Fatigue Fracture Appearances

By: SotyaAstutiningsih, from:

ASM METALS HANDBOOK VOL 11
FAILURE ANALYSIS & PREVENTION
 FATIGUE failure of engineering components
and structures results from progressive
fracture caused by cyclic or fluctuating loads.
Fig. 1 General features of fatigue fractures.
Fatigue Processes
Crack initiation
Stable progressive crack propagation
Final (fast) fracture
Fig. 2 Close-up view of ratchet marks between distinct surface origin sites in a low-alloy
steel 18.4 cm (7.25 in.) shaft that failed in rotating bending fatigue. Ratchet marks (at
arrows) are roughly radial steps formed where fatigue cracks initially propagating on
different planes intersected. The ratchet mark at the middle arrow was damaged by
Post fracture contact.
 Microscopic Appearance of Fatigue
Fracture in Metals
Examination of fracture features by light
microscopy is limited by resolution and depth of
field capabilities. Fine features cannot be
resolved, and the height of important features on
fracture surfaces often exceeds optical depth of
field, especially at higher magnifications.
The SEM offers significantly superior resolution
and depth of field compared to light microscopes,
markedly increasing the useful magnification
range.
STRIATIONS
Transmission electron fractograph of aluminum alloy laboratory spectrum
loading fatigue test. Striation spacing varies according to loading, which consisted of ten
cycles at a high stress alternating with ten cycles at a lower stress. The fracture surface
exhibits bands of ten coarse striations alternating with bands of ten fine striations.
Crystallographic fatigue in fracture
mechanics specimen of cast Co-Cr-
Mo-C
medical implant alloy. SEM views
located (a) 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) from
machined notch
tip, and (b) 7.6 mm (0.3 in.) from
notch tip. Fatigue striations were not
resolvable at any
location, and the entire fatigue
fracture surface displayed similar
crystallographic
features. Courtesy of D.O. Cox, Cox
and Company
 Intergranular Fracture
the decohesion that may occur along a weakened grain
boundary.
Typically, the grain boundaries in polycrystalline materials
are stronger than individual grains in a properly processed
material below its creep-regime temperature.
However, the grain boundaries are also a region with many
faults, dislocations, and voids. This relative atomic disarray
of the grain boundaries, as compared to the more regular
atomic arrangement of the grain interiors, provides an easy
path for diffusion-related alterations. Grain boundaries are
thus the preferential region for congregation and
segregation of impurities. Weakening or embrittlement can
also occur by preferential phase precipitation or absorption
of environmental species in the grain boundaries.
 SEM images of (a) IG fracture in ion-nitrided layer of ductile iron (ASTM 80-55-
06), (b) transgranular fracture by cleavage in ductile iron (ASTM 80-55-06), and (c)
ductile fracture with equiaxed dimples from microvoid coalescence around graphite
nodules in a ductile iron (ASTM 65-40-10). Picture widths are approximately 0.2 mm
(0.008 in.) from original magnifications of 500. Courtesy of Mohan Chaudhari,
Columbus Metallurgical Services
 Because the appearance of IG fractures is
often very similar, the principal focus is placed
on the various metallurgical or environmental
factors that cause a weakening of the grain
boundaries. In general, IG fractures are
classified and termed as either:
Dimpled IG fracture
Intergranular brittle fracture
Intergranular fatigue fracture
 Mechanisms of IG Fracture
On the atomic scale, crack growth occurs by any
one or a combination of the following:
Tensile separation of atoms (decohesion)
Shear movement of atoms (dislocation egress or
insertion)
Removal or addition of atoms by dissolution or
diffusion
All of these processes can occur preferentially along
the grain boundary by various phenomena, such
as:
Segregation of embrittling elements to the grain
boundaries
More rapid diffusion of elements along grain
boundaries than along grain interiors
More rapid nucleation and growth of precipitates in
grain boundaries than in grain interiors
Greater adsorption of environmental species in the
grain-boundary regions
 Intergranular Brittle Cracking
Causes of IG brittle fracture include:
Brittle second-phase particles and/or films in
grain boundaries
Fracture where no film is visible and, due to
impurity, atom segregation at the grain boundary
Environmentally induced embrittlement where
there is neither a grain-boundary precipitate or
solute segregation
 Some common examples of IG embrittlement by
films or segregants include:
Grain-boundary carbide films in steels
Iron nitride grain-boundary films in nitrided steels
Temper embrittlement of alloy steels by segregation
of phosphorus, antimony, arsenic, or tin
Grain-boundary carbide precipitation in austenitic
stainless steels (sensitization)
Embrittlement of molybdenum by oxygen, nitrogen,
or carbon
Embrittlement of copper by antimony
Dimpled IG Fracture
SEM image of fracture surface of nickel-base alloy (Inconel 751, annealed and aged) after
stress rupture (730 C, or 1350 F; 380 MPa, or 55 ksi; 125 h). (a) Lowmagnificationview,
with picture width shown at approximately 0.35 mm (0.0138 in.) from original
magnification of 250. (b) High-magnification view, with picture width shown at
approximately 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) from original magnification of 1000. Courtesy of
Mohan Chaudhari, Columbus Metallurgical Services
Tensile test fracture surface of a high-purity, coarse-grained Al-4.2 Cu
alloy with (a) IG facets at low magnification (10) and (b) uniform
dimples on one facet at higher magnification
Intergranular SCC and Hydrogen
Embrittlement
 SCC
Grain-boundary precipitate size, spacing,
and/or volume fraction
Grain-boundary PFZ width, solute profile, or
deformation mode
Matrix precipitate size/distribution and
deformation mode
Oxide rupture and repassivation kinetics
 Hydrogen embrittlement is
characterized by:
Hydrogen absorption leading to grain-
boundary or transgranular decohesion
Internal void formation via gas pressurization
Enhanced plasticity (adsorption and
absorption arguments exist)
Intergranular cracking can be a complex process where synergistic effects or
multiple mechanisms may be involved, such as in the
following example. In this case, a lowering of the operating temperature was
proposed to reduce failures in a steam generator.
Example 1: Intergranular Fracture of Steam Generator Tubes (Ref 30). Power
plants use steam generators, which have hot reactor
coolant water flowing through the generators. One power plant experienced a
steam generator tube rupture in the early 1990s.
Metallurgical evaluation of the ruptured tube determined the failure
mechanism was intergranular attack (IGA)/IGSCC, which
occurred as a result of deposits formed on the tubes. This deposit, along with
the consequential heat flux, created an aggressive
environment, and, as a result, a long, deep crack initiated under the deposit
under normal operating conditions.
The unit used two steam generators, which are vertical U-tube and shell heat
exchangers, approximately 21 m (68 ft) high with a
steam drum diameter of 6 m (20 ft). Hot reactor coolant from the reactor vessel
enters the steam generators through a 107 cm (42 in.)
inlet nozzle in the primary head. The reactor coolant flows through the U-tubes,
where it gives up heat to the secondary coolant at the
shell side, to the outlet side of the primary head, where the flow splits and
leaves through two outlet nozzles.
Saturated steam produced in the steam generators is passed to the turbine. Each
steam generator contains 11,012 Inconel alloy 600 (nickel-base alloy) tubes, which
are 19 mm ( 34in.) outside diameter (OD) and have a nominal wall thickness of 1.0
mm (0.042 in.) and an average length of 18 m (57.75 ft). Prior to the implementation
of the temperature-reduction program, the original operating temperature of the
reactor coolant was 328 C (621 F). To determine the mechanism of failure, a tube
removal effort was conducted following the tube rupture event. A portion of the
burst tube, shown in Fig. 10(a), along with seven other tubes, was removed for
metallurgical analysis. Scanning electron microscope fractography of the burst tube
showed evidence of IGSCC initiating at the OD, as shown in Fig. 10(b). Optical
metallography revealed IGA under ridgelike deposits, shown in Fig. 10(c). Deposit
analysis indicated a slightly alkaline to a very alkaline (caustic) environment.
Environmental impurities consisting of sulfate, sulfide, sodium, lead, and
copper were also detected. The levels of these impurities were not
sufficient to indicate an acute introduction of these species into the steam
generator secondary environment.
However, crack oxide analysis indicated sulfate levels in excess of
expected values. The literature indicated that sulfate and reduced
sulfides in a caustic environment can increase the rate of IGA attack of
Inconel 600 tube material. Therefore, the presence of sulfates
and reduced sulfur on the crack surface contributed to the degree of IGA
and IGSCC in the alkaline-to-caustic environment.