BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts

Gov. Pablo Borbon Campus II,

Alangilan, Batangas City, Philippines 4200 www.batstate-

u.edu.ph Telefax: (043) 300-4044 locs. 106-108

CHEMICAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ChEE 402-Elective 2

DESIGN ENGINEERING

GROUP 6
EMBODIMENT DESIGN

Fabregar, Noel Christian M.

Gutierrez, Venus Abigail D.
Laygo, Jericho C.

ChE-4201

Dr. Sicily B. Tiu

INTRODUCTION

Feasibility Design View usually held to determine whether the resources should be
committed to develop the design further.

Embodiment Design the next stage of the design process. It is the stage where the design
concept is invested with physical form, where we put meat on the bones.

The term embodiment design comes from Pahl and Beitz and has been adopted by most
European and British writers about design.

The design process was divided into 3 phases conceptual design, preliminary (embodiment)
design, and detail design.

Embodiment design is also termed as analytical design because it is the design phase where
most of the detailed analysis and calculations occurs.

Product Design a broad phase of conceptual design

Configuration Design the selection of standard modules like pumps, or the design of special-
purpose parts, like short, stubby box beam.

Parametric Design the determination of the exact values, dimensions, or tolerances for the
critical design parameters.

Parallel Design the key to shortening the product development cycle time

Routine Design in this design, the attributes that define the design and the strategies and
methods for attaining them are well known

Innovative Design in this design, not all attributes that of the design may be known
beforehand, but the knowledge base for creating the design is known

Creative Design neither the attributes of the design nor the strategies for achieving them are
known ahead of time.

PRODUCT ARCHITECTURE

Product architecture the arrangement of the physical elements of a product to carry out its
required functions.
Ulrich and Eppinger designate the physical building blocks that the product is organized into
as chunks.

The chunk is made up of a collection of components that carry out the functions

There are two entirely opposite style of product architecture, namely; modular and integral.

In a modular architecture, the chunks implement only one or a few functions and the
interactions between chunks are well defined. Example of this is oscilloscope.

In an integral architecture, the implementation of functions uses only one or few chunks,
leading to poorly defined interaction between chunks.

Interfaces examples of interfaces are the crankshaft of an engine with a transmission or the
connection between the computer and the CPU. The interfaces should be designed so as to be
as simple and stable as possible. The personnel computer is an outstanding example of the use
of standard interfaces, such that PCs can be customized, module by module, from parts
supplied by many different suppliers.

Component standardization allows the component to be manufactured in higher quantities

than would otherwise be possible, with cost savings due to economy scale.

Black & Decker rechargeable battery pack widely used in many electrical hand tools and
garden tools

Integral Design often adopted when constrains of weight, space, or cost require performance
be maximized.

Ulrich and Eppinger propose a four-step process for establishing the product architecture.

Create a schematic diagram of the product

Cluster the elements of the schematic

Create a rough geometric layout

Identify the fundamental and incidental interactions

CONFIGURATION DESIGN

In configuration design, we establish the shape and general dimensions of components

The term component is used in the generic sense to include special-purpose parts, standard
parts, and standard assemblies or modules.

A part is designed object that has no assembly operations in its manufacture

A standard part is one that has a generic function and is manufactured routinely without regard
to a particular product.

A special-purpose part is designed and manufactured for a specific purpose in a specific line

An assembly is a collection of two or more parts

A subassembly is an assembly that is included within another assembly or subassembly

A standard assembly or standard module is an assembly or subassembly which has generic

function and is manufactured routinely.

The form or configuration develops from the function Figure (yung triangle)

In starting the configuration design, we should follow these steps.

Review the product design specification and any specification developed for the particular
subassembly to which the component belongs

Establish the spatial constraints that pertain to the product or the subassembly being designed

o Create and refine the interfaces or connections between components

In carrying out the design, it is important to maintain functional independence in the design of an
assembly or components.

The best way to get started with configuration design is to just start sketching alternative
configurations of a part
Drawings are essential for communicating ideas between design engineers and between
designers and manufacturing people.

Sketches are an important aid in idea generation and a way for piecing together unconnected
ideas into design concepts

The elements that comprise the configuration of a part are called features. Typical features in
mechanical design are:

Solid elements such as rods, cubes, and spheres

o Walls of various kinds

o Add-ons to walls such as holes, bosses, notches, grooves, and ribs

Intersections between walls, add-ons, and elements

Weighted decision matrix or Pughs selection method (Sec.5.9). -These methods will point
to aspects of the design that may need improvement by a design iteration.

Ullman- characterizes configuration design as refining and patching.

Refining is the act of making an object less abstract. This is a natural process as we move
through the design process.

Patching is the activity of changing a design without changing its level of abstraction. Patching
occurs extensively in configuration design.
SELECTION DESIGN

-A special but not infrequent type of situation in configuration design . By selection design we
mean choosing a component from a list of similar standard parts in a catalog. Examples:
selection of bearings, pumps and small motors.
6.4 PARAMETRIC DESIGN

CONFIGURATION DESIGN

-the emphasis was on starting with the product architecture and then working out the best form
for each component. Qualitative reasoning about physical principles and manufacturing
processes played a major role.
PARAMETRIC DESIGN

- the attributes of parts identified in configuration design become the design variables for
parametric design. Design variable is an attribute of a part whose value is under the control of
the designer.

-Objective: setting the values for the design variables that will produce the best possible design
considering both performance and manufacturability.
Robustness

- means achieving excellent performance under the wide range of conditions that will be found
in service. All products function reasonably well under ideal (laboratory) conditions, but robust
designs continue to function well when the conditions to which they are exposed are from ideal.
Three ways to improve the robustness of a design:
Improve the design concept that controls the function to be fixed.
Change the value of a critical parameter to an obvious feasible limit
Carry out a systematic optimization of the design variables
Computer-based optimization methods

-can be useful when the design variables are all numerical and continuous functions. -For the
more general case, statistically designed experiments, especially the Taguchi approach, have
met with increasing usage and success.

Parametric design is about setting dimensions and tolerances so as to maximize quality and
performance and minimize cost. Designing to maximize performance and quality involves the
following design procedures.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

FAILURE- is any aspect of the design or manufacturing process that renders a component, or
system incapable of performing its intended function.

FMEA - is a methodology for determining all possible ways that components can fail and
establishing the effect of failure on the system.
Design for Reliability

RELIABILITY - is a measurement of the capacity of a system to operate without failure in the

service environment. It is expressed as the probability of performing for a given time without
failure.

6.4.3 ROBUST DESIGN

One of the chef ways of assuring high quality in products is to :

reduce the variability in performance and
manufacture over a wide range of operating conditions.
A process of robust design, as defined by Taguchi, has the following steps:
1. System design

-This corresponds to what we have called product architecture where engineering principles are
used to determine the basic configuration of the system.

2. Parameter design

-Statistical methods are used to set nominal values of design variables that minimize variability
from uncontrollable variables in the environment.
3. Tolerance design

-Further statistical methods are used to set the widest possible tolerances on the design
variables without increasing variability.

6.4.4 TOLERANCES

A small tolerance results in greater ease of interchangeability of parts and less play or chance
for vibrations in moving parts. However, this is achieved at an increased cost of manufacture.

Dimensions -are used to specify size and location of features in a part.

Tolerance -is the acceptable variation to the ideal or nominal dimension.
Clearance or allowance - is the minimum space between mating parts.

In modern engineering practice they are described and specified by a system of geometric,
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) based on ASME standard Y14.5M-1994.

Within this standard, tolerance is defined for geometric characteristics of form (straightness,
perpendicularity, parallelism), location tolerances (position, concentricity) and runout.

A second goal of parametric design is minimizing manufacturing cost. This requires close
attention to design for manufacturability, i.e. knowing how various design features affect
manufacturing cost.

At the parametric stage final dimensions, tolerances and surface finish, and orientation and
location of features are established. Then the relative cost to process the part can be made. The
part cost is then the sum of the tooling cost, processing cost,and material cost, each on a per
part basis.

Examples of this analysis for parts produced by injection molding, diecasting and metal
stamping are given by Dixon and Poli.

By the conclusion of embodiment design, a prototype of the product will have been constructed.
This is a full-scale working model, technically and visually complete.

The purpose of the prototype is to confirm that the design satisfies all customer requirements
and performance criteria.

Extensive testing will give information about the reliability and robustness of the design. Testing
will also verify whether environment, safety and other legal requirements have been met.

BEST PRACTICES

It is much more difficult to give a prescribed set of methods for embodiment design than for
conceptual design, because of the variety of issues that enter into the development of the
configuration and performance of components.
General objective of the embodiment phase of design :
fulfillment of the required technical function, at a cost that is economically feasible,
and in a way that ensures safety to the user and to the environment.
Basic guidelines for embodiment design (According to Pahl and Beitz)

Clarity of function -pertains to an unambiguous relationship between the various functions and
the appropriate inputs and outputs of energy, material, and information flow.
Simplicity -refers to a design that is not complex and is easily understood and readily
produced.

Safety -should be guaranteed by direct design, not by secondary methods such as

guards or warning labels.

Two important aspects of design that have been identified by French are :

Matching- refers to creating the proper interface between the separate components so that they
can perform as an optimized system.

Disposition- is concerned with parceling out some constrained attribute, often space, between
a number of functions in the best way.

6.5.1 DESIGN GUIDELINES

It is difficult to list with confidence a set of rules of sufficient generality and enough concreteness
to be useful and enduring. The guidelines laid out below have been given by French based on
his extensive experience and study.

Avoid arbitrary decisions. Every design choice represents an opportunity to improve the
design. Sometimes in design an arbitrary decision is made without recognizing it. Other times
the designer is faced with a clear decision point but does not know how to take advantage to
improve the design.

Search for alternatives. This imperative has been emphasized throughout this text. It
behooves the designer to continually search for and catalog alternative solutions to design
situations.

Solid models can be of very great help in many design problems because they often suggest
ideas and alternative methods. Solid models produced by computer graphics (Sec.7.6) may
provide faster paths to this goal, with enhanced design results.
Increase the level of abstraction at which the problem is formulated. Moving the problem to
a higher level of abstraction often suggests different solutions, as with functional analysis. For
example, restricting a design study to the level of product features will produce entirely different
ideas than if the study was conducted at the higher level of product alternatives.

Make tables of design functions and options and use them to develop competing design
concepts.

In developing some design concept always pursue it to the limits, and then back off. The limits
will be set by physical realizability or economic constraints.

Aim for clarity of function. There is tendency in design to add features or devices to overcome
problems that arise in the course of the design. The solution is to be willing to stop and start
again when difficulties arise. The results will be a clearer and simpler design.

Exploit materials and manufacturing methods to the fullest. These topics are covered in
Chaps.8 and 9.

Develop a logical chain of reasoning for the design. A good design can be justified by a
fairly tight line of reasoning. If a logical reasoning chain cannot be developed then it is difficult to
have confidence in the design and more conceptual work is required. It is important to test the
logic chain, link by link, to see whether there is some fault in the reasoning. If so, this points out
where the design can be improved.

Ask questions. The designer should develop an attitude of incredulity. Is this part necessary?
What would happen if this components failed? Why did we do it that way?

Among the extensive list of principles and guidelines for embodiment design, along with detailed
examples, that are given by Pahl and Beitz, four stand out for special : Force transmission ,
Division of tasks, Self-help and Stability.

FORCE TRANSMISSION

In mechanical systems the function of many components is to transmit forces and moments
between two points. In general, the force should be accommodated in such a way as to produce
a uniformly distributed stress on the cross section.

You should be aware that stiffness (resistance to deflection) more than stress determines the
size of most components. Lack of rigidity or stiffness can cause interference between mating
parts, produce misalignment of parts, and lead to

undesirable wear.
To achieve maximum stiffness, use the shortest and most direct force-transmission path
possible. Avoid bending stresses by favoring geometries that result in symmetrical loading.

Mismatched deformations between related components can lead to uneven stress distributions
and unwanted stress concentrations. Therefore, interacting components should be designed so
that they deform in the same sense and by the same amount under load.

Division of Tasks

Assigning several functions to a single component (integral architecture) results in savings in

weight, space and cost but may compromise the performance of individual functions, and it may
unnecessarily complicate the design.

Self-help

-concerns the improvement of a function by the way in which the components interact with each
other.

Self-reinforcing element -required effect increases with increasing need for the effect Self-
protecting element- designed to survive in the event of an overload

Stability

-concerned with whether the system will recover appropriately from a disturbance to the system

6.6 INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

Industrial Design

-also called Product Design

-concerned with the visual appearance of the product and the way it interfaces with the
customer
-dealt chiefly with the function of the design
-deals chiefly with the aspects of a product that relate to the user

Aesthetics

-deal with the interaction of the product with the human senses-how it looks, feels, smells, or
sounds
Ergonomics or Stability

-this activity deals with the user interactions with the product and making use that it is easy to
use and maintain
INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS

work from the outside in. They start with a concept of a complete product as it would be used by
a customer and work back into the details needed to make the concept work.

often work in independent consulting firms, although large companies may have their own in-
house staff.

VISUAL AESTHETICS

-can be considered as a hierarchy of human responses to visual stimuli.

-Aesthetics relate to our emotions. Since aesthetic emotions are spontaneous and develop
beneath our level of consciousness, they satisfy one of our basic human needs.
BOTTOM LEVEL- order of visual forms, their simplicity and clarity. These values are

related to our need to recognize and understand objects

Visual perception

-is enhanced by the repetition of visual elements related by the similarity of the shape, position,
color (rhythm).

- Another visual characteristic to enhance perception is homogeneity, or the standardization of

shapes.
BASE LEVEL- deals with visual neatness.

SECOND LEVEL- is concerned with recognition of the functionality or utility of the design.
Patterns showing a tendency toward visual separation from the base suggest a sense of
mobility or action (see Fig.6.9). A streamlined shape suggests speed. Looking around, you can
observe many visual symbols of function.

HIGHEST LEVEL- deals with the group of aesthetic values derived from the prevailing fashion,
taste or culture. These are the class of values usually associated with styling.

6.6.2 THE PROCESS OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

There are two general situations: (1) the industrial designer is part of the integrated product
development (IPDT) from its inception and (2) industrial designers are brought in during
embodiment design to provide styling and to ensure that human factors are given proper
consideration.

Determine the customer needs. Since industrial design are skilled in recognizing issues
involving user interaction , they can play a crucial role here.

Product Conceptualization. Industrial designers will concentrate on creating the products form
and user interfaces. Close coordination is needed to match these design concepts of the
engineer.

Preliminary Refinement - As concepts are being evaluated it is important to have three-

dimensional soft models made from plastic foam of foam-core board.

Final Concept Selection Before the final product concept selection is made, it is usual to
construct three-dimensional hard models made from metal or plastic and painted and textured
to be close to the real product.

Control Drawings The completion of the industrial design process is the making of control
drawings of the final concept. Control drawings document functionality, features, sizes, colors,
surface finishes, and critical dimensions.
6.7 HUMAN FACTORS DESIGN

Human factors is the study of the interactions between people and the products and systems
they use and the environments in which they work and live. This field also is described by the
terms human factors engineering and ergonomics.

There are four ways that a human interacts with a product:

As an occupant of workspace the cab of a tractor or a chair before a computer

As a power source usually muscle power

As a sensor looking for a warning light

As a controller determining how much pedal to give beat the red light with your car

Creating a User-Friendly Design

1. Fit the product to the users physical attributes and knowledge

The first step in designing the person for the workplace is to gather quantitative data on the
dimensions of the human body. Data on human-force generation is included in the study of
biomechanics. Such information is given along anthropometric data. Also, be sure that you do
not presume too much knowledge and skill on pat of the user.

2. Simplify tasks

Control operations should have a minimum number of operations and should be straight-
forward. The learning curve should be minimal. The product should be simple to operate, with a
minimum number of controls and indicators.

3. Make the controls and their functions obvious.

Controls are the parts of the product such as knobs, levers, buttons, and slides that change the
operational mode.

Use mapping Make the control reflect, or map, the operation of the mechanism. The goal
should be to make the operation clear enough that it is not necessary to refer to nameplates,
stickers, or the operation manual.
Utilize constraints to prevent incorrect action Do not depend on the user always doing the
correct thing. Controls should be designed so than an incorrect movement or sequence is not
possible.

Provide feedback The product must provide the user with a clear, immediate response to
any actions taken. This feedback can be provided by a light, a sound, or displayed information.

Provide good displays The sensing characteristic of the human involves such physiology
factors as the visual, tactile and auditory senses. Most human-machine interfaces require that
the human sense the state of the system and then control it based on the information received.

Make controls easy to handle Shape knobs and handles controls differently so they are
distinguishable by look and by touch. Organize and group them to avoid complexity.

Anticipate human errors Human errors are unavoidable. The designer must anticipate
possible errors to minimize them.

Avoid awkward and extreme motions for the user of the product Design the product so
that twisting or lengthy arm movements, bending and movements of spine are not required,
particularly if these motions will be repetitive.

Standardize It pays to standardize on the arrangement and operation of controls because it

increases the user knowledge.
6.7.2 Design for Serviceability

Serviceability is concerned with the ease with which maintenance can be performed on a
product. Many products require some form of maintenance or service to keep them functioning
properly.

Preventive Maintenance is the service that must take place after some failure or decline in
function has occurred.

Breakdown Maintenance is the service that must take place after some failure or decline in
function has occurred.

Testability is concerned with the ease with which faults can be isolated in defective components
and subassemblies.

6.8 DESIGN FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

Protection of the Earths environment is high on the value scale of most citizens of the worlds
developed countries. A large proportion of our environmental problems are linked to the
selection and use of particular technologies without previous adequate regard for the
environmental consequences.

Greater concern for the environment in product design places emphasis on life cycle design
though:

Minimizing emissions and waste in the manufacturing process.

Looking at all the ways that the product negatively impacts the environment.

Looking at ways to increase the useful life of a product

There is variety of design strategies to extend a products useful life.

Design for durability Durability is the amount of one gets from a product before it breaks
down and replacement is preferable to repair.

Design for reliability Reliability is the ability of a product to neither malfunction nor fail within
a specified time period.

Create an adaptable design A modular design allows for continuous improvement of the
various functions.
Repair Feasibility of replacing nonfunctioning components to attain specified performance.

Remanufacture Worn parts are restored to like-new condition to attain specified

performance.

Reuse Find additional use for the product or its components after the product has been
retired from its original service.

Recyclability Reprocessing of the product to recover some or all of the materials from which
it is made.

Disposability All materials that are not recycled can be legally and safely disposed of.

The accepted way of assessing the effects that products and processes have on the
environment is with life-assessment. Life-cycle assessment proceeds in three stages:

Inventory analysis The flows of energy and materials to and from the product during its life
are determined quantitatively.

Impact analysis Consideration of all potential environmental consequences of the flows

cataloged above.

Improvements analysis Results of the above two steps are translated into specific action
that reduce the impact of the product or the process on the environment.
6.8.1 Design for Environment

We can divide DFE practices into two broad categories: those involving material recycling and
remanufacture, and those avoiding the use of or production of hazardous substances.

Design for material recovery and reuse

Design for reassembly: Provide for easy access and removal of components. Avoid embedding
a part in an incompatible material. Minimize the use of adhesives and welds.

Design for product waste minimization: Minimize the amount of material used by avoiding
overdesign. This also saves cost.

Design for waste recovery and reuse in processing: Since the selection of the material for a
part is intimately associated with how it be manufactured, consider as a part of this decision
process the environmental implications for manufacturing.

Design for packaging recovery: Be alert for changes in industrial packaging that re allowing for
the recovery, recycling and reuse of packaging

Avoid the use of hazardous or undesirable materials: Keep up on changes on government

regulations and list of hazardous materials. Avoid all of these if possible.

Consider the environmental hazards of production workers: The overall design should consider
the people who work on the production line to make the product.

Design for noise reduction: Design the system so that the noise does not exceed a preset
threshold and insulate the source of the noise by enclosing it or by designing the foundation so
that the noise does not escape to the environment.