INTELLIGENT AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION AND

WATER SPLINKLER SYSTEM IN TRAINS

A PROJECT REPORT ON
INTELLIGENT AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION AND WATER
SPLINKLER SYSTEM IN TRAINS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

____________________________________ ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-------------------- (-------------)

--------------------- (-------------)

--------------------- (------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled INTELLIGENT AUTOMATIC

FIRE DETECTION AND WATER SPLINKLER SYSTEM IN TRAINS is the work
done by ____________________________ submitted in partial fulfillment for the award
of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.E) in Electronics and Communication
Engineering from _______ College of Engineering affiliated to _________ University,
Hyderabad.

________________ ____________

(External Guide) (Internal Guide)

______________
(External Examiner)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and
encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project,
which is result of studied blend of both research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

______________, Department of ECE, our project guide, for his constant support,
encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable
suggestions.

We express our thanks to the Head of the Department, Principal and College
management for all their support and encouragement.

We express our earnest gratitude and heartfelt thanks to M/S Wine Yard Technologies for
their technical support and guidance to complete the project in time.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly
or indirectly for the completion of this project.

For: Project Associates

 DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled INTELLIGENT AUTOMATIC
FIRE DETECTION AND WATER SPLINKLER SYSTEM IN TRAINS, being
submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering Degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering, affiliated to _________ University, is the
work carried out by us.

__________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________

 INDEX
Technical Specifications

Project Abstract

Project Block Diagram

Introduction

Explanation of each block

ATMega8 / 168 / 328 micro controller

RF Technology

Fire sensor

Software Tools

Advantages

Applications

Conclusion

Reference
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Technical Specifications :

Title of the project : INTELLIGENT AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION

AND WATER SPLINKLER SYSTEM IN TRAINS

Domain : Embedded Systems Design,

Software : Embedded C, ARDUINO IDE

Microcontroller : ATMega8 / 168 / 328

Power Supply : +9V, 500mA Regulated Power Supply

Crystal : 16 MHz
ABSTRACT:
In present days we are facing a major problem in trains/buses is fire accidents.
Due to the fire accidents so many people are died. The main aim of this project to detect
the fire, when the time of the journey. When we recognize the fire immediately sprinkle
water on the fire, and the bus/train automatically stops itself. Along with these the buzzer
will blow at all compartments and send a alert message to driver by using RF technology.
This project uses ATMEGA8 MCU as its controller. This Robot is also used as a fire
extinguisher i.e. it sprinkles the water on to the fire in case of fire accidents.

When the robot is moving on a surface, if any fire accident occurs the sensor
senses and automatically the motor gets switched on which in turn switches on the water
sprinkler (pump).and at the same time robot will stop and give the alert tone to all
passengers by using buzzer

BLOCK DIAGRAM
 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Power
suppl
y

Transisto
r Driver
IC 741 Circuit

AC input Water
Relay
pump

AT89C51
Power
Fire
suppl CONTROLLER
sensor
y
POWER SUPP

Step Bridge Filter

dow Regulat
Rectifier Circuit
n T/F or Power supply to all
sections

INTRODUCTION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Embedded Systems Overview:

Introduction of Embedded System:

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and

perhaps additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. A
good example is the microwave oven. Almost every household has one, and tens of
millions of them are used everyday, but very few people realize that a processor and
software are involved in the preparation of their lunch or dinner.

This is in direct contrast to the personal computer in the family room. It too is
comprised of computer hardware and software and mechanical components (disk drives,
for example). However, a personal computer is not designed to perform a specific
function rather; it is able to do many different things. Many people use the term general-
purpose computer to make this distinction clear. As shipped, a general-purpose computer
is a blank slate; the manufacturer does not know what the customer will do wish it. One
customer may use it for a network file server another may use it exclusively for playing
games, and a third may use it to write the next great American novel.

Frequently, an embedded system is a component within some larger system. For

example, modern cars and trucks contain many embedded systems. One embedded
system controls the anti-lock brakes, other monitors and controls the vehicle's emissions,
and a third displays information on the dashboard. In some cases, these embedded
systems are connected by some sort of a communication network, but that is certainly not
a requirement.

At the possible risk of confusing you, it is important to point out that a general-
purpose computer is itself made up of numerous embedded systems. For example, my
computer consists of a keyboard, mouse, video card, modem, hard drive, floppy drive,
and sound card-each of which is an embedded system. Each of these devices contains a
processor and software and is designed to perform a specific function. For example, the
modem is designed to send and receive digital data over analog telephone line. That's it
and all of the other devices can be summarized in a single sentence as well.
 If an embedded system is designed well, the existence of the processor and
software could be completely unnoticed by the user of the device. Such is the case for a
microwave oven, VCR, or alarm clock. In some cases, it would even be possible to build
an equivalent device that does not contain the processor and software. This could be done
by replacing the combination with a custom integrated circuit that performs the same
functions in hardware. However, a lot of flexibility is lost when a design is hard-cooled in
this way. It is mush easier, and cheaper, to change a few lines of software than to redesign
a piece of custom hardware.

History and Future:

Given the definition of embedded systems earlier is this chapter; the first such
systems could not possibly have appeared before 1971. That was the year Intel introduced
the world's first microprocessor. This chip, the 4004, was designed for use in a line of
business calculators produced by the Japanese Company Busicom. In 1969, Busicom
asked Intel to design a set of custom integrated circuits-one for each of their new
calculator models. The 4004 was Intel's response rather than design custom hardware for
each calculator, Intel proposed a general-purpose circuit that could be used throughout
the entire line of calculators. Intel's idea was that the software would give each calculator
its unique set of features.

The microcontroller was an overnight success, and its use increased steadily over
the next decade. Early embedded applications included unmanned space probes,
computerized traffic lights, and aircraft flight control systems. In the 1980s, embedded
systems quietly rode the waves of the microcomputer age and brought microprocessors
into every part of our kitchens (bread machines, food processors, and microwave ovens),
living rooms (televisions, stereos, and remote controls), and workplaces (fax machines,
pagers, laser printers, cash registers, and credit card readers).

It seems inevitable hat the number of embedded systems will continue to increase
rapidly. Already there are promising new embedded devices that have enormous market
potential; light switches and thermostats that can be central computer, intelligent air-bag
systems that don't inflate when children or small adults are present, pal-sized electronic
organizers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), digital cameras, and dashboard
navigation systems. Clearly, individuals who possess the skills and desire to design the
next generation of embedded systems will be in demand for quite some time.

Real Time Systems:

One subclass of embedded is worthy of an introduction at this point. As

commonly defined, a real-time system is a computer system that has timing constraints.
In other words, a real-time system is partly specified in terms of its ability to make
certain calculations or decisions in a timely manner. These important calculations are said
to have deadlines for completion. And, for all practical purposes, a missed deadline is just
as bad as a wrong answer.

The issue of what if a deadline is missed is a crucial one. For example, if the real-
time system is part of an airplane's flight control system, it is possible for the lives of the
passengers and crew to be endangered by a single missed deadline. However, if instead
the system is involved in satellite communication, the damage could be limited to a single
corrupt data packet. The more severe the consequences, the more likely it will be said that
the deadline is "hard" and thus, the system is a hard real-time system. Real-time systems
at the other end of this discussion are said to have "soft" deadlines.

All of the topics and examples presented in this book are applicable to the
designers of real-time system who is more delight in his work. He must guarantee reliable
operation of the software and hardware under all the possible conditions and to the degree
that human lives depend upon three system's proper execution, engineering calculations
and descriptive paperwork.

Application Areas
 Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems.
The embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are
used in very market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial
automation, biomedical engineering, wireless communication, data communication,
telecommunications, transportation, military and so on.

Consumer appliances:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera,

digital diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and
air-conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Todays high-tech
car has about 20 embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, air-
conditioning, navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming embedded systems.
The palmtops are powerful embedded systems using which we can carry out many
general-purpose tasks such as playing games and word processing.

Office automation:

The office automation products using em embedded systems are copying

machine, fax machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control. These include
pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity generation and
transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry out specific
tasks such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc., and
then take appropriate action based on the monitored levels to control other devices or to
send information to a centralized monitoring station. In hazardous industrial environment,
where human presence has to be avoided, robots are used, which are programmed to do
specific jobs. The robots are now becoming very powerful and carry out many interesting
and complicated tasks such as hardware assembly.

Medical electronics:

Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system. These

equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring
devices, X-ray scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation, colonoscopy,
endoscopy etc. Developments in medical electronics have paved way for more accurate
diagnosis of diseases.

Computer networking:

Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated Services

Digital Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay
switches are embedded systems which implement the necessary data communication
protocols. For example, a router interconnects two networks. The two networks may be
running different protocol stacks. The routers function is to obtain the data packets from
incoming pores, analyze the packets and send them towards the destination after doing
necessary protocol conversion. Most networking equipments, other than the end systems
(desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are embedded systems

Telecommunications:

In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized as

subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key
telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The
network equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers
Dissemblers (PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are
the latest embedded systems that provide very low-cost voice communication over the
Internet.
Wireless technologies:

Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many interesting

applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the last
decade of the 20th century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides voice
communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the
palmtops can now be used to access multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile
communication infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching centers
are also powerful embedded systems.

Insemination:

Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific and
engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure
parameters such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all
embedded systems. Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic
analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio communication test set etc. are embedded systems built
around powerful processors. Thank to miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment
are now becoming portable facilitating easy testing and measurement in the field by
field-personnel.

Security:

Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to
protect our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store.
Developing embedded systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative
businesses nowadays. Security devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication
and verification are embedded systems. Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of the
processors that are manufactured end up in~ embedded systems. Embedded systems find
applications in every industrial segment- consumer electronics, transportation, avionics,
biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and industrial automation, data
communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc. Used to encrypt the data/voice
being transmitted on communication links such as telephone lines. Biometric systems
using fingerprint and face recognition are now being extensively used for user
authentication in banking applications as well as for access control in high security
buildings.

Finance:

Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for
transactions using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as
Any Time Money) machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-
controller and memory; and it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and
acts as an electronic wallet. Smart card technology has the capability of ushering in a
cashless society. Well, the list goes on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes wherever you
go, you can see, or at least feel, the work of an embedded system!

Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central

Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is
loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called the firmware. The
embedded system architecture can be represented as a layered architecture as shown in
Fig.

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs
above the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer
including a desktop computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not
compulsory to have an operating system in every embedded system. For small appliances
such as remote control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating
system and you can write only the software specific to that application. For applications
involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating system. In such a case,
you need to integrate the application software with the operating system and then transfer
the entire software on to the memory chip. Once the software is transferred to the
memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long time you dont need to reload
new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an
embedded system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)

Input Devices

Output devices

Communication interfaces

Application-specific circuitry
Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is
a low-cost processor. Its main attraction is t2hat on the chip itself, there will be many
other components such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital
converter etc. So, for small applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the
number of external components required will be very less. On the other hand,
microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use many external components with
them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal processing is involved such as
audio and video processing.

Memory:

The memory is categorized as Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the
chip, whereas ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the
firmware is stored in the ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the
ROM; the program is program is executed.
Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the
embedded system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you
press one key to give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits.
Many embedded systems used in process control do not have any input device for user
interaction; they take inputs from sensors or transducers 1fnd produce electrical signals
that are in turn fed to other systems.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability.
Some embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the
health status of the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) may also be used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at
they may have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are
provided with one or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485,
Universal Serial Bus (USB), IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

Application-specific circuitry:

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat
an embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the
processor to carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power
supply either through the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to
design in such a way that the power consumption is minimized.
WORKING PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the power supply. Each and every module require +5vdc of supply.
2. This project uses ATMega8 / 168 / 328 MCU as its controller.
3. In this project we are using RF communication having two parts i.e., transmitter
and Receiver.
4. In this project, we will be using two metal plates and we will be inserting it into
the soil and sets some reference voltage.
5. When ever the soil dry-wet sensor voltage is less than the reference voltage then
that signals goes to IC 741 OP-AMP.
6. This comparator switches ON the water pump through Relay automatically when
the soil is DRY.
7. To drive the relay we are using transistor driver because relay requires high
current of 10 to 20 mill amps.
8. And when the soil dry-wet sensor voltage is higher than the reference voltage then
that signals goes to IC 741.
9. This comparator switches OFF the water pump through Relay automatically when
the soil is WET.
10. Also we are connecting fire detector at transmitter side to detect any fire
accidents.

11. If any fire is detected then automatically the buzzer is activated at receiver side.

So, in this way we are reducing the man power.

EXPLANATION OF EACH BLOCK
Hardware Explanation:

RESISTOR:

Resistors "Resist" the flow of electrical current. The higher the value of resistance
(measured in ohms) the lower the current will be. Resistance is the property of a
component which restricts the flow of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage
across the component drives the current through it and this energy appears as heat in the
component.

Colour Code:
CAPACITOR:

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by
acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass
AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Circuit symbol:

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -.

Examples:

DIODES:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early
diodes were actually called valves.

Circuit symbol:

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or + for anode
and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line
painted on the body. Diodes are labeled with their code in small print; you may need a
magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes.
Example:

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED):

The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (&minus). In the
schematic symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on the left and the cathode is on the
right. Lighemitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics.

They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price,
low consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light
sources- bulbs at first place.
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is
limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to
correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes voltage drop
in forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what colors
it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below: As
seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current of
20mA. Low Current diodes get full brightness at ten times lower current while Super
Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.

Since the 8052 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their pins are
configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct confectioning to LEDs is
carried out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is connected to output pin).

Switches and Pushbuttons:

A push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuit depending on the
application. Push button switches are used in various applications such as
industrial equipment control handles, outdoor controls, mobile communication terminals, and
medical equipment, and etc. Push button switches generally include a push button disposed
within ahousing. The push button may be depressed to cause movement of the push button
relative to the housing for directly or indirectly changing the state of an electrical contact to open
or close the contact. Also included in a pushbutton switch may be an actuator, driver, or plunger
of some type that is situated within a switch housing having at least two contacts in
communication with an electrical circuit within which the switch is incorporated.
 Typical actuators used for contact switches include spring loaded force cap actuators
that reciprocate within a sleeve disposed within the canister. The actuator is typically
coupled to the movement of the cap assembly, such that the actuator translates in a
direction that is parallel with the cap. A push button switch for a data input unit for a
mobile communication device such as a cellular phone, a key board for a personal
computer or the like is generally constructed by mounting a cover member directly on a
circuit board. Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted pushbutton switches are an
inexpensive means of providing an operator interface on industrial control products. In
such push button switches, a substrate which includes a plurality of movable sections is
formed of a rubber elastomeric. The key top is formed on a top surface thereof with a
figure, a character or the like by printing, to thereby provide a cover member. Push button
switches incorporating lighted displays have been used in a variety of applications. Such
switches are typically comprised of a pushbutton, an opaque legend plate, and a back
light to illuminate the legend plate.

Block Diagram For Regulated Power Supply (RPS):

 Figure: Power Supply

Description :

Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and
thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field
induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This
effect is called mutual induction.

Figure: Transformer Symbol

(or)

Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy like
a transducer.
 Figure: Transformer

Basic Principle

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron core to
efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is
raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
 Figure: Basic Principle

Transformer Working

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as
shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they
are linked by a magnetic field created in the core.
 Figure: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal loss of
power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing magnetic
field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce
voltage (step-down).

Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing magnetic
field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and the changing
strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If the
secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make an induced current flow. The
correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated
to induced e.m.f.

The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are currents
produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that
induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but
they are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the
electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties.
Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be safely
used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out /
power in) of 95% or more.

Classification of Transformer

Step-Up Transformer
Step-Down Transformer

Step-Down Transformer

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage
is greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage
applied to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a
country with a 220v supply.

Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration
usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation, power
distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Step down transformers
typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage
and/or current levels.

Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound around
a core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or
input) it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently
called the secondary or output). The turns ratio of the two sets of windings determines
the amount of voltage transformation.
 Figure: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, a
ratio of 2 to 1.

Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will mirror
the "turns ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have compensated
secondary). A practical application of this 2 to 1 turns ratio would be a 480 to 240
voltage step down. Note that if the input were 440 volts then the output would be 220
volts. The ratio between input and output voltage will stay constant. Transformers should
not be operated at voltages higher than the nameplate rating, but may be operated at
lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is possible to do some non-standard
applications using standard transformers.

Single phase step down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be reverse connected to
step-down or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down transformers
sized less than 1 KVA should not be reverse connected because the secondary windings
have additional turns to overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse
connected, the output voltage will be less than desired.)
Step-Up Transformer

A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a larger induced
voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer because the voltage output is larger
than the voltage input.

Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary
voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step up
transformer is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.

A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one voltage to
another voltage. It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction principle; it
can be designed to "step-up" or "step-down" voltage. So a step up transformer increases
the voltage and a step down transformer decreases the voltage.

The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer core and
coil. The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one another
or to ground. This is typically comprised of Mylar, nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other
materials. As a transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy
between 20 and 25 years.

Figure: Step-Up Transformer

Applications :

Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.

Types of Transformer

Mains Transformers

Mains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce the AC mains
supply voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some countries) to a safer low voltage.
The standard mains supply voltages are officially 115V and 230V, but 120V and 240V are the
values usually quoted and the difference is of no significance in most cases.

Figure: Main Transformer

To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two separate primary coils
(windings) labeled 0-120V and 0-120V. The two coils are connected in series for 240V (figure 2a)
and in parallel for 120V (figure 2b). They must be wired the correct way round as shown in the
diagrams because the coils must be connected in the correct sense (direction):
Most mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labeled 0-9V, 0-9V) which may
be used separately to give two independent supplies, or connected in series to create a center-
tapped coil (see below) or one coil with double the voltage.

Some mains transformers have a centre-tap halfway through the secondary coil and they are
labeled 9-0-9V for example. They can be used to produce full-wave rectified DC with just two
diodes, unlike a standard secondary coil which requires four diodes to produce full-wave rectified
DC.

A mains transformer is specified by:

1. Its secondary (output) voltages Vs.

2. Its maximum power, Pmax, which the transformer can pass, quoted in VA (volt-amp). This
determines the maximum output (secondary) current, I max...
 ...where Vs is the secondary voltage. If there are two secondary coils the maximum
power should be halved to give the maximum for each coil.

3. Its construction - it may be PCB-mounting, chassis mounting (with solder tag

connections) or toroidal (a high quality design).

Audio Transformers

Audio transformers are used to convert the moderate voltage, low current output of an audio
amplifier to the low voltage, high current required by a loudspeaker. This use is called
'impedance matching' because it is matching the high impedance output of the amplifier to the
low impedance of the loudspeaker.

Figure: Audio transformer

Radio Transformers

Radio transformers are used in tuning circuits. They are smaller than mains and audio
transformers and they have adjustable ferrite cores made of iron dust. The ferrite cores can be
adjusted with a non-magnetic plastic tool like a small screwdriver. The whole transformer is
enclosed in an aluminum can which acts as a shield, preventing the transformer radiating too
much electrical noise to other parts of the circuit.

Figure: Radio Transformer

Turns Ratio and Voltage

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the ratio of the
voltages...

...where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np is the number
of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil.

Diodes

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a
valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction. In this
direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that
there will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said to
be 'reverse-biased' and no current will flow through it.

Rectifier
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR)
Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two
different rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use
components called diodes to convert AC into DC.

The Half-wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as
shown in figure.

Figure: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output. As you
can see, when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current
through. When the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does
not let any current through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V voltage
loss across the diode, the peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.
 Figure: Half-Wave Rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be
suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies
between 0V and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.

The Full-wave Rectifier

The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the
output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and
negative parts of the AC waveform are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is
shown in figure 4.
 Figure: Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure: Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D
are reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D
are forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still
isn't suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies
between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.
Capacitor Filter

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the
Greek letter pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or
undesired frequencies from a signal.

Figure: Capacitor Filter

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier
output, an inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.

1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while
it offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an
appreciable amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey
to the inductor L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero
reactance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the
inductor while the AC component is blocked.

3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As
a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.
 Figure: Centered Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter

Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more
AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:

78 indicate the positive series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805
produces the maximum 5V.05indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx:

78 indicate the negative series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.05indicates the regulator output is -5V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator

Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure: Regulator
 ATMEGA 328 Microcontrollers

The ATmega88 through ATmega328 microcontrollers are said by Atmel to be the

upgrades from the very popular ATmega8. They are pin compatible, but not functionally
compatible. The ATmega328 has 32kB of flash, where the ATmega8 has 8kB. Other
differences are in the timers, additional SRAM and EEPROM, the addition of pin change
interrupts, and a divide by 8 presale for the system clock.

The schematic below shows the Atmel ATmega328 circuit as it was built on
the test board. The power supply is common and is shared between all of the
microcontrollers on the board. The ATmega328 is in a minimal circuit. It is using its
internal 8 MHz RC oscillator (divided by 8). With the ATmega328 I needed to both burn
a boot loader and download Arduino sketches. The boot loader is programmed using the
ISP programming connector, and the Arduino sketches are uploaded via the 6-pin header.
Be aware that programming the Arduino boot loader into the ATmega88, ATmega168, or
ATmega328 microcontroller will change the clock fuses, requiring the addition of an
external crystal.

The crystal shown on the schematic is only required when the ATmega328 is going to be
used as an Arduino, although it may be desired in any real world application. I typically
run them at 16 MHz, but they will run as high as 20 MHz
PIN DIAGRAM:
Pin Descriptions

VCC: Digital supply voltage

GND: Ground

Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink
and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting
Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the
inverting Oscillator amplifier.

If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7.6 is used as
TOSC2.1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.
Port C (PC5:0)

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The PC5..0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink
and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL
Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer
than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running.

Port D (PD7:0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink
and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should
be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6..4 use digital supply
voltage, VCC.

AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D
converter.

These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
THE 741 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
 The Operational Amplifier is probably the most versatile Integrated Circuit
available. It is very cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that it contains several
hundred components. The most common Op-Amp is the 741 and it is used in many
circuits.

The OP AMP is a Linear Amplifier with an amazing variety of uses. Its main
purpose is to amplify (increase) a weak signal - a little like a Darlington Pair.

The OP-AMP has two inputs, INVERTING ( - ) and NON-INVERTING (+), and one
output at pin 6.

The chip can be used in a circuit in two ways. If the voltage goes into pin two
then it is known as an INVERTING AMPLIFIER. If the voltage goes into pin three then
the circuit becomes a NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER.
 The 741 integrated circuit looks like any other chip. However, it is a general
purpose OP-AMP. You need only to know basic information about its operation and use.
The diagram opposite shows the pins of the 741 OP-AMP. The important pins are 2, 3
and 6 because these represent inverting, non-inverting and voltage out. Notice the
triangular diagram that represents an Op-Amp integrated circuit.

THE 741 IS USED IN TWO WAYS

1. An inverting amplifier. Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed.

In an inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg two and comes out of
the 741 chip at leg six. If the polarity is positive going into the chip, it negative by the
time it comes out through leg six. The polarity has been inverted.

2. A non-inverting amplifier. Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed.

In a non-inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg three and leaves
the 741 chip through leg six. This time if it is positive going into the 741 then it is still
positive coming out. Polarity remains the same
AC MOTOR
Definition:

A submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which

has a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is
submerged in the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it
prevents pump cavitations, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between
pump and the fluid surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet
pumps having to pull fluids. Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.

A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids, gases or slurries.

A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. Pumps fall into five major
groups: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps. Their names describe the method for moving
a fluid.

Working:

The submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps
operating in a vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features underwent
a continuous evolution over the years, their basic operational principle remained the same.
Produced liquids, after being subjected to great centrifugal forces caused by the high rotational
speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to
pressure energy takes place. This is the main operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow
pumps.

The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical
coupling at the bottom of the pump. Well fluids enter the pump through an intake screen and are
lifted by the pump stages. Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the
length of the shaft providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An
optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of those
forces are absorbed by the protectors thrust bearing.

Types Of Pumps:
Deep Piston Pump :

This is the same as for shallow except the pump cylinder is attached to the bottom of the drop
pipe. As the piston moves up and down, it pumps water up through the drop. pipe. Deep-well
piston pumps can lift water from 600 feet. Double acting piston pumps can pump 65% more
water with only 15% more horsepower. Advantages and disadvantages for this type are the same
as for shallow piston pumps.
Features:

Self primes from dry up to 3.0 metres

Flows up to 40 litres per minute

Pressure up to 3.0 bar

Handles hard or soft solids

Tolerates abrasive wear

Non pulsating flow

Handles viscosities up to 500 centiPoise

Uses standard IEC motor

Specifications:

Voltage (V): 110/220/240

Frequency (Hz): 50/60

Power (W): 40H-max (m): 2.5

Output (L/h): 1,800

Weight (kg): 1.0

Dimensions (L x B x H): 100 x 106 x 108mm

A submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has a hermetically
sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be
pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a problem
associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface. Submersible
pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull fluids. Submersibles are
more efficient than jet pumps.

Applications:

Submersible pumps are found in many applications. Single stage pumps are used for
drainage, sewage pumping, general industrial pumping and slurry pumping. They are also
popular with aquarium filters. Multiple stage submersible pumps are typically lowered
down a borehole and used for water abstraction, water wells and in oil wells.

Special attention to the type of ESP is required when using certain types of liquids. ESP's
commonly used on board naval vessels cannot be used to dewater contaminated flooded
spaces. These use a 440 volt A/C motor that operates a small centrifugal pump. It can also
be used out of the water, taking suction with a 2-1/2 inch non-collapsible hose. The
pumped liquid is circulated around the motor for cooling purposes. There is a possibility
that the gasoline will leak into the pump causing a fire or destroying the pump, so hot
water and flammable liquids should be avoided.
MOISTURE SENSOR ( Dry and Wet sensor)

Soil moisture sensors measure the water content in soil. A soil moisture probe is made
up of multiple soil moisture sensors. One common type of soil moisture sensors in
commercial use is a Frequency domain sensor such as a capacitance sensor. Another
sensor, the neutron moisture gauge, utilize the moderator properties of water for neutrons.
Cheaper sensors -often for home use- are based on two electrodes measuring the
resistance of the soil. Sometimes this simply consists of two bare (galvanized) wires, but
there are also probes with wires embedded in gypsum.

Measuring soil moisture is important in agriculture to help farmers manage their

irrigation systems more efficiently. Not only are farmers able to generally use less water
to grow a crop, they are able to increase yields and the quality of the crop by better
management of soil moisture during critical plant growth stages.

Besides agriculture, there are many other disciplines using soil moisture sensors. Golf
courses are now using sensors to increase the efficiencies of their irrigation systems to
prevent over watering and leaching of fertilizers and other chemicals offsite.
HOW THEY WORK?

Modern impedance dewpoint sensors are typically constructed using state-of-the-art thin
and thick film techniques. Operation of the sensor depends upon the adsorption of water
vapour into a porous non-conducting "sandwich" between two conductive layers built on
top of a base ceramic substrate.

The active sensor layer and the porous top conductor, that allows transmission of water
vapour into the sensor, are engineered very thinly. Therefore the sensor responds very
rapidly to changes in applied moisture, both when being dried (on process start-up) and
when called into action if there is moisture ingress into a process. Despite this extreme
sensitivity to changes in moisture content, the Impedance Moisture Sensor can be
incredibly rugged due to the nature of its construction. To protect the sensor further
against contaminants and pipe swarf it recommended that the sensor is housed in a
protective sintered stainless steel guard.
What does it do?
The moisture sensor is used to detect changes in
the wetness of its surroundings.

How does it operate?

The usual moisture sensor circuit gives a low voltage when it is dry and a high voltage
when the sensor is wet. The dryness sensor gives a low voltage when it is wet and a high
voltage when the sensor is dry.

If the changes in the moisture level are small then the moisture sensor needs to be
followed by a comparator.

The moisture sensor circuit uses a moisture probe to

test moisture levels.

A simple low cost moisture probe can be made up

from a small piece of strip board with leads
connected to a pair of the copper strips.

When the probe is dry there is a very high resistance

Normal circuit (moisture between the strips. When it is wet the water reduces
sensor) Inverted circuit (dry sensor) the probes resistance.
The moisture sensor forms a potential divider whose
output voltage is determined by the upper and lower
parts of the circuit.

The moisture sensor is connected to the PCB by wires

connected to a terminal block mounted on the PCB.

Applications
Check if plants need watering
Flood warning system

Relays
 A relay is an electrically controllable switch widely used in industrial controls,
automobiles and appliances.

The relay allows the isolation of two separate sections of a system with two different
voltage sources i.e., a small amount of voltage/current on one side can handle a large
amount of voltage/current on the other side but there is no chance that these two voltages
mix up.

Inductor

Fig: Circuit symbol of a relay

Operation:

When a current flow through the coil, a magnetic field is created around the coil
i.e., the coil is energized. This causes the armature to be attracted to the coil. The
armatures contact acts like a switch and closes or opens the circuit. When the coil
is not energized, a spring pulls the armature to its normal state of open or closed.
There are all types of relays for all kinds of applications.
 Fig: Relay Operation and use of protection diodes

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced
when the relay coil is switched off. The above diagram shows how a signal diode (eg
1N4148) is connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. The diode is
connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction occurs only when
the relay coil is switched off, at this moment the current tries to flow continuously
through the coil and it is safely diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current
could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to
keep the current flowing.

In choosing a relay, the following characteristics need to be considered:

1. The contacts can be normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). In the NC type, the
contacts are closed when the coil is not energized. In the NO type, the contacts are closed
when the coil is energized.

2. There can be one or more contacts. i.e., a different type like SPST (single pole single
throw), SPDT (single pole double throw) and DPDT (double pole double throw) relays.
3. The voltage and current required to energize the coil. The voltage can vary from a few
volts to 50 volts, while the current can be from a few milliamps to 20milliamps. The relay
has a minimum voltage, below which the coil will not be energized. This minimum
voltage is called the pull-in voltage.

4. The minimum DC/AC voltage and current that can be handled by the contacts. This is
in the range of a few volts to hundreds of volts, while the current can be from a few amps
to 40A or more, depending on the relay.

A relay is used to isolate one electrical circuit from another. It allows a low current
control circuit to make or break an electrically isolated high current circuit path. The
basic relay consists of a coil and a set of contacts. The most common relay coil is a length
of magnet wire wrapped around a metal core. When voltage is applied to the coil, current
passes through the wire and creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field pulls the
contacts together and holds them there until the current flow in the coil has stopped. The
diagram below shows the parts of a simple relay.

Figure: Relay
Operation:

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature
that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a
connection with a fixed contact. When the current is switched off, the armature is usually
returned by a spring to its resting position shown in figure 6.6(b). Latching relays exist
that require operation of a second coil to reset the contact position.

By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay
operates a thyristor or other solid-state switching device with a transformer or light-
emitting diode to trigger it.

Pole and throw

SPST

SPST relay stands for Single Pole Single Throw relay. Current will only flow through the
contacts when the relay coil is energized.

Figure: SPST Relay

SPDT Relay

SPDT Relay stands for Single Pole Double Throw relay. Current will flow between the
movable contact and one fixed contact when the coil is De-energized and between the
movable contact and the alternate fixed contact when the relay coil is energized. The
most commonly used relay in car audio, the Bosch relay, is a SPDT relay.
 Figure: SPDT Relay

DPST Relay

DPST relay stands for Double Pole Single Throw relay. When the relay coil is energized,
two separate and electrically isolated sets of contacts are pulled down to make contact
with their stationary counterparts. There is no complete circuit path when the relay is De-
energized.

Figure: DPST Relay

DPDT Relay

DPDT relay stands for Double Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay
but has twice as many contacts. There are two completely isolated sets of contacts.
 Figure: DPDT Relay

This is a 4 Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay but it has 4 sets of
isolated contacts.

Figure: 4 Pole Double Throw relay

Types of relay:

1. Latching Relay
2. Reed Relay
3. Mercury Wetted Relay
4. Machine Tool Relay
 5. Solid State Relay (SSR)

Latching relay
Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet
operates a cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below
it. The moving and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi-stable). These are also called "impulse",
"keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last
state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by
having two opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the
armature and contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the
ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse
turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to
the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes
power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a
power outage. A remnant core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity
to make it change state.

Figure: Latching relay

Reed relay

A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which
protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a
magnetic field generated when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed
relays are capable of faster switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low
switch current and voltage ratings.

Mercury-wetted Relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less)
because of their low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing
applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are
position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the
toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are rarely specified for new
equipment. See also mercury switch.

Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number
of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from
normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that
allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once
were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the
programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from
sequential control applications.

Solid-state relay

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components,
increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that
every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount
of current a given SSR could handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able
to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to
electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.

Figure: Solid relay, which has no moving parts

Specification
Number and type of contacts normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)
Contact sequence "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example,
the old style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the
connection didn't get dropped while dialing the number.

Rating of contacts small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated
for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current

Voltage rating of contacts typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC,
automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V

Coil voltage machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for
switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few
milli-amperes

Applications:

Relays are used:

 To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems,
To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile,
To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at
different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a
low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low
voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as
needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an
effort to conserve energy,
To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realized by
connecting relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting contacts in
parallel. Due to the failure modes of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they
are widely used in safety critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive
waste handling machinery.
As oscillators, also called vibrators. The coil is wired in series with the normally
closed contacts. When a current is passed through the relay coil, the relay operates
and opens the contacts that carry the supply current. This stops the current and
causes the contacts to close again. The cycle repeats continuously, causing the
relay to open and close rapidly. Vibrators are used to generate pulsed current.
To generate sound. A vibrator, described above, creates a buzzing sound because
of the rapid oscillation of the armature. This is the basis of the electric bell, which
consists of a vibrator with a hammer attached to the armature so it can repeatedly
strike a bell.
To perform time delay functions. Relays can be used to act as an mechanical time
delay device by controlling the release time by using the effect of residual
magnetism by means of a inserting copper disk between the armature and moving
blade assembly.

FIRE SENSOR
FIRE SENSOR:

The Fire sensor, as the name suggests, is used as a simple and compact device
for protection against fire. The module makes use of IR sensor and comparator
to detect fire up to a range of 1 metre. The device, weighing about 5 grams, can
be easily mounted on the device body . It gives a high output on detecting fire.
This output can then be used to take the requisite action. An on-board LED is also
provided for visual indication.

Pin No. Symbol Description

1. o/p Digital output (High when fire detected)

2. VCC High

3. GND Low

The Fire sensor, as the name suggests, is used as a simple and compact device
for protection against fire. The module makes use of IR sensor and
comparator to detect fire up to a range of 1 - 2 meters.
The device, weighing about 5 grams, can be easily mounted on the device body . It
gives a high output on detecting fire. This output can then be used to take the requisite
action. An on-board LED is also provided for visual indication.
FEATURES:

Allows your robot to detect flames from upto 2m away

Typical Maximum Range :2 m .

Calibration preset for range adjustment.

Indicator LED with 3 pin easy interface connector

Buzzer

What does it do?

The buzzer subsystem produces an audible

tone when powered.

How does it operate?

Buzzers come in a variety of voltages and currents. The power

supply for the buzzer (which can be separate from the supply for
the rest of the electronics) must provide the voltage needed by the
buzzer.

Piezo sounders are a type of buzzer. They should not be confused

with Piezo transducers which require an a.c. input voltage to
drive them.

Some process units provide enough current to drive buzzers.

Buzzer circuit
Typical buzzers require currents in the range 10 35mA.
.
If CMOS ICs or a higher current buzzer are used then a driver
(transistor, Darlington or MOFET) is needed to boost the current.
The circuit on the left shows the circuit needed with a driver.
 PICs, 555 Timer ICs and the LM324 op-amp can provide higher
currents and can drive some buzzers directly.

Buzzer curcuit for use with
higher current process units
.
Check the data for the buzzer and the process unit to make sure
that the process unit can provide more current than is needed by the
buzzer.
If this is possible, the buzzer is connected to the 0V rail (as on the
left) rather than to +Vs.
Buzzers can either be PCB-mounted or connected to the circuit
with flying leads. Usually it is neater to mount them on the PCB.

Applications

Making a warning sound

Signalling that something has happened

Making

Buzzers have a positive and a negative terminal, marked on their

case. The positive terminal should be connected to the positive
voltage supply. The negative terminal should be connected to the
signal from the driver.

The graphic on the left shows how part of the PCB might look for a PCB-mounted buzzer
connected to a driver.
How part of the PCB might look

If a buzzer with flying leads is used then a terminal block is mounted on the PCB and
wires from this are connected to the buzzer.

Build and test the unit that will provide the driving input signal before adding the buzzer.

Testing

Make sure that the buzzer switches on and off as power is applied from the driver unit.
 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing LEDs (seven
segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCDs.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs, which are
limited to numbers and a few characters.

3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the task of
refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying the
data.

4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

These components are specialized for being used with the microcontrollers, which means that
they cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. They are used for writing different messages on
a miniature LCD.

A model described here is for its low price and great possibilities most frequently used in
practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages in two
lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters, punctuation marks,
mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols that user makes up on its
own. Automatic shifting message on display (shift left and right), appearance of the pointer,
backlight etc. are considered as useful characteristics.
Pins Functions

There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background light
is built in). Their function is described in the table below:

Logic
Function Pin Number Name Description
State

Ground 1 Vss - 0V

Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V

Contrast 3 Vee - 0 - Vdd

D0 D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 D7 are interpreted as data

Write data (from controller to

0
Control of 5 R/W LCD)
1
operating Read data (from LCD to controller)

Access to LCD disabled

0
Normal operating
6 E 1
Data/commands are transferred to
From 1 to 0
LCD

Data / commands 7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB

8 D1 0/1 Bit 1

9 D2 0/1 Bit 2

10 D3 0/1 Bit 3

11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5

13 D6 0/1 Bit 6
 14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB

LCD screen:

LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character consists of 5x7 dot
matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply voltage and whether messages are
displayed in one or two lines. For that reason, variable voltage 0-Vdd is applied on pin marked as
Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose. Some versions of displays have built
in backlight (blue or green diodes). When used during operating, a resistor for current limitation
should be used (like with any LE diode).
LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as commands or as data,
which depends on logic state on pin RS:

RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in processor

addresses built in map of characters and displays corresponding symbols. Displaying position is
determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously defined or the address of
previously transferred character is automatically incremented.

RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine display mode. List of commands which
LCD recognizes are given in the table below:

Execution
Command RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Time

Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS

Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS

Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S 40uS

Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS

Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L x x 40uS

Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F x x 40uS

Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS

Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS

Read BUSY flag (BF) 0 1 BF DDRAM address -

Write to CGRAM or DDRAM 1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS

Read from CGRAM or

1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
DDRAM

I/D 1 = Increment (by 1) R/L 1 = Shift right

 0 = Decrement (by 1) 0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on DL 1 = 8-bit interface

0 = Display shift off 0 = 4-bit interface

D 1 = Display on N 1 = Display in two lines

0 = Display off 0 = Display in one line

U 1 = Cursor on F 1 = Character format 5x10 dots

0 = Cursor off 0 = Character format 5x7 dots

B 1 = Cursor blink on D/C 1 = Display shift

0 = Cursor blink off 0 = Cursor shift

LCD Initialization:

Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This process lasts for
approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The mode of operating is set by
default. This means that:

1. Display is cleared

2. Mode

DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface

N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line

F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots

3. Display/Cursor on/off

D = 0 Display off

U = 0 Cursor off

B = 0 Cursor blink off

4. Character entry

ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1

S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. Mainly but not always! If for any
reason power supply voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS, display will start
perform completely unpredictably. If voltage supply unit can not meet this condition or if it is
needed to provide completely safe operating, the process of initialization by which a new reset
enabling display to operate normally must be applied. Algorithm according to the initialization is
being performed depends on whether connection to the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit
interface. All left over to be done after that is to give basic commands and of course- to display
messages.
Fig: Procedure on 8-bit initialization.
 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing LEDs (seven
segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCDs.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs, which are
limited to numbers and a few characters.

3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the task of
refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying the
data.

4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

These components are specialized for being used with the microcontrollers, which means that
they cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. They are used for writing different messages on
a miniature LCD.

A model described here is for its low price and great possibilities most frequently used in
practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages in two
lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters, punctuation marks,
mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols that user makes up on its
own. Automatic shifting message on display (shift left and right), appearance of the pointer,
backlight etc. are considered as useful characteristics.
Pins Functions

There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background light
is built in). Their function is described in the table below:

Logic
Function Pin Number Name Description
State

Ground 1 Vss - 0V

Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V

Contrast 3 Vee - 0 - Vdd

D0 D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 D7 are interpreted as data

Write data (from controller to

0
Control of 5 R/W LCD)
1
operating Read data (from LCD to controller)

Access to LCD disabled

0
Normal operating
6 E 1
Data/commands are transferred to
From 1 to 0
LCD

Data / commands 7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB

8 D1 0/1 Bit 1

9 D2 0/1 Bit 2

10 D3 0/1 Bit 3

11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5

13 D6 0/1 Bit 6
 14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB

LCD screen:

LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character consists of 5x7 dot
matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply voltage and whether messages are
displayed in one or two lines. For that reason, variable voltage 0-Vdd is applied on pin marked as
Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose. Some versions of displays have built
in backlight (blue or green diodes). When used during operating, a resistor for current limitation
should be used (like with any LE diode).
LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as commands or as data,
which depends on logic state on pin RS:

RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in processor

addresses built in map of characters and displays corresponding symbols. Displaying position is
determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously defined or the address of
previously transferred character is automatically incremented.

RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine display mode. List of commands which
LCD recognizes are given in the table below:

Execution
Command RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Time

Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS

Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS

Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S 40uS

Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS

Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L x x 40uS

Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F x x 40uS

Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS

Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS

Read BUSY flag (BF) 0 1 BF DDRAM address -

Write to CGRAM or DDRAM 1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS

Read from CGRAM or

1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
DDRAM

I/D 1 = Increment (by 1) R/L 1 = Shift right

 0 = Decrement (by 1) 0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on DL 1 = 8-bit interface

0 = Display shift off 0 = 4-bit interface

D 1 = Display on N 1 = Display in two lines

0 = Display off 0 = Display in one line

U 1 = Cursor on F 1 = Character format 5x10 dots

0 = Cursor off 0 = Character format 5x7 dots

B 1 = Cursor blink on D/C 1 = Display shift

0 = Cursor blink off 0 = Cursor shift

LCD Initialization:

Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This process lasts for
approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The mode of operating is set by
default. This means that:

1. Display is cleared

2. Mode

DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface

N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line

F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots

3. Display/Cursor on/off

D = 0 Display off

U = 0 Cursor off

B = 0 Cursor blink off

4. Character entry

ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1

S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. Mainly but not always! If for any
reason power supply voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS, display will start
perform completely unpredictably. If voltage supply unit can not meet this condition or if it is
needed to provide completely safe operating, the process of initialization by which a new reset
enabling display to operate normally must be applied. Algorithm according to the initialization is
being performed depends on whether connection to the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit
interface. All left over to be done after that is to give basic commands and of course- to display
messages.
Fig: Procedure on 8-bit initialization.
SOFTWARE TOOLS

Installation of required software applications

Installation of AVR studio

Please insert the Supplied CD to your CD ROM. You will found the
following Item in the CD.
Doble Click to AVR studio icon

Follow the steps

Click finish to complete the installation

Installation of WINAVR
Please insert the Supplied CD to your CD ROM. You will found the
following Item in the CD. Double Click on WINAVR icon

Select language English

Click next to continue
Click on I Agree Tab

Please type the path of WINAVR as above

Click on Install
It will start the installation. Than Click Next

Click Finish to Complete the installation

Installation of Java
Double click on JAVA icon. And follow the step below.
Click Accept to continue

Click Next to continue

ADVANTAGES

&

APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES:
Highly sensitive
Works according to the soil condition
Fit and Forget system
Low cost and reliable circuit
Complete elimination of manpower
Can handle heavy loads up to 7A
System can be switched into manual mode whenever required

APPLICATIONS:

Roof Gardens

Lawns

Agriculture Lands

Home Gardens
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION:

The project Intelligent Automatic Plant Irrigation System with fire detection is
designed, tested and implemented successfully. It is much easy and cost effective.
Automation is the further step in the world of Embedded Systems, which includes the
elimination of the human being in the mundane applications. They are cost effective,
accurate and can work in any conditions and round the clock.
REFERENCES:
REFERENCES Books:

3.B L Theraja, Electrical Technology.

4.K. Y. Tang, Alternating Current Circuits

5.Golding and Widdis, Electrical measurements and measuring instruments.

6.Admiralty, Examples in Electrical Calculations

7.B. W. Williams, Power Electronics.Books from Reference Library.

Websites:

4.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_bridge#column-one

5.http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_6/chpt_5/index.html

6.http://www.beyondlogic.org/serial/serial.htm#1

7.http://geocities.com/SiliconValley/2072/electron.htm

8.http://www.national.com/opf/LM/LM7805C.html#Datasheet