Elizabeth Blackwell

Jaclyn Davis
Joseph Evans
CSD 623 Timler
Due 12/12/2016
Language Community Project

Introduction

Speech sound production for members of the ASL language community presents some unique

challenges. Since many users of ASL exhibit severe to profound hearing loss, many of these challenges

will also apply to all people with hearing loss, regardless of whether they use ASL. Johnson (2005)

defines individuals who are deaf as those who cannot understand speech without benefit of visual cues,

even when wearing hearing aids. Typically, this is someone with a hearing loss of 80-90 dB below

auditory threshold. An individual is considered hard of hearing if they can understand typical

conversational speech with the use of hearing aids (typically less than 80dB). Aside from clinical

considerations, individuals with severe to profound hearing loss may choose to identify themselves as

linguistically and culturally Deaf (Johnson, 2012).

There are a few distinct circumstances that might cause a speaker of ASL to wish to learn to

speak English. They may have a sudden reversal of hearing loss, such as with a cochlear implant or

eardrum reconstruction. Some parents decide on an oral approach to education or a mixed approach that

uses both auditory and visual systems, either separately or in conjunction with one another. Others may

be a Child of a Deaf Adult (CODA) who learned ASL from their parents (Hall, 2014).

Sign Structures: Phonetic Inventory and Phonotactic Constraints

Phonology: Handshapes

The phonology of ASL involves the hand shape, palm orientation, location of sign in space, and

movement (Valli & Lucas, 2000). The dominant hand is used in nearly all signs and is the primary
articulator. The secondary articulators include the non-dominant hand and parts of the head, face, and

torso. Valli & Lucas (2000) report that signs may be classified as either arbitrary or iconic (i.e.,

representative of the object or activity in some way). As such, signs and handshapes are the basis for

understanding phonetic coding and written language (Brentari, 1999).

Fingerspelling

Fingerspelling is the alphabetic representation of graphemes. It is usually limited to spelling

unfamiliar words or proper names and may be used when no sign exists as a way of introducing the

topic before handshapes are used to give representation. Below you will find two tables (1 and 2), one

of the ASL alphabet and numbers 1-9 and the other for classifiers (other handshapes used to form signs),

respectively.

Table 1: ASL Alphabet & Numbers 1-9 Table 2: Classifiers

Taken from Vicars (1991) Taken from Iowa State University (n.d.)

Morphology: Monomorphemic and Polymorphemic ASL Signs

According to Brentari (1999) and Wilbur (2011), all signs fall into one of two morphological

categories: monomorphemes or polymorphemes. Monomorphemes are one-handed signs using the

signers dominant hand whereas polymorphemes are two-handed signs. In this latter category, the hands

may move in one of two primary ways: both hands, in the same shape moving synchronically or with an
active dominant hand and passive non-dominant hand where the hands can be in either the same or

different hand shape and the dominant hand acts upon the non-dominant hand. It is interesting to note

that all ASL alphabetic signs are monomorphemic compared to other sign languages that employ a

polymorphemic structure (e.g., the British alphabet).

Syllabicity: Movement of Morphemes

Syllabicity is expressed by movement, either in a path/trajectory or in a localized movement.

Sign syllables can be broken down into onset-movement-offset. All monomorphemes and

polymorphemes contain movement and monosyllabicity, the most frequently seen syllabic structure, is

expressed by one hand moving (Brentari, 1999 and Wilbur, 2011).

Phonotactic Constraints

There are two salient phonotactic constraints in ASL: in disyllabic sign structures where both

hands are in motion, the hands cannot move in a different way, as can be seen when someone tries to rub

his stomach and pat his head at the same time (Brentari, 1999). It is difficult for some and impossible

for others. The second constraint deals with the signing frame or area where all signs are placed in

space. A signer would not sign outside of that frame or space (Baker-Shenk & Cokely, 1980 and Iowa

State University, n.d.). Interlocutors focus on the signers face and through peripheral vision see all

signs within the signing frame. If signs were to go outside of that space, the interlocutor would have

difficulty with comprehension.

Influence of ASL Grammar and Paralinguistic Features on Standard American English

A speech language pathologist working with the deaf population should be aware of the

significant grammatical differences that can be found between English and American Sign Language

(ASL). The following Table 3 identifies some notable differences an SLP may find when working with

an ASL user in therapy. It is easy to see how these differences can have an impact on verbal and written
English production. Note that sign languages do not have written expression therefore they use the

written form for the dominant spoken language (e.g., English written conventions for ASL). Glossing

(i.e. using capitalization for the signs and dashes between letters for fingerspelled words) is used when

transcribing ASL sentences into English. In addition to grammatical differences, ASL makes great use of

paralinguistic features to convey meaning. Stress is realized in sign repetition, a signer can enlarge a

sign space to show intonation, and just as you and I might pause between chunks of language for

emphasis or to allow to improve comprehension, so too can a signer employ the same strategy (Baker-

Shenk & Cokely, 1980).

Table 3: Grammar Comparison of English and ASL

Grammatical English Grammar Example ASL Grammar Rule Example*
Structure Rule
Simple Syntax Subject + Verb I like Topicalization: Topic CHOCOLATE + LIKE
chocolate. + Comment
Noun Phrases Adjective + Noun Red car Noun + Adjective CAR + RED

Plurality (nonspecific) Books Plurality is marked BOOK++++

[-s] with sign repetition
with movement
toward dominant
Five Days hand
Plurality (specific) Where possible, DAY (used with 5-
[-s] number is handshape)
Five books incorporated into sign

Noun + Number
BOOK + FIVE
Verb Phrases Present Tense The boy runs. Signed close to body BOY + RUN

Past Tense & Future The boy ran. (Nonspecific time) BOY + RUN +
Reference The boy will Topic + Comment + FINISH/WILL
run. FINISH/WILL

(Specific time) Time YESTERDAY/TODAY

form + topic + BOY + RUN
comment
Auxilliary Verb [e.g.,
to be] I am tired. Auxilliary is omitted TIRED

Question Wh-Questions What is your Question structure

 Formation name? has more flexibility

Wh-Questions: brows WHAT + (YOUR)

narrow with forward NAME or (YOUR)
head tilt NAME + WHAT

Yes/No Questions:
brows raise with
forward head tilt LUNCH + WANT

Negation Dependent on type of I am not Can be at the HUNGRY + NOT

negation hungry. beginning or end of or NOT + HUNGRY
sentence
Modified from Baker-Shenk & Cokely (1980) and Iowa State University (n.d.)
* Items in parenthesis are not always necessary. They may be inferred much like ellipsis is used in English due in signer perspective.

Other notable grammatical structures found in ASL include directionality, pronominalization, and

an abundance of rhetorical questions (Baker-Shenk & Cokely, 1980 and Iowa State University, n.d.).

Directionality of sign movement often substitutes prepositional use and transitivity in the English

language as in the case of the verb give where GIVE is signed from the giver to the receiver to

express semantic relationship.

Pronominalization replaces pronoun use found in English in which a signer fingerspells a

persons name (e.g. C-H-A-R-L-I-E) then points to that person (or if a person is not there assigns

a place in space as a reference point). This allows the signer to use that location in space as a

place card for the person much the same way we use pronouns referentially in spoken and

written language expression.

Rhetorical questions, which are marked with raised eyebrows and a forward head tilt, are used in

ASL to stage or prepare the interlocutor for a comment much the same way in which English

uses rhetorical questions. Additionally, a signer might use rhetorical questions in lieu of

conjunctions to form compound sentences.

 Influence of Hearing Loss on Speech Sound Production in Standard American English

Two factors crucial to the development of speech and language in individuals with hearing loss

are severity and timing. Severity refers to the degree of hearing loss, whether it be mild, moderate,

severe or profound. Timing of hearing loss can be classified as congenital (present at or shortly after

birth), prelingual (birth-2 years), perilingual (3-5 years), or post lingual (after 5 years). The earlier a

hearing loss occurs, the greater the effect on language development (Johnson, 2012).

One way to consider the effect of severity of hearing loss on speech sound production is to

recognize its effect on speech sound discrimination (Johnson, 2012). Appendix A contains a chart

outlining some familiar sounds, including English phonemes, as they appear on the sound spectrum

(Center for Hearing and Speech, n.d.). Two copies of this chart include a line indicating the hearing

threshold of individuals personally known to one of the authors. By looking at the chart of patient A,

one can hypothesize that she would have difficulty discriminating most consonants, apart from /m, n, ,

d, b, l, r/ whereas vowels are more easily distinguished. Patient B has a profound hearing loss and can

hear very little without a cochlear implant. Even with the cochlear implant in place, however, most

voiceless consonants fall outside of her hearing range. It is therefore essential for an SLP to obtain a

copy of a clients audiogram. It should be further noted, however, that the audiograms indicate the level

at which a patient can detect sound. Distinguishing between phonemes is more difficult.

In general, sounds are more easily learned by those with hearing loss if they are more easily

distinguished visually or through tactile means (Johnson, 2005). Osberger and McGarr (1982) note that

those with hearing loss generally position their articulators correctly but have difficulty coordinating

interarticulator movements (1982). Some typical phonological processes found in children with hearing

loss are listed below (see Table 4). In addition, individuals with profound hearing loss tend to exhibit

vowel distortions (Owens, Metz, & Farinella, 2011).

 Table 4: Phonological Processes Found in Children with Hearing Loss
Sound Substitution Pattern Phonemes Example
Initial voicing Any voiced zp/sp
consonant/unvoiced
cognate
Final devoicing Any unvoiced tp/tb
consonant/voiced cognate
Nasal for oral consonants n, m, a for any stop tp/tb
Glottal stop replacement for any stop i/ki
deaffrication c/., j mp/dmp
Stopping of fricatives All fricatives ti/si, dn/dn
Backing of non-labials h, k, or g for any non- hf/lf, gn/rn
labial consonant
Initial consonant deletion Any consonant d/bd
Taken from Owens, Metz, & Farinella (2011) and Osberger & McGarr, (1982)

It is also important to note that hearing loss affects not only phonology but all aspects of speech

production including voice quality, pitch, rate, and rhythm (Owens, Metz, & Farinella, 2011). Speech

rate can be slow and labored due to excessive pauses and prolongations. Speech can also have a nasal

quality due to difficulty with velopharyngeal control (Osberger & McGarr, 1982).

Cultural Considerations

Some individuals with hearing loss identify as Deaf, with a capital D. That is to say, they

consider themselves a member of the Deaf Community, a culturally and linguistically bonded group

with its own traditions and customs. For example, touching another person during a casual conversation

is common in the Deaf Community, whereas in other cultures it might not be permitted (Hall, 2014).

Members of the Deaf Community have historically resisted the efforts of hearing people to assimilate

them into the much larger hearing culture (Hall, 2014). One way that members of the Deaf Community

preserve and teach their cultural heritage is through residential schools. There is at least one Deaf
 school in every state in the U.S. (Hall, 2014). It is imperative that anyone working with members of the

Deaf Community be sensitive to the beliefs and customs of their clients.

Some practical considerations one should take into consideration when communicating with

Deaf individuals include (Speech Language Pathologist, personal communication, 2016):

Face Deaf person at all time when you talk/sign;

Do not cover mouth even when using only sign;
Be mindful of your attire: Clothing, jewelry, nails, etc. can be very distracting (akin to a disruptive

noise);
Be respectful and do not assume cognitive deficits Deaf does NOT equal dumb;
If you do not understand what a Deaf person is saying, be upfront...do not guess or say you understand

when you really do not; and

Be patient if asked to clarify your own message.

Additionally, one should keep in mind that both Deaf and hard of hearing individuals make use

of speech reading strategy (sometimes called lip-reading), although this has limitations. Johnson

estimates that about 40% of consonants and very few vowels can be distinguished from all other

consonants except their cognates by purely visual means (2012).

Reference List

Baker-Shenk, C. & Cokely, D. (1980). American sign language: A teachers resource text on grammar

and culture. Washington, DC: Clerc Books.

-An excellent reference book for an SLP working with the Deaf population. The authors provide

a thorough yet concise overview of Deaf culture and the linguistic features of American Sign

Language.

Brentari, D. (1999). A prosodic model of sign language phonology. Cambridge, MA: A Bradford Book,

The MIT Press

Center for Speech and Hearing (n.d.). Audiogram of Familiar Sounds. Retrieved from

http://centerhearingandspeech.org/pages/printview/degreesofhearingloss/

Iowa State University. (n.d.) Narrative lessons. Retrieved from

http://www.public.iastate.edu/~giri/cmdis286xw/lesson_2/narrative_info_page.htm

-While not comprehensive, this website provides a quick guide to American Sign Language and

Deaf culture as well as hearing loss and aural rehabilitation.

Hall, J. W. (2014). Introduction to Audiology Today. Upper Saddle, NJ:Pearson

Johnson, C. E. (2012). Introduction to Auditory Rehabilitation: A Contemporary Issues Approach. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Osberger, M.J. & McGarr, N.S. (1982). Speech Production Characteristics of the Hearing Impaired.

Speech and Language: Advances in Basic Research and Practice, 8: 221-283.

-The authors provides a lot of useful information regarding the phonetic inventory and speech

production of children with profound hearing loss.

Owens, R. E., Metz, D. E., & Farinella, K. A. (2011). Introduction to Communication Disorders: A

Lifespan Evidence-Based Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Speech Language Pathologist. (2016). Atlanta Area School for the Deaf. Personal communication on

December 7, 2016.

Valli, C. & Lucas, C. (2000). Linguistics of American Sign Language: An introduction. Washington, DC:

Gallaudet University Press.

Vicars, W. (1991). Sign language: The fingerspelled alphabet. Downloaded from

http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/topics/wallpaper1.htm

Wilbur, R. (2011). Sign syllables. In M. van Oostendorp & C. Ewen. The Blackwell companion to

phonology Volume 4. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1309-1334.

Appendix A

Audiogram of Patient A Audiogram of Patient B