similar to unit weight), which we will denote by jy. The 3 3 $ seepage force per unit volume is | 3 $ $ is = iY (1.34) 3 a 3 : a $ where / is the hydraulic gradient If seepage occurs downward (Fig. 1.8a), then the seepage stresses are in the same direction as the gravita- 4) Downward seepage (b) Upwardseepage _—tional effective stresses. From static equilibrium the FIGURE1.8 Seepage in soils. resultant vertical effective stress is: tity = Ve jz (1.35) If seepage occurs upward, (Fig. 1.8b), then the seepage stresses are in opposite direction to the jonal effective stresses. From static equilibrium the resultant vertical effective stress is: Ww = (1.36) Seepage forces play a very important role in destabilizi ing geotechnical structures. The key points are: 1. The effective stress represents the average stress carried by the soil solids and is the difference between the total stress and the porewater pressure. 2. The effective stress principle applies only to normal stresses and not to shear stresses. 3. Deformations of soils are due to effective, not total, stress. 4. Downward seepage increases the resultant effective stress; upward seepage decreases the vertical effective stress. EXAMPLE 1.7 Calculation of Vertical Total and Vertical Effective Stresses Calculate the vertical effective stress at a depth A shown in Fig, EL7 EE Strategy Use Eqs. (131-133). US units will be used in the solution |. Sod of this problem mom 5.7 kN/m? (100 pot) Solution 1.7 Step 1: Calculate the vertical total stress. = (12 )uand + (YorZ)etay = 100 5+ 1174 x 2 = 734.8 Step 2: Calculate the porewater pressure. FIGURE E17 U= Yui = 62.4 x 2 = 124.8 psf Step 3 Calculate the vertical effective stress. of =o — 0 = 7348 ~ 124.8 = 610pst .