Evolution.

Diagram by SZE TSUNG LEONG Evolution of retail types

7000 B.C.E.: City of atalhyk founded for the trade of commodities

c. 1500 B.C.E.: Market at Thebes

c. 400 B.C.E.: The Greek agora conflates public forum and marketplace

Seventh century B.C.E.: Lydians invent retail shops

Several centuries B.C.E.: Chains of retail stores are known to have operated in China
0

c. 110: Trajan's Market

shop
agoramarketplace
 Middle Ages: Marketplace as civic center
11001300: Rise of trade causes significant growth of shops
1200

143544: Leone Battista Alberti writes Della Famiglia, from which

the capitalist maxim "time is money" would later be derived.

1514: House of Raphael, Rome, Bramante

Lock-up stalls
1500

bazaar
156668: Royal Exchange, London
1580

Late 16th century: Fabric bazaar, Isfahan

Early 17th century: Growth of markets in Europe

1606: New Exchange, London
1600

1608: Amsterdam Exchange

exch
 1620

hanges
17th century: Explosion of shops due to rise in credit
1640

1657: Boston Town Hall and Marketplace

166771: Second Royal Exchange, London

1660
1680

18th century: Rise of bourgeoisie

1700
 1720: Antoine Watteau, L'Enseigne de Gersaint

1720
1740

1762: Foire St. Germain, Paris (established 1462)

1760

1786: First arcade:

Galeries de Bois, Paris
1780

stock exchange
1791: Passage Feydeau, Paris

1799: Passage du Caire, Paris 1793: First magasin de nouveaut, Paris

1800: Passage des Panoramas, Paris
1800

1808: Passage Delorme, Paris

arcades

1811: Passage Montesquieu, Paris

magas
 181618: Royal Opera Arcade, London

181819: Burlington Arcade, London

1820: Passage de la Monnaie, Brussels
1822: Arcades influence prison reform
1823: Passage de l'Opra, Paris
1825: Passage Choiseul, Paris
1826: Philadelphia Arcade, Phil. 1824: Introduction of fixed prices

in de nouveauts
1827: Design for a Kaufhaus (Karl Friedrich Schinkel)
1820

1827: Weybosset Arcade, Providence

1828: Galerie d'Orlans, Paris
1829: Lowther Arcade, London
1831: Royal Arcade, Newcastle
1831: Galerie de Cristoforis, Milan

european bazaar
1831: Galerie Bordelaise, Bordeaux

1816-1840
183739: Passage Lemonnier, Lige
184043: Passage Pommeraye, Nantes 1840s: Charles Henry Harrod takes over
184243: Exeter Arcade, London a small grocery shop
Crystal Palace
Sillem's Bazar, Hamburg
1845: Passage Jouffroy, Paris
184647: Galeries St. Hubert, Brussels
1840

1853: Halles Centrales, Paris

1851: Crystal Palace, London (Joseph Paxton)
1852: First department store: Au Bon March, Paris
1853: Queen's Arcade, Melbourne
1855: Utopian arcade projects, London:
Crystal Way and Great Victorian Way
1858: Messrs Osler's shop, London
1858: Macy's, New York

1859: First modern chain store:

Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co.,
1863: Knigin Augusta Halle, Cologne New York

Mobility
186577 Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Milan
1860

1869: Royal Arcade, Melbourne

1871: Barton Arcade, Manchester

1873: Lancaster Avenue, Manchester 1872: Bloomingdales, New York
1874: Galleria Subalpina, Turin
1875: Great Western Arcade, Birmingham
1878: Thornton's Arcade, Leeds
1879: Royal Arcade, London 1879: First Woolworth's, Lancaster, Pa.
1880: Galleria Manzini, Genoa 1879: Second Woolworth's, Utica, N.Y.
1882: Passage du Nord, Brussels
188385: Passage, The Hague
1883: Emile Zola, Au Bonheur des Dames

galleria
1884: Marks & Spencers, London
Three-Ring Circus

1887: Kaiser Passage, Karlsruhe

museums
1880

1888: Queen's Arcade, Leeds

188893: GUM, Moscow 1890: 12 Woolworth's shops
Cleveland Arcade, Cleveland
1890: Alexandra Arcade, Swansea
Galleria Nazionale, Turin
chain stores

1896: Siegel-Cooper, New York

1896: Wanamakers, New York
1897: County Arcade, Leeds
1899: City Arcades, Birmingham 18991904: Carson, Pirie, Scott, Chicago (Sullivan)
1899: 54 Woolworth's shops
1900: Kaiser Wilhelm Passage, Frankfurt am Main
1901: Georgs Passage, Hannover 1901: A lInnovation department store, Brussels (Victor Horta)

1904: Central Arcade, Wolverhampton 1902: Macys, Marshall Fields, and JC Penneys
department

1905: Harrods moves into present-day location (Stevens & Hunt)

1907: Friedrichstrassenpassage, Berlin
1900

total escalators worldwide

1907: Neiman Marcus, Dallas

1908: Selfridges, London (Daniel Burnham)
190911: Pariser Hof, Budapest 190812: Whiteley's building, London (Belcher & Joass)
High Architecture

1912: Piccadilly Arcade, London 1909: 238 Woolworth's shops

1911: Goldman & Salatsch, Vienna (Adolf Loos)
st
 191213: Woolworth's Building, New York
1914: Mdler Passage, Leipzig 1915: Mitsukoshi Depato, Tokyo
"Before World War I the arcade died an almost
official death; no building authority would
1916: Peachtree Arcade, Atlanta permit it in its nineteenth-century form . . . no
real estate authority could permit such an
exploitation of land."
Johann Friedrich Geist, Arcades.
1919: 1,081 Woolworth's shops
1920s: First outlet stores, New England
1922: First unified shopping mall: Country Club Plaza, Kansas City

1925: Galleria Piazza Colonna, Rome 1925: Sears, Roebuck, Chicago

1927: Hankyu Terminal Depato, Tokyo
1920

1928: Adam Department Store Project, Berlin (Mies van der Rohe)
1928: Schocken
4,190
Department Store, Stuttgart (Erich Mendelsohn) 1,543,158

tore
1930: First supermarket: King Kullen, N.Y. 1929: 766 Woolworth's shops in Britain alone

Depato
total

1930: Self-service introduced, Los Angeles 1930: Department stores branch out to suburbs
indivi
dual st
ores,
US

4,074 1,770,355

1941: 82 Woolworth's shops in Germany alone

franchise
"a few hundred" 2700
1940

2,645 1,771,317
3700

1950: First open-air mall: Northgate, Seattle

1951: First dumbell plan: Framingham, Mass.
195153: Lijnbaan, Rotterdam (van den Broek & Bakema)
1,721,650

Ms. Consumer
1954: Victor Gruen's first mall: Northland, Detroit
2,761

1956: First enclosed mall: Southdale, Minneapolis (Victor Gruen)

1957: First duty-free shop, 2,900

duty-free
500 Bijenkorf, Rotterdam
1957: De3,157 1957: Original Toys"R"Us,
Shannon airport, Ireland 1,788,325
(Marcel Breuer) Washington, D.C.

supermarket
1960: 40% of
High Architecture

Americans

total
1962: First Wal-Mart

pedestrian mall
shop in 10,000 7,100 1,707,931
4,251

conven
supermarkets 1964: Yorkdale Shopping Plaza, Toronto: 72 acres; parking for 6,736 cars

ience
1965: British Airports

Gruen Urbanism

st
tot
Authority established

Three-Ring Circus

ores,
al d

5,792 1,191,546
1960

ep

1968: Dominion Center, Toronto

mail order/catalogue shopping

U.S.
art
me

(Mies van der Rohe) 1969: First GAP, San Francisco

n

45,700
32
13,000
t st

superstore
1970: Wal-Mart:
or

19,000 1971: The Galleria, Houston

es,

21,538 7,742 $31 million in sales 1,264,922

US

24,516
outlets

26,870

tota
30,470

l ma
ll

hypermarket superette
1976: Price Club, San Diego

Suburban Model
30,200

s, U.S
32,200

.
8,807 1,855,068
1977: Privatization of British
33,904
Wal-Mart

Airports Authority
35,750
(BAA) 1979: Home Depot, Atlanta
22,000 276
36,576
37,400
1980: Wal-Mart: $1 billion in sales
1981: Largest mall: West Edmonton

convenience store
9,981 1,923,228

Good Intentions
to
ta
l

City of Shopping
W

Tokyo Metabolism
al

Real(i)ty
M

66,000 25,500
ar
ts

76,000
80,000 30,641 10,041 1,503,593
1980

drive-thru

1988: Washington's Union Station remodeled

Next Big Thing

82,500 32,563
Mall

83,000 34,683
. . . And Then There Was Shopping

36,515
1990: Wal-Mart: $25.8 billion
1,531
in sales
category

Early 1990s: Heathrow known as "Thiefrow" 84,500

1992: BAA opens mall at Pittsburg Airport 84,500 37,975
1991 Total U.S. department store sales: $177.88 billion 1991: U.S. mail-order sales: $91.50 billion
38,966
shopping mall
1992: Mall of America 1992 Siegel-Cooper, New York, turned into vertical power center billion

airport
1995: BAA classified as retail stock 84,400
strip mall

Total retail sales: $1,843.521,526,215

11,001
1995: Avg. sales: $970 / sq. ft. 39,543 199294: 55% of new U.S. retail = big box
40,281 1994: 80% of new U.S. retail = category killers
1995: Worldwide duty-free sales: $20.5 billion
41,151
1996: Grand Central Station undergoes $175 million renovation 1995: 4.97 billion sq. ft. total leasable retail area 1995: Wal-Mart: $93.6 billion
1,528
in sales 1995: 12,952 retail failures in U.S.

shopping resorts
42,048 Donna Karan, London
warehouse clubs

1996: Heathrow Terminal 2 refurbished 1997: As many as one in five malls will close Largest retailer in the world 1996:
1997: Niketown, New York
1997: Avg. sales: $1,0001,200 / sq. ft. (vs. $200300 for malls) 160,000
discounters

1999: Abolishment of intra-E.U. duty-free

1,722
railway station shopping
2000: Wal-Mart:

shopping
churches

$165 billion in sales

killers

"American retailing is heading for a 'die-out' of

Captive

Darwiniam proportions . . . Wal-Mart CEO David

Glass and Stanley Marcus are predicting that 50
virtual shopping
e-urope

75% of present retail will be extinct within a

decade." Dale M. Lewison, Retailing.
Resistance
Nikecology
2000

Disney Space

Divine Economy
Bit Structures

Ms. Consumer
Jerde Transfer
entertainment shopping
 1902: Macys, Marshall Fields, and JC Penneys
36 Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping
Evolution of retail types (detail)
1905: Harrods moves into present-day location (Stevens & Hunt)

calators worldwide
1907: Neiman Marcus, Dallas
1908: Selfridges, London (Daniel Burnham)
190812: Whiteley's building, London (Belcher & Joass)

Architecture
1909: 238 Woolworth's shops
1911: Goldman & Salatsch, Vienna (Adolf Loos)

191213: Woolworth's Building, New York

1915:
"Before World War I the arcade died an almost
Mitsukoshi Depato, Tokyo
official death; no building authority would
permit it in its nineteenth-century form . . . no
real estate authority could permit such an
exploitation of land."
Johann Friedrich Geist, Arcades.
1919: 1,081 Woolworth's shops
1920s: First outlet stores, New England
1922: First unified shopping mall: Country Club Plaza, Kansas City

1925: Sears, Roebuck, Chicago

1927: Hankyu Terminal Depato, Tokyo
1928: Adam Department Store Project, Berlin (Mies van der Rohe)
1928: Schocken
4,190
Department Store, Stuttgart (Erich Mendelsohn)

t store
en, N.Y. 1929: 766 Woolworth's shops in Britain alone

Depato
eles 1930: Department stores branch out to suburbs

4,074

1941: 82 Woolworth's shops in Germany alone

franchise
"a few hundred" 2700

2,645
3700

1950: First open-air mall: Northgate, Seattle

Hi

mail ord

shopp
 1951: First dumbell plan: Framingham, Mass.
195153: Lijnbaan, Rotterdam (van den Broek & Bakema)
1954: Victor Gruen's first mall: Northland, Detroit
2,761

1956: First enclosed mall: Southdale, Minneapolis (Victor Gruen)

2,900
Bijenkorf, Rotterdam
1957: De3,157 1957: Original Toys"R"Us,
(Marcel Breuer) Washington, D.C.

igh Architecture
1962: First Wal-Mart
7,100
4,251
1964: Yorkdale Shopping Plaza, Toronto: 72 acres; parking for 6,736 cars

tot
al d
5,792

ep
1968: Dominion Center, Toronto
der/catalogue shopping

art
m
(Mies van der Rohe) 1969: First GAP, San Francisco

en
45,700

t
32
13,000

st
1970: Wal-Mart:

ore
1971: The Galleria, Houston

s,
7,742 $31 million in sales

US
outlets

tota
l ma
1976: Price Club, San Diego

lls, U
.S.
8,807

1981: Largest mall: West Edmonton

22,000 Wal-Mart 1979: Home Depot, Atlanta
276
1980: Wal-Mart: $1 billion in sales
9,981
to
t alW
al
M

25,500
ar
ts

30,641 10,041

drive-thru
Next Big Thing

32,563

Mall
34,683

. . . And Then There Was Shopping

36,515
1990: Wal-Mart: $25.8 billion
1,531
in sales
category

37,975
1991 Total U.S. department store sales: $177.88 billion 1991: U.S. mail-o
38,966

ping mall
1992: Mall of America 1992 Siegel-Cooper, New York, turned into vertical power center Total retail sales

strip mall
11,001
39,543 199294: 55% of new U.S. retail = big box
40,281 1994: 80% of new U.S. retail = category killers
41,151
leasable retail area
1995: 4.97 billion sq. ft. total42,048 1995: Wal-Mart: $93.6 billion
1,528
in sales 1995: 12,952 retail
1996: Donna Kara
warehouse clubs

1997: As many as one in five malls will close Largest retailer in the world 1997: Niketown, N
160,000
discounters

37

1,722
Div
entertainment sh

killer

churches
 1904: Central Arcade, Wolverhampton 190
38 Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping
Evolution of retail types (detail)
190
1907: Friedrichstrassenpassage, Berlin
calators worldwide
190
190
190911: Pariser Hof, Budapest 190
Architecture

1912: Piccadilly Arcade, London

191

1914: Mdler Passage, Leipzig 191

1916: Peachtree Arcade, Atlanta
"Before World War I the arcade died an almost
official death; no building authority would
permit it in its nineteenth-century form . . . no
real estate authority could permit such an
exploitation of land."
Johann Friedrich Geist, Arcades.

1922: First unified shopping

1925: Galleria Piazza Colonna, Rome 192

192
192
192
t store

1930: First supermarket: King Kullen, N.Y.

Depato

1930: Self-service introduced, Los Angeles 193

"a few hundred" 2700

3700

1950: First open-air mall: Northg

pedestri

superma
Ms. Consu
d
shopp
 1951: First dumbell plan: Framin
195153: Lijnbaan, Rotterdam (v

umer
1954: Victor Gruen's first mall: N
1956: First enclosed mall: So
1957: First duty-free shop, 2,900

duty-free
500 195
Shannon airport, Ireland (Ma

arket
1960: 40% of

tota
Americans

ian mall
shop in 10,000 7,100

l conv
supermarkets 1964: Yorkdale Shopping Plaza,

enien
c
1965: British Airports

Gruen Urbanism

e stor
Authority established

Three-Ring Circus
1968: Dominion Center, Toronto

es, U.S
.
(Mies van der Rohe) 45,700
13,000

superstore
19,000 1971: The Galleria, Houston
21,538
24,516
26,870
tota

30,470
l ma

hypermarket superette
Suburban Model

30,200
lls, U

32,200
.S.

1977: Privatization of British

33,904
Airports Authority
35,750
(BAA)
36,576 22,000
37,400 1981: Largest mall: West Edmon

convenience store
Good Intentions
City of Shopping

Tokyo Metabolism
Real(i)ty

66,000 25,500
76,000
80,000 30,641
drive-thru

1988: Washington's Union Station remodeled

82,500
32,563
Mall

83,000 34,683
Early 1990s: Heathrow known as "Thiefrow" 84,500 36,515
1992: BAA opens mall at Pittsburg Airport 84,500 37,975
199
38,966
ping mall

1992: Mall of America 199

airport
1995: BAA classified as retail stock 84,400
strip mall

1995: Avg. sales: $970 / sq. ft. 39,543

40,281
1995: Worldwide duty-free sales: $20.5 billion
41,151
1996: Grand Central Station undergoes $175 million renovation 1995: 4.97 billion sq. ft. total lea
shopping resorts

42,048
1996: Heathrow Terminal 2 refurbished 1997: As many as one in five m
1997: Avg. sales: $1,0001,200 / sq. ft. (vs. $200300 for malls)
1999: Abolishment of intra-E.U. duty-free
railway station shopping

shopping
Cap
Evolution of retail mechanisms 0

Counter

Mannequin 1323 B.C.E.: First known mannequin, made of wood, found in the tomb of King Tutankhamen

Abacus 2300500 B.C.E.: Invention of abacus

Printing Second century: Printing developed in China

Mirror First century: Reflecting metal large enough to reflect the whole body is produced

2500 B.C.E.: glass thought to have originated in Mesopotamia

Glass flat glass known to have been used in Pompeii for windows

Barter 1000: Song

1200 B.C.E.: Cowrie shells used as money in China 300: Roman coin Dynasty coin
687 B.C.E.: Invention of coins in Lydia coincides with invention of retail shop 80621: Paper money

shop
Money 600 B.C.E.: Round, metal coins invented in China invented in China
118 B.C.E.: Leather money issued in China

agoramarketplace
Roads Roman road systems

45 B.C.E.: Pedestrian zones officially

Pedestrian zones legislated in Rome

Mobility

Lighting 500400 B.C.E.: Oil lamps 0: Candles in general production

Diagram by SZE TSUNG LEONG

Topiary

Money

Glass

Movement

Lighting

Communication

Nature
1200 1500 1580 1600

1450: Gutenberg press

Late 12th century: Glass with metallic backing is used for mirrors

Crown glass Middle Ages and later: Crown glass, made by spinning, used in windows

Paper Money

exch
bazaar
 1620 1640 1660 1680 1700

Slide rule

Calculator 1642: First gear-driven mechanical calculator

17th century: Metal coins, paper notes, and bookkeeping entries become standard practice in Europe

Credit 17th century: use of credit leads to explosion in number of shops

Mid-17th century: Mirror making extends fom Venice to London and Paris

1688: cast glass invented

Cast glass Late 1600s: First appearance of
glazed shop fronts in Holland

Newspaper advertising 1666: First newspaper advertising supplement, London Gazette

hanges Sidewalk 1666: Sidewalks provided in London after the Great Fire

Mobility
French landscape gardening

English picturesque landscape

Replascape
 1720 1740 1760 1780 1800

Late 18th early 19th century: Use of paper money and bank notes spreads throughout Europe

Sprinkler system 1800: First sprinkler system

maga
Skylight Skylight enables the arcades

stock exchange1784: Gas lighting arcades

Late 18th century: Scientific construction of roads first since Roman times

Kiosk Early 18th century: Kiosk originates in Islamic architecture

 1820 1840 1860 1900

1888: Liquid crystals discovered

Telephone order
1876: Alexander Graham Bell
Telephone patents telephone

Mail order 1872: First mail-order catalogue sent to farmers by Montgomery Ward
Late 19th century: Completion of continental rail network in the
U.S.A. facilitates mail-order. Mail order system established in Europe

Magazine advertising 1666: First newspaper advertising supplement, London Gazette

1833: Difference engine invented by Charles Babbage

1903: Pneumatic tube
Fixed prices 1824: Fixed prices introduced Catalogues Pneumatic tube provides communication

chain storesPublic lavatories

within large buildings

department st
1869: First elevator
Elevator in a department
1870s: Parmelee heat-sensitive sprinkler head introduced in the U.S. store, Paris Ms. Consumer
1892: Wheeler and Reno escalator patents
Grand staircase 1895: Escalator
1859: Ames escalator patent Escalator installed in

museums
1851: Crystal Palace, London Crystal Palace Harrods, London
19th century: Production of full-length mirror used for dressing purposes Escalator

1842: John Gorrie proposes cooling cities 1889: Citywide pipeline refrigeration
Mid-19th century: Glass becomes mass produced
in de nouveauts 1850: Largest available sheet of glass: 78 feet by 34 feet
1843: Account of floor-to-ceiling glass, London
1828: Largest available sheet of glass: 4 feet by 5 feet 1874: First known moving platform proposal Moving
Railroads
galleria
19th century: Development of railroads

Neon
1820: Gas street lighting, Pall Mall, London
19th century: Coal gas distributed to buildings for lighting 1870: Incandescent electric lamp Late 19th century: First neon light
183870: Citywide sidewalk system built in Paris

Display case Vending machine 1883: First vending

machine, London
european bazaar
1816-1840
Silent salesmen
Ms. Consumer

1892: First coupon

Coupons introduced by C. W. Post to
promote Grape-Nuts cereal
 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
virtual shopping e-urope
Internet Bit Structures

Flat-screen display

LCD entertainment shopping

WAP
1963: First LCD display
1923: First wax mannequin, Moulin Rouge, Paris 1945: First plastic mannequin Animatronics
mail-order/catalogue shopping

ReplascapeTM
Radio advertising 1920s Billboards ReplascapeTM

1913: Parcel-post system established in U.S. 1945: Greatest expansion of mail order in Europe Global positioning
1960: Computerized mailing lists warehouse clubs
Computer outlets
Early 20th century: Regulation of advertising for truth category
Wal-Mart killers
Logistics
discounters Mobilize
1946: ENIAC calculator, housed in a 30 by 50 foot room
1944: Mark I calculator by IBM 1967: First hand-held electronic calculator by Texas Instruments

TV 1926: First working television Early 1950s: Color TV ATM 1970s: First automated
Smart card
teller machines
churches
Customer tracking

tore
1920s: Credit cards first used in the 1950: First universal credit card
Credit card franchise
U.S. for individual companies introduced by Diner's Club
2000: Avg. credit
card debt in the
Escalator aids growth of department store
Customer profiling Debit card U.S. is $2,814

Air conditioning
Revolving door Geographic Information Systems
Air Conditioning

strip mall
1919: First department store air-conditioned drive-thru Ulterior Spaces
1902: Stock Exchange air-conditioned
Float glass

shopping mall
1959: The float glass process ensures perfectly flat glass
1905: Air Conditioning coined by Stuart Cramer
1900: Moving sidewalk at Paris Exposition
sidewalk Air conditioning and highways enable the shopping mall Surveillance systems
Mobility 1925: First modern superhighway: Bronx River Parkway
Highway 1920s: Italian Autostrada and German Reichautobanen Mobility
Skywalks
pedestrian mall
1930s: Fluorescent tube
1950s: Pedestrianization of
1968: Fiber optics
Late 1970s: Over 200 pedestrian malls in U.S.
European city centers
Consumer psychology

airport
UPC railway station shopping
Late 1940s: Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver apply
for patents for the U.P.C. symbol and its decoder
Psychogramming
Bit Structures

shopping
duty free
UPC code coincides with growth of supermarket size
Shopping cart
supermarket
Early 1920s: First shopping cart made in Houston, Texas

Ms. Consumer
Optical scanner 1975: First optical
shopping scanners
resorts
used at checkout counters
Self-service 1956: Gordon Gould inventssuperette
laser
hypermarket 1985: Gould receives patent
superstore
and applies for patent
Mid-20th century: Electrically driven mechanical cash register Late 1970s: Electronically driven cash register,
Cash register
convenience store enabling instant credit checks, recording of
transactions, and inventory control
 0

heating
evaporative cooling
1620

chemical refrigeration
1802: Heating in textile mills
by Boulton and Watt
1805: Closed-cycle compression refrigeration
described by Oliver Evans

1800
Early 1800s: The natural ice industry becomes
an international enterprise

cooling

steam heating
refrigeration
vacuum refrigeration
1654 Z. Coke Logick (1657) 88 "Causall Identity
is not them that agree in Accidents."

1834: Closed-cycle compression refrigeration system

1640 1820
patented by Jacob Perkins

comfort cooling
1830: Hot water radiators installed
Westminster Hospital, London

1833: Patent for Base Burner Stove

Ne w York

compression refrigeration

radiator
1839: Houses of Parliament, London
plans for heating and ventilating
Index to evolution diagrams

184042: Heating in Pentoville Prison, London 1842: Proposal for cooling cities
1669 GALE Crt. Gentiles I.I. iii. 21 "That the
John Gorrie

complex stoves
Phenicians were originally Canaanites, is
manifest from the Identitie of their
Languages".

16601840

ice machines
1851: Air-cycle compression refrigeration system
patented by John Gorrie 1851: Liquid vapor-compression ice machine

hot-air heating
patented by Alexander Twining

1856: Ether compression ice machine

patented by James Harrison
1860s: Large industrial fans produced

manual ice harvesting

ventilation theories
1680
1860

fans
organizations, new market infrastructure.

ventilation
form of business and commercial
system, breaking up of social borders, new 1870s: Comfort cooling attempted
evolution: commodification of leisure, fashion by passing air over chilled pipes
industrial evolution; was also a commercial
in several buildings in France and England
1873: Steam-powered fans developed
for hospitals
1877: Lockport District, New York,
heated from a central source
Birdsill Holly

1880: Hotel dining room in Staten Island, N.Y.,

comfort cooled by passing air over ice

hospitals
1700
1880
1889: Carnegie Hall 1889: Pipeline refrigeration
comfort cooled by passing air over ice provides refrigeration on an urban scale
1890: Electric fans

district heating
1890: Great Ice Famine
creates worldwide ice shortages

Evolution of air conditioning ( Air Conditioning, 12425)

0
theaters
1899: First cooling and dehumidification system
Dissecting Room, Cornell Medical Building, New York
Alfred Wolff

200ft
1902: Willis Carrier tries unsuccessfully to dehumidify air
1902: Man-Made Weather coined by Willis Carrier
1904: New York Stock Exchange 1904: First public building comfort cooled
Louisiana Purchase Exposition 1905: Air conditioning coined by Stuart Cramer
1906: Larkin Office Building 1906: Apparatus for Treating Air patented by Willis Carrier

1900
Buffalo 1907: Metropolitan Museum of Art

1720
Frank Lloyd Wright refers 1908: Psychrometric chart developed by Willis Carrier
to indoor weather control
as Air conditioning
1911: Air conditioning recognized as an official branch of engineering

dehumidification
1913: American Tobacco Company Plant
installs Carrier air-conditioning unit
1917: New Empire Theater
Montgomery, Alabama

museums
1920: Paramount Movie Houses
1919: Abraham & Strauss Paris
New York 1921: Grauman's Metropolitan Theater
First air-conditioned department store

man made weather

Los Angeles 1922: Centrifugal refrigeration machine makes air conditioning of large spaces possible
1922: Macy's
1924: Palace, Texan, and Iris Theaters
New York
Houston

factories
1924: J.L. Hudson Department Store
1925: Rivoli Theater
Detroit

1920
New York
1928: Millam Building, Chicago 1928: Residential air-conditioning unit

office buildings
developed by Willis Carrier

1740
1930: Freon

climate control

1932: Philadelphia Savings
Fund Society Building
heat conductors
1932:
1751 HARRIS Hermes Wks. (1841) 233 "Is it not Atmospheric Cabinet
marvellous, there should be so exact an Carrier
identity of out ideas?"

1938: Eliminating all 1938: 92% of U.S. theaters

windows in air-conditioned
selling spaces . . . adds 1938: Fortune Magazine publishes
to selling efficiency Air Conditioning of Office Buildings
Department Store Economist

residential
1948: No modern store can function properly . . . without air conditioning
1940

Progressive Architecture 1949: United Nations Building

Climatized air delivered through pipes in the curtain wall

shopping
1950: Air conditioning 1949: The Pentagon 1950: Air conditioning is America's second-fastest growing industry after television
Air-conditioned by Carrier
1760

has reshaped every 1952: Plug-in electric air conditioner

element of the modern 12 million cubic feet of air cooled each minute
1952: air-conditioning companes in existence
20
store Victor Gruen 1954: air-conditioning companes in existence
92
1955: U.S. Government officially
1956: Southdale Mall sponsors use of air conditioning 1955: 5% of American homes have air conditioning
Edina in government buildings
First climate-controlled mall
Carrier system made
for glass skyscrapers 1960: 12% of American homes have air conditioning
1961: Milano Rinascente Store
a technological building for a historical setting
1963: There is no question that the public 1967: Queen Elizabeth Hall
sees air conditioning as an absolute necessity. London
Progressive Architecture The form takes its cue direclty
from the air-flow within

1970: 36% of American homes have air conditioning

HVAC
197277: World Trade Center
19601780

air-conditioned cars
1980: 55% of American homes have air conditioning
1980: Freon banned
1986: Heat Pipe technology as a result of ozone damage
patented by Khan Dinh (U.S.)

1986: Mall of America

Minneapolis
1980s: Environmentally friendly refrigerants

heat

Variable Air Volume

1980s90s: NASA uses HPT in space
Diagram by SZE TSUNG LEONG and SRDJAN JOVANOVIC WEISS

1996: Disney Village, St. Petersburgh, Florida,

VAV system
air conditioning
cooled by HPT
weathermaster environmental control
smell control

1996: Dali Museum, St. Petersburgh, Florida,

1980 1800

draft control

cooled by HPT
hot plate

1997: 84% of malls air-conditioned pipes

pre-cooled air

dehumidifier heat pipe

heat superconductor

identific
 women.
cultural values, happy domesticity, natural
emotional gratification, ethnic / national
critique of modernization; naturalness,
romanticism: the quesst of authenticity as a

2000
1820
1800

cation
1816-1840
1839 MURCHISON Silur, Syst. I. xxxv. 474 "The
organic remains are of great interest in
establishing the geological identity between
the coal measures of the Dudley district and
those of distant parts of Great Britain.

1840
1829 Sir William Congreve
schemes for perpetuum mobile

1855 H. SPENCER Princ. Psychol. (1872) II. VI. vi.

59 "Resemblance when it exists in the highest
degree of all .. is often called identity."
Diagram by SRDJAN JOVANOVIC WEISS

nature.
international exhibitions domestication of
1850 - 1870: prosperous mid-Victorian years,

1863 FAWCETT Pol. Econ. II. ix. 265 "There is no

identity of interests between the employers
1840

and employed".

1860
Diagram by HIROMI HOSOYA and MARKUS SCHAEFER
installations of the escalator

1876 TAIT Rec. Adv. Phys. St. viii. (ed.2) 203

"The identity of radiant light and heat". 1859: revolving stairs protoescalator U.S. patent

1859 U.S. patent Nathan Ames

invention and evolution of the escalator

revolving stairs - protoescalator
1879 FROUDE Caesar vxiii. 298 "united .. by 1880s: Branding has been used to since the earliest times
identity of conviction". distinguish the goods of one producer from those of another.
Indeed, the word 'brnad' came from the Old Norse word
1860

'brandr', which means to burn.

1880
organization of production.
market, rationalization of form and
goods, geographical / social spreading of the
1880 - 1930: mass production of consumer
1880

stepless escalator
"fingerprints", defined in Original 1892 U.S. patent Jesse W.Reno inclined elevator
Encyclopedia. 1892 U.S. patent George H.Wheeler
189296: stepless escalators installed in Bloomingdale's, New York
1896 Renos inclined elevator 189596: stepless escalators installed in Harrod's, London
Coney Island

1900
1898 European patent Escalator prototype 1898 Wheelers patent sold to Charles D.Seeberger
M.Halle stepless escalator Otis, Paris Expo 1900 1899 Seeberger partners with Otis
1900: Otiss first escalator at the Paris World Fair 1900: Otis's first escalator at the Paris World Fair
Seeberger experiments with spiral moving stairs under Otis
1901: escalators installed in Gimbels, Philadelphia
19013: escalators installed in Macy's, New York
19023: patent adaptation for Luna Park at Coney Island
1903 Renos patent sold to Otis
1905: 8 escalators in a factory in Lawrence, Mass.
1906 Otiss patent 1906 M.Hocquardt European Fahrtreppe 1906: escalators installed in Bon March, Paris
1900

combines Seebergers and Renos ; 1906: Macy's counts customers on escalators and elevators

1911: escalator in the London underground

1914: escalator in Mitsukoshi store, Japan

1918: escalator profit formula for 5 & 10 Cents Stores, New York
the escalator enables
the department store

1920 Otis redesign 1920: escalator redesigned for horizontal stepping on/off

1920
ideology of affluence.
Fordism: 1920s, first proclaimed general
1920

0.0
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1.0

Paul

0.0
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1896 "The Aetiology of Hysteria" by Freud

0.0
Watson at 0.2
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1.0
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1.0
2 millions of pounds 2 millions of pounds "same of a person or thing at all time"
9 millions of pounds 9 millions of pounds
31 millions of pounds 31 millions of pounds 1935 Mitsubishi escalator
1935: Japanese Mitsubishi escalator

Gallup
1938 Schindler escalator

Psychoanalysis
Alfred Politz called "motivational research
"pseudo science" and "pure unadulterated
1941 Otis redesign
balderdash,". handrail extended

1913 "Totem and Taboo" by Freud

1940
36
1945: 1,600 total number of escalators in the U.S. 1,600
1940

Dichter says "Most of us try to explain our 1945: 2,700 total number of escalators in the U.S. 2700
78 behaviour in an intelligent way,when very escalator patent adjudged 1949 Otis crisscross escalators 1949: escalator patent adjudged from Otis
3,700 crisscross arangements for the Buffalo Departmemt store

J. Walter Thompson
78 often it is not."
Buffalo, N.Y.

Behaviorism
78

1.0 Lazarsfeld at Columbia

89

Bernays Crystallizing Public Opinion

1912 "The Neurotic Constitution" by Adler
2 millions of pounds 2 millions of pounds
96
Ernest Dichter called Politz's traditional

TAT
"name, artifact of interaction", Nelson Foote, "process' vis a vis 'continuous'
102
"continuous, located in the deep" as self- Sociology, definition destinguished from statistical research "nose-counting".
107
conception, and as self-image. Freud's; "appropriation of and commitment to
120 57
a particular identity or series
34 of identity".

Dichter works on Ivory Soap

society (J.K. Galbraith)
1950s / 1970s: organization man, affluent

Marcel Mauss

1933 "Psychological Types" by Jung

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
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1.0
1.2

0.0
0.2
0.4
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1.0
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0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0
1.2
0.2
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1.0
1.2
PAT0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

"identity" reached to generality.

Starch Index of Advertising Recall

Japan total Radio ads.
1960

1960

602 million yen 670 million yen 4,092 million yen 4,208 million yen 602 million yen 670 million yen 4,092 million yen 4,208 million yen

Rorschach Test Sentence Completion

"in de Certeau "Practice of Everyday Life", 1984
U.S. - Escalators annual sales

Japa

1954 "Motivation
n

1913 "Psychology as the Behaviorist Sees It" by Watson

704 797 4,550 5,093

statistical research
the world's escalators

125

1927 "Conditioned Reflexes" by Pavlov

1

id-ego-superego
1970: U.S.: 329 escalators operate in office buildings 1970

tota
l
811 877 5,068 143 5,847

Projection 1938 "Explorations in Personality"

Thematic Apperception

Ne

Motivation

1959 "Identity
176

Analytical Psychology
908 951 5,702 6,535

wsp
with a single escalator able

210
1,061 1,119 6,554

aper
203 7,508 1974: Mitsubishi: accumulated 5,000 escalators

Test

4,092 million
7,086

ads.
can move the

1,169 1,281 236 7,883

Japa

ac c
n

4,208 million
UK total
UK total
307
Photosort
1,450 7,572

670 million
1,264 8,389
um
tota

Japan total
398
1,330 1,565 7,993
l TV

9,055

TV ads.
TV ads.

ula
482

Projective Techniques

founds American Institute of Public Opinion

1980
ad
s.

1,425 1,739 8,369 471 9,620

stimulus substitution
tion

Magazine
to move 7,0008,000 people per hour,

1,501 1,857 8,468 692 10,307

o
in less than 4 days

ads.
809 1983: Mitsubishi: accumulated 10,000 escalators
world's population

1,612 2,230 8,887 10,633

Pckard The0.4Hidden Persuaders

by Murray
f es
928

Self
1,633 9,145 10,908

survey sampling
2,382 1,110 1985 spiral escalator, 1985: Landmark Tower, Yokohama
cala

Conditioningemotional conditioning
1,727 2,577 9,882 1,245 11,745 escalator with curved plan
1980

PRIZM
409

lead by Alfred Politz

tor
1,879 460 2,962 2,334 11,267 1,374
13,161 Mitsubishi
s
504 1,674 1989: Mitsubishi: accumulated 15,000 escalators

VALS
doubles every ten years

wo
identity 2,507 14,627 1990 1,404 1988: Odakyu Shinjuku Station

Cycle of Life
3,354

Research
111 2,084 12,725 1,872 1988 wheelchair escalator
1980

567 2,772 1990: 7,000 escalators sold anually worldwide

rld

Hierarchy of Needs
139 2,335
587 3,741 3,119 13,592 2,127 16,046 for the handicapped w
159 2,288 Mitsubishi
total number of escalators

2,406 541 3,866 3,206 13,445 16,793 1993: Mitsubishi: accumulated 20,000 escalators
ide
Balloons

163 478 2,902 2,325

3,692 12,172 16,526
149 2,350 424 2,597 2,295 1995: 9,000/year worldwide - 30,000 exists in the US 1,327

as culturally,
1996 Kobe Harborland Canal Garden
Sensations

157 2,113 3,417 2,545 11,087 2,472 15,891 waved escalator

402 1996: OTIS reports production of 2,050 /year, 60,000 in operation
194 2,631 1997: 15,000 escalators ordered annually escalator with horizontal midsection
2,029 437 3,473 11,211 2,604 16,435
243 2,806
N eo-liberalism: Thatcherism, Reagonomics
451 2,888 Mitsubishi
2,874
0 / year

2,082

OASYS
296 3,743 11,657 17,553 160,000
481 2,949 3,125 1997: OTIS plans accumulated 15,000 in China
300 / year
600 / year
900 / year

Adversary Groups

Japan total Magazine ads

344 344

Japan total Radio ads.

Japan total Newspaper ads.
2,181 2,181
1200 / year
1500 / year

583 4,073 3,571 12,379 3,333 19,162 583 4,073 3,571 12,379 3,333 19,162

ClusterPlus
Category Sculpting

and Personality" by Maslow

Global Scan
Target 3,333
VALS-2

ACORN Microvision

Living

and the Lifecycle" by Erikson

2000

GeoVALS

Scan
Emotional1,916,200

344 million
583 million
MONITOR JapanVALS
Evolution of identity ( Psychogramming, 57273)
Evolution of the escalator ( Escalator, 33839)

million
3,571 million
DuPont's Cohort study

218,100 million
407,300 million
1,237,900 million
million

Emotional Sonar
2000

Pictured Aspiration Technique Emotional Bonding

Cube
Lexicon

Eating typology

Postmodernism: "
data mining
emotional mining

historically malleable category

symbolic interactionism
are defined by lifestyle rather than

U.K. (television, newsp

Shoppers typology

Narcissism: "Narcissism is the p

contemporary positive evaluat

outside - are dangerously blurr

segmentation targeting to consum
The shift fo

boundaries between the privat

to commodity-signs and sign-value

between the self and the other

consumption depends on the a
growth consumption appears t
zero-sum-game: In a context of

capitalism, from commodities and e

public world - like the narcissist

been made possible by information
which also allows for increasing pre
post-Fordism, from organized to dis
Psychograph
open-ended economic expansio
strategy in a zero-sum-game. O

1958 "Typologies" by Dichter's Institute for Motivational Re

Segment

heart of a consumer society in w

single source dat

Japan (television, new

Advertising E
Advertising E
mass identity crisi
Fashion shoppers typo