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Power Amplifiers
Sameh M. Selim
Introduction:
Power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers. This generally means that
much larger portion of the load line is used during signal operation than
in small-signal amplifier. In this chapter, we will cover 4 classes of power
amplifiers: class A, class B, class AB, and class C.
Class A:The o/p signal varies for as full 360o of the cycle. Fig. (1-a)
shows that this requires the Q-point to be biased at a level so that at
least half the signal swing of the o/p may vary up and down without
going to a high enough voltage to be limited by the supply voltage or
too low to approach the lower supply level, or 0 V in this description.
Class B:The o/p signal varies over one half the i/p signal cycle, or for
180o of the signal. The dc bias point for class B is therefore at 0 V, with
the o/p then varying from this bias point for a half cycle. Obviously, the
o/p is not a faithful reproduction of the i/p if only one half- cycle is
present. Two class B operations: one to provide o/p on the +ve half-
cycle and another to provide operation on the ve o/p half-cycle - are
necessary. The combined half-cycles then provide an o/p for a full 360o
of operation. This type of operation is referred to as
push-pull operation.
IC = IB (2)
VCE = VCC - ICRC (3)
AC Operation: When an i/p ac signal is applied to the amplifier, the o/p
will vary from its dc bias operating voltage and current. Fig.(a) shows a
small i/p signal. As the i/p signal is made larger, the o/p will vary further
around the established dc bias untileither the current or the voltage
reaches a limiting condition.
For the current this limiting condition is either zero current at the low
end or (Vcc/Rc) at the high end of its swing.
For the collector-emitter voltage, the limit is either 0 V or the supply
voltage, VCC.
Power considerations
The power input of the amplifier is provided by the supply. With no i/p
signal, the dc current drawn is the collector bias current ICQ. The power
drawn from the supply is:
(4)
Even with an ac signal applied, the average current drawn from the
supply remains the same.
The power output is provided by the o/p voltage and current varying
around the bias point. This ac power is delivered to the load RC, and can
be expressed in many ways.
Using RMS signals
(5)
(6)
(7)
The maximum power i/p can be calculated using the dc bias current set
to one-half the maximum value:
Transformer Action:
Voltage Transformation
= (9)
Current Transformation
= (10)
Impedance Transformation
/
= = =
/
If we define a = N1/N2
= = ( ) = (11)
= or = (12)
Example2
Calculate the effective resistance seen looking into the primary of a 15:1
transformer connected to an 8- load.
Solution:Using eq.(12), get = (15)2 (8) = 1800
Example3
What transformer turns ratio is required to match a 16- speaker load
so that the effective load resistance seen at the primary is 10 k?
1 2 ,
Solution: Using eq. (11), check( ) = = 625,
2
1
So, = 25: 1
2
The power across the load can then be expressed as Eq. (5)
Example 4
Calculate the ac power delivered to the 8- speaker for the following
circuit. The component values result in a dc base current of 6 mA, and
the i/p signal (Vi)results in a peak base current swing of 4 mA.
Solution: The dc load line is drawn vertically fro the voltage point:
VCEQ = VCC = 10 V
For IB = 6 mA, the operating point on the following graph is
VCEQ = 10 V and ICQ = 140 mA
The effective ac resistance seen at the primary is
R'L = (3)2(8) = 72
To help draw the load line, consider the following procedure:
10
For a current swing of =
=
72
= 139
Example 5
For the above circuit and results of example 4, calculate the dc i/p
power, power dissipated by the transistor, and efficiency of the circuit
for i/p signal of example 4.
Solution:From Eq. (14), Pi(dc) = (10 V)(140 mA) = 1.4 W
From Eq. (15), PQ = 1.4 W 0.477 W = 0.92 W
()
%= %, = 4.1%
()
The larger VCEmax and the smaller of VCEmin, the closer the efficiency
approaches the theoretical limit of 50%.
Example 6
Calculate the efficiency of a transformer-coupled class A amplifier for a
supply of 12 V and outputs of:
(a) V(p) = 12 V. (b) V(p) = 6 V. (c) V(p) = 2 V.
Solution:
(a)since VCEQ = VCC = 12 V,
VCEmax = VCEQ + V(p) = 12 + 12 = 24 V
VCEmin = VCEQ V(p) = 12 V 12 V = 0 V
using Eq. (16), % = 50%
(b) check VCEmax = 18 V, VCEmin = 6 V
% = 12.5%
(c) VCEmax = 14 V, VCEmin = 10 V
% = 1.39%
Class B Amplifier Operation: A class B operation is provided when
the dc bias leaves the transistor biased just off, the transistor turning on
when the ac signal is applied. This is essentially no bias, and the
transistor conducts current for only one-half of the signal cycle.
To obtain o/p for the full cycle of signal, it is necessary to use 2
transistors, each conduct on opposite half cycles, and the combined
operation providing a full cycle of o/p signal.
Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one half-cycle
and the other part pulls the signal low during the other half-cycle, the
circuit is referred as a push-pull circuit.
Input (DC) Power: The i/p dc power
provided by the power supply can be
calculated using:
(17)
Where Idc is the average, or dc
current drawn from the power supplies.
(18)
Output (AC) Power: Using rms meter to measure the voltage across the
load, Po(ac) is
(20)
[ Using I(p)=VL(p)/RL] . Equation (22) shows that the larger the peak
voltage, the higher is the circuit efficiency, up to maximum value when
VL(p) = VCC, this maximum efficiency then being
Maximum efficiency = = . %
Power Dissipation by output Transistors: This is the difference between
the i/p power delivered by the supplies and the o/p power delivered to
the load,
P2Q = Pi(dc) Po(ac) (23)
P2Q is the power dissipated by the 2 o/p transistors. The dissipated
power handled by each transistor is
PQ = (24)
Maximum Power Considerations For class B operation, the maximum
o/p power is delivered to the load when VL(p) = VCC:
(25)
Using (25) and (26), the maximum circuit efficiency for class B operation
is then
% = 4 100% = 78.54% (27)
For class B operation, the maximum power dissipated by the o/p
transistors does not occur at the maximum power i/p or o/p condition.
The maximum power dissipated by the two o/p transistors occurs when
the o/p voltage across the load is
2
() = 0.636 (= )
For a maximum transistor power dissipation of
(28)
Example 7
For a class B amplifier providing a 20-V peak signal to a 16- load
(speaker) and a power supply of VCC = 30 V, determine the i/p power, o/p
power, and circuit efficiency.
Solution:
() 20
() = = = 1.25
16
The dc value of the current drawn from the power supply is then
2
= (), = 0.796
The i/p power delivered by the supply voltage is
( ) = , = 23.9
The i/p power delivered to the load is
2 ()
( ) = , = 12.5
2
The circuit efficiency is calculated, check
% = 52.3%
Example 8
For a class B amplifier using a supply of VCC = 30 V and driving a load of
16 , determine the maximum i/p power, o/p power, and transistor
dissipation.
Solution:
Using Eq. (25), maximum Po(ac) = 28.125 W (check)
Using Eq. (26), maximum Pi(dc) = 35.81 W (check)
The maximum % = 78.54% (as expected)
Using Eq. (28), maximum PQ = 0.5(maximum P2Q) = 5.7 W
The maximum efficiency of a class B amplifier can also be expressed as
follows:
2 ()
( ) =
2
2 ()
( ) = = [ ]
From which, we can get:
( )
% = 78.54 % (29)
Example 9
Calculate the efficiency of a class B amplifier for a supply voltage of VCC
= 24 V with peak o/p voltages of:
a) VL(p) = 22 V. b) VL(p) = 6 V.
Solution:
Using Eq. (29) gives
Class B Amplifier circuits: The i/p signal s to the amplifier could be
single signal, the circuit then providing 2 different o/p stages, each
operating for one-half the cycle. If the i/p is in the form of 2 opposite-
polarity signals, 2 similar stages could be used, each operating on the
alternate cycle because of the i/p signal.
The Figure shows different ways to obtain phase-inverted signals from a
single i/p signal. Fig. (a) shows a center-tapped transformer to provide
opposite-phase signals. Fig. (b) uses a BJT stage with in-phase o/p from
the emitter and opposite-phase o/p from the collector. If the gain is
made nearly 1 for each o/p, the same magnitude results.
A- Transformer-Coupled Push-Pull Circuits
During the first half-cycle of operation, transistor Q1 is driven ON,
whereas transistor Q2 is driven Off. The current I1 thro' the transformer
results in the first half-cycle of signal to the load.
During the second half-cycle of the i/p signal, Q2 conducts, whereas Q1
stays Off, the current I2 thro' the transformer resulting in the second
half-cycle to the load. The overall signal developed across the load then
varies over the full cycle of signal operation.
B- Complementary-Symmetry Circuits
Using complementary transistors (npn and pnp) it is possible to obtain a
full cycle o/p across a load using half-cycles of operation from each
transistor.
One disadvantage of the circuit is the need for 2 separate voltage
supplies. Another disadvantage is Crossover distortion which refers to
the fact that during the signal crossover from +ve to ve. there is some
nonlinearity in he o/p signal. This results from the fact that the circuit
does not provide exact switching of one transistor off and the other ON
at zero voltage condition.
A more practical version of a push-pull circuit using complementary
transistors is shown in the following Figure. The load is driven as the o/p
of an emitter-follower so that the load resistance of the load is matched
by the low o/p resistance of the driving source. The circuit uses
complementary Darlington-connected transistors to provide higher o/p
current and lower o/p resistance.
C- Quasi-Complementary Push-Pull Amplifier
In practical power amplifier circuits, it is preferable to use npn
transistors for both high current-o/p devices. Since the push=pull
connection requires complementary devices, a pnp high power
transistor must be used. A practical means of obtaining complementary
operation while using the same matched npn transistors for the o/p is
provided by a quasi-complementary circuit shown in the following
Figure. The push-pull operation is achieved by using complementary
transistors (Q1 and Q2) before the matched npn o/p transistors (Q3 and
Q4). Notice that Q1 and Q3 form a Darlington connection that provides
o/p from a low-impedance emitter follower. The connection Q2 and Q4
forms a feedback pair, which similarly provides a low-impedance drive
to the load. Resistor R2 can be adjusted to minimize crossover distortion
by adjusting the dc bias condition.
Example 10
For the circuit shown, calculate the i/p power, o/p power, and power
handled by each o/p transistor and the circuit efficiency for an i/p of
12 V rms.
Solution
()
() = = 4.24
2
= () = 2.7
( ) = = . , check
2
= = = . , check
2 2
% = = . %, check
Example 11
For the circuit of example 10, calculate the maximum i/p power,
maximum o/p power, i/p voltage for maximum power operation, and
power dissipated by the o/p transistors at this voltage.
Determine the max. power dissipated by the o/p transistors, and the i/p
voltage at which it occurs.
Solution
VCC = 25 V, RL = 4 ,
2
2
. ( ) = = 99.47 W, check
2
. ( ) = = 78.125 W, check
2
% . = 100 = . %
To achieve max. power operation, the o/p voltage must be:
VL(p) = VCC = 25 V
P2Q = Pi Po = 21.3 W
2
2
. 2 = 2 = .
a- At point 1 (t = 0):
= = + + 1 0 + 2 0
= + + 1 + 2 (a)
b- At point 2 (t = /2):
2
= = + + 1 + 2
2 2
= + 2 (b)
c- At point 3 (t = ):
= = + + 1 cos + 2 cos 2
= + 1 + 2 (c)
Adding (a), (c), substituting Io = I2 from (b), we get
+ 2
= 2 =
4
Subtracting (c) from (a), we get
1 =
2
Using the definition of the second harmonic distortion as
2
2 = | | 100%
1
1
( + )
2
2 = | | 100% (33)
Solution
Using Eq. (34), check that
a) D2 = 2.38 %
b) D2 = 0 %
Example 14
For a harmonic distortion reading of D2 = 0.1, D3 = 0.02, and D4 = 0.01,
with I1 = 4 mA and RC = 8 , calculate the total harmonic distortion
"THD", fundamental power component, and total power.
Solution
Using Eq. (31), check that THD 0.1
12
Using Eq. (35), check that 1 = = 64 W
2
Using Eq. (37), check that P = 64.64 W