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x = x1 i + x2 j + x3 k, y = y1 i + y2 j + y3 k.
The dot product of x and y can be dened in terms of the components of these vectors as
x y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 . (4.11.1)
Furthermore, from Equation (4.11.2), the angle between any two nonzero vectors x and
y is
xy
cos = , (4.11.3)
||x|| ||y||
which implies that x and y are orthogonal (perpendicular) if and only if
x y = 0.
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DEFINITION 4.11.1
Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) be vectors in Rn . We dene the
standard inner product in Rn , denoted x, y, by
x, y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + + xn yn .
The norm of x is
||x|| = x, x = x12 + x22 + + xn2 .
x, y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + + xn yn .
These properties are easily established using Denition 4.11.1. For example, to prove
property 1, we proceed as follows. From Denition 4.11.1,
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DEFINITION 4.11.3
Let V be a real vector space. A mapping that associates with each pair of vectors u
and v in V a real number, denoted u, v, is called an inner product in V , provided
it satises the following properties. For all u, v, and w in V , and all real numbers k,
A real vector space together with an inner product dened in it is called a real inner
product space.
Remarks
1. Observe that ||u|| = u, u takes a well-dened nonnegative real value, since
property 1 of an inner product guarantees that the norm evaluates the square root
of a nonnegative real number.
2. It follows from the discussion above that Rn together with the inner product dened
in Denition 4.11.1 is an example of a real inner product space.
One of the fundamental inner products arises in the vector space C 0 [a, b] of all
real-valued functions that are continuous on the interval [a, b]. In this vector space, we
dene the mapping f, g by
b
f, g = f (x)g(x) dx, (4.11.4)
a
for all f and g in C 0 [a, b]. We establish that this mapping denes an inner product in
y
C 0 [a, b] by verifying properties 14 of Denition 4.11.3. If f is in C 0 [a, b], then
y [f(x)]2
b
f, f = [f (x)]2 dx.
a
x
a b Since the integrand, [f (x)]2 , is a nonnegative continuous function, it follows that f, f
measures the area between the graph y = [f (x)]2 and the x-axis on the interval [a, b].
Figure 4.11.2: f, f gives the
(See Figure 4.11.2.)
area between the graph of
y = [f (x)]2 and the x-axis, lying Consequently, f, f 0. Furthermore, f, f = 0 if and only if there is zero area
over the interval [a, b]. between the graph y = [f (x)]2 and the x-axisthat is, if and only if
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Hence, f, f = 0 if and only if f (x) = 0, for all x in [a, b], so f must be the zero
y function. (See Figure 4.11.3.) Consequently, property 1 of Denition 4.11.3 is satised.
f (x) 0 for all x in [a,b] Now let f, g, and h be in C [a, b], and let k be an arbitrary real number. Then
0
b b
g, f = g(x)f (x) dx = f (x)g(x) dx = f, g.
x a a
a b
Hence, property 2 of Denition 4.11.3 is satised.
Figure 4.11.3: f, f = 0 if For property 3, we have
and only if f is the zero function.
b b b
kf, g = (kf )(x)g(x) dx = kf (x)g(x) dx = k f (x)g(x) dx = kf, g,
a a a
as needed. Finally,
b b
f + g, h = (f + g)(x)h(x) dx = [f (x) + g(x)]h(x) dx
a b b a
so that property (4) of Denition 4.11.3 is satised. We can now conclude that Equa-
tion (4.11.4) does dene an inner product in the vector space C 0 [a, b].
Example 4.11.4 Use Equation (4.11.4) to determine the inner product of the following functions in
C 0 [0, 1]:
f (x) = 8x, g(x) = x 2 1.
Also nd ||f || and ||g||.
Solution: From Equation (4.11.4),
1 1
f, g = 8x(x 1) dx = 2x 4x
2 4 2
= 2.
0 0
Moreover, we have
1 8
||f || = 64x 2 dx =
0 3
and
1 1 8
||g|| = (x 2 1)2 dx = (x 4 2x 2 + 1) dx = .
0 0 15
We have already seen that the norm concept generalizes the length of a geometric
vector. Our next goal is to show how an inner product enables us to dene the angle
between two vectors in an abstract vector space. The key result is the Cauchy-Schwarz
inequality established in the next theorem.
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Proof Let k be an arbitrary real number. For the vector u + kv, we have
= 4(u, v)2 4||u||2 ||v||2 .
If
> 0, then P (k) has two real and distinct roots. This would imply that the graph of P
crosses the k-axis and, therefore, P would assume negative values, contrary to (4.11.7).
Consequently, we must have
0. That is,
or equivalently,
(u, v)2 ||u||2 ||v||2 .
Hence,
If u and v are arbitrary vectors in a real inner product space V , then u, v is a real
number, and so (4.11.5) can be written in the equivalent form
u, v
1 1.
||u|| ||v||
Thus, each pair of nonzero vectors in a real inner product space V determines a unique
angle by
u, v
cos = , 0 . (4.11.8)
||u|| ||v||
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We call the angle between u and v. In the case when u and v are geometric vectors,
the formula (4.11.8) coincides with Equation (4.11.3).
Example 4.11.6 Determine the angle between the vectors u = (1, 1, 2, 3) and v = (2, 1, 2, 2) in
R4 .
Solution: Using the standard inner product in R4 yields
u, v = 5, ||u|| = 15, ||v|| = 13,
Hence,
195
= arccos 1.937 radians 110 58 .
39
Example 4.11.7 Use the inner product (4.11.4) to determine the angle between the functions f1 (x) =
sin 2x and f2 (x) = cos 2x on the interval [, ].
Solution: Using the inner product (4.11.4), we have
1 1
f1 , f2 = sin 2x cos 2x dx = sin 4x dx = ( cos 4x) = 0.
2 8
cos = 0, 0 ,
which implies that = /2. We say that the functions are orthogonal on the interval
[, ], relative to the inner product (4.11.4). In the next section we will have much
more to say about orthogonality of vectors.
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Cn would be a complex number also. Furthermore, applying the R2 inner product to, for
example, the vector u = (1 i, 1 + i), we obtain
which means that a nonzero vector would have zero length. To rectify this situation,
we must dene an inner product in Cn more carefully. We take advantage of complex
conjugation to do this, as the denition shows.
DEFINITION 4.11.8
If u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) are vectors in Cn , we dene the
standard inner product in Cn by10
u, v = u1 v 1 + u2 v 2 + + un v n .
The preceding inner product is a mapping that associates with the two vectors
u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) in Cn the scalar
u, v = u1 v 1 + u2 v 2 + + un v n .
In general, u, v will be nonreal (i.e., it will have a nonzero imaginary part). The key
point to notice is that the norm of u is always a real number, even though the separate
components of u are complex numbers.
The standard inner product in Cn satises properties (1), (3), and (4), but not property
(2). We now derive the appropriate generalization of property (2) when using the standard
inner product in Cn . Let u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) be vectors in
Cn . Then, from Denition 4.11.8,
Thus,
v, u = u, v.
We now use the properties satised by the standard inner product in Cn to dene an inner
product in an arbitrary (that is, real or complex) vector space.
10
Recall that if z = a + ib, then z = a ib and |z|2 = zz = (a + ib)(a ib) = a 2 + b2 .
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DEFINITION 4.11.10
Let V be a (real or complex) vector space. A mapping that associates with each pair
of vectors u, v in V a scalar, denoted u, v, is called an inner product in V , provided
it satises the following properties. For all u, v and w in V and all (real or complex)
scalars k,
Remark Notice that the properties in the preceding denition reduce to those in
Denition 4.11.3 in the case that V is a real vector space, since in such a case the
complex conjugates are unnecessary. Thus, this denition is a consistent extension of
Denition 4.11.3.
Example 4.11.11 Use properties 2 and 3 of Denition 4.11.10 to prove that in an inner product space
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1. If v and w are linearly independent vectors in an inner For Problems 67, use the inner product (4.11.9) to deter-
product space V , then v, w = 0. mine A, B, ||A||, and ||B||.
2. In any inner product space V , we have 2 1 3 1
6. A = ,B = .
3 5 1 2
kv, kw = kv, w.
3 2 1 1
3. If v1 , w = v2 , w = 0 in an inner product space V , 7. A = ,B = .
2 4 2 1
then
c1 v1 + c2 v2 , w = 0. 8. Let p1 (x) = a + bx and p2 (x) = c + dx be vectors
in P1 . Determine a mapping p1 , p2 that denes an
4. In any inner product space V , x + y, x y < 0 if inner product on P1 .
and only if ||x|| < ||y||.
Consider the vector space R2 . Dene the mapping , by
5. In any vector space V , there is at most one valid inner
product , that can be dened on V . v, w = 2v1 w1 + v1 w2 + v2 w1 + 2v2 w2
6. The angle between the vectors v and w in an inner (4.11.10)
product space V is the same as the angle between the
vectors 2v and 2w. for all vectors v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ) in R2 . This
mapping is required for Problems 912.
7. If p(x) = a0 +a1 x+a2 x 2 and q(x) = b0 +b1 x+b2 x 2 ,
then we can dene an inner product on P2 via p, q = 9. Verify that Equation (4.11.10) denes an inner product
a0 b0 . on R2 .
2. If f (x) = sin x and g(x) = x on [0, ], use the func- 11. v = (2, 1), w = (3, 6).
tion inner product dened in the text to determine the
angle between f and g. 12. v = (1, 2), w = (2, 1).
3. If v = (2+i, 32i, 4+i) and w = (1+i, 13i, 3 13. Consider the vector space R2 . Dene the mapping ,
i), use the standard inner product in C3 to determine, by
v, w, ||v||, and ||w||.
v, w = v1 w1 v2 w2 , (4.11.11)
4. Let
for all vectors v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ). Verify
a11 a12 b11 b12
A= , B= that all of the properties in Denition 4.11.3 except (1)
a21 a22 b21 b22
are satised by (4.11.11).
be vectors in M2 (R). Show that the mapping
The mapping (4.11.11) is called a pseudo-inner product in
A, B = a11 b11 + a12 b12 + a21 b21 + a22 b22 R2 and, when generalized to R4 , is of fundamental impor-
(4.11.9) tance in Einsteins special relativity theory.
denes an inner product in M2 (R). 14. Using Equation (4.11.11), determine all nonzero vec-
5. Referring to A and B in the previous problem, show tors satisfying v, v = 0. Such vectors are called null
that the mapping vectors.
A, B = a11 b22 + a12 b21 + a21 b12 + a22 b11 15. Using Equation (4.11.11), determine all vectors sat-
isfying v, v < 0. Such vectors are called timelike
does not dene a valid inner product on M2 (R). vectors.
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16. Using Equation (4.11.11), determine all vectors sat- [Hint: ||v + w||2 = v + w, v + w.]
isfying v, v > 0. Such vectors are called spacelike
(b) Two vectors v and w in an inner product space
vectors.
V are called orthogonal if v, w = 0. Use (a)
17. Make a sketch of R2 and indicate the position of the to prove the general Pythagorean theorem: If v
null, timelike, and spacelike vectors. and w are orthogonal in an inner product space
V , then
18. Consider the vector space Rn , and let v =
(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) and w = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ) be vec- ||v + w||2 = ||v||2 + ||w||2 .
tors in Rn . Show that the mapping , dened by
v, w = k1 v1 w1 + k2 v2 w2 + + kn vn wn (c) Prove that for all v, w in V ,
is a valid inner product on Rn if and only if the con- (i) ||v + w||2 ||v w||2 = 4v, w.
stants k1 , k2 , . . . , kn are all positive. (ii) ||v + w||2 + ||v w||2 = 2(||v||2 + ||w||2 ).
19. Prove from the inner product axioms that, in any inner
product space V , v, 0 = 0 for all v in V . 21. Let V be a complex inner product space. Prove that
for all v, w in V ,
20. Let V be a real inner product space.
(a) Prove that for all v, w V , ||v + w||2 = ||v||2 + 2Re(v, w) + ||v||2 ,
||v + w||2 = ||v||2 + 2v, w + ||w||2 . where Re denotes the real part of a complex number.
DEFINITION 4.12.1
Let V be an inner product space.
(That is, every vector is orthogonal to every other vector in the set.)
3. A vector v in V is called a unit vector if ||v|| = 1.
4. An orthogonal set of unit vectors is called an orthonormal set of vectors.
Thus, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } in V is an orthonormal set if and only if
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