Notes 1

Lecture Notes
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University
File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 2.01

Table of Content
Topic 1. Revision structural mechanics
Topic 2. General provisions of AS4100
Topic 3. Prefabricated sections
Topic 4. Steel strength
Topic 5. Bending of steel members
Topic 6. Dimensioning of steel beams preview
Topic 7. Local buckling of plates in I and box sections
Topic 8. Lateral or flexural-torsional buckling of beams
Topic 9. Plate elements in shear
Topic 10. Axially loaded columns and struts
Topic 11. Beam web design
Topic 12. Floor framing system
Topic 13. Costing information
Topic 14. Members under combined actions
Topic 15. Design of members subject to axial tension
Topic 16. Design of base plates
Topic 17. Bolts and bolting
Topic 18. Dimensioning of welds
File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 2.01

Subject CIV2222 : Structural Engineering 2
Steel Framed Structures
CIV2222 STEEL FRAMED STRUCTURES
NB: Examples of rules from the Steel Code set out below are selected to give a
general impression of its major provisions.
Topic 1. REVISION - STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 1991, Chapter 6.

& ENG1201 Notes, An Introduction to Structural Analysis,
REQUIRED Chapters 7,9&10.
1.1 Structural analysis
The purpose of carrying out structural analysis is to calculate the maximum values of
forces (moment, shear force and axial force) for design and check against its capacity.
Internal forces in a beam

w = 10 kN/m
A B
L = 10m
X
Forces at a distance X from A : At cut face
positive (+ve) forces for diagram

plotting
Free body diagram : w = 10 kN/m

A N
P M
X
S
C
Ay = 50 kN
File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99

Total equivalent load P = 10X kN at a distance of X/2 from A.

Take moment about C,
10X (X/2) - 50X + M = 0
M = -5X2 + 50X (1)
Fy = 0,
50 - 10X - S = 0
S = 50 - 10X (2)
N=0
Plotting equations (1) and (2) for X = 0 to 10 m.
Bending moment diagram (BMD) moment is always plotted on the tension side of
the beam
compression
tension
X = 5 m,
X = 2.5 m M = 125 kNm
M = 93.75 kNm
Shear force diagram (SFD)
50 kN
50 kN
Maximum bending moment = 125 kNm
Maximum shear force = 50 kN
Maximum axial force = 0
1.2 Simple bending theory
Bending of a beam member

The bending stress x of the cross-section of a beam varies according to the following
equation : x
b x
d
x y
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University x
M
=
x
y
I
The beam is under maximum stress when M and y are at maximum values. That is, M
= Mmax (obtained from structural analysis above) and y = d/2.
The extreme fibre of the cross-section starts to yield when x = fy. Hence, the moment
capacity that a cross-section can take is
My = fy I/(d/2) = fy Z
where Z = I/(d/2) = elastic section modulus.
Ms=KMy
My
rotation
In reality, when the whole section becomes yielded (in contrast to extreme fibre only),
the moment capacity can be increased by a shape factor K where
K = 1.15 for steel I-section

K = 1.5 for rectangular section
Hence,
Ms=KMy = fyKZ = fy S K = S/Z
and S = plastic section modulus.
Calculation of Second Moment of Area (I)
b
Rectangular section : I = bd3/12


Rectangular hollow section : I = b1d13/12 - b2d23/12

b1 b1 b2
b2
d2 d1 d1 d2
I-section : I = bd3/12 - (ch3/12) x 2

b
b c c
c c
h d d h h
Non-symmetric section
Use of non-symmetric steel sections is not uncommon in steel structures. For instance,
the section of a steel gantry girder consists of an I-section and a channel. The moment
capacity of this section may require the values of S and Z.
The calculation of moment of inertia I for non-symmetric section is based on the

Parallel Axes Principle which is given as
I = (bd3/12 + Ah2)
The sign includes the contributions from all elements of the cross-section and h is the
distance between the centroid of the element and the centroid C-C of the overall

cross-section. Therefore, the first step usually is to find the location of C-C using first
moment of area before the moment of inertia I can be calculated.
b
d
Area A h
C C
200 mm
Example
20 mm
T-section
N.A.
500 mm
(200x20 + 500x10) yc
= 200x20x510 + 500x10x250 yc
yc = 365.5 mm
10 mm
1 200 mm
(h)1 = 510 - 365.5 = 144.5 mm 20 mm
(h)2 = 365.5 - 250 = 115.5 mm (h)1
N.A.
IN.A. = 200x203/12 + 200x20x(144.5)2
500 mm (h)2
+ 10x5003/12 + 10x500x(115.5)2
yc
= 254,522,250 mm4
10 mm
2

Topic 2. GENERAL PROVISIONS OF AS4100
Trahair,N.S. & Bradford,M.A.,The behaviour and

& design of steel structures to AS4100, 1998, Chapter 1.
REQUIRED
2.1 Design for overall stability
Loads and self-weight tending to cause overturning must be factored as normal

(factors greater than unity). Loads and self weight tending to resist overturning,
together with the strength of members which help in this regard, must be factored by
0.8.
2.2 Design for strength
This is to be achieved by making sure that the "design capacity" of members Ru

(calculated at ultimate strength) is greater than the "design action effects" S* which are
the moments and forces caused in members by the factored loads.
This is expressed in the code by the relationship
S* Ru
The following table summarises the values of capacity factor for steel design.
(Refer also to Appendix C on loading and factors of safety).
Design capacity for Capacity factor ( )

Members subject to bending, axial, combined 0.9
actions
Bolted connection
bolts 0.8
ply in bearing 0.9
SP Category GP Category
Welded connection
complete penetration butt weld 0.9 0.6
longitudinal fillet weld in RHS (t < 3mm) 0.7 -
other welds and weld group 0.8 0.6
2.3 Design for serviceability

The main problem here is deflection, and the code suggests the following limits
In general: total deflection within a span L/250

total deflection in a cantilever L/125
Members supporting masonry partitions:

If provision is made to accommodate movement L/500
otherwise L/1000
Long beams supporting floors and machinery should be checked for resonance.
Limits on human tolerance for whole-body vibration are given in AS 2670.
Lateral drift of unbraced frames and multistorey buildings subject to wind and
earthquake loading "should be considered".
For industrial buildings, suggested limits on horizontal deflection at eaves due to wind
loading are:
with metal cladding, no gantry cranes, internal partitions not touching walls:
limit = column height/150
with masonry walls supported by steelwork: column height/240.
Other items listed under the heading of "serviceability" are design against slip in
friction-grip connections, and degree of protection against corrosion.
2.4 Other factors
Other considerations mentioned are:
Design against brittle fracture*, fatigue, fire, and earthquake

differential settlement
progressive collapse
"special performance requirements" (e.g. isolation from vibrations caused by
underground trains).
* Note that mild steel is a very "forgiving" material because of its long yield plateau.

At "stress raisers" such as re-entrant corners and bolt holes where very high stresses
would otherwise exist, the steel yields and flows in a plastic manner, but does not
(normally) fracture. Our approach to design and our calculations can be much simpler
than if we had to calculate the exact stress at every point in the structure. We are able
to compute simply the general level of stress in a member from formulas such as P/A
or M/Z. We may work out the force in each bolt in a small bolted joint under tension
by simply dividing the force by the number of bolts (see later).
However, there is a danger of complacency. Even mild steel may suffer brittle fracture
if subjected to low temperature and tri-axial tensile stress in the vicinity of a stress
raiser. Such tensile stresses may arise due to causes (e.g. the cooling of welds) which
are not immediately obvious.
2.5 Pattern loading in multistorey buildings
Where the live load Q may vary from one span (or room) to another and exceeds
three-quarters of the dead load G, analysis must be carried out for
factored live load on all spans
factored live load on alternate spans
factored live load on two adjacent spans
The second case results in high BMs at mid-span in the loaded beams, and the third
causes high BM over the support between the two loaded spans.

The appropriate load factors for both the live load and dead load are given in
Appendix A (p. 113).

Topic 3. PREFABRICATED "SECTIONS"
3.1 Available shapes
Steel is produced in various forms suitable for use in structures. These include "plate",
"rounds, bars and rods", "angles", "channels" and "I-sections". The I-sections are
produced as "beam" sections with Iyy much less than Ixx and "column" sections with
Iyy closer to Ixx (see later). Most of these sections are produced by rolling red hot
steel. Most sections now have parallel flanges: the "universal" beam and column
sections, and the channels. However, some "taper flange" Is and channels are still
produced. It is possible to make very large sections (e.g. for bridge beams) by
welding plate into the form of an I or box. In 1991 BHP introduced a range of "off-
the-shelf" welded I sections. See "Hot Rolled and Structural Products", BHP Steel.
3.2 Reasons for section shapes
3.2.1 Tension
The basic ultimate strength of a section subjected to purely axial

tension is (area times yield stress). This is independent of shape.
3.2.2 Bending
The bending moment which a beam can carry before its flanges start to yield is
Zfy . If the moment is increased still further, yielding spreads throughout the cross-
section. Total collapse occurs, theoretically, at a moment Mp = Sfy where S is a
geometrical constant similar to Z. S is called the "plastic section modulus". The
principal aim of beam shape is to maximize Z and S for a given amount of material by
spreading it away from the neutral axis. The I section is ideal for this, as shown in the
table below. This also increases greatly the second moment of area Ixx , thus reducing
the amount of deflection under load. Unfortunately, this process reduces Iyy , making
the beam very flexible in the lateral direction, and susceptible to "lateral buckling" (see
later).
3.2.3 Axial compression
The simple Euler formula for buckling load of a column 2 EI/L2 is inaccurate
at slenderness ratios normally found in practice. However, it shows that second
moment of area is an important factor in column strength. A column may buckle in
either the x or y direction so it is important to have Ixx and Iyy of similar magnitude.
(An exception occurs if the column receives support in one direction (e.g. from a wall)
or is subjected to large bending moments in one direction).

3.3 Comparison of Section Properties for same amount of

material
Constant Area of 12900 mm2

S
Shape I(mm4 ) Z(mm3 ) S(mm3 ) Z
13.9 x 106 244 x 103 370 x 103 1.50
27.7 x 106 345 x 103 518 x 103 1.50
757 x 106 2510 x 103 2880 x 103 1.15
Ad 2 Ad Ad
1.0
4 2 2

Topic 4. STEEL STRENGTH
4.1 Grades
Steel is produced in "Grades" which are defined according to specified chemical

composition and mechanical properties. They are known by the approximate value of
the specified yield stress fy .
The most common (for rolled sections) is the newly introduced Grade 300PLUS
(replacing the once popular Grade 250), followed by Grade 350. These may be
obtained with notch ductile qualities (with suffix L0 or L15) and/or weather-resistant
qualities (with prefix WR) "off-the shelf". Welded sections are produced in Grades
300 and 400 steel and WR350/1L0. Hollow sections are produced with prefixes C
and H, depending on whether they are hot formed or cold formed, in Grades 200,
250, and 350.
The yield stress that may be used in design varies with the type of product and the
thickness of material. (Thinner portions have better properties, having undergone
more working in the rolling process, and are less prone to lamination).
Weathering steels are a special case - they are Grade C350 only, and fy is C340 MPa
regardless of thickness.
For Circular hollow sections fy is simply Grades: C250 and C350.

Rectangular and Square hollow sections are used in Grades C350 and C450.
4.2 Values of fy to be used in dimensioning
Hot Rolled Sections in Grades 250, BHP-300 PLUS, and 350.
Thickness Grade 250 Thickness BHP-300 PLUS Thickness Grade 350

t <11 260 t <11 320 t 11 360
11 t < 40 250 11 t 17 300 11 < t < 40 340
t 40 230 t > 17 280 t 40 330
Plate in Grades 250, BHP-300 PLUS for WC and WB, and 350
Thickness Grade 250 Thickness BHP-300 PLUS Thickness Grade 350
t<8 280 t<8 320

8 < t < 12 260 8 < t < 12 310 t < 12 360
12 < t < 50 250} 12 < t < 20 300 12 < t < 20 350
50 < t < 80 240} * 20 < t < 150 280 20 < t < 80 340
80 < t < 150 230} 80 < t < 150 330
* slight differences for notch ductile steels

4.3 Ultimate tensile stress
The ultimate tensile stress fu for the various Grades is
Grade fu
Hot rolled { 250 410

{ 300 PLUS 440
{ 350 480
Welded { 300 430

{ 400 480
Hollow { C250 320

{ C350 430
{ C450 500
4.4 Residual stresses
As hot-rolled sections cool down after rolling, the tips of the flanges and the middle of
the web cool, and therefore harden, more quickly than the rest of the cross-section.
As the mass of material at the junctions between the flanges and web cools and
contracts in the longitudinal direction, the harder parts resist the contraction and are
placed in a state of compression. The junctions, being unable to contract as far as
they would otherwise, are placed in tension. The resulting distribution of stress is
shown below.
A similar effect occurs when plates are welded at the junction to form an I-section.
Residual stresses may be as high as fy /2. They greatly affect the behaviour of steel
members, particularly columns.

Their presence is ignored in many theoretical analyses (e.g. Euler and Perry Robertson
theories of column buckling) but allowance must always be made in some way for their
effects on actual behaviour.
Topic 5. BENDING OF STEEL MEMBERS

& design of steel structures to AS4100, 1998, pp. 169-173,
REQUIRED Section 5.12 - worked examples.
5.1 Behaviour in plastic range
The top group of figures show what happens (theoretically) within a steel cross-section
as the bending moment is steadily increased. (This explanation ignores the

presence of residual stresses). For simplicity the section is assumed to be

symmetrical about the neutral axis.
Figure (1) shows the linear strain and stress distributions which exist in a beam at low
BM, when the material is still within the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve (AB).
As the BM is increased, material at the top and bottom reaches yield strain and fy
(Figure 2). If the BM is increased further, the strain at top and bottom exceeds y but
the strain diagram remains linear (3). However, the stress in the outer layers cannot
exceed fy . The steel in these layers is now in the region BC of the stress-strain curve.
With further increase in moment (4) the amount of material at strain greater than y
increases. Yielding extends closer to the neutral axis, as shown by the flat portion of
the stress diagram. If the BM is increased further (5), the strain in the outer layers
exceeds s, the strain at which strain-hardening commences. Because strain is still
proportional to distance from the neutral axis, the stress-strain curve is reproduced in
the stress diagram (5). Eventually, the cross-section becomes almost completely
plastic and a "plastic hinge" develops.
In theory, strain hardening is ignored and the stress diagram of Figure (6) is assumed
to exist at failure.
5.2 Value of Plastic Section Modulus S
The ultimate moment capacity of a rectangular section Mp is calculated as follows:
T
d
Force on compression zone C = b .fy
2
Force on tension zone T = C for equilibrium.
2
d
Moment capacity M p = C . = bd f y = Sf y
2 4
2
2

S (for rectangular section only) = bd c . f . Z = bd
4 6

Non-symmetric section
fy
T
yt
X X
yc
C
fy
For a section of arbitrary shape, C = Acfy and T = AT fy if the section is made of the
same material with yield stress = fy; Ac = area under compression; AT = area under
tension.
For equilibrium, T = C, Ac = AT . This is also the condition whereby the neutral axis
X-X (also called the equal area axis) divides the cross-section into two equal parts.
For symmetric sections, the equal area axis coincides with the centroid of the section.
For non-symmetric sections, they are different.
Also, take moment about X-X:
M p = Ty t + Cy c
= ( At y t + Ac y c ) f y = Sf y
Hence, S = first moment of area about the equal area axis.
e.g.
For an I-section,
200
40
220
100
40 400
40

S = 2 [(200 x 40 x 220) + (200 x 40 x 100)]

= 5120 x 103 mm3
For a T-section,
200
40
120
50
40 400 Equal area axis
150
y
Total area = (200 x 40) + (400 x 40) = 24000 mm2

(40 x y) = 24000/2
y = 300
S = (200 x 40 x 120) + (100 x 40 x 50) + (300 x 40 x 150)
= 2960 x 103 mm3
Note : This section has an area which is about 82% of the full I-section but its
plastic section modulus S, hence its moment capacity MP, is only about 58% of
the full I-section. This is one of the reasons why I-sections are effective in
strength.
5.3 Effect of strain-hardening
The idealized theoretical picture of rectangular stress blocks ignores strain-hardening.

This is in fact of great importance because it stiffens yielded cross-sections, throwing
load onto adjacent zones. It also provides in most cases a reserve of strength which

has not been taken into account in calculations. However, this is only true in sections
such as I's where material is concentrated at the extremities where the strain-hardening
is most effective. A measure of this concentration is the ratio of S/Z which is 1.5 for a
rectangular cross-section, about 1.15 for typical I's and 1.7 for a solid circular cross-
section.
S
1.15 1.50 1.70
Z
Note: Do not use the approximate relationship S/Z 1.15 to find S from Z or
vice versa.
In the circular cross-section the proportion of material that will benefit from strain
hardening is small. Hence AS4100 does not permit the use of a section modulus
greater than 1.5 times the elastic value.

Topic 6. DIMENSIONING OF STEEL BEAMS - PREVIEW
Choosing a suitable size and shape for steel beams is a process of making an intelligent
estimate and then checking the beam for several possible modes of failure. Because
steel beams usually consist of thin plate-like elements they are susceptible to certain
special modes of failure.
Possible modes of failure are:
1. Applied BM exceeding ultimate moment capacity of cross-section.
Check Sfy M *
2. Applied BM causing local buckling of the compression flange and parts of the web
in compression.
Check: define a new section modulus Ze where Ze < S may be reduced by

local buckling. Determine Ze. Let "Section Capacity" Ms = Zefy .
Check M s M *
[In AS4100 Check (1) is covered by Check (2)]
3. Slenderness of beam results in lateral buckling (sideways movement and twisting of

entire beam) before Mp is reached.
Check: determine moment Mb at which beam will buckle.
Check M b > M* (not included in this subject)
or
provide lateral supports at intervals close enough to ensure that Mb Ms

In CIV2222 for I-beams we ensure
L 250
(80 + 50 m )
ry fy
4. Shear force causes web to yield or buckle. (Shear force is carried mainly by
web).
Determine shear force Vw which causes web to yield.
Determine shear force Vb which causes web to buckle.


Strength of web Vu is the smaller out of Vw and Vb
Check Vu V*
5. Deflection of beam is sufficiently large to cause concern to users, damage

partitions, cause problems with machinery, etc.
Check: determine deflection and if necessary, natural frequency and

amplitude. Check against established limits and/or frequency of
machinery.
Check
Usually, one of these modes dominates. Few rolled sections suffer from (2).
Beams in buildings are normally governed by (1) or (3), although (8) may be a
problem. The danger of lateral buckling (3) may be avoided by providing lateral
support where practicable and economically justifiable. Modes (4) and (5) are hardly
ever a problem in buildings unless holes are cut in webs to allow air-conditioning ducts
and other services to pass through. They are more common in bridge beams. Modes
(6) and (7) can be avoided by adding stiffeners to the web (see later).
The following sections will look at each of these modes in turn.

Topic 7. LOCAL BUCKLING OF PLATES IN I AND BOX

SECTIONS

& design of steel structures to AS4100, 1998, Chapter 4.
REQUIRED
7.1 General
If all goes well, the entire flange of a steel beam will reach fy . However, if the plate is
"slender" it may buckle locally before fy is reached.
Two possible courses are open to the designer
(a) Make sure the plates are not slender enough to permit buckling before yield.
(b) Accept the reduction in strength due to buckling and calculate the reduced BM
capacity, Zefy where Ze S.
The choice depends on the economics of a particular situation. Either course requires
a knowledge of how plate buckling is influenced by slenderness.
7.2 Elastic buckling of compression flanges supported by two webs.
The simplest approach is to calculate the elastic buckling stress of idealised plates
ignoring residual stress and initial lack of straightness.
The flange of a box beam is reasonably free to rotate at its edges because the webs
may bend easily. It is thus possible to adopt the following theoretical model.

The formula obtained for displacement (assuming the material remains elastic) is:
m y n z
u = sin sin
b I
where
u = deflection at any point
m = no. of waves in y direction (normally unity)
n = no. in z direction.
The solution for the stress in the flange when buckling occurs (the "elastic critical
stress") is
Ek
2
M crit = f =
01 2
Z b
12(1 - 2 )
t
where k is a factor related to n and L/b (see below)

b = width of flange between webs
t = thickness of flange
Z = elastic sectional modulus
The value of the critical moment at which elastic buckling occurs Zfo1 is related to the
number of waves which develop in the longitudinal direction. These waves are of
length 2b.

Hence for the high values of L/b found in practice, we can take k = 4.
If we wish to make sure that fo1 is at least as great as fy , taking E = 200,000 MPa and
= 0.3 we can show that
b fy
53.8
t 250
this is known as the YIELD LIMIT (for compression flanges between two webs).

Hence the flange can be prevented from buckling before it yields if we place a limit on
b/t.
NB: Considerations such as the above are an important part of the process
of adapting complex theories to suit the needs of everyday design.
7.3 Elastic buckling of the compression flanges of I-beams (and other

projecting flanges)
The flanges of I-beams are reasonably modelled as a plate hinged along one side (the
line of the web) and free along the other.
The formula for fo1 is similar, but
2
b
k = 0.425 +
L
for long plates k 0.425
b f
f o 1 f y when 17.5
y
t 250
this is known as the "YIELD LIMIT"

(for I beam flanges)
7.4 Practical considerations

The above analyses are conservative because the connection between flange and web
is rigid and the web must also buckle to allow the flange to do so.
Further, a plate hinged longitudinally has a great deal of "post-buckling" strength. In

the diagram above, strips adjacent to the free edge have obviously buckled and have
little stiffness (they "give way" easily). However, the strips adjacent to the hinged edge
are much stiffer and the load is transferred onto them. Consequently a graph of load
vs deflection looks like this:
b fy
The "yield limit" on ensures that the plates will not buckle before the
t 250
maximum stress in the cross-section reaches fy . If we want to ensure that the plates
will not buckle before the entire section becomes plastic, we shall need a more severe
limit. This is called the "plastic limit". Our theory will have to take account of the
post-buckling behaviour described above.
7.5 Inelastic buckling and the "Plastic Limit"
The above theory is, like the Euler theory for columns, accurate only for very slender
elements. Reasonably compact elements suffer yielding and strain hardening.
This can be allowed for (approximately) by using the strain-hardening modulus Est
instead of E.

b fy
This suggests a plastic limit for of 23.0 for plates hinged along two edges.
t 250
However, tests suggest this is too conservative, and that the limits are more like
31.1 for hinges along two edges (box beams) PLASTIC

8.0 for a hinge along one edge (I's, ['s etc.) LIMITS
7.6 Special Cases
In the cases considered above, the plates were subjected to stresses which were
uniform across their width.
If an I-beam is bent about its minor axis, the stress distribution in the outstand is
triangular.
Vertical plates, including webs of plate girders are subjected to triangular distributions
which include tension.
B

A final case is that of the circular hollow section which obviously requires special
mathematical treatment.
These cases have all been analyzed, and plastic and yield limits determined in a similar
fashion.
7.7 Code Rules
As a result of all this theorizing, steel sections composed of plates are classified
according to the b/t ratios of their most slender components.
Class 1 "Compact". Plates in this category will strain-harden before local buckling.
The section may be designed for full plastic moment Sfy (but 1.5ZfY).
Class 2 Plates will reach yield stress before buckling and can therefore resist at
least Zfy . Interpolation permitted between this limit and the limit for Class
1.
Class 3 Plates will buckle locally before Zfy is reached. A reduced moment
capacity must be calculated.

The buckling of plates is affected slightly by the level of residual stress. AS4100 lists
the limits as follows: (AS4100-Table 5.2).
Note that a deformation limit is also specified. Very slender plates may deflect a
great deal before their resistance becomes so small that they can be said to have
b fy
"failed". Therefore a third limit is imposed on to ensure that deflections do
t 250
not become excessive.

Residual Plasticity Yield Deformation

Stress Limit Limit Limit
ep ey ed
SR 10 16 35
HR 9 16 35
LW, CF 8 15 35
HW 8 14 35
SR 30 45 90
HR 30 45 90
LW, CF, 30 40 90
HW 30 35 90
SR 10 25 -
HR 9 25 -
LW, HW, CF 8 22 -
All 82 115 -
SR, HR, CF 50 120 -

LW, HW 42 120 -
SR = stress relieved HR = hot rolled or hot-finished

CF = cold formed LW = lightly welded

HW = heavily welded
The procedure when checking a section is to work out the slenderness e of all plate
elements :
b fy
e =
t 250
and read their yield limits (ey) from the table.
The e for the element with the highest value of the ratio e/ey is adopted as
representative of the slenderness of the entire section, and becomes "s".
The value of ey for this element becomes sy for the section and its value of ep
becomes sp .
If s sp the section is compact, and its capacity is Sfy but 1.5 Zfy .
If s = sy the capacity is Zfy
If sp < s < sy the capacity is interpolated.
If > sy the capacity is reduced below Zfy (see below)

The reduced capacity in Class 3 may be calculated using the "effective width concept".
As mentioned above, the buckled portions of a

plate take less load, but the stiffer strips alongside
the "hinges" continue to carry load. The stress
distribution across the width of a plate `hinged' on
two sides is as shown. The edges reach fy before
failure. This situation can be modelled as shown,
where a uniform stress of fy is assumed applied to a
reduced width, with zero stress in the middle.
The effective width is taken as the width corresponding to the yield limit:
be fy
= sy
t 250
250
i.e. effective width be = sy t < b
fy
Alternatively, the curve in the graph may be approximated by factoring the moment
capacity Zfy by
2
sy

s for plates with max. comp. stress at an unsupported edge and zero or tension
at the other.
sy

s for all other cases. (See below for more information)

Summary : Calculation of section moment capacity Ms
Ms = fy Ze
where Ze = effective section modulus, depending on the value of s.

b1
T
d1 t
Calculation of effective section modulus Ze
For section consisting of compression plate elements,
s = e chosen from the greatest value of e/ey for all elements
length fy
where e = and ey = AS4100 - Table 5.2.
thickness 250
For one single element, such as flange and web, length/thickness = b1/T for flange and
d1/t for web.
Defining two terms for single element:
sp = ep = plasticity slenderness limit obtained from Table on p.25

sy = ey = yield slenderness limit obtained from Table on p.25
(i) Compact sections (s sp) - no local buckling effects:

Ze S (plastic section modulus) or 1.5Z (elastic section modulus).
S and Z can be found from BHP Tables.
For UB and UC sections, S 1.5Z always use Ze = S.
(ii) Non-compact sections (sp < s sy) - minor local buckling effects:
sy s
Ze = Z + (S Z) for plate sections (eg.I-sections).
sy sp
(iii) Slender sections (s > sy) - major local buckling effects

For sections whose slenderness is determined by plate element in uniform

compression (e.g. flange of an I-section or box section bending about x-x axis)
sy
Ze = Z
s
For sections whose slenderness is determined by plate element with maximum

compression at an unsupported edge and zero or tension at the other (e.g. web of an
I-section bending about the x-x axis or flange of an I-section bending about y-y axis)
sy
2
Ze = Z
s
Mixed sections
Choose the worst case for calculation. For instance, if flange is non-compact and web
is compact, use the equation for non-compact sections and values of s, sy and sp
are from the plate element (either flange or web) which has the greater value of e/ey.
Example : Flange slender and web is compact

sy sy
Use Ze = Z where Z is calculated for the whole section and from flange.
s s
Note : Sometimes, it is more economical to calculate Ze separately for each plate

element (flange and web), such as : Flange is compact and web is slender or non-
compact.
Example for mixed section

Calculate Ze for the following HR section :
bf = d = 400 mm
tw = tf = 10 mm tf
Grade 300 steel tw
(Z = 1855238 mm3, S = 2.08 x 106 mm3)
d
Solution :
tf
Flange bf
( 400 10) / 2 320

e = = 22.1
10 250
ep = 9, ey = 16, e/ey = 1.35

Flange is slender
Web
400 320
e = = 45.3
10 250
ep = 82, ey = 115, e/ey = 0.39
web is compact
Whole section
Section is slender.
s = e = 22.1, sp = 9, sy = 16
Ze = Z(sy/s) = 1855238 (16/22.1) = 1343159 mm3
Ms = 0.9 x 320 x 1343159 = 387 kNm

Topic 8. LATERAL OR FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL

BUCKLING OF BEAMS
&
Trahair,N.S. & Bradford,M.A.,The behaviour and design of
steel structures to AS4100, 1998, Chapter 6.
REQUIRED
8.1 The Phenomenon
Slender beams buckle sideways even under perfectly vertical loads. The beam curves
in the horizontal as well as the vertical plane and twists about its longitudinal axis. In a
simply supported beam, as shown above, the movement of the cross-section at the
mid-span is as shown below.

Before After
8.2 The theory
The mathematical theory of flexural-torsional buckling under elastic conditions is

lengthy and involved. It is necessary to have some knowledge of the theory of pure
torsion and warping in sections made from plates. The notation is complex because it
must cater for bending in two directions (vertical due to load, and horizontal due to
buckling) and with torsion. Even so, residual stresses and plastic yield are ignored.
The classical theory is set out in Timoshenko and Gere "Theory of Elastic Stability".
Researchers specializing in this field (academics and consulting engineers) have

developed ways of simplifying and adapting this theory for use in practical design. As
there is not time for every student and designer to follow through the working involved,
it is necessary for most of us to accept the results which are set out as "rules" in the
code of practice.
(An excellent example of this type of adaptation is the paper by Kerensky, Flint and
Brown, Proc. ICE, Part III Vol. 5, Aug. 1956 pp. 396-461, setting out the
development of the beam buckling rules for the old British BS153 code).
It is necessary, however, for the practical designer to know the parameters which
affect the buckling strength of beams and understand how they do so.
The value of BM at which buckling occurs is affected by:
(a) the shape of the BMD.
(b) whether the ends are free to twist about the longitudinal axis.
(c) whether the ends are free to rotate about a vertical axis.
(d) whether there is any lateral support provided along the length of the beam.
(e) whether the load is applied to the top or bottom flange, or through the web.
(f) the shape, and hence the geometrical properties of the cross-section.
(g) whether the ends are free to warp.

Plan view - (warping is distortion of the cross-section in the longitudinal

direction)
To reduce this complexity, it helps if we define a standard case so that all practical
cases can be compared with it.
The standard case chosen is:
Uniform BM;
Prismatic beam;
Twist and lateral deflection at ends prevented;
Flange ends free to rotate about vert. axis;
Beam ends free to warp;
Load applied at shear centre.
The elastic critical moment which causes buckling is then:
EI y GJ
1 + EI2w
2
M b=
Ls GJ Ls
(ignoring the effect of major axis curvature).
In this formula, J is the "torsion constant" which appears in the formula T = GJ /L

relating torque T to angle of rotation through the shear modulus G and the length of
the member Ls (J = IP for a circular section).
3

Iw is the "warping constant" which appears in the formula Mw = EI w d 3 where z is
dz
measured along the longitudinal axis.
(The St. Venant theory of torsion is covered in e.g. Ford, H. Advanced mechanics of
materials. H620.112 F 699A2).

The complex formula above is very rarely used in practice, but values of J and Iw for
standard I-sections are provided in the BHP booklet "Hot rolled and structural
products".
Analyses for cases where conditions are different from the standard case can be
rearranged to give a similar formula differing mainly by a factor attached to L so that
design can be based, as with columns "effective length" equal to kb L (see rule 5.6.3
of AS4100), where L = span.
8.3 Influence of parameters
(a) The standard case is "pure moment".
Bending moment diagram

M M
M M
This minimizes Mb. Any other shape of BMD will result in a higher Mb than
indicated by the formula for the standard case.
(b) Obviously, if the ends of the beam are free, or partially free, to twist, it
is easier for the whole beam to twist out of shape and hence buckle. The standard
case assumes complete restraint against twisting at the ends. Anything less will mean a
lower Mb than for the standard case.
(c) When a beam buckles, the top flange curves sideways. In the standard case the ends
of the top flange are free to rotate about a vertical axis.
If this rotation is prevented it is harder for the beam to buckle. Mb is greater than for
the standard case.

(d) The effect of lateral restraint at intervals along the beam is to force the beam to adopt a
more complex buckled shape. Because it is harder to force the beam into this position,
Mb is increased.
A concrete floor slab sitting directly on the top flange (or somehow securely attached
to it) prevents sideways movement and suppresses lateral buckling. Mb is then
Ms(=Zefy ). In reality, Mb cannot be greater than Ms because the maximum capacity
that a section can achieve is Ms. Hence, in the case when the top flange is restrained
by a concrete floor slab, Mb = Ms.
(e)
W
e R e R e W
R
(1) (2) (3)

If the load is free to move sideways when the beam buckles, a twisting moment is
set up between the reactions R at the supports, and the load W. This equals eW
where e is the sideways eccentricity. As can be seen above, e is greatest when the
load is on the top flange (1). The standard case assumes that the load is applied
through the centroid of the cross-section (2). For case (1) Mb is reduced. For
case (3) it is increased.
(f) Note the influence of Iy , J, Iw and L on the value of Mb given in the formula.
Iy is an important factor because the beam curves sideways when it

buckles. The stiffness or resistance to movement in this direction is proportional to
Iy , and inversely proportional to L. Radius of gyration ry is normally used as a
measure instead of Iy , and the ratio L/ry is used as a measure of slenderness
(propensity to buckle).
AS4100 adopts the confusing convention of using L for the distance between
points of lateral support. This reflects the great importance of this factor in
governing lateral buckling, but leads to confusion with the traditional use of L to
denote span.
Note that high values of L/ry are associated with low values of Mb and that I-
sections have low values of ry .
The constant J is a measure of stiffness against torsion. "Open" sections such as Is,
Channels, and angles have low values of J and twist easily in comparison with other
sections. Box sections and tubes have high values of J and therefore good
resistance to buckling. For I sections, resistance to twisting is related to the ability
of the flanges to resist horizontal bending (one goes in each direction). This is again
related to Iy for the section.
I-section subjected to
torsion only

4 A2o ds
Note that for box sections Iw = 0 and J = where = o taken
t
round the circumference and Ao is the area enclosed within a line tracing the
centreline of the walls.
t1 For this case:

d
Ao = (b - t1 )(d - t2 )
ds
t2 (b t 1) (d t 2 )
= 2 + t 2
t2 1
(g) Resistance of the ends to warping may occur in beams built into brick or concrete.
This factor is rarely considered in practical design.
8.4 Code approach and rules
8.4.1 General
If we are faced with a situation where it is impractical or expensive to provide lateral

support, we may decide to accept that Mb will be < Zefy and choose a sufficiently
large beam to ensure that Mb M* . The calculation of Mb will not be included in
CIV2222.
In CIV2222 we concentrate only on studying a set of simple rules in AS4100 which

show how to provide sufficient lateral support to ensure that Mb Zefy . (Refer to
comment (b) above)
(Note that these particular rules (5.3.2) are crude. It is preferable to ensure proper
restraint by actually calculating Mb using rule 5.6).
8.4.2 Categories of lateral support (restraint) of CROSS-SECTIONS
In the Australian design procedure, the first step is to classify the various ways in which
a cross-section may be supported against rotation (about the longitudinal axis) and
lateral movement. In this, it is important to identify the flange which will move the
furthest (sideways) when buckling occurs. This is the "critical flange". [See rules 5.5
and 5.4.2]

If a segment of a beam is supported at both ends, the critical flange is the compression
flange. If the segment is free at one end (cantilever) the critical flange is the first flange
encountered by an arrow drawn in the direction of loading.
Restraints can be categorized as follows:
SECTION RESTRAINT
Lateral movement prevented Twist rotation Type of
Code rule prevented restraint
AS4100
At critical Elsewhere on
flange cross-section
5.4.2.1 (a) Effective + Effective or = "Full" (F)
Partial
5.4.2.1 (b) Effective + Effective = "Full" (F)
5.4.2.2 Effective + Partial = "Partial" (P)
5.4.2.4 Effective + None = "Lateral" (L)
None None None = "Unrestrained" (U)
5.4.2.3 of critical = "Rotational
flange in plan* restraint"

About the longitudinal axis.
*
"Twist rotation of the critical flange in plan" refers to case (c) above, rotation of the
flange about a vertical axis.

Although the classification appears comprehensive it is still something of an art to

match conditions which exist in practice with those described in the table.
Purlin cannot move

appreciably in this
direction Purlin
(braced in end bay)
Rafter
Flybrace
FULL (F) lateral restraint
Either flange of rafter may be "critical" because rafters (in e.g. factories) are often
subjected to upward load due to wind pressure and suction.
specially designed stiffener plate prevents distortion

(design of stiffeners not covered in CIV2222)
Bottom flange firmly bolted to support
No stiffener, but if bottom flange is No Monash

stiffener, top flange critical
critical (e.g. due to upwardDepartment
load) thisof Civil Engineering,
PARTIAL
University
restraint.
then counts as FULL restraint File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99
8.4.3 Definition of "beams", "segment" and "sub-segment"
It is assumed that the designer will normally provide restraint at regular intervals, and
the beam will be split into "segments" and "sub-segments" if necessary. These terms
are defined in Section 5 of AS4100. Note that the term "section" of a beam refers
to a cross-section at a particular point, and not to a length of the beam.
A "beam" is a continuous member terminated by physical ends, or by points of

discontinuity in (vertical) slope, such as a hinge.
A "segment" is a portion limited by "beam ends" or by cross-sections which are fully or

partially restrained.
A "sub-segment" is a portion with one end laterally restrained and the other restrained
in any way. Sub-segments are marked out by lateral supports applied to the critical
flange to provide "lateral restraint". (Rule 5.4.2.4).
Note that "lateral restraints" do not count when applied to a cantilever.

This unreal structure which appeared in the draft version of the code demonstrates the
terminology. It was not included in the final version.
8.4.4 Restraint of Segments or Members (definition of "Full Lateral

Support" of a member).
We can now define "segments which have full lateral support" and which therefore
have a "nominal member capacity in bending" Mb equal to the nominal section
capacity Ms.
If the beam has lateral support at intervals (as in the above figure) it qualifies under this
simple rule as having "full" lateral support (Mb Ms) if both ends are fully or partially
restrained, and it, or its sub-segments fulfil the equation
250
L/ r y (80 + 50 m ) for equal- flanged I sec tions [5.3.2.4]
fy
b f 250
L/ r y (1800 + 1500 m ) for rect . hollow sections [5.3.2.4]
bw f y
(Note that any lateral restraints must be attached to the critical flange [5.3.2.3]).
If there is no transverse load,
m = ratio of smaller to larger end moments in the length L.

+ve for reverse curvature
-ve for single curvature
Alternatively, if you are lazy, or do not yet know the BMD, you can conservatively
take as -1.0.
If there is "transverse" load acting within the length of the subsection under
consideration, then must be taken as -0.8.
(Note that "transverse" means in AS4100 "at right angles to the longitudinal
axis" i.e. for a beam: vertical load as well as horizontal).
Note also that in AS4100 "fully restrained" means "having sufficient

restraint to ensure that Mb Ms". "Full" restraint can be achieved by having

intermittent support at intervals, spaced in accordance with equations 5.3.2.4

above.
If a beam supports a concrete floor sitting on the critical flange, or firmly attached to it,
the floor prevents lateral movement of the flange. This is called in AS4100 a
"continuously restrained segment". If both ends of the segment are "fully" or "partially"
restrained cross-sections, then Mb> Ms.
In all cases, the members providing restraint must be designed for specified strength
and stiffness, but this is left for advanced design subjects.

Topic 9. PLATE ELEMENTS IN SHEAR

& design of steel structures to AS4100, 1998, pp. 114-119,
132-136, 157, 181.
REQUIRED
9.1 The web of a steel beam does most of the work in resisting the shear
force. We draw shear force diagrams so that we can pick out the
maximum SF and the value of SF at points where special problems
might occur (e.g. where there are holes for duct work).
9.2 Distribution of shear stress in web - elastic and plastic conditions
As long as a plate subjected to shear does not buckle or yield, the stress (neglecting
residual stresses) is given by the formula developed in CIV2204.
VA y
=
Ib
For an I-section the distribution of stress in the web is as shown:

The formula is inaccurate for vertical shear stress in the flanges, but these do little work
in resisting vertical shear force.
(There are significant horizontal

shear stresses in the flanges, but
these are not as great as those in the
web because t for the flanges is
normally greater than for the web).
When the max. reaches the yield stress in shear y = f y / 3 , plastic yielding
commences and if the load is further increased, the entire web becomes plastic.
9.3 Strength of web in Shear
9.3.1 Strength of fully-yielded web
The total resistance of the web is proportional to the area of

the diagram, and it is obvious that the yield capacity is not
much greater than the SF required to cause first yield.
V = (t. y)
V = o t. dy = t x (Area of diagram)
y
fy
The plastic yield strength = Aw 0.58 Aw f y
3
The code takes 0.6 Awfy where Aw is in mm2 and fy in MPa.
AS4100 : Vw = 0.6 Awfy
This is known as the "nominal shear yield capacity".
If the only holes in the web are those required for fasteners, and the fasteners are in
place Aw = gross area of the web. For rolled sections this is assumed to be (overall
depth) d x tw. For welded I-sections it is taken as dw x tw.
If there are larger holes (e.g. for conduits, pipes, air-conditioning ducts) the net area
must be used, if it is less than 90% of the gross area.

For circular hollow sections the formula is
Vw = 0.36 fyAe
where Ae is the net cross-sectional area. Ae may be taken as the gross area if all holes
are for fasteners, or if Ae 0.9 Ag.
If the elastic shear stress distribution (before yield) is reasonably uniform we can be
confident that the full yield stress will be reached throughout before failure, as long as
the web does not buckle.
9.3.2 Plate buckling due to shear
As usual there are two approaches to buckling. One is to make the web so stocky
that it will not buckle before it reaches its full yield capacity. The other is to accept
buckling, and to calculate the reduced capacity of the web. Sometimes it is
economical to control the buckling by dividing the web into panels with vertical and/or
horizontal stiffener plates to increase its buckling strength. Stiffeners are costly in
terms of labour, and are much less common than they once were.
For design of unstiffened slender webs the buckling strength in shear is taken as the
elastic buckling strength. We do not calculate the plastic buckling strength which is
slightly higher.

The theory of plate buckling is developed for a "panel" of length lp and depth dp in a
stiffened web. This may be extended to cover the case of an unstiffened web by
putting lp >> dp.
E
2
k
F ov = .
12(1 - ) d p
2 2

tw
Panel edges assumed to be "pinned" No of buckles
2
d
For lp d p k 5.35 p + 4
lp
2
d
For lp dp k 5.35 + 4 p
lp
For unstiffened webs lp >> dp and k 5.35
5.35 2 E
F ov 2
dp
12(1 - )
2
tw
For a STEEL beam, the shear stress at which elastic buckling occurs is found
by substituting E = 200 000 MPa and = 0.3
5.35 x 10 x 200000 979853

F ov = 2
= 2
d p d p
12 x 0.91
tw tw
The shear force at which buckling commences is therefore


979853 Aw
V b = Aw F ov = 2
dp

tw
Note that for box beams it is necessary to calculate Vb separately for each web and
add.
9.4 Code approach and rules
9.4.1 Approximately uniform shear stress near failure
If a web is slender (high value of dp/tw) it will buckle before it reaches its yield strength
Vw. "Stocky" webs, with low dp/tw will yield before they buckle. It is important to
know the value of dp/tw at which the changeover can be expected.
A web will buckle before it yields if Vb < Vw
979853 Aw fy
2
< Aw
dp 3

tw
In the code this is re-arranged in the form
dp fy
> 82
tw 250
Thus, for an approximately uniform shear stress distribution,
dp 82
if
tw fy

250

the "nominal shear capacity" of the web Vu = Vw

dp 82
If >
tw fy

250

then Vu = Vb
Note that a new symbol Vu has been introduced for the shear capacity of a web with
approximately uniform shear stress, where Vu is the lesser of Vw and Vb.
In the code, the formula for Vb is re-arranged so that it is expressed in terms of Vw.
f 3
Aw = V w
y
V w = Aw
3 fy
979853 3 V w 3919 3 Vw
V b= =
dp
2
fy d p
2
fy

tw tw 250
2

82
= Vw
dp f y

t w 250
dp 82
Thus when, > for approximately uniform shear stress
tw fy
250
distribution
Vb = v Vw Vw
where
2

82
v= [5.11.5.1]
d p f y

t w 250

(Note that for shear = 0.9)

For unstiffened webs (which is all we cover in this subject) dp = d1 the clear distance
between the flanges, and lp = (or at least the length of the beam!). All webs for
which stiffener spacing S is greater than 3dp must be treated as "unstiffened", so
although we often have end stiffeners on our beams they cannot be treated as having
"stiffened webs".
For practical reasons the code places an upper limit on the slenderness of
unstiffened webs of:
d1 fy
180 [5.10.1]
tw 250
9.4.2 Non-uniform shear stress distribution approaching failure
If the elastic shear stress distribution is not reasonably uniform, due to unequal flanges,
varying web thickness, or large holes Vv must be taken as
2V u
Vv= Vu
f *vm
0.9 + *
f
va
where f*vm = maximum elastic shear stress } under design

f*va = average elastic shear stress } load
[5.11.3]
If holes in a beam web exceed certain dimensions (rule 5.10.7) the web must be
stiffened in the vicinity and a proper calculation of stress levels carried out.
9.4.3 Member capacity factor for shear

The factored capacity Vv = 0.9 Vv must be greater than the design shear force V*
due to the factored loads. That is,
V * Vv
9.5 Interaction of Shear and Bending Moment
Over the internal supports of continuous beams high BM and high SF co-exist.
The above calculations refer to webs subjected to pure shear. The presence of BM
and/or axial force may reduce shear capacity significantly. The philosophy behind this
will be covered in Level 3. When there is no axial force then:
If M* 0.75 Ms, no reduction is necessary. That is,
V * Vv
f M* > 0.75 Ms the shear strength is reduced by M* such that
1.6 M*
V 2.2 -
*
Vv [5.12.3]
M s
An alternative method is to calculate bending strength based only on the moment

capacity of the flanges. In this case there is no need to reduce Vv.

Summary for shear strength requirements

(a) Shear Strength only (M* 0.75 Ms)
V * Vv
where
Web Shear Stress Web Slenderness Unstiffened Webs
Distribution Range
dp 82 Vv = Vu = Vw = 0.6fyAw

Uniform tw fy
(e.g. I-sections)
250
dp 82 Vv = Vu = Vb = vVw
>
tw fy = v (0.6fyAw) Vw
250
where
2

82
v =
d p f y
t w 250

2 Vu
Vv = Vu
dp 82 f *vm
0.9 + *
Non-uniform tw fy f va
(e.g. T- and rectangular
250 Vu = 0.6fyAw
sections)
2 Vu
Vv = Vu
f *vm
dp 0.9 + *
82 f va
>
tw fy Vu = Vb = vVw
250 = v (0.6fyAw) Vw
where
2

82
v =
d p f y
t w 250

(b) Shear and bending interaction (M* > 0.75 Ms)

1.6 *
V * 2.2 - M Vv where Vv is obtained from the table above.
M s

Notes 1

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Lecture Notes

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 2.01

Topic 1. Revision structural mechanics

Topic 2. General provisions of AS4100

Topic 3. Prefabricated sections

Topic 4. Steel strength

Topic 5. Bending of steel members

Topic 6. Dimensioning of steel beams preview

Topic 7. Local buckling of plates in I and box sections

Topic 8. Lateral or flexural-torsional buckling of beams

Topic 9. Plate elements in shear

Topic 10. Axially loaded columns and struts

Topic 11. Beam web design

Topic 12. Floor framing system

Topic 13. Costing information

Topic 14. Members under combined actions

Topic 15. Design of members subject to axial tension

Topic 16. Design of base plates

Topic 17. Bolts and bolting

Topic 18. Dimensioning of welds

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 2.01

CIV2222 STEEL FRAMED STRUCTURES

Topic 1. REVISION - STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 1991, Chapter 6.

1.1 Structural analysis

Internal forces in a beam

Forces at a distance X from A : At cut face

positive (+ve) forces for diagram

Free body diagram : w = 10 kN/m

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99

Total equivalent load P = 10X kN at a distance of X/2 from A.

Plotting equations (1) and (2) for X = 0 to 10 m.

1.2 Simple bending theory

Bending of a beam member

where Z = I/(d/2) = elastic section modulus.

K = 1.15 for steel I-section

and S = plastic section modulus.

Calculation of Second Moment of Area (I)

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99

Rectangular hollow section : I = b1d13/12 - b2d23/12

I-section : I = bd3/12 - (ch3/12) x 2

The calculation of moment of inertia I for non-symmetric section is based on the

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99

Topic 2. GENERAL PROVISIONS OF AS4100

Trahair,N.S. & Bradford,M.A.,The behaviour and

2.1 Design for overall stability

Loads and self-weight tending to cause overturning must be factored as normal

2.2 Design for strength

This is to be achieved by making sure that the "design capacity" of members Ru

This is expressed in the code by the relationship

Design capacity for Capacity factor ( )

2.3 Design for serviceability

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

File: Bwong/CIV2222 Edition Date: 3:99

In general: total deflection within a span L/250