in landing minimums TRACK The actual flight path of an aircraft over the
are authorized. surface of the earth.
(See TOUCHDOWN ZONE.) (See COURSE.)
(See FLIGHT PATH.)
TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTING (See ROUTE.)
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.) (See ICAO term TRACK.)
TOWER A terminal facility that uses air/ground TRACK [ICAO] The projection on the earths
communications, visual signaling, and other devices surface of the path of an aircraft, the direction of
to provide ATC services to aircraft operating in the which path at any point is usually expressed in
vicinity of an airport or on the movement area. degrees from North (True, Magnetic, or Grid).
Authorizes aircraft to land or takeoff at the airport TRACK OF INTEREST (TOI) Displayed data
controlled by the tower or to transit the Class D representing an airborne object that threatens or has
airspace area regardless of flight plan or weather the potential to threaten North America or National
conditions (IFR or VFR). A tower may also provide Security. Indicators may include, but are not limited
approach control services (radar or nonradar). to: noncompliance with air traffic control instructions
(See AIRPORT TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE.) or aviation regulations; extended loss of communica-
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.) tions; unusual transmissions or unusual flight
(See APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE.) behavior; unauthorized intrusion into controlled
(See MOVEMENT AREA.) airspace or an ADIZ; noncompliance with issued
(See TOWER EN ROUTE CONTROL flight restrictions/security procedures; or unlawful
SERVICE.) interference with airborne flight crews, up to and
(See ICAO term AERODROME CONTROL including hijack. In certain circumstances, an object
TOWER.) may become a TOI based on specific and credible
(Refer to AIM.) intelligence pertaining to that particular aircraft/
object, its passengers, or its cargo.
TOWER EN ROUTE CONTROL SERVICE The
control of IFR en route traffic within delegated TRACK OF INTEREST RESOLUTION A TOI
airspace between two or more adjacent approach will normally be considered resolved when: the
control facilities. This service is designed to expedite aircraft/object is no longer airborne; the aircraft
traffic and reduce control and pilot communication complies with air traffic control instructions, aviation
requirements. regulations, and/or issued flight restrictions/security
procedures; radio contact is reestablished and
TOWER TO TOWER authorized control of the aircraft is verified; the
(See TOWER EN ROUTE CONTROL aircraft is intercepted and intent is verified to be
SERVICE.) nonthreatening/nonhostile; TOI was identified based
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on specific and credible intelligence that was later independent of ground-based equipment. TCAS-I
determined to be invalid or unreliable; or displayed generates traffic advisories only. TCAS-II generates
data is identified and characterized as invalid. traffic advisories, and resolution (collision avoid-
ance) advisories in the vertical plane.
TRAFFIC
a. A term used by a controller to transfer radar TRAFFIC INFORMATION
identification of an aircraft to another controller for (See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
the purpose of coordinating separation action. Traffic TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE
is normally issued: BROADCAST (TISB) The broadcast of ATC
1. In response to a handoff or point out, derived traffic information to ADSB equipped
(1090ES or UAT) aircraft. The source of this traffic
2. In anticipation of a handoff or point out, or
information is derived from groundbased air traffic
3. In conjunction with a request for control of an surveillance sensors, typically from radar targets.
aircraft. TISB service will be available throughout the NAS
b. A term used by ATC to refer to one or more where there are both adequate surveillance coverage
aircraft. (radar) and adequate broadcast coverage from
ADSB ground stations. Loss of TISB will occur
TRAFFIC ADVISORIES Advisories issued to alert
when an aircraft enters an area not covered by the
pilots to other known or observed air traffic which
GBT network. If this occurs in an area with adequate
may be in such proximity to the position or intended
surveillance coverage (radar), nearby aircraft that
route of flight of their aircraft to warrant their
remain within the adequate broadcast coverage
attention. Such advisories may be based on:
(ADSB) area will view the first aircraft. TISB may
a. Visual observation. continue when an aircraft enters an area with
b. Observation of radar identified and nonidenti- inadequate surveillance coverage (radar); nearby
fied aircraft targets on an ATC radar display, or aircraft that remain within the adequate broadcast
c. Verbal reports from pilots or other facilities. coverage (ADSB) area will not view the first
Note 1: The word traffic followed by additional aircraft.
information, if known, is used to provide such TRAFFIC IN SIGHT Used by pilots to inform a
advisories; e.g., Traffic, 2 oclock, one zero miles, controller that previously issued traffic is in sight.
southbound, eight thousand. (See NEGATIVE CONTACT.)
Note 2: Traffic advisory service will be provided to (See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
the extent possible depending on higher priority
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ADVISOR (TMA) A
duties of the controller or other limitations; e.g.,
radar limitations, volume of traffic, frequency computerized tool which assists Traffic Management
congestion, or controller workload. Radar/ Coordinators to efficiently schedule arrival traffic to
nonradar traffic advisories do not relieve the pilot a metered airport, by calculating meter fix times and
of his/her responsibility to see and avoid other delays then sending that information to the sector
aircraft. Pilots are cautioned that there are many controllers.
times when the controller is not able to give traffic
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PROGRAM ALERT
advisories concerning all traffic in the aircrafts
proximity; in other words, when a pilot requests or A term used in a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) issued
is receiving traffic advisories, he/she should not in conjunction with a special traffic management
assume that all traffic will be issued. program to alert pilots to the existence of the program
(Refer to AIM.) and to refer them to either the Notices to Airmen
publication or a special traffic management program
TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign), TURN advisory message for program details. The contrac-
(left/right) IMMEDIATELY, (climb/descend) AND tion TMPA is used in NOTAM text.
MAINTAIN (altitude).
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT UNIT The entity in
(See SAFETY ALERT.)
ARTCCs and designated terminals directly involved
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOID- in the active management of facility traffic. Usually
ANCE SYSTEM An airborne collision avoidance under the direct supervision of an assistant manager
system based on radar beacon signals which operates for traffic management.
PCG T6
6/25/15
TRAFFIC NO FACTOR Indicates that the traffic coordinator can monitor any number of traffic
described in a previously issued traffic advisory is no situations or the entire systemwide traffic flows.
factor. TRAJECTORY A URET representation of the path
TRAFFIC NO LONGER OBSERVED Indicates an aircraft is predicted to fly based upon a Current
that the traffic described in a previously issued traffic Plan or Trial Plan.
advisory is no longer depicted on radar, but may still (See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)
be a factor. TRAJECTORY MODELING The automated pro-
TRAFFIC PATTERN The traffic flow that is cess of calculating a trajectory.
prescribed for aircraft landing at, taxiing on, or taking TRAJECTORY OPTIONS SET (TOS)- A TOS is an
off from an airport. The components of a typical electronic message, submitted by the operator, that is
traffic pattern are upwind leg, crosswind leg, used by the Collaborative Trajectory Options
downwind leg, base leg, and final approach. Program (CTOP) to manage the airspace captured in
a. Upwind Leg A flight path parallel to the the traffic management program. The TOS will allow
landing runway in the direction of landing. the operator to express the route and delay trade-off
options that they are willing to accept.
b. Crosswind Leg A flight path at right angles to
the landing runway off its upwind end. TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST A
c. Downwind Leg A flight path parallel to the continuous recording of meteorological and aeronau-
landing runway in the direction opposite to landing. tical information that is broadcast on L/MF and VOR
The downwind leg normally extends between the facilities for pilots. (Provided only in Alaska.)
crosswind leg and the base leg. (Refer to AIM.)
d. Base Leg A flight path at right angles to the TRANSFER OF CONTROL That action whereby
landing runway off its approach end. The base leg the responsibility for the separation of an aircraft is
normally extends from the downwind leg to the transferred from one controller to another.
intersection of the extended runway centerline. (See ICAO term TRANSFER OF CONTROL.)
e. Final Approach. A flight path in the direction of TRANSFER OF CONTROL [ICAO] Transfer of
landing along the extended runway centerline. The responsibility for providing air traffic control service.
final approach normally extends from the base leg to TRANSFERRING CONTROLLER A controller/
the runway. An aircraft making a straight-in approach facility transferring control of an aircraft to another
VFR is also considered to be on final approach. controller/facility.
(See STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH VFR.) (See ICAO term TRANSFERRING
(See TAXI PATTERNS.) UNIT/CONTROLLER.)
(See ICAO term AERODROME TRAFFIC TRANSFERRING FACILITY
CIRCUIT.) (See TRANSFERRING CONTROLLER.)
(Refer to AIM.) TRANSFERRING UNIT/CONTROLLER [ICAO]
Air traffic control unit/air traffic controller in the
TRAFFIC SITUATION DISPLAY (TSD) TSD is a process of transferring the responsibility for
computer system that receives radar track data from providing air traffic control service to an aircraft to
all 20 CONUS ARTCCs, organizes this data into a the next air traffic control unit/air traffic controller
mosaic display, and presents it on a computer screen. along the route of flight.
The display allows the traffic management coordina- Note: See definition of accepting unit/controller.
tor multiple methods of selection and highlighting of
individual aircraft or groups of aircraft. The user has TRANSITION
the option of superimposing these aircraft positions a. The general term that describes the change from
over any number of background displays. These one phase of flight or flight condition to another; e.g.,
background options include ARTCC boundaries, any transition from en route flight to the approach or
stratum of en route sector boundaries, fixes, airways, transition from instrument flight to visual flight.
military and other special use airspace, airports, and b. A published procedure (DP Transition) used to
geopolitical boundaries. By using the TSD, a connect the basic DP to one of several en route
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7/24/14
airways/jet routes, or a published procedure (STAR TRANSPONDER [ICAO] A receiver/transmitter

Transition) used to connect one of several en route which will generate a reply signal upon proper
airways/jet routes to the basic STAR. interrogation; the interrogation and reply being on
(Refer to DP/STAR Charts.) different frequencies.
TRANSITION POINT A point at an adapted TRANSPONDER CODES
number of miles from the vertex at which an arrival (See CODES.)
aircraft would normally commence descent from its
en route altitude. This is the first fix adapted on the TRANSPONDER OBSERVED Phraseology used
arrival speed segments. to inform a VFR pilot the aircrafts assigned beacon
code and position have been observed. Specifically,
TRANSITION WAYPOINT The waypoint that this term conveys to a VFR pilot the transponder
defines the beginning of a runway or en route reply has been observed and its position correlated for
transition on an RNAV SID or STAR. transit through the designated area.
TRANSITIONAL AIRSPACE That portion of TRIAL PLAN A proposed amendment which
controlled airspace wherein aircraft change from one utilizes automation to analyze and display potential
phase of flight or flight condition to another. conflicts along the predicted trajectory of the selected
TRANSMISSOMETER An apparatus used to aircraft.
determine visibility by measuring the transmission of TRSA
light through the atmosphere. It is the measurement (See TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREA.)
source for determining runway visual range (RVR)
and runway visibility value (RVV). TSD
(See VISIBILITY.) (See TRAFFIC SITUATION DISPLAY.)
TRANSMITTING IN THE BLIND A transmis- TURBOJET AIRCRAFT An aircraft having a jet
sion from one station to other stations in engine in which the energy of the jet operates a
circumstances where two-way communication turbine which in turn operates the air compressor.
cannot be established, but where it is believed that the
TURBOPROP AIRCRAFT An aircraft having a jet
called stations may be able to receive the
engine in which the energy of the jet operates a
transmission.
turbine which drives the propeller.
TRANSPONDER The airborne radar beacon
TURN ANTICIPATION (maneuver anticipation).
receiver/transmitter portion of the Air Traffic Control
Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) which automati- TVOR
cally receives radio signals from interrogators on the (See TERMINAL-VERY HIGH FREQUENCY
ground, and selectively replies with a specific reply OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE STATION.)
pulse or pulse group only to those interrogations
TWEB
being received on the mode to which it is set to
(See TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST.)
respond.
(See INTERROGATOR.) TWO-WAY RADIO COMMUNICATIONS FAIL-
(See ICAO term TRANSPONDER.) URE
(Refer to AIM.) (See LOST COMMUNICATIONS.)
PCG T8
U
UHF airports. Locations and frequencies of UNICOMs are
(See ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCY.) shown on aeronautical charts and publications.
(See AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.)
ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCY The frequency band (Refer to AIM.)
between 300 and 3,000 MHz. The bank of radio
UNPUBLISHED ROUTE A route for which no
frequencies used for military air/ground voice
minimum altitude is published or charted for pilot
communications. In some instances this may go as
use. It may include a direct route between NAVAIDs,
low as 225 MHz and still be referred to as UHF.
a radial, a radar vector, or a final approach course
ULTRALIGHT VEHICLE A single-occupant beyond the segments of an instrument approach
aeronautical vehicle operated for sport or recreational procedure.
purposes which does not require FAA registration, an (See PUBLISHED ROUTE.)
airworthiness certificate, nor pilot certification. (See ROUTE.)
Operation of an ultralight vehicle in certain airspace UNRELIABLE (GPS/WAAS) An advisory to
requires authorization from ATC pilots indicating the expected level of service of the
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 103.) GPS and/or WAAS may not be available. Pilots must
then determine the adequacy of the signal for desired
UNABLE Indicates inability to comply with a use.
specific instruction, request, or clearance.
UPWIND LEG
UNASSOCIATED A radar target that does not (See TRAFFIC PATTERN.)
display a data block with flight identification and URET
altitude information. (See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)
(See ASSOCIATED.)
URGENCY A condition of being concerned about
UNDER THE HOOD Indicates that the pilot is safety and of requiring timely but not immediate
using a hood to restrict visibility outside the cockpit assistance; a potential distress condition.
while simulating instrument flight. An appropriately (See ICAO term URGENCY.)
rated pilot is required in the other control seat while URGENCY [ICAO] A condition concerning the
this operation is being conducted. safety of an aircraft or other vehicle, or of person on
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) board or in sight, but which does not require
immediate assistance.
UNFROZEN The Scheduled Time of Arrival (STA)
USAFIB
tags, which are still being rescheduled by traffic
(See ARMY AVIATION FLIGHT INFORMATION
management advisor (TMA) calculations. The
BULLETIN.)
aircraft will remain unfrozen until the time the
corresponding estimated time of arrival (ETA) tag USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL (URET)
passes the preset freeze horizon for that aircrafts User Request Evaluation Tool is an automated tool
stream class. At this point the automatic rescheduling provided at each Radar Associate position in selected
will stop, and the STA becomes frozen. En Route facilities. This tool utilizes flight and radar
data to determine present and future trajectories for
UNICOM A nongovernment communication facil- all active and proposal aircraft and provides
ity which may provide airport information at certain enhanced, automated flight data management.
PCG U1
V
VASI descents and of using very short runways or small
(See VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR.) areas for takeoff and landings. These aircraft include,
but are not limited to, helicopters.
VCOA (See SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
(See VISUAL CLIMB OVER AIRPORT.) AIRCRAFT.)
VDP VERY HIGH FREQUENCY The frequency band
(See VISUAL DESCENT POINT.) between 30 and 300 MHz. Portions of this band, 108
to 118 MHz, are used for certain NAVAIDs; 118 to
VECTOR A heading issued to an aircraft to provide 136 MHz are used for civil air/ground voice
navigational guidance by radar. communications. Other frequencies in this band are
(See ICAO term RADAR VECTORING.) used for purposes not related to air traffic control.
VERIFY Request confirmation of information; VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIDIRECTION-
e.g., verify assigned altitude. AL RANGE STATION
(See VOR.)
VERIFY SPECIFIC DIRECTION OF TAKEOFF
(OR TURNS AFTER TAKEOFF) Used by ATC to VERY LOW FREQUENCY The frequency band
ascertain an aircrafts direction of takeoff and/or between 3 and 30 kHz.
direction of turn after takeoff. It is normally used for
VFR
IFR departures from an airport not having a control
(See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
tower. When direct communication with the pilot is
not possible, the request and information may be VFR AIRCRAFT An aircraft conducting flight in
relayed through an FSS, dispatcher, or by other accordance with visual flight rules.
means. (See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND VFR CONDITIONS Weather conditions equal to
or better than the minimum for flight under visual
VERTEX The last fix adapted on the arrival speed flight rules. The term may be used as an ATC
segments. Normally, it will be the outer marker of the clearance/instruction only when:
runway in use. However, it may be the actual a. An IFR aircraft requests a climb/descent in
threshold or other suitable common point on the VFR conditions.
approach path for the particular runway configura- b. The clearance will result in noise abatement
tion. benefits where part of the IFR departure route does
VERTEX TIME OF ARRIVAL A calculated time of not conform to an FAA approved noise abatement
aircraft arrival over the adapted vertex for the runway route or altitude.
configuration in use. The time is calculated via the c. A pilot has requested a practice instrument
optimum flight path using adapted speed segments. approach and is not on an IFR flight plan.
Note: All pilots receiving this authorization must
VERTICAL NAVIGATION (VNAV) A function of comply with the VFR visibility and distance from
area navigation (RNAV) equipment which calculates, cloud criteria in 14 CFR Part 91. Use of the term
displays, and provides vertical guidance to a profile does not relieve controllers of their responsibility to
or path. separate aircraft in Class B and Class C airspace
or TRSAs as required by FAAO JO 7110.65. When
VERTICAL SEPARATION Separation between used as an ATC clearance/instruction, the term
aircraft expressed in units of vertical distance. may be abbreviated VFR; e.g., MAINTAIN
(See SEPARATION.) VFR, CLIMB/DESCEND VFR, etc.
VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIR- VFR FLIGHT

CRAFT Aircraft capable of vertical climbs and/or (See VFR AIRCRAFT.)
PCG V1
VFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES Routes distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted
used by the Department of Defense and associated objects by day and prominent lighted objects by
Reserve and Air Guard units for the purpose of night. Visibility is reported as statute miles, hundreds
conducting low-altitude navigation and tactical of feet or meters.
training under VFR below 10,000 feet MSL at (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
airspeeds in excess of 250 knots IAS. (Refer to AIM.)
VFR NOT RECOMMENDED An advisory a. Flight Visibility The average forward horizon-
provided by a flight service station to a pilot during tal distance, from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight,
a preflight or inflight weather briefing that flight at which prominent unlighted objects may be seen
under visual flight rules is not recommended. To be and identified by day and prominent lighted objects
given when the current and/or forecast weather may be seen and identified by night.
conditions are at or below VFR minimums. It does
not abrogate the pilots authority to make his/her own b. Ground Visibility Prevailing horizontal visi-
decision. bility near the earths surface as reported by the
United States National Weather Service or an
VFR-ON-TOP ATC authorization for an IFR accredited observer.
aircraft to operate in VFR conditions at any c. Prevailing Visibility The greatest horizontal
appropriate VFR altitude (as specified in 14 CFR and visibility equaled or exceeded throughout at least half
as restricted by ATC). A pilot receiving this the horizon circle which need not necessarily be
authorization must comply with the VFR visibility, continuous.
distance from cloud criteria, and the minimum IFR
altitudes specified in 14 CFR Part 91. The use of this d. Runway Visibility Value (RVV) The visibility
term does not relieve controllers of their responsibil- determined for a particular runway by a transmis-
ity to separate aircraft in Class B and Class C airspace someter. A meter provides a continuous indication of
or TRSAs as required by FAAO JO 7110.65. the visibility (reported in miles or fractions of miles)
for the runway. RVV is used in lieu of prevailing
VFR TERMINAL AREA CHARTS visibility in determining minimums for a particular
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.) runway.
VFR WAYPOINT e. Runway Visual Range (RVR) An instrumen-

tally derived value, based on standard calibrations,
(See WAYPOINT.)
that represents the horizontal distance a pilot will see
VHF down the runway from the approach end. It is based
on the sighting of either high intensity runway lights
(See VERY HIGH FREQUENCY.)
or on the visual contrast of other targets whichever
VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE/TACTICAL yields the greater visual range. RVR, in contrast to
AIR NAVIGATION prevailing or runway visibility, is based on what a
pilot in a moving aircraft should see looking down the
(See VORTAC.)
runway. RVR is horizontal visual range, not slant
VIDEO MAP An electronically displayed map on visual range. It is based on the measurement of a
the radar display that may depict data such as airports, transmissometer made near the touchdown point of
heliports, runway centerline extensions, hospital the instrument runway and is reported in hundreds of
emergency landing areas, NAVAIDs and fixes, feet. RVR is used in lieu of RVV and/or prevailing
reporting points, airway/route centerlines, bound- visibility in determining minimums for a particular
aries, handoff points, special use tracks, obstructions, runway.
prominent geographic features, map alignment 1. Touchdown RVR The RVR visibility
indicators, range accuracy marks, minimum vector- readout values obtained from RVR equipment
ing altitudes. serving the runway touchdown zone.
VISIBILITY The ability, as determined by 2. Mid-RVR The RVR readout values obtained
atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of from RVR equipment located midfield of the runway.
PCG V2
3. Rollout RVR The RVR readout values procedures are developed to avoid obstacles greater
obtained from RVR equipment located nearest the than 3 statute miles from the departure end of the
rollout end of the runway. runway as an alternative to complying with climb
(See ICAO term FLIGHT VISIBILITY.) gradients greater than 200 feet per nautical mile.
(See ICAO term GROUND VISIBILITY.) These procedures are published in the TakeOff
(See ICAO term RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE.) Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures
(See ICAO term VISIBILITY.) section of the Terminal Procedures Publications.
(See AIM.)
VISIBILITY [ICAO] The ability, as determined by
atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of VISUAL DESCENT POINT A defined point on the
distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted final approach course of a nonprecision straight-in
objects by day and prominent lighted objects by approach procedure from which normal descent from
night. the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be
a. Flight VisibilityThe visibility forward from commenced, provided the approach threshold of that
the cockpit of an aircraft in flight. runway, or approach lights, or other markings
identifiable with the approach end of that runway are
b. Ground VisibilityThe visibility at an aero-
clearly visible to the pilot.
drome as reported by an accredited observer.
c. Runway Visual Range [RVR]The range over VISUAL FLIGHT RULES Rules that govern the
which the pilot of an aircraft on the centerline of a procedures for conducting flight under visual
runway can see the runway surface markings or the conditions. The term VFR is also used in the
lights delineating the runway or identifying its United States to indicate weather conditions that are
centerline. equal to or greater than minimum VFR requirements.
In addition, it is used by pilots and controllers to
VISUAL APPROACH An approach conducted on indicate type of flight plan.
an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan which (See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.)
authorizes the pilot to proceed visually and clear of (See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL
clouds to the airport. The pilot must, at all times, have CONDITIONS.)
either the airport or the preceding aircraft in sight. (See VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL
This approach must be authorized and under the CONDITIONS.)
control of the appropriate air traffic control facility. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
Reported weather at the airport must be ceiling at or (Refer to AIM.)
above 1,000 feet and visibility of 3 miles or greater.
VISUAL HOLDING The holding of aircraft at
(See ICAO term VISUAL APPROACH.)
selected, prominent geographical fixes which can be
VISUAL APPROACH [ICAO] An approach by an easily recognized from the air.
IFR flight when either part or all of an instrument (See HOLDING FIX.)
approach procedure is not completed and the
VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
approach is executed in visual reference to terrain.
Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling equal to or
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.) better than specified minima.
VISUAL CLIMB OVER AIRPORT (VCOA) A (See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.)
departure option for an IFR aircraft, operating in (See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL
CONDITIONS.)
visual meteorological conditions equal to or greater
than the specified visibility and ceiling, to visually (See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
conduct climbing turns over the airport to the VISUAL SEGMENT
published climbto altitude from which to proceed (See PUBLISHED INSTRUMENT APPROACH
with the instrument portion of the departure. VCOA PROCEDURE VISUAL SEGMENT.)
PCG V3
VISUAL SEPARATION A means employed by VORTAC A navigation aid providing VOR

ATC to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route azimuth, TACAN azimuth, and TACAN distance
airspace in the NAS. There are two ways to effect this measuring equipment (DME) at one site.
separation: (See DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT.)
a. The tower controller sees the aircraft involved (See NAVIGATIONAL AID.)
and issues instructions, as necessary, to ensure that (See TACAN.)
the aircraft avoid each other. (See VOR.)
(Refer to AIM.)
b. A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and upon
instructions from the controller provides his/her own VORTICES Circular patterns of air created by the
separation by maneuvering his/her aircraft as movement of an airfoil through the air when
necessary to avoid it. This may involve following generating lift. As an airfoil moves through the
another aircraft or keeping it in sight until it is no atmosphere in sustained flight, an area of area of low
longer a factor. pressure is created above it. The air flowing from the
(See SEE AND AVOID.) high pressure area to the low pressure area around and
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) about the tips of the airfoil tends to roll up into two
rapidly rotating vortices, cylindrical in shape. These
VLF vortices are the most predominant parts of aircraft
(See VERY LOW FREQUENCY.) wake turbulence and their rotational force is
VMC dependent upon the wing loading, gross weight, and
speed of the generating aircraft. The vortices from
(See VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL
CONDITIONS.) medium to heavy aircraft can be of extremely high
velocity and hazardous to smaller aircraft.
VOICE SWITCHING AND CONTROL SYSTEM (See AIRCRAFT CLASSES.)
The VSCS is a computer controlled switching system (See WAKE TURBULENCE.)
that provides air traffic controllers with all voice (Refer to AIM.)
circuits (air to ground and ground to ground)
necessary for air traffic control. VOT A ground facility which emits a test signal to
check VOR receiver accuracy. Some VOTs are
(See VOICE SWITCHING AND CONTROL
SYSTEM.)
available to the user while airborne, and others are
limited to ground use only.
(Refer to AIM.)
(See AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY.)
VOR A ground-based electronic navigation aid (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
transmitting very high frequency navigation signals, (Refer to AIM.)
360 degrees in azimuth, oriented from magnetic
VR
north. Used as the basis for navigation in the National
(See VFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.)
Airspace System. The VOR periodically identifies
itself by Morse Code and may have an additional VSCS
voice identification feature. Voice features may be (See VOICE SWITCHING AND CONTROL
used by ATC or FSS for transmitting instructions/ SYSTEM.)
information to pilots. VTA
(See NAVIGATIONAL AID.) (See VERTEX TIME OF ARRIVAL.)
(Refer to AIM.)
VTOL AIRCRAFT
VOR TEST SIGNAL (See VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING
(See VOT.) AIRCRAFT.)
PCG V4
W
WA instructions have been met. When able, should not
(See AIRMET.) be used when expeditious compliance is required.
(See WEATHER ADVISORY.) WIDE-AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
WAAS (WAAS) The WAAS is a satellite navigation system
consisting of the equipment and software which
(See WIDE-AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM.)
augments the GPS Standard Positioning Service
WAKE TURBULENCE Phenomena resulting from (SPS). The WAAS provides enhanced integrity,
the passage of an aircraft through the atmosphere. accuracy, availability, and continuity over and above
The term includes vortices, thrust stream turbulence, GPS SPS. The differential correction function
jet blast, jet wash, propeller wash, and rotor wash provides improved accuracy required for precision
both on the ground and in the air. approach.
(See AIRCRAFT CLASSES.) WILCO I have received your message, understand
(See JET BLAST.) it, and will comply with it.
(See VORTICES.)
WIND GRID DISPLAY A display that presents the
(Refer to AIM.)
latest forecasted wind data overlaid on a map of the
WARNING AREA ARTCC area. Wind data is automatically entered and
(See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.) updated periodically by transmissions from the
National Weather Service. Winds at specific
WAYPOINT A predetermined geographical posi- altitudes, along with temperatures and air pressure
tion used for route/instrument approach definition, can be viewed.
progress reports, published VFR routes, visual
reporting points or points for transitioning and/or WIND SHEAR A change in wind speed and/or wind
circumnavigating controlled and/or special use direction in a short distance resulting in a tearing or
airspace, that is defined relative to a VORTAC station shearing effect. It can exist in a horizontal or vertical
or in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates. direction and occasionally in both.
WIND SHEAR ESCAPE An unplanned abortive
WEATHER ADVISORY In aviation weather
maneuver initiated by the pilot in command (PIC) as
forecast practice, an expression of hazardous weather
a result of onboard cockpit systems. Wind shear
conditions not predicted in the area forecast, as they
escapes are characterized by maximum thrust climbs
affect the operation of air traffic and as prepared by
in the low altitude terminal environment until wind
the NWS.
shear conditions are no longer detected.
(See AIRMET.)
(See SIGMET.) WING TIP VORTICES
(See VORTICES.)
WHEN ABLE
WORDS TWICE
a. In conjunction with ATC instructions, gives the
a. As a request: Communication is difficult.
pilot the latitude to delay compliance until a
Please say every phrase twice.
condition or event has been reconciled. Unlike pilot
discretion, when instructions are prefaced when b. As information: Since communications are
able, the pilot is expected to seek the first difficult, every phrase in this message will be spoken
opportunity to comply. twice.
b. In conjunction with a weather deviation WORLD AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
clearance, requires the pilot to determine when he/she (See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
is clear of weather, then execute ATC instructions. WS
c. Once a maneuver has been initiated, the pilot is (See SIGMET.)
expected to continue until the specifications of the (See WEATHER ADVISORY.)
PCG W1
WST
(See WEATHER ADVISORY.)
PCG W2
6/25/15 AIM
INDEX
[References are to page numbers]
A Operation Raincheck, 412

Operation Takeoff, 412
Accident, Aircraft, Reporting, 761 Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft, 4111
Radar Traffic Information Service, 418
Accident Cause Factors, 751 Recording and Monitoring, 411
Adherence to Clearance, 445 Safety Alert, 4110
ADIZ. See Air Defense Identification Zones Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, 4112
Tower En Route Control, 4114
ADSB. See Automatic Dependent Broadcast Services Traffic Advisory Practices, Airports Without
ADSR. See Automatic Dependent Operating Control Towers, 412
SurveillanceRebroadcast Transponder Operation, 4115
Unicom, Use for ATC Purposes, 417
Advisories
Unicom/Multicom, 416
Braking Action, 4312
Inflight Aviation Weather, 718 Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System, 4115,
Minimum Fuel, 557 452
Runway Friction, 4312 Aircraft
Traffic, 554 Arresting Devices, 2330
Aerobatic Flight, 818 Call Signs, 423
Aerodrome Forecast (TAF), 7169, 7170, 7171 Lights, Use in Airport Operations, 4324
Unmanned, 752
Aeronautical VFR, Emergency Radar Service, 621
Charts, 911
Publications, 911 Aircraft Conflict Alert, 4111
Aeronautical Light Beacons, 221 Airport
Aids, Marking, 231
AFIS. See Automatic Flight Information Service
Holding Position, 2312
AHRS. See Attitude Heading Reference System Pavement, 231
Air Ambulance Flights, 424 Holding Position, 231
Other, 231
Air Defense Identification Zone, LandBased, 561 Runway, 231
Air Defense Identification Zones, 561, 569 Taxiway, 231
Airport Advisory/Information Services, 351
Air Route Surveillance Radar, 457
Lighting Aids, 211
Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 411 Local Airport Advisory (LAA), 414
Air Traffic Control Operations, 431
Aircraft Separation, 441 Communications, 4317
Clearances, 441 Exiting the Runway, After Landing, 4322
Pilot Services, 411 Flight Check Aircraft, In Terminal Areas, 4325
Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 411 Flight Inspection, 4325
Airport Reservations, 4121 Gate Holding, Departure Delays, 4318
Approach Control Service, Arriving VFR Aircraft, Intersection Takeoffs, 4313
412 Low Approach, 4316
Automatic Terminal Information Service, 417 Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection
Communications, Release of IFR Aircraft, Airports Systems, 4312
without Operating Control Tower, 411 Option Approach, 4324
Control Towers, 411 Signals, Hand, 4325
Flight Service Stations, 411 Taxi During Low Visibility, 4321
Ground Vehicle Operations, 416 Traffic Control Light Signals, 4316
Hazardous Area Reporting Service, 4118 Traffic Patterns, 431, 432
IFR Approaches, 416 Use of Aircraft Lights, 4324
Index I1
AIM 6/25/15
Use of Runways, 437 Airway, 535

VFR Flights in Terminal Areas, 4318
Airways, Course Changes, 537
VFR Helicopter at Controlled Airports, 4318
With Operating Control Tower, 431 Alcohol, 811
Without Operating Control Tower, 436
Alert, Safety, 4110, 553
Remote Airport Advisory (RAA), 351, 414
Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS), 351, Alert Areas, 342
414
Alignment of Elements Approach Slope Indicator,
Signs, 231, 2319 215
Destination, 2328
Direction, 2325 Alphabet, Phonetic, 425
Information, 2329 ALS. See Approach Light Systems
Location, 2323
Mandatory Instruction, 2320 Altimeter
Runway Distance Remaining, 2329 Density Altitude, 754
Errors, 723
Airport Reservations, 4121 Setting, 721
Airport Surface Detection Equipment Model X, High Barometric Pressure, 724
457 Low Barometric Pressure, 724
Altitude
Airport Surveillance Radar, 457
Automatic Reporting, 4115
Airspace, 311 Effects, 813
Basic VFR Weather Minimums, 311 Hypoxia, 813
Class D, 328 High Altitude Destinations, 5127
Class E, 329 Mandatory, 547
Class G, 331 Maximum, 547
Controlled, 321 Minimum, 547
Advisories, Traffic, 321 Ambulance, Air, 424
Alerts, Safety, 321
Class A, 322 Amended Clearances, 442
Class B, 322 Approach
Class C, 324 Advance Information, Instrument Approach, 544
IFR Requirements, 321 Approach Control, 543
IFR Separation, 321 Clearance, 5424
Parachute Jumps, 322 Contact, 5462, 552
Ultralight Vehicles, 322 Instrument, 552
Unmanned Free Balloons, 322 Instrument Approach Procedure, Charts, 545
VFR Requirements, 321 Instrument Approach Procedures, 5426
Flight Levels, 312 Low, 4316
General Dimensions, Segments, 311 Minimums, 5452
Military Training Routes, 351 Missed, 5455, 552
Other Areas, 351 NoGyro, 5435
Parachute Jumping, 355 Option, 4324
Special Use, 341 Overhead Approach Maneuver, 5462
Temporary Flight Restrictions, 352 Precision, 5434
Terminal Radar Service Areas, 359 Surveillance, 5434
VFR Cruising Altitudes, 312 Visual, 5460, 555
VFR Routes, Published, 355
Class B Airspace, VFR Transition Routes, 357 Approach Control Service, VFR Arriving Aircraft,
412
VFR Corridors, 357
VFR Flyways, 355 Approach Light Systems, 211
I2 Index
6/25/15 AIM
Approaches
IFR, 416
B
Parallel Runways, ILS/RNAV/GLS, 5436 Balloons, Unmanned, 752
Radar, 5434 Free, 322
Timed, 5431
Beacon
Area Navigation (RNAV), 5114, 536, 557See Aeronautical Light, 221
also Area Navigation Code, 221
Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes, 536 Marker, 119
Nondirectional Radio, 111
ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting) Emergency
Hand Signals, 651 Beacons, Airport/Heliport, 2114
ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting) Radio Call Bird
Sign, 651 Bird Strike
Reduction, 741
Arresting Devices, Aircraft, 2330 Reporting, 741
ARSR. See Air Route Surveillance Radar Hazards, 741
Migratory, 741
ARTCC. See Air Route Traffic Control Centers
Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Reporting, Form. See
ASDEX. See Airport Surface Detection Appendix 1
EquipmentModel X
Block Island Reporting Service, 4119
Ash, Volcanic, 757
Braking Action Advisories, 4312
ASOS. See Automated Surface Observing System
Braking Action Reports, 4312
ASR. See Airport Surveillance Radar; Surveillance
Approach Briefing, Preflight, 715
ATCRBS. See Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon
System
C
ATCT. See Control Towers
Call Signs
ATIS. See Automatic Terminal Information Service
Aircraft, 423
Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS), 1115 Ground Station, 424
Authority, Statutory, 111 Cape Code Radar Overwater Flight Following, 4119
Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), 4329, Carbon Monoxide Poisoning, 815
7129
CAT. See Clear Air Turbulence
Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS), CDR. See Coded Depature Route
4329, 7126
Changeover Points, 538
Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS), 4329
Charted Visual Flight Procedures, 5461
Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS), 7129
Charts, Aeronautical, 911
Automatic Altitude Reporting, 4115
Class A Airspace, 322
Automatic Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast Services, Definition, 322
4514 Operating Rules, 322
Automatic Dependent SurveillanceRebroadcast, Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 322
4520 Class B Airspace, 322
Automatic Flight Information Service (AFIS) Alaska ATC Clearances, 323
FSSs Only, 418 Definition, 322
Flight Procedures, 323
Automatic Terminal Information Service, 417
Mode C Veil, 323
AWOS. See Automated Weather Observing System Operating Rules, 322
Index I3
AIM 6/25/15
Pilot/Equipment Requirements, VFR Operations, Clearances, Special VFR Clearances, 443

322
Clearing Procedures, Visual, 4410
Proximity Operations, 324
Separation, 323 Coded Depature Route, 443
VFR Transition Routes, 357 Collision, Avoidance, Judgment, 818
Class C Airspace, 324 Communication, Radio
Air Traffic Services, 325 Contact, Reestablishing, 642
Aircraft Separation, 325 Twoway Failure, 641
Definition, 324 IFR Conditions, 641
Operating Rules, 324 Transponder Usage, 642
Outer Area, 325 VFR Conditions, 641
Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 324 Communications
Secondary Airports, 326 ARTCC, 531
Class D Airspace, 328 Additional Reports, 534
Definition, 328 Position Reporting, 533
Operating Rules, 328 Distress, 631
Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 328 Radio, 421
Separation for VFR Aircraft, 328 Phonetic Alphabet, 425
Release, 411
Class E Airspace, 329
Urgency, 631
Definition, 329
Operating Rules, 329 Conflict Alert, Aircraft, 4111
Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 329 Contact Approach, 5462
Separation for VFR Aircraft, 329
Contact Procedures, 421
Types, 329
Initial Contact, 421
Vertical Limits, 329
Control of Lighting Systems, 2111
Class G Airspace, 331
IFR Requirements, 331 Control Towers, 411
VFR Requirements, 331 Controlled Firing Areas, 342
Clear Air Turbulence, 7148 Controller, Responsibility, 538, 5461, 551
Clearance COP. See Changeover Points
Abbreviated IFR Departure, 522 CORONA, 759
Adherence, 445
Air Traffic, 551 Course Lights, 221
Air Traffic Control, 441 CVFP. See Charted Visual Flight Procedures
Amended, 442
Approach, 5424
IFR, VFRonTop, 444
IFR Flights, 445
D
Issuance, Pilot Responsibility, 444 Decompression Sickness, 814
Items, 441
Density Altitude, Effects, 754
Altitude Data, 442
Clearance Limit, 441 Departure, Restrictions, 524
Departure Procedure, 441 Departure Control, 525
Holding Instructions, 442
Departures, Instrument, 556
Route of Flight, 441
PreTaxi, 521 Discrete Emergency Frequency, 651
Prefix, 441 Distance Measuring Equipment, 113, 119, 5312
Taxi, 521
VFR Flights, 445 Distress, 631
Void Times, 524 Ditching Procedures, 633
I4 Index
6/25/15 AIM
DME. See Distance Measuring Equipment FISB. See Flight Information ServiceBroadcast
Doppler Radar, 1115 Fitness, Flight
DUATS. See Direct User Access System Alcohol, 811
Emotion, 812
Fatigue, 812
Hypoxia, 813
E Stress, 812
Ear Block, 814 Flight
EFAS. See En Route Flight Advisory Service Aerobatic, 818
Fitness, 811
EFVS. See Enhanced Flight Vision Systems Illusions, 815
ELT. See Emergency Locator Transmitters Over National Forests, 741
Emergency, 611 Over National Parks, 741
Air Piracy, 636 Over National Refuges, 741
Airborne Aircraft Inspection, 758 Safety, Meteorology, 711
Aircraft, Overdue, 625 Vision, 816
Body Signals, 626 Flight Check Aircraft, 4325
Ditching Procedures, 633
Explosives Detection, FAA K9 Team Program, Flight Information ServiceBroadcast, 4518
623 Flight Information Services, 7122
Fuel Dumping, 637
Inflight Monitoring and Reporting, 623 Flight Inspections Aircraft, 4325
Intercept and Escort, 621 Flight Management System, 124, 5112
Locator Transmitters, 622
Obtaining Assistance, 632 Flight Plan
Pilot Authority, 611 Change, 5130
Pilot Responsibility, 611 Proposed Departure Time, 5130
Request Assistance Immediately, 611 Closing
Search and Rescue, 624 DVFR, 5130
Services, 621 VFR, 5130
Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in Difficulty, Composite, VFR/IFR, 5111
621 DVFR Flights, 5110
Survival Equipment, 626 Explanation of IFR, 5115
Transponder Operation, 621 Explanation of VFR, 519
VFR Search and Rescue Protection, 625 Form 72331, 519, 5116
IFR, Canceling, 5130
Emergency Locator Transmitter, 622 IFR Flights, Domestic, 5111
En Route Flight Advisory Service, 717 VFR Flights, 517
Enhanced Flight Vision Systems, 5458 Flight Restrictions, Temporary, 352
Escort, 621 Flight Service Stations, 411
Explosives, FAA K9 Detection Team Program, 623 Flights, Outside the United States, 5128
Fly Visual to Airport, 5418
F Flying, Mountain, 753
FAROS. See Final Approach Runway Occupancy FMS. See Flight Management System
Signal (FAROS) Forms
Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS), Bird Strike Incident/Ingestion Report, Appendix 11
219 Volcanic Activity Reporting Form, Appendix 21
Final Guard, 351 Frequency, Instrument Landing System, 1110
Index I5
AIM 6/25/15
FSS. See Flight Service Stations Wake Turbulence, 736

Fuel Dumping, 637 High Density Traffic Airports, 4121
Hold, For Release, 524
Holding, 538
G
Holding Position Markings, 231, 2312
Gate Holding, 4318 for Instrument Landing Systems, 2312
for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections, 2312
GBAS. See Ground Based Augmentation System
Holding Position Signs, Surface Painted, 2312
Glideslope, Visual Indicators, 211
Hypoxia, 813
Global Navigation Satellite System, 1114, 1132,
5112
Global Positioning System, 1115 I
GNSS. See Global Navigation Satellite System
Icing Terms, 7145
GPS. See Global Positioning System
IFR, 444
Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS), 1134 Operations, To High Altitude Destinations, 5127
Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing Procedures, Use When Operating VFR, 512
System (GLS), 1132 IFR
Ground Station, Call Signs, 424 Approaches, 416
Military Training Routes, 352
Ground Vehicle Operations, 416 Separation Standards, 447
Gulf of Mexico Grid System, 1016 ILS. See Instrument Landing System
InRunway Lighting, 216
Taxiway Centerline Leadoff Lights, 216
H Taxiway Centerline LeadOn Lights, 216
Touchdown Zone Lighting, 216
HalfWay Signs, 755
Incident, Aircraft, Reporting, 761
Hand Signals, 4325
Inertial Navigation System, 1115
Hazard
Antenna Tower, 751 Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), 1115, 5112
Bird, 741 Initial Contact, 421
Flight
INS. See Internal Navigation System
Obstructions to Flight, 751
Potential, 751 Instrument Departure Procedures (DP), 525
VFR in Congested Areas, 751 Instrument Landing System, 117
Ground Icing Conditions, 7512 Category, 1110
Mountain Flying, 753 Compass Locator, 1110
Overhead Wires, 752 Course, Distortion, 1111
Thermal Plumes, 7513 Distance Measuring Equipment, 119
Unmanned Balloons, 752 Frequency, 1110
Volcanic Ash, 757 Glide Path, 118
Hazardous Area Reporting Service, 4118 Glide Slope, 118
Critical Area, 1111
HDTA. See High Density Traffic Airports
Holding Position Markings, 2312
Helicopter Inoperative Components, 1111
IFR Operations, 1011 Localizer, 117
Landing Area Markings, 2319 Critical Area, 1111
VFR Operations at Controlled Airports, 4318 Locators, Compass, 117
Special Operations, 1021 Marker Beacon, 119
I6 Index
6/25/15 AIM
Minimums, 1110 Aeronautical Light Beacons, 221

Aids
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), 526
Airport, 211
Integrated Terminal Weather System, 4312 Approach Light Systems, 211
Intercept, 621 Control of Lighting Systems, 2111
InRunway Lighting, 216
Interception Pilot Control of Airport Lighting, 2111
Procedures, 562 Runway End Identifier Lights, 216
Signals, 567 Taxiway Lights, 2115
Interchange Aircraft, 424 Airport/Heliport Beacons, 2114
Airport, Radio Control, 416
International Flight Plan, IFR, Domestic, International,
Code Beacon, 221
5117
Course, 221
International Flight Plan (FAA Form 72334) IFR Navigation, 221
Flights (For Domestic or International Flights), Obstruction, 221
5117
Line Up and Wait , 521
Intersection Takeoffs, 4313
LLWAS. See Low Level Wind Shear Alert System
IR. See IFR Military Training Routes
Local Airport Advisory (LAA), 351, 414
IRU. See Inertial Reference Unit
Local Flow Traffic Management Program, 543
ITWS. See Integrated Terminal Weather System
LocalizerType Directional Aid, 118
Locator, Compass, 1110
K Lockheed Martin Flight Services, 713
K9 Explosives Detection Team, 623 Long Island Sound Reporting Service, 4118
Long Range Navigation, 1114
LORAN. See Long Range Navigation
L Low Approach, 4316
LAHSO. See Land and Hold Short Operations Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),
4312, 7152
Land and Hold Short Lights, 216
Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection Systems,
Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO), 4314
4312
Landing
LUAW. See Line Up and Wait
Minimums, 5452
Priority, 5462
Laser Operations, 7510 M
Law Enforcement Operations
Civil, 566 MAYDAY, 631
Military, 566 Medical
LDA. See LocalizerType Directional Aid Carbon Monoxide Poisoning, 815
Decompression Sickness, 814
Leased Aircraft, 424 Facts, Pilots, 811
Lifeguard, 424 Flight, Ear Block, 814
Illness, 811
Light Signals, Traffic Control, 4316 Medication, 811
Lighting Sinus Block, 814
Index I7
AIM 6/25/15
Meteorology, 711 Mountainous Areas, 569

ATC InFlight Weather Avoidance, 7138 MSA. See Minimum Safe Altitudes
Automated Surface Observing System, 7129
Categorical Outlooks, 7118 MTA. See Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA)
Clear Air Turbulence, 7148 Multicom, 416
Cloud Heights, Reporting, 7142
Direct User Access Terminal System, 713 MVA. See Minimum Vectoring Altitudes
Drizzle, Intensity, 7143
En Route Flight Advisory Service, 717
FAA Weather Services, 711 N
ICAO, Weather Formats, 7163
Icing, Airframe, 7144 National Forests, 741
Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories, 718 National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (NGA),
Inflight Weather Broadcasts, 7119 547
Microbursts, 7148
National Parks, 741
National Weather Service, Aviation Products, 711
Pilot Weather Reports, 7143 National Refuges, 741
Precipitation, Intensity, 7142 National Security Areas, 342
Preflight Briefing, 715
Runway Visual Range, 7140 National Weather Service, Aviation Products, 711
Telephone Information Briefing Service, 7119 NAVAID
Thunderstorms, 7158 Identifier Removal During Maintenance, 1114
Flying, 7159 Maintenance, 1114
Transcribed Weather Broadcast, 7119 Performance, User Report, 1114
Turbulence, 7147 Service Volumes, 114
Visibility, Reporting, 7142 with Voice, 1114
Weather, Radar Services, 7134
Navigation, Aids, 111
Weather Observing Programs, 7126
Nondirectional Radio Beacon, 111
Wind Shear, 7148
Radio, VHF Omnidirectional Range, 111
Military NOTAMs, 513 Navigation Reference System (NRS), 5115
Military Operations Areas, 342 Navigation Specifications (Nav Specs), 124
Military Training Routes, 351 Navigational
IFR, 352 Aids, Radio
VFR, 352 Distance Measuring Equipment, 113
Minimum, Fuel Advisory, 557 Doppler Radar, 1115
Identifier Removal During Maintenance, 1114
Minimum Safe Altitudes, 548
Instrument Landing System, 117
Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA), 538 LocalizerType Directional Aid, 118
Long Range Navigation, 1114
Minimum Vectoring Altitudes, 5416
Navaid Service Volumes, 114
Minimums NAVAIDs with Voice, 1114
Approach, 5452 Performance, User Report, 1114
Instrument Landing Systems, 1110 Simplified Directional Facility, 1111
Landing, 5452 Tactical Air Navigation, 113
Missed Approach, 5455 VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Air
Navigation, 113
MOA. See Military Operations Areas Inertial Navigation System, 1115
Mode C, 4115 NDB. See Nondirectional Radio Beacon
Mountain Flying, 753 Near Midair Collision, 762
Mountain Wave, 754 NGA. See National GeospatialIntelligence Agency
I8 Index
6/25/15 AIM
NMAC. See Near Midair Collision Position Reporting, 533

Nondirectional Radio Beacon, 111 Predeparture Clearance Procedures, 521
Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings, 2318 Precipitation Static, 759
NOTAM. See Notice to Airmen Precision Approach, 5434
Notice to Airmen, 512 Precision Approach Path Indicator, 214
FDC NOTAM, 513
NOTAM Contractions, 516 Precision Approach Radar, 457
NOTAM D, 513 Precision Approach Systems, 1133
Notice to Airmen System, 512 Preflight, Preparation, 511
Notices to Airmen Publication, NTAP, 513 Priority, Landing, 5462
Procedure Turn, 5428
Limitations, 5431
O Procedures
Obstacle Departure Procedures, 525 Arrival, 541
En Route, 531
Obstruction Alert, 4110 Instrument Approach, 5426
Operation Raincheck, 412 Interception, 562
Operation Takeoff, 412 Prohibited Areas, 341
Operational Information System (OIS), 5110 Publications, Aeronautical, 911
Option Approach, 4324 Published Instrument Approach Procedure Visual
Segment, 5418
Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator, 215
P
Pstatic, 759
PANPAN, 631
R
PAPI. See Precision Approach Path Indicator Radar
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System, 452
PAR. See Precision Approach; Precision Approach Airport Route Surveillance Radar, 457
Radar Airport Surveillance Radar, 457
Parachute Jumps, 322, 355 Approach Control, 543
Approaches, 5434
PerformanceBased Navigation (PBN), 121
Capabilities, 451
Phonetic Alphabet, 425 Doppler, 1115
Pilot Limitations, 451
Authority, 611 Monitoring of Instrument Approaches, 5435
Responsibility, 4114, 441, 444, 5461, Precision Approach, 457
551, 611, 736 Precision Approach Radar, 457
Surveillance, 457
Pilot Control of Airport Lighting, 2111 Vector, 553
Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities, 411 Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft, 4111
Pilot Weather Reports, 7143
Radar Beacon, Phraseology, 4117
Piracy, Air, Emergency, 636
Radar Sequencing and Separation, VFR Aircraft,
PIREPs. See Pilot Weather Reports TRSA, 4113
Pointer NOTAMs, 513 Radar Traffic Information Service, 418
Index I9
AIM 6/25/15
Radio, Communications, 421 Friction Reports, 4312

Altitudes, 426 Aiming Point Markings, 232
Contact Procedures, 421 Centerline Markings, 232
Directions, 426 Closed
Inoperative Transmitter, 427 Lighting, 2318
Phonetic Alphabet, 425 Marking, 2318
Receiver Inoperative, 427 Demarcation Bar, 234
Speeds, 426 Designators, 232
Student Pilots, 424 Friction Advisories, 4312
Technique, 421 Holding Position Markings, 2312
Time, 426 Markings, 231
Transmitter and Receiver Inoperative, 427 Separation, 449
VFR Flights, 428 Shoulder Markings, 233
Side Stripe Markings, 233
RCLS. See Runway Centerline Lighting
Signs, Distance Remaining, 2329
Receiver, VOR, Check, 112 Threshold Bar, 234
Threshold Markings, 233
REIL. See Runway End Identifier Lights
Touchdown Zone Markers, 232
REL. See Runway Entrance Lights
Runway
Release Time, 524 Edge Light Systems, 216
Remote Airport Advisory (RAA), 351, 414 End Identifier Lights, 216
Entrance Lights, 217
Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS), 351, Centerline Lighting System, 216
414 Status Light (RWSL) System, 217, 218
Required Navigation Performance (RNP), 5422 Runway Intersection Lights (RIL), 219
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) Operations, RWSL System, Runway Status Light (RWSL) System.
5130, 557 See Runway Status Light (RWSL) System
Rescue Coordination Center Runway, Visual Range, 7140
Air Force, 625 Runways, Use, 437
Alaska, 625
Coast Guard, 624 RVR. See Runway Visual Range
Joint Rescue, Hawaii, 625
Reservations, Airport, 4121 S
Responsibility
Controller, 538, 5461, 551 Safety
Pilot, 4114, 441, 444, 5461, 551, 611, Alert, 553
736 Alerts, 321
Aircraft Conflict, 321
Restricted Areas, 341 Mode C Intruder, 321
Restrictions Terrain/Obstruction, 321
Departure, 524 Aviation, Reporting, 761
Flight, Temporary, 352 Seaplane, 756
RIL. See Runway Intersection Lights (RIL) Safety Alert, 4110
Aircraft Conflict Alert, 4111
RNAV. See Area Navigation Obstruction Alert, 4110
Route Terrain Alert, 4110
Coded Departure Route, 443 SAR. See Search and Rescue
Course Changes, 537
SCATI DGPS. See Special Category I Differential
Route System, 535 GPS
Runway Scuba Diving, Decompression Sickness, 814
I10 Index
6/25/15 AIM
SDF. See Simplified Directional Facility

T
Seaplane, Safety, 756
Search and Rescue, 621, 624 TACAN. See Tactical Air Navigation
Security, National, 561 Tactical Air Navigation, 113

Security Identification Display Area, 2331 TAF. See Aerodrome Forecast
See and Avoid, 554 Takeoff Hold Lights (THL), 218
Separation Takeoffs, Intersection, 4313
IFR, Standards, 447
Taxi
Runway, 449
Clearance, 521
Visual, 4410, 555
During Low Visibility, 4321
Wake Turbulence, 737
Sequenced flashing lights (SFL), 2111 Taxiway
Centerline Markings, 237
SFL. See Sequenced flashing lights Closed
SIDA. See Security Identifications Display Area Lighting, 2318
Marking, 2318
SideStep Maneuver, 5452
Edge Markings, 237
Signs Geographic Position Markings, 2310
Airport, 231 Holding Position Markings, 2312
HalfWay, 755 Markings, 231, 237
Simplified Directional Facility, 1111 Shoulder Markings, 237
Surface Painted Direction Signs, 2310
Sinus Block, 814 Surface Painted Location Signs, 2310
Special Category I Differential GPS (SCATI DGPS), Taxiway Centerline LeadOff Lights, 216
1133
Taxiway Lights, 2115
Special Instrument Approach Procedures, 1133,
Centerline, 2115
5427
Clearance Bar, 2115
Special Traffic Management Programs, 4121 Edge, 2115
Special Use Airspace, 341 Runway Guard, 2115
Alert Areas, 342 Stop Bar, 2115
Controlled Firing Areas, 342 TCAS. See Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
Military Operations Areas, 342 System
Prohibited Areas, 341
Restricted Areas, 341 TDWR. See Terminal Doppler Weather Radar
Warning Areas, 341 TDZL. See Touchdown Zone Lights
Special Use Airspace (SUA) NOTAMs, 513 TEC. See Tower En Route Control
Special VFR Clearances, 443
Telephone Information Briefing Service, 7119
Speed, Adjustments, 447, 554
Temporary Flight Restrictions, 352
Standard Instrument Departures, 525
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA), 548
Standard Terminal Arrival, 541
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), 4312,
STAR. See Standard Terminal Arrival 7153
Surface Painted Holding Position Signs, 2312 Terminal Radar Service Areas, 359
Surveillance Approach, 5434 Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, 4112
Surveillance Radar, 457
Terminal Weather Information For Pilots System
Surveillance Systems, 451 (TWIP), 7158
Index I11
AIM 6/25/15
Terrain Alert, 4110 TWIP. See Terminal Weather Information For Pilots
System
THL. See Takeoff Hold Lights
TIBS. See Telephone Information Briefing Service
Time U
Clearance Void, 524
Release, 524 Ultralight Vehicles, 322
TIS. See Traffic Information Service Unicom, 416
TISB. See Traffic Information ServiceBroadcast Unidentified Flying Object (UFO) Reports, 763
TLS. See Transponder Landing System Unmanned Aircraft, 752

Urgency, 631
Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL), 216
Tower, Antenna, 751
Tower En Route Control, 4114 V
Traffic VASI. See Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Advisories, 554
Local Flow Traffic Management Program, 543 VCOA. See Visual Climb Over the Airport
Traffic Advisory Practices, Airports Without Operating VDP. See Visual Descent Points
Control Towers, 412 Vector, Radar, 553
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System, 4411 Vehicle Roadway Markings, 2316
Traffic Control Light Signals, 4316 Vertical Navigation, 5112
Traffic Information Service, 458 VFR Corridors, 357
Traffic Information Service (TIS), 4411 VFR Flights in Terminal Areas, 4318
Traffic Information ServiceBroadcast , 4517 VFR Flyways, 355
Traffic Patterns, 432 VFR Military Training Routes, 352
Transcribed Weather Broadcast, 7119 VFR Transition Routes, 357
Transponder Landing System (TLS), 1133 VFRonTop, 556
Transponder Operation, 4115 VHF Omnidirectional Range, 111
Automatic Altitude Reporting, 4115 VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Air Navigation,
Code Changes, 4116 113
Emergency, 621
Visual
Ident Feature, 4116
Approach, 5460, 555
Mode C, 4115
Clearing Procedures, 4410
Under Visual Flight Rules, 4117
Glideslope Indicators, 211
VFR, 4117
Separation, 4410, 555
TriColor Visual Approach Slope Indicator, 214
Visual Approach Slope Indicator, 211
TRSA. See Terminal Radar Service Areas
Visual Climb Over the Airport (VCOA), 528
Turbulence, Wake, 731
Visual Descent Points, 5418
Air Traffic Separation, 737
Helicopters, 736 Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC), 526
Pilot Responsibility, 736 Visual Segment, 5418
Vortex Behavior, 732
Vortex Generation, 731 VNAV. See Vertical Navigation
Vortex Strength, 731 Void Times, Clearance, 524
TWEB. See Transcribed Weather Broadcast Volcanic, Ash, 757
I12 Index
6/25/15 AIM
Volcanic Activity Reporting, Forms. See Appendix 2 Wake, Turbulence, 731

VORSee also VHF Omnidirectional Range
Receiver Check, 112 Warning Areas, 341
VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings, 2316
Weather
VORTAC. See VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical
Air Navigation Deviations in Oceanic Controlled Airspace, 7139
ICAO, Weather Formats, 7163
VR. See VFR Military Training Routes
Weather System Processor (WSP), 4123, 4312,

7154
W
Waivers, 4123 WSP. See Weather System Processor
Index I13
U.S. Department
Of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
800 Independence Ave., S.W.

Washington, D.C. 20591
FORWARDING SERVICE REQUESTED
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Penalty for Private Use $300

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