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2. Supervisory frame
S-frame carries control information, primarily data link layer flow and error controls.
It does not contain information field.
The format of S-frame is shown in diagram.
3. Unnumbered frame
U-frames are reserved for system management and information carried by them is used for
managing the link
U-frames are used to exchange session management and control information between the two
connected devices.
Information field in U-frame does not carry user information rather, it carries system
management information.
The frame format of U-frame is shown in diagram.
U-frame is identified by the presence of 11 in the first and second bit position in control field.
These frames do not contain N(S) or N(R) in control field.
4 Define random access and list three protocols in this category
slotted ALOHA
ALOHA
CSMA and CSMA/CD
The figure shows a simple domain with five nodes. Each node uses the same topology
to create a routing table, but the routing table for each node is unique because the calculations are
based on different interpretations of the topology. This is analogous to a city
map. While each person may have the same map, each needs to take a different route to
reach her specific destination.
b) How do you control congestion in virtual subnets? Explain.
These are closed-loop based designed for virtual circuits subnets, which are connection oriented
during connection set up, something can be done to help congestion control
The basic principle is obvious: When setting up a virtual circuit, make sure that congestion can
beavoided
Admission control: Once congestion has been signaled,no more new virtual circuits can be set
up until the problemhas gone away. This is crude but simple and easy to do.
Select alternative routes to (a) (b) avoid part of the network that is overloaded, i.e. temporarily
rebuild your view of network e.g. Normally, when router A sets a connection to B, it would pass
through one of the two congested routers, as this would result in aminimum-hop route (4 and 5
hops respectively). To avoid congestion, a temporary subnet is redrawn by eliminating congested
outers.
A virtual circuit can then be established to avoid congestion Negotiate quality of connection in
advance, so that network provider can reserve buffers and other resources, guaranteed to be
there.
For example, suppose the receiver has a 4096-byte buffer, as shown in Fig. below. If the
sender transmits a 2048-byte segment that is correctly received, the receiver will
acknowledge the segment. However, since it now has only 2048 bytes of buffer space
(until the application removes some data from the buffer), it will advertise a window of
2048 starting at the next byte expected.
Now the sender transmits another 2048 bytes, which are acknowledged, but the
advertised window is of size 0. The sender must stop until the application process on the
receiving host has removed some data from the buffer, at which time TCP can advertise a
larger window and more data can be sent.
When the window is 0, the sender may not normally send segments, with two exceptions.
First, urgent data may be sent, for example, to allow the user to kill the process running
on the remote machine. Second, the sender may send a 1-byte segment to force the
receiver to reannounce the next byte expected and the window size. This packet is called
a window probe.
The TCP standard explicitly provides this option to prevent deadlock if a window update
ever gets lost.
Senders are not required to transmit data as soon as they come in from the application.
Consider a connection to a remote terminal, for example using SSH or telnet, that reacts
on every keystroke. In the worst case, whenever a character arrives at the sending TCP
entity, TCP creates a 21-byte TCP segment, which it gives to IP to send as a 41-byte IP
datagram.
At the receiving side, TCP immediately sends a 40-byte acknowledgement (20 bytes of
TCP header and 20 bytes of IP header).
Later, when the remote terminal has read the byte, TCP sends a window update, moving
the window 1 byte to the right. This packet is also 40 bytes. Finally, when the remote
terminal has processed the character, it echoes the character for local display using a 41-
byte packet.
In all, 162 bytes of bandwidth are used and four segments are sent for each character
typed. When bandwidth is scarce, this method of doing business is not desirable.
8 a. What are the various fields in the TCP segment header and explain them
The user agents allow people to read and send e-mails. The message transfer agents move the
messages from source to destination. The user agents are local programs that provide a command
based, menu-based, or graphical method for interacting with e-mail system. The message transfer
agents are daemons, which are processes that run in background. Their job is to move datagram
e-mail through system.
A key idea in e-mail system is the distinction between the envelope and its contents. The
envelope encapsulates the message. It contains all the information needed for transporting the
message like destinations address, priority, and security level, all of which are distinct from the
message itself.
E-mail systems support five basic functions. These basic functions are:
1. Composition:
It refers to the process of creating messages and answers. Any text editor can be used for the
body of the message, the system itself can provide assistance with addressing and the numerous
header fields attached to each message.
For example: when answering a message, the e-mail system can extract the originators address
from the incoming e-mail and automatically insert it into the proper place in the reply.
2. Transfer:
It refers to moving messages from the originator to the recipient. This requires establishing a
connection to the destination or some intermediate machine, outputting the message, and finally
releasing the connection. E-mail does it automatically without bothering the user.
3. Reporting:
It refers to acknowledging or telling the originator what happened to the message. Was the
message delivered? Was it rejected? Numerous applications exist in which confirmation of
delivery is important and may even have a legal significance. E-mail system is not very reliable.
4. Displaying
The incoming message has to be displayed so that people can read their e-mail. Sometimes
conversation is required or a special viewer must be invoked. For example: if message is a
postscript file or digitized voice. Simple conversations and formatting are sometimes attempted.
5. Disposition
It is the final step and concerns what the recipient does with the message after receiving it.
Possibilities include throwing it away before reading, throwing it away after reading, saving it,
and so on. It should be possible to retrieve and reread saved messages, forward them or process
them in other ways.