Density Measurement

6.1 Angular Position Densitometer 821

DENSITY: APPLICATIONS AND SELECTION 809 Performance 822
Introduction 809 Conclusions 822
Orientation among Densitometers 809 Bibliography 822
Units and Definitions 809 6.3
Reference Temperatures 809 HYDROMETERS 823
Industry-Specific Specific Gravity Units 809
Density Detectors for Liquids 811 Introduction 823
Selection of the Densitometer 812 Design Variations 823
In-Line Designs 824
Indirect Sensors 813
Industrial Designs 824
Gas Density Detectors 813
Transmitters 824
Composition Measurement 813
Conclusions 825
Mass Flow Measurement 813
Bibliography 825
Super-Compressibility Detection 814
Selection 814 6.4
Composition Detectors 814 HYDROSTATIC DENSITOMETERS 826
Direct Density Measurement 814
Introduction 827
Conclusions 814
Sizing the Hydrostatic Head Tank 827
Bibliography 815
Using Bubblers 827
Using d/p Cells 828
6.2
Elevation Considerations 828
DISPLACEMENT- AND FLOAT-TYPE
Design Example 829
DENSITOMETERS 816
Narrow Spans 829
Introduction 817 Temperature Compensation 829
Displacer-Type Densitometers 817 Conclusions 829
The Torque-Tube-Type Displacer 817 Bibliography 830
Sizing the Displacer Float 818
Features and Limitations 818 6.5
Chain-Balanced Densitometer 819 OSCILLATING CORIOLIS DENSITOMETER
Transmitters 819 (GAS, LIQUID, AND SLURRY SERVICES) 831
Electromagnetic Suspension Densitometer 820 Introduction 832
Design Features 821 The Sensor 832

807
2003 by Bla Liptk
808 Density Measurement
Temperature Correction 832
Theory of Operation 833
The Calibration Constant 833
Electronics 833
Output Options 834
Applications 834
Developments and Trends 835
Bibliography 835
6.6
RADIATION DENSITOMETERS 836
Introduction 837
Radioisotopes 837
The Radiation Densitometer 838
Radiation Source 838
Radiation Detectors 838
Geiger Tubes 839
Ionization Cells 839
Scintillation Detectors 839
Temperature Control and Calibration
Amplifier and Power Supply 839
Span and Error 839
Beta Radiation Densitometers 839
X-Ray Densitometers 839
Limitations 840
Conclusions 840
Bibliography 840
6.7
ULTRASONIC SLUDGE AND SLURRY
DENSITOMETERS 841
Introduction 841
Ultrasonic Sludge Densitometers
Calibration 842
Sonic Densitometers 843
Bibliography 843
6.8
LIQUID/SLURRY/GAS DENSITYVIBRATING
DENSITOMETERS 844
Introduction 845
Basic Theory 845
Real Life Behavior 846
Effects of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow
Effects of Sample Properties 847
Vibrating U-Tube 847
2003 by Bla Liptk
Vibrating U-Tube with Period of Oscillation
Measurement 847
Vibrating U-Tube with Vibration Amplitude
Measurement 848
Vibrating Cylinder or Straight Tube 848
Vibrating Cylinder 848
Vibrating Straight Tube 849
Vibrating Twin-Tube 850
Vibrating Fork 850
Multivariable Transducer for Density
and Sound Velocity 851
References 851
Bibliography 851
6.9
WEIGHT-BASED AND MISCELLANEOUS
DENSITOMETERS 852
Introduction 852
Weight-Based Densitometers 852
839 Weighed-Bulb-Type Densitometer 852
Design Features 853
U-Tube Density Gauge 853
Applications 854
Temperature Compensation 854
Straight-Tube Density Transmitter 854
Direct Density Controller 855
Ball-Type Densitometer 855
Capacitance Densitometers 856
Fuel Weight Measurement 856
Bibliography 856
6.10
GAS DENSITOMETERS 857
841
Introduction 858
Theory of Operation 858
Displacement-Type Densitometers 858
Continuous Units for Pressurized
Operation 859
Electromagnetic Suspension-Type Units 860
Centrifugal Gas Density Sensors 860
Fluid Dynamic Densitometer 861
Gas Column Balance Sensors 861
Thermal Conductivity Density Gauges 862
Viscous Drag-Type Density Sensors 863
846 Ultrasonic Density Detection 863
Conclusions 863
Bibliography 864
6.1 Density: Applications and Selection
C. H. HOEPPNER (1982) B. G. LIPTK
J. E. JAMISON, S. EDVI (2003)
INTRODUCTION
By measuring the density of a process stream, one can determine
its concentration, composition, or in the case of fuels, one can
identify its calorific value. Density measurement is also neces-
sary to convert volumetric flow into mass flow (Section 2.12).
When measuring the mass flow of gases, direct density
measurement is simpler and more accurate than the indirect
calculation of density, which has to consider pressure, tem-
perature, super compressibility, and humidity.
One method of measuring the density of solids is to
weigh a fixed volume. The various aspects of weighing are
discussed in Chapter 7.
ORIENTATION AMONG DENSITOMETERS
The features and capabilities of the various densitometers
that are discussed in this chapter are summarized in Orien-
tation Table 6.1a. When considering the selection of a density
sensor for a particular application, one would consider both
the nature of the process fluid (slurry, viscous, or clean) and
the operating pressure and temperature conditions. The table
also provides information on the density spans and inaccu-
racies of the various densitometer designs.
For liquid densitometers, the narrowest spans (0.005 SG
[specific gravity] based on water) can be provided by the
displacement-type units. With such a span, an inaccuracy of
1% corresponds to 0.00005 SG. In the case of gas densito-
meters, the electromagnetic suspension-type unit provides the
narrowest span (0.01 SG based on air), and the lowest error
it can provide is 0.0001 SG.
Another important factor in the selection process is the
cost of the instrument. Pricing information and data on the sup-
pliers of the various densitometer designs are given at the begin-
ning of each section of this chapter, in the feature summaries.
UNITS AND DEFINITIONS
Density is defined as the quantity of matter per unit volume.
The most common unit is kilograms per cubic meter but the
units of grams per cubic centimeter, pounds per cubic foot,
2003 by Bla Liptk
(1969, 1995), REVIEWED BY J. A. LIVINGSTON (1995)
or pounds per gallon are also used. To convert from one set
of density units to another, refer to Table 6.1b. For converting
3
from a variety of density units into the SI unit of kg/m , refer
to Table 6.1c.
Relative density, which in our everyday language is
called specific gravity, is the ratio between the density of a
process material to that of water or air at specified standard
conditions. Being a ratio, specific gravity has no units asso-
3
ciated with it. For liquids, SG = 1.0 corresponds to 1 g/cm
3
or, in the SI system of units, it corresponds to 1000 kg/m .
Reference Temperatures
Both density and specific gravity characterize the same phys-
ical property of the process media, and they are meaningful
only if defined at stated temperature levels. In the case of
specific gravity, the temperatures might be different for the
process and the reference fluid, which is acceptable, but must
be clearly stated. For example, a specific gravity table might
list a process fluid as having a specific gravity of 0.8780/40.
This means that this liquid at 80F (27C) will have a density
of 0.87 times that of water at 40F (4.4C).
For gases, the specific gravity is based on air at standard
conditions. This means that both the process vapors and the
reference air density are measured at 60F (16C) and at
atmospheric pressures. For ideal gases, the ratio of molecular
weights is equal to their specific gravity.
Industry-Specific Specific Gravity Units
A variety of specific gravity scales have evolved in the var-
ious industries. They are defined below so that one might be
able to convert from one set of units to another.
For petroleum products in the United States, the American
Petroleum Institute (API) introduced in 1921 the unit of API
degrees:
141.5
API = 131.5 6.1(1)
SG @ 60F
809
810 Density Measurement

TABLE 6.1a
Orientation Table for Density Sensors
Applicable to

Compensation Available
% of Span or SG Units

Direct Local Indicator

Viscous or Polymer

Water SG = 1.0
Minimum Span
Clean Process

Slurry Service

Inaccuracy in

Temperature

Transmitter
Design Pressure and

Based on
Streams

Streams
Temperature Limitations

LIQUID Density Sensor Design PSIG/ F Bars/ C

Angular Position Type  0.1 0.5% 1000/500 69/260 N.S. 
Ball Type  Digital 0.01 SG 600/160 41/71 N.S.  
Capacitance Type    0.1 1% 500/160 34.5/71  
Displacement Type
Buoyant Force Displacer  0.005 1% 1500/850 130/472 N.S. 
Chain Balance Float  0.005 13% 500/450 34/232   
Electromagnetic Suspension  0.01 0.51% 200/350 14/177  
Hydrometers  0.05 1% 100/200 7/93   
Hydrostatic Head Type    0.05 0.21% 5000/350 345/177 N.S.  
Oscillating Coriolis    0.1 0.02 SG or 5000/800 345/426  
better
Radiation Type    0.05 1% Unlimited Unlimited  
Sonic/Ultrasonic    0.2 15% 1000/390 69/199  
Twin Tube   Digital 0.0001 1440/356 100/180   
Vibrating Fork Type  L L 0.02 0.001 SG 3000/392 207/200  
Vibrating Plate Type (also for gases)  L L 0.1 0.2% 1440/200 100/95 
(currently not manufactured)
Vibrating Spool Type (also for gases)  L L 0.3 0.001 SG 725/300 50/149  
Vibrating U-Tube Type  0.05 0.00005- 2900/500 200/260  
0.005 SG
Weight of Fixed Volume Type    0.05 1% 2400/500 165/260   

Operated Indicator

Transmitter
Continuous
Design Pressure and
Manually

Indicator
Minimum Span Temperature Limitations
Inaccuracy in % of
3 3
GAS Density Sensor Design lbm/ft kg/m Span or in SG Units PSIG/ F Bars/ C
Sensors Operating at Actual Flowing
Conditions
Centrifugal Type 1.0 16 0.10.5% 2000/300 138/49  
Displacement Type 1.0 16 0.25% 1500/200 103/93   
Fluid Dynamic Type 0.5 8 2% 50/450 3.5/232   
Specific Gravity Detectors Operating at Minimum Span Based on
Near-Ambient Conditions Air SG = 1.0
Electromagnetic Suspension Type 0.01 SG 0.0001 SG ATM/120 ATM/49 
Gas Column Balance Type 0.1 SG 0.001 SG 20/140 1.4/60  
Manual Displacement Type Elements 0.1 SG 0.002 SG ATM/120 ATM/49 
Thermal Type 0.5 SG 0.01 SG ATM/120 ATM/49  
Viscous Drag Type 0.1 SG 0.0010.002 SG ATM/120 ATM/49  

N.S.: Nonstandard
L: Limited

2003 by Bla Liptk

 6.1 Density: Applications and Selection 811

The density of acids and of light and heavy syrups is

TABLE 6.1b
Density Conversions
1 lb/cu. in.
= 1728 lb/cu. ft.
= 0.864 tons/cu. ft.
= 23.3 tons/cu. yd
= 231 lb/gal
1 lb/cu. ft.
= .000579 lb/cu. in.
= .000500 tons/cu. ft.
= .0135 tons/cu. yd
= .1337 lb/gal
1 ton/cu. yd
= .0429 lb/cu. in.
= 74.1 lb/cu. ft.
= .0370 tons/cu. ft.
= 9.90 lb/gal
Tons are short = 2000 lb.
expressed in Baum degrees. This scale was introduced by
Antoine Baum in 1768 and consists of two scales, one for
1 lb/gal heavy (above SG = 1), the other for light (below SG = 1)
= .00433 lb/cu. in.
liquids at 60F (17.5C):
= 7.48 lb/cu. ft.
= .00374 tons/cu. ft.
= .1010 tons/cu. yd Be (light ) = (140/SG at 60F ) 130
6.1(4)
1 ton/cu. ft.
Be ( heavy) = 145 (145/SG at 60F )
= 1.157 lb/cu. in.
= 2000 lb/cu. ft.
= 27 tons/cu. yd The sugar industry also uses the Brix degree, which rep-
= 267 lb/gal resents the weight percentage of pure sucrose in a 60F
(17.5C) solution.
Br = weight% of sucrose 6.1(5)
The dairy industry uses the Quevenne degrees in testing
the fat content of milk. Each degree corresponds to 0.001 SG
in excess of SG = 1.0, so 40Q = 1.04 SG.

Q = (SG 1.0)(1,000) 6.1(6)

TABLE 6.1c
Conversion to Kilograms per Cubic Meter
3
The alcohol industry uses Sikes, Richter, or Tralles scales
To convert to kg/m Multiply by
on its alcoholmeters. They each read the volumetric percent-
grain (lb avoirdupois/7000)/gal (U.S. liquid) 1.711 806 E 02 age of ethyl alcohol in water.
3
g/cm 1.000 000 E + 03
oz (avoirdupois)/gal (U.K. liquid) 6.236 021 E + 00 S, R, T = volume% of ethyl alcohol 6.1(7)
oz (avoirdupois)/gal (U.S. liquid) 7.489 152 E + 00
oz (avoirdupois)/in
3
1.729 994 E + 03 The alcohol industry also uses the unit of proof, which
lb/ft
3
1.601 846 E + 01 is S, R, or T multiplied by 2.
3
lb/in 2.767 990 E + 04
lb/gal (U.K. liquid) 9.977 633 E + 01 proof = 2(volume% of ethyl alcohol) 6.1(8)
lb/gal (U.S. liquid) 1.198 264 E + 02
3 The sugar, tanning, acid, and other industries working
lb/yd 5.932 764 E 01
3
with liquids that are heavier than water all use Twaddell
slug/ft 5.153 788 E + 02
3
degrees. Twaddell divides the SG range between SG = 1.0
ton (long)/yd 1.328 939 E + 03 and 2.0 into 200 equal parts, each representing 0.005 SG.
3
ton (short)/yd 1.186 553 E + 03
Tw = 200(SG 1.0) 6.1(9)

The brewing and sugar industries use Balling degrees to If one wants to transfer density data from one scale to
express the percentage of worth or weight percentage of another, refer to the density conversion table (Table 6.1d).
dissolved solids at 60F (17.5C):

DENSITY DETECTORS FOR LIQUIDS

Ba = % by weight of dissolved solids
The tanning and tanning-extract industry expresses spe-
cific gravity in Barkometer degrees. Each degree is 0.001 SG
above or below SG = 1.0. Therefore, the Barkometer degrees
can be negative or positive (+10Bk = 1.01 SG).
Bk = (SG 1.0)(1000)
6.1(2)
Either the density or the specific gravity of process fluids can
be measured. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the
measured substance and that of the density of water. The effects
of pressure upon density measurement can generally be disre-
garded, because the compressibility of most liquids is slight.
In this chapter, a number of liquid density gauges are
described. When a selection is to be made for a particular instal-
6.1(3) lation, several considerations should influence the decision.

2003 by Bla Liptk

812 Density Measurement

TABLE 6.1d
Density Conversion Table*
Pounds per Vol. % of Degrees Brix
SG Gallon Be API % Proof Alcohol Be Bk or Balling Tw

0.6087 5.066 100 100.96

0.6364 5.296 90 90.86
0.6667 5.549 80 80.75
0.7000 5.827 70 70.64
0.7368 6.134 60 60.54 LIQUIDS
0.7778 6.475 50 50.43 LIGHTER
0.7955 6.623 46 46.39 199.36 99.68 THAN WATER
0.8235 6.857 40 40.32 186.00 93.00
0.8750 7.286 30 30.21 151.72 75.86
0.9333 7.772 20 20.11 101.00 50.50
1.0000 8.328 10 10.00 0.00 0.00

1.000 8.328 0 0 0 0
1.007 8.385 1 7 1.75 1.4
1.036 8.625 5 36 9.00 7.2
1.074 8.945 10 74 18.00 14.8
1.115 9.289 15 115 27.00 23.0
1.160 9.660 20 36.20 32.0
1.208 10.063 25 45.40 41.6
1.261 10.501 30 55.00 52.2
1.318 10.978 LIQUIDS 35 64.66 63.6
1.381 11.501 HEAVIER 40 74.72 76.2
1.450 12.076 THAN WATER 45 85.00 90.0
1.526 12.711 50 95.84 105.2
1.543 12.849 51 98.14 108.6
1.611 13.417 55 122.2
1.706 14.207 60 141.2
1.813 15.095 65 162.6
1.933 16.101 70 186.5
2.000 16.656 72.5 200.0

*Values from Bureau of Standards Circular C-410.

Selection of the Densitometer
If a transmitter is needed, the most economical selections are
the hydrostatic head and the displacement-type sensors. Of
these two, the hydrometers represent the least expensive
choice, if only local indication is required.
The inaccuracy of density detectors is usually expressed
as percent full span; the narrower the range of the sensor, the
higher will be the precision of the measurement. Where oper-
ating temperatures vary, it is necessary to compensate the
densitometer readings for these changes. All density detectors
can be furnished with means for temperature compensation.
As can be seen in Table 6.1a, this feature is standard for a
number of the densitometer designs.
Most density gauges are suitable only for use on process
fluids that are clean and nonviscous. When that is the case,
the densitometer is usually selected on the basis of the allow-
able error and economics. If the process fluid is viscous or
of the slurry type, then the radiation, Coriolis, ultrasonic,
vibrating, hydrostatic head, and U- or straight-tube type sen-
sors can be considered.
Of these types, the U- or straight-tube gauges are limited
in their pressure and temperature ratings and can handle only
moderately viscous or slurry-type streams.
The main limitation of the hydrostatic head-type mea-
surement is in detecting narrow spans of density, because
the corresponding standpipe height required becomes
excessive. In addition, when the process fluid is a heavy
slurry or is very viscous, the low-pressure side of the dif-
ferential pressure (d/p) detector is likely to be plugged, if
piped into the process without protection. If the required
protection is provided by purging or by using pressure
repeaters, the densitometer cannot be used on high pressure
services, because the operating pressure ratings of the pres-
sure repeaters or by the available supply pressure of the
purge media is limited.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 6.1 Density: Applications and Selection 813

The limitations and capabilities of the various vibrating But the pressures and temperatures are the same,
densitometers include:
Za Ra
1. The oscillating Coriolis-type design is not suited for SG = 6.1(12)
measuring the density of gas or vapor mixtures. ZgRg
2. The vibrating tube and the vibrating cylinder types are
not suited for heavy slurry services because of plugging. and,
3. The vibrating plate design is not suitable for slurry
services, if the slurry is abrasive.
R a M wg
The best, but not the least, expensive densitometer choice = 6.1(13)
R g M wa
for viscous and slurry-type applications is the radiation-type
density detector.
therefore,

Indirect Sensors
Z a M wg
SG = 6.1(14)
Density can also be detected indirectly through the measure- Z g M wa
ment of some process property that is related to density.
The detection of boiling point elevation is one of the
common methods of indirect density gauging. In this design, For gases (substantially superheated vapors), the ideal gas
resistance elements are used to compare the boiling temper- equations are quite accurate at ambient conditions, and, there-
ature of the process sample with the boiling temperature of fore, the compressibility factors can be considered as unity.
water at the same pressure. In this case, the scale for the
boiling temperature difference of the particular solution can M wg
be calibrated in terms of density. This method of density SG = 6.1(15)
M wa
detection is also used to determine the end point in evapora-
tion type processes.
In Equations 6.1(10) to 6.1(15) the letters used are
defined as follows:
GAS DENSITY DETECTORS SG = specific gravity based on air = 1.0
g, a = gas and air densities, respectively (lbm/ft )
3

While in liquid density measurement, the process pressure 2

has little influence, and the effect of pressure on gas density
cannot be disregarded. Because gases are compressible mate-
rials, the same detector might not be capable of detecting
both specific gravity (or molecular weight) and density at
operating conditions.
Mwg, Mwa = gas and air molecular weight
Composition Measurement
Pg, Pa = gas and air pressures, respectively (lbf/in. abs.
or bars absolute)
Zg, Za = gas and air compressibility factor
Rg, Ra = gas and air engineering gas constant (ft-lbf/lbm
R or cal/g K)
Tg, Ta = gas and air temperature (R or K)

When the purpose of measurement is to determine the com- MASS FLOW MEASUREMENT
position of a gas stream, the sample gas gravity is detected at
ambient conditions, disregarding the actual operating pressures When the purpose of the density measurement is to determine
and temperatures. The scales of these gauges are calibrated the mass flow of a process gas stream, the density must be
either in specific gravity units based on air or in molecular detected under actual operating conditions. The relationship
weight units. The two scales are interchangeable because: between gas properties and density is as follows (using
English units):
M wg
SG = 6.1(10)
M wa M wg Pg
g = 6.1(16)
10.73 Tg Z g
This can be proved by considering that:

The volumetric flow rate at standard conditions can be

g Pg Z a R a Ta
SG = = 6.1(11) calculated by dividing the mass flow rate with the specific
a Pa Z g R g Tg gravity. If, for example, the pressure drop across an orifice

2003 by Bla Liptk

814 Density Measurement

plate and the gas density at operating conditions are both The important difference between these two groups is
measured, then the mass and volumetric flow rates can both that in case of mass flow rate determination, there is no need
be calculated by using the following equations: for separate pressure, temperature, super-compressibility, or
humidity measurements. However, when gas composition is
C2 Pg the purpose of the installation, these variables must be taken
Q= 6.1(17) into consideration and their effects compensated for.
SG
Composition Detectors In the category of gas-specific
W = C1 Pg 6.1(18) gravity sensors (composition detectors), economics would
favor the displacement-type, manually operated indicators
(Figure 6.10a). If continuous indication or remote signal
where
transmission is required, the gas column balance and the
W = mass flow rate (lbm/hr)
2
P = differential pressure (lbf/in. ) viscous drag type instruments will be the most economical
C1, C2 = constants containing appropriate orifice and selections (Figures 6.10g and 6.10i).
other factors When the overriding consideration is high sensitivity and
g = gas density (lbm/ft )
3 accuracy, the electromagnetic suspension-type sensors will
3
Q = volumetric flow rate (ft /hr) satisfy that requirement (Figure 6.10d).
If the process gas samples are corrosive and therefore the
sensing elements should not come in contact with the process
Super-Compressibility Detection
stream, the thermal gauges can be considered (Figure 6.10h).
Sensors that are capable of measuring the vapors density at All of these units operate at near-ambient conditions. There-
operating conditions can also be used to determine the com- fore, in case of nonambient samples, it is necessary to regu-
pressibility factor of the vapor. Super-compressibility is a late their pressures and temperatures. In addition, it is nec-
measure of the deviation between ideal and actual gas behav- essary to establish the moisture content of both the sample
ior. It is defined as the ratio between the actual specific weight and the reference gas, which is usually air.
and the theoretical one, based on the perfect gas law. If the
gas pressure, temperature, specific gravity, and flowing den- Direct Density Measurement If the purpose of measure-
sity are measured, then the super-compressibility factor is ment is direct density detection under operating conditions,
calculated as follows: the most economical choice is the manually operated dis-
placement indicator (Figure 6.10b). Continuous indication or
remote readout can be provided by both the displacement and
P SG the centrifugal-type designs (Figures 6.10c and 6.10e). It can
Z= 6.1(19)
T R air also be provided by some of the vibrating densitometers,
which are discussed in Section 6.8.
These units are accurate and capable of withstanding high
where operating pressures and temperatures. An important consid-
Z = supercompressibility factor (dimensionless) eration is to minimize the pressure and/or temperature loss
2
P= operation pressure (lbf/in. ) in the sampling system so as to maintain the gas sample under
SG = specific gravity (dimensionless) operating conditions. This is achieved by close-coupling the
=
3
flowing density (lbm/ft ) instruments to the process and by providing good thermal
T = absolute temperature (R) insulation for the sample lines. Another important consider-
Rair = gas constant for air 53.3 (ft-lbf/lbm R) ation is to protect all restrictions and moving parts from
deposits by filtering the sample.
Selection

When selecting gas and vapor density gauges, the application
engineer should first consider the purpose of making the
measurement. If it is for composition or concentration gaug-
ing, then the information desired is specific gravity or molec-
ular weight, which can be obtained by measuring the sample
under near-ambient conditions.
If the purpose of the measurement is direct density detec-
tion under operating conditions for the purpose of mass flow
rate determination, then the instruments described in
Figures 6.10c, 6.10e, and 6.10f should be evaluated.
CONCLUSIONS
Some of the mechanical and thermal gas density sensors
described here are not widely used anymore. The general
trend seems to be to replace such indirect composition (or
energy content) measurements as ones based on the detection
of specific gravity with direct composition analyzers such as
chromatographs. In case of direct density measurement, the
various vibration type density sensors, discussed in Section
6.8, seem to be the most popular choices.

2003 by Bla Liptk


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