Seismic design of RC structural elements

- Beam

- Column

- Beam-to-column joints

- Shear walls

Structural behaviour
Typical damage

Design action effects

Resistance
Reinforcements and Local details
BEAM
 Seismic behaviour of Beams

Under earthquake loading, beams will generally be most critically stressed at and
near their intersections with the supporting columns.
An exception may be where a heavy concentrated load is carried at some
intermediate point on the span.
As a result, the focus of attention in the design of beams is on these critical regions
where plastic hinges can take place.
 Seismic behaviour of Beams

At potential hinging regions, the need to develop and maintain the strength and
ductility of the member through a number of cycles of reversed inelastic deformation
calls for special attention in design.

This special attention relates mainly to the lateral reinforcement, which takes the
form of closed hoops or spirals.
The requirements governing the design of lateral reinforcement for potential hinging
regions are more stringent than those for members designed for gravity loads, or the
less critically stressed parts of members in earthquake-resistant structures.

The lateral reinforcement in hinging regions of beams is designed to provide

(i) confinement of the concrete core,
(ii) support for the longitudinal compressive reinforcement against inelastic buckling,
(iii) resistance, in conjunction with the confined concrete, against transverse shear.
 Collapse Mechanism

Beams are the members in which the design aim is that plastic hinges form during the
design earthquake (Figure). Hence there is a need for adequate energy dissipation
capacity through stable hysteresis loops (no significant strength degradation).
The most favourable collapse mechanism involves hinges at all beam ends and also at
the base of the ground storey columns (the latter cannot be avoided), because:
Smaller required plastic rotations req in mechanism 1
Larger available plastic rotations avail in beams
P- effects are more critical in mechanism 2
Beams are easier to repair than columns (for heavy damage)

Favourable and unfavourable collapse mechanisms in buildings:

(a) Beam mechanism (favourable); (b) Column mechanism (unfavourable)
 Gravity and earthquake loading

Earthquake shaking reverses tension and compression in members

reinforcement is required on both faces of members.
Plastic hinges

The frame yielding mechanism

determines the forces acting on
the column and beam-column
joint.

Under reverse load

applications, hinge
development affects both
the top and bottom faces
of beams. This leads to
bidirectional cracking and
spalling of cover on the
top and bottom of the
beam.
 Shear transfer mechanisms and sliding shear failure

The behavior of a segment at the support region of a typical

RC beam subjected to reversed cycles of inelastic
deformation in the presence of high shear is shown
schematically in Figure.
In Figure a, yielding of the top longitudinal steel under a
downward movement of the beam end causes flexure-shear
cracks to form at the top.
A reversal of the load and subsequent yielding of the bottom
longitudinal steel is also accompanied by cracking at the
bottom of the beam (Figure c).

Characteristic phases of the responses of an RC beam to reverse cyclic loading

If the area of the bottom steel is at least equal to that of the
top steel, the top cracks remain open during the early stages
of the load reversal until the top steel yields in compression,
allowing the top crack to close and the concrete to carry
some compression.
Otherwise, where the top steel has greater area than the
bottom steel, the top steel does not yield in compression
(and we assume it does not buckle), so that the top crack
remains open during the reversal of the load.
With a crack traversing the entire depth of the beam, the
resisting flexural couple consists of the forces in the tensile
and compressive steel areas, while the shear along the
through-depth crack is resisted primarily by dowel action of
the longitudinal steel.
With subsequent reversals of the load and progressive
deterioration of the concrete in the hinging region (Figure d),
the through-depth crack widens.
The severe stressing of longitudinal bars crossing such a
crack and carrying all the shear by dowel action leads to their
failure, usually in a buckling mode. This type of failure which
is common to beams with high level of shear stress,
subjected to large inelastic flexural deformations, is known
as sliding shear failure.
 Pinching

Where the shear accompanying the moment is high, sliding along the through-depth
crack(s) can occur. This sliding shear displacement, which is resisted mainly by dowel
action of the longitudinal reinforcement, is reflected in a pinching of the associated
load-deflection curve near the origin, as indicated in Figure. Since the area under the
load-deflection curve is a measure of the energy-dissipation capacity of the member,
the pinching in this curve due to sliding shear represents a degradation not only of the
strength but also the energy-dissipation capacity of the hinging region. Where the
longitudinal steel is not adequately restrained by lateral reinforcement, inelastic
buckling of the compressive reinforcement followed by a rapid loss of flexural strength
can occur.

Pinching in load-displacement hysteresis loop due to mainly to sliding shear

 Flexure-dominated beams

A flexural failure was characterized by significant energy dissipation during cyclic

loading. The width of the hysteresis loops does not decrease substantially even at
high ductility levels.

The beam is characterized by:

- Large ductility
- Flexural type of failure, with spalling of cover concrete followed by buckling of
longitudinal bars
- Significant energy dissipation during cycling, through stable hysteresis loops (even at
high inelastic deformations).

A favourable response to cyclic loading may be achieved by providing

- an adequate amount of bottom reinforcement in the support region
- adequate anchorage length of longitudinal bars,
- an adequate diameter and spacing of hoops.
 Typology of beam damage

Flexural cracking
in beam span

Flexural cracks at the span

- existing cracks (due to gravity loading), possibly opened further due to the effect of
the vertical component of the earthquake
- these cracks do not jeopardize the overall safety of the building

Shear cracking in a beam

Inclined shear cracks

- mainly due to inadequate shear reinforcement
- more hazardous than flexural cracks, but in general not critical with regard to the
overall safety of the building
 Flexural cracking in beam supports

Flexural cracks at the supports

- typically expected during an earthquake
- critical parameters: quantity and anchorage of bottom reinforcement at supports

Cracking in beam span

at indirect support

Cracks at the regions where secondary beams or discontinued columns frame into a
beam
- mainly due to the vertical component of the earthquake
- suspension reinforcement required (but not always present in existing structures)
X-shaped shear cracks in short beams coupling shear walls also appear quite often. It
is a shear failure similar to that which occurs in short columns (Figure) but not so
dangerous for the stability of the building.

Shear failure of a shear wall coupling beam

Design action effects
Design action effects
 Design action effects

=
( g + q ) + ( M
2 1,d
+ M 2,d )
V Ed 2 lcl

M Rc
M i ,d = Rd M Rb ,i min1,
M
Rb

Capacity design values of shear forces on beams

Design action effects
Design action effects
Design action effects
Design action effects
Design action effects
Bending Resistance

Effective flange width

 Shear resistance
Eurocode 2 introduces the strut inclination method for shear capacity checks.
In this method the shear is resisted by concrete struts acting in compression and shear
reinforcement acting in tension.
The angle of the concrete strut varies, depending on the shear force applied.
Where shear reinforcement is required, then the angle of the concrete strut should be
calculated.
 Shear resistance
For the verification of the shear resistance the following symbols are defined:
VRd,c is the design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforcement.
VRd,s is the design value of the shear force which can be sustained by the yielding
shear reinforcement.
VRd,max is the design value of the maximum shear force which can be sustained by the
member, limited by crushing of the compression struts.

In regions of the member where VEd VRd,c no calculated shear reinforcement is

necessary. VEd is the design shear force in the section considered resulting from
external loading.
When, on the basis of the design shear calculation, no shear reinforcement is required,
minimum shear reinforcement should be provided.

In regions where VEd > VRd,c sufficient shear reinforcement should be provided in order
that VEd VRd
 Shear resistance
Members requiring design shear reinforcement
The design of members with shear reinforcement is based on a truss model

is the angle between shear reinforcement and the beam axis perpendicular to the
shear force
is the angle between the concrete compression strut and the beam axis perpendicular
to the shear force
bw is the minimum width between tension and compression chords
z is the inner lever arm, for a member with constant depth, corresponding to the
maximum bending moment in the element under consideration. In the shear analysis of
reinforced concrete without axial force, the approximate value z = 0,9d may normally be
used.
The angle should be limited.
The recommended limits are given: 1 cot 2,5
 Shear resistance
For members with vertical shear reinforcement, the shear resistance, VRd is the
smaller value of:
Shear resistance
 Shear resistance

Non-conventional types of reinforcement for beams with high shear:

(a) intermediate straight bars (b) diagonal cross-inclined bars
Geometrical constraints
 Geometrical constraints

critical region
region of a primary seismic element, where the most adverse combination of
action effects (M, N, V) occurs and where plastic hinges may form

In concrete buildings critical regions are dissipative zones. The length of the
critical region is defined for each type of primary seismic element.
Curvature ductility factor
 Longitudinal Reinforcement
0,0018 f cd
max = '+
sy ,d f yd

f ctm
min = 0,5
f
yk

' 0.5
Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse Reinforcement
ACI Provisions Longitudinal reinforcement

Figure 5-1 - Beam flexural reinforcement requirements.

 ACI Provisions Transverse Reinforcement

Figure 5-11 - Hoop and stirrup location and spacing requirements.

Anchorages and splices
Column
 Strong column weak beam concept

The current approach to the design of earthquake-resistant reinforced concrete rigid

(i.e., moment-resisting) frames is to have most of the significant inelastic action or
plastic hinges occur in the beams rather than in the columns.
This is referred to as the strong column-weak beam concept and is intended to
help insure the stability of the frame while undergoing large lateral displacements
under earthquake excitation. Plastic hinging at both ends of most of the columns in
a story can precipitate a story-sidesway mechanism leading to collapse of the
structure at and above the story.

Code requires that the sum of the flexural strengths of the columns meeting at a
joint, under the most unfavorable axial load, be at least equal to 1.3 times the sum
of the design flexural strengths of the girders in the same plane framing into the
joint.

M Rc 1,3 M Rb
 Strong column weak beam principle

A fundamental principle of capacity design is that in R/C buildings plastic hinge

formation in columns should be avoided.
To achieve this, column design moments are derived from equilibrium conditions at
beam-column joints, taking into account the actual resisting moments of beams
framing into the joint.
However, there are a number of reasons why the capacity procedure included in EC8,
as well as similar procedures adopted by other codes, cannot achieve this goal.
These reasons are discussed in the following section.
 Capacity design of columns
Strong column weak beam concept

M Rc 1,3 M Rb
plastic hinge formation in columns should be avoided.
However, there are a number of reasons why the capacity procedure included
in EC8 cannot fully achieve this goal.
 Uncertainties regarding the capacity design of columns

1 Whenever the degree of inelasticity at the beam ends is high (typically this would
be the case with DCH beams), the longitudinal bars enter the strain-hardening
range and this may cause an increase in beam strength between 10 and 25%,
depending on the steel characteristics and the ductility factor attained.

2 In calculating actual strengths of beams, reinforcing bars in slabs integrally built

with the beams are either neglected or taken into account considering an effective
slab width in tension that is clearly smaller than that observed in relevant tests. The
corresponding increase in the actual beam strength may range from 10 to 30%.
3 The flexural strength of a column varies considerably with the axial load level. During
a strong earthquake motion the axial load in a column is continuously changing due to
the combined effect of overturning moments and the vertical acceleration of the motion;
this effect is more pronounced in columns at the perimeter of the building. The range of
variation of N may be wider than that predicted by the analysis for the design actions,
particularly when the vertical motion is significant. Therefore, at certain stages of the
seismic response, the strength of a column may be substantially lower than that taken
into account in the capacity design.

M-N interaction diagrams for a square column

4 Analysis of the inelastic response of multi-storey R/C
buildings subjected to earthquake excitation have
shown that the point of contraflexure in columns shifts
considerably during the excitation, leading to a
distribution of bending moments substantially different
from that resulting from the code-prescribed analysis
(especially when the latter is an equivalent static one).
In addition to differences between static and dynamic
response (influence of higher modes), the shift of the
contraflexure point is caused by the formation of hinges
in beams adjacent to the column and even by extensive
cracking in parts of the column, as all these factors alter
the stiffness of the beam-column subassemblage,
hence the moment distribution. Therefore, ensuring that
the sum of column moments at a joint exceeds the sum
of the corresponding beam moments does not
necessarily mean that the moment in each single
column always remains lower than the corresponding Distribution of bending
flexural strength. It is not uncommon that in the course moments in columns at a
of seismic loading a plastic hinge forms in the column joint when the point of
above a certain joint, while the column below the joint inflection is located away
remains in the elastic range, as it is subjected to from mid-height.
significantly lower moments.
Distribution of bending moments in columns
and
Shift of the contraflexure point
5 The direction of propagation of seismic waves does not in general coincide with a
principal axis of the building (if indeed such an axis exists), and this, combined with
the effect of eccentricities in plan, leads to a biaxial stress state in columns
(particularly the corner ones). Checking the relative strength of beams and columns
at a joint separately in each direction (as allowed by most codes, including EC8),
does not necessarily ensure that a column has adequate capacity to resist an
arbitrary biaxial loading history, especially when all beams framing into the joint (in
two or more directions) form a plastic hinge.
 Conclusions

In buildings, plastic hinges should not, as a rule, form in columns, with the well-known
exceptions at the base of ground storey columns and top storey columns.

However, plastic hinges may also form at some columns due to:
strain-hardening in steel
contribution of slab reinforcement to beam strength
variation of column strength with axial loading
shift of contraflexure point from column midheight (due to higher mode effects and
to stiffness variations caused by yielding)
effect of biaxial seismic loading (in particular at corner columns)

To prevent fully the possibility of plastic hinging in column, beam overstrength factors
as high as 2.5 would need to be used.
This is clearly much higher than the values recommended by EC8 (yRd between 1.20
and 1.35) and other seismic codes, even if the fact that EC8 includes some portion of
slab reinforcement in estimating beam strength is taken into consideration. This is,
however, not feasible since the confinement reinforcement requirements in the
ensuing heavily-reinforced columns could not be achieved.
It follows that design of R/C columns based on current practice cannot preclude that,
at least in some columns, plastic hinges will form during a strong earthquake.
Therefore, as a rule, there is a need for ductility in most columns of a structure.
 Damage to columns

Damage to columns caused by an earthquake is mainly of two types:

- damage due to cyclic flexure and low shear under strong axial compression;
- damage due to cyclic shear and low flexure under strong axial compression.

Columns with moderate to high slenderness ratio

Columns with moderate to small slenderness ratio

 Typology of Column Damage

All types of column failure may jeopardize the overall stability of the structure.

1 Flexural failure

Common in columns of medium and high slenderness (s > 3.5).

Consists in:
- Spalling, then crushing of compression zone
- Buckling of longitudinal bars
- Possibly fracture of hoops (due to expansion of the core)
2 Mixed (flexure/shear) failure

Common in columns of medium to low slenderness (s = 2.03.5) and/or insufficient

shear reinforcement:
- Usually flexural strength can not be attained
- Critical parameter: amount of transverse reinforcement
3 Short-column failure

Common in columns of low slenderness (s < 2.0)

- Brittle failure with cross-inclined shear cracks
- Critical parameter: presence (or absence) of cross-inclined reinforcement
- Shear failure due to interaction with masonry infills (infills at one side of the column
only)
 Flexural/shear failure

To ensure strong column-weak beam behavior, shear failures of columns must also be
precluded. However, shear in a concrete column can be critical.
Shear is maximum in a column when the moments at each end are at ultimate.
The moment capacity of a column depends on the magnitude of the axial load.
To avoid shear failures, the design should focus on the axial load that produces the
largest moment capacity.
The P-M interaction diagram shows this range of axial loads for an example column.
Design action effects

M1,d + M 2,d
VMAX =
lcl

M Rb
M i ,d = Rd M Rc ,i min1,
M
Rc

Capacity design shear force in columns

Capacity design shear force in columns

M i,d + M j ,d
Vmax =
lcl

M i ,d = Rd M Rc ,i
Resistance
Biaxial bending
simplified check
 Shear resistance
The shear resistance, VRd is the smaller value of:
 Strong column weak beam rule

To ensure that the beams develop plastic hinges before the columns, the sum of
the flexural strengths of the columns at a joint must exceed 130% of the sum of
the flexural strengths of the beams.
This requirement protects against premature development of a story mechanism,
but due to the realities of dynamic response, it does not assure a full building
mechanism.
Geometrical constraints
Steel reinforcement in columns
 Longitudinal Reinforcement

The total longitudinal reinforcement ratio l shall be not less than 0,01 and not
more than 0,04.

In symmetrical cross-sections symmetrical reinforcement should be provided ( = ).

At least one intermediate bar shall be provided between corner bars along each
column side, to ensure the integrity of the beam-column joints.

The distance between consecutive longitudinal bars engaged by hoops or cross-ties

does not exceed 150 mm.

The amount of longitudinal reinforcement provided at the base of the bottom storey
column (i.e. where the column is connected to the foundation) should be not less than
that provided at the top.
 Transverse Reinforcement

To safeguard against strength degradation due to hinging in the columns of a frame,

codes generally require lateral reinforcement for both confinement and shear in
regions of potential plastic hinging.

As in potential hinging regions of beams, the closely spaced transverse

reinforcement in critically stressed regions of columns is intended to provide
- confinement for the concrete core,
- lateral support of the longitudinal column reinforcement against buckling and
resistance (in conjunction with the confined core) against transverse shear.

The transverse reinforcement can take the form of spirals, circular hoops, or
rectangular hoops, the last with crossties as needed.
Transverse Reinforcement

Hoops confine heavily stressed cross

sections of columns and beams, with
(a) hoops surrounding the core and
supplementary bars restraining
longitudinal bars, all of which are (b)
closely spaced along the member
length.

Hoop Configuration
Column hoops should be configured
with at least three hoop or crosstie
legs restraining longitudinal bars
along each face.
A single perimeter hoop without
crossties is prevented because
confinement effectiveness is low.
Confinement by Spirals or Hoops
Transverse Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement in columns
Curvature ductility factor
 Confinement

mechanical volumetric ratio of confining reinforcement

confinement effectiveness factor

Figure 5-15 Column transverse
reinforcement spacing
requirements.
Column Reinforcement
Anchorages and splices

Additional measures for

anchorage in exterior
beam-column joints

A anchor plate;
B hoops around column bars
Bar Splices
Lap splices of longitudinal reinforcement must be positioned outside intended
yielding regions

Column cage lap splices are

not permitted to extend outside
the middle half of the column
length and should not extend
into the length l0 at the column
end.
Beam-to-column joint
 Beam-to-column joints

it is essential to verify their shear resistance, as well as the anchorage conditions

of reinforcement passing through the joint region.

A fundamental requirement for an R/C structure is that for the members of the
structure to be able to develop their full strength, premature failure of their joints
should be precluded.
 Basic design principle
The basic principles regarding the seismic design of joints can be summarized as
follows:
1 The strength of the joint should not be inferior to that of the weakest member
framing into it. This fundamental requirement emerges from the need to avoid
seismic energy dissipation through mechanisms characterized by strength and
stiffness degradation under cyclic loading conditions, as well as from the fact the joint
core region is difficult to repair.

2 The load-bearing capacity of a column should not be jeopardized by possible

strength degradation of the joint core.

3 During an earthquake excitation of moderate intensity (on which the serviceability

limit state is based, according to the EC8 approach) the joint should preferably
remain in the elastic range, so that no repair is required.

4 The reinforcement required for ensuring an adequate seismic performance of the

joint should not be such as to cause construction difficulties due to congestion of
bars in this region.
The feasibility of satisfying all the foregoing requirements depends first on the type
of the joint.
More difficulties arise in the case of interior joints (Figure (a)), somewhat less in
the case of exterior joints (Figure (b)), while in the case of comer joints at the top of
a frame (Figure (c)) the situation is more favourable and typically no additional
checks are required.

Types of joints in RC structures

 Structural Behavior - Joints

Premature failures must be precluded in beam-to-column joints.

The left figure shows forces (stresses) imposed on a typical exterior joint, and the right
shows cracks. Upon reversal of direction, perpendicular cracks form. The anchorage
of the reinforcement can be compromised.
The important aspects of joint design are ensuring proper bar development and
precluding shear failures in the joint. This can be accomplished through proper
detailing of hoop reinforcement and bar hooks.
 Types of failure at beam-column joints
Shown in Figure are schematic representations of different modes of failure at an
interior beam-to-column joint.
It is the aim of seismic design to ensure that failure occurs in the mode shown in
Figure (a), which is characterized by hinge formation at the beams framing into the
joint. Proper detailing of the plastic hinge regions can provide a high ductility to the
beam-column subassemblage (and hence to the structure as a whole) and
minimize the possibility of collapse during a strong earthquake. In contrast, the
formation of plastic hinges at the columns should be precluded, Figure (b).

Attainment of deformation capacity Attainment of deformation capacity

of the beam of the column
 Types of failure at beam-column joints

The remaining three types of failure shown in Figure, refer to damage incurred
within the joint core; these are:

1.Spalling of cover concrete at the faces of the joint core, which can lead to a
significant reduction in the bearing capacity of the column (the amount of reduction
depends, of course, on the ratio of the confined column area to the area of the
section prior to spalling).

c) Spalling of the joint core

 Types of failure at beam-column joints

2 Anchorage failure in the longitudinal bars of the beam passing through the joint,
which leads to strength deterioration and significant permanent deformations and
consequent local rotations (fixed-end rotations) at the beam-column interface,
hence to a drastic reduction in the stiffness of the beam-column subassemblage.

d) Anchorage failure of beam bars

 Types of failure at beam-column joints

3 Failure of the joint core due to diagonal tension caused by shear (Figure (e)), with
consequences on the strength and the stiffness of the subassemblage similar to
those caused by the previous failure mode.

e) shear failure of the joint core

 Damage to Beam-column joints

Failure of a cross-shaped interior joint:

(a) seismic action in the right to left direction:
(b) seismic action in the left to right direction;
(c) cyclic seismic action.
In order to ensure that the favourable mechanism of Figure (a) will form, it is
necessary to verify the following:

1 The relative flexural resistances of beams and columns framing into a joint, that is
the pertinent EC8 requirement regarding the capacity design of columns.

M Rc 1,3 M Rb
In order to ensure that the favourable mechanism of Figure (a) will form, it is
necessary to verify the following:

2 The shear resistance of the joint core, in the horizontal, as well as in the vertical,
direction.
3 The required anchorage of longitudinal bars of the beam and the column, passing
through the joint or anchored within its core.
 Design action effects

V jhd = Rd ( As1 + As 2 ) f yd Vc

V jhd = Rd As1 f yd Vc
 Resistance

vd
V jhd f cd 1 b j hc

the effective joint width bj is:

Strong column weak beam rule
Horizontal confinement reinforcement

bc
d 30 d sy ,d 0,035
bo
Horizontal confinement reinforcement
2
V jhd

Ash f ywd b h
j jc
f ctd
b j h jw f ctd + v d f cd
Horizontal confinement reinforcement
Vertical reinforcement
Figure 7-1 Beam-column joint with beam corner bars swept to
inside of column corner bars.
This joint with hoops was created for use in laboratory tests. Note the tight
spacing of steel, which will require careful placement and vibration of concrete.
Similar joints, which will require careful inspection, may appear in real structures.
Shear wall
 Shear walls in RC building
The role of structural walls (or 'shear walls') in cast in situ concrete structures is
mainly the transfer of seismic actions.
In many cases walls carry a major part of the seismic base shear, while the existing
frames are designed primarily to act as a second line of defence against
earthquakes, after extensive cracking and /or failure of walls.
The use of walls is clearly the recommended choice with regard to earthquake
resistance, in particular for medium and high-rise buildings.
Arrangement of horizontal and vertical reinforcement in walls with rectangular or barbell
cross-section
 Advantage of structural walls

1 The main advantage offered by earthquake-resisting R/C walls is the significant

increase in the stiffness of the building, which leads to a reduction of second-order
effects and a subsequent increase of safety against collapse, as well as a reduced
degree of damage to non-structural elements, whose cost is often higher than that of the
structural elements. Furthermore, the significant reduction of psychological effects on
the inhabitants of high-rise buildings subjected to earthquake-induced displacements,
should be pointed out.

2 Another advantage of structural walls is that, even after their extensive cracking, they
are able to maintain most of their vertical load-bearing capacity, which is not always the
case with columns.

3 A further advantage is that the behaviour of buildings with structural walls is generally
more reliable than that of buildings consisting exclusively of frames. This is due to the
fact that plastic hinges form at the beams and not at the walls (particularly when the
latter have been designed according to the capacity procedures prescribed by modern
codes), and also that the uncertainties resulting from the presence of masonry infills
(with regard to structural regularity) are typically less significant in buildings with walls.
The latter is a major advantage in the common case of asymmetric arrangement of
masonry infills; it is pointed out that in the case of symmetrically arranged infills, frame
systems benefit more, in the sense that the relative increase in strength (and stiffness)
against lateral loading is higher than in similar structures with walls.
The use of structural walls is not, however, free of some drawbacks:

Concern with regard to reduced ductility due to effect of shear (reason for reduced q
factors in previous codes, e.g. UBC88 or CEB). There is the possibility of non-ductile
seismic behaviour, in particular of brittle type shear failure.

The above is mostly overcome if appropriate design and detailing is used

(approximately the same q factors for frames and dual systems are specified in EC8
and other modern seismic codes)

Reduced favourable effect (on strength and stiffness) of symmetrically arranged infill
panels, with respect to frames

Architectural problems due to the presence of permanent walls (this is probably the
most critical one, in practical terms)
Walls are frequently designed to bear horizontal (seismic) loads.
The stiffness of the structure is significantly increased, P- effects are reduced and
hence the damage to non-structural components is reduced. Seismic behaviour
becomes more predictable compared to that of frames, since formation of unwanted
plastic hinges is avoided and the negative influence of asymmetrically arranged infill
panels is signifi cantly reduced.

The critical parameter for cyclic shear response is the aspect ratio H/L. If H/L 2, the
walls are defined as slender. Slender walls are highly ductile and exhibit a flexure-
dominated behaviour. If H/L<2, the walls are characterized as squat walls and
exhibit a shear (sliding) dominated behaviour. Squat walls are commonly found in
low-rise constructions; they have low natural periods and seismic damage is
expected to be higher than in slender walls.
Typical damage patterns in walls are outlined in Figure.

Typical wall damage types: shear damage (left), cracks at construction joints (middle) and flexure damage (
right )
 Performance objectives and design philosophy
- Vertical Loads
- Horizontal loads
Performance Objectives
Resist axial forces, flexure and shear
Boundary members
Where compression strains are large, maintain capacity

Design Philosophy
Flexural yielding will occur in predetermined flexural hinging regions
Brittle failure mechanisms will be precluded
Diagonal tension
Sliding hinges
Local buckling
Design of shear walls for seismic resistance includes designing to resist axial forces,
flexure and shear.
Boundary members to confine concrete in compression regions where stresses due to
overturning are high may be required. The boundary member requires transverse
reinforcement capable of providing compression ductility through confinement.
The design philosophy for walls is to ensure a ductile, flexural failure mechanism and
preclude all brittle mechanisms.
Layout of main reinforcement
in shear walls
 Wall
structural element supporting other elements and having an elongated cross-
section with a length to thickness ratio lw/bw of greater than 4.

ductile wall
wall fixed at the base so that the relative rotation of the base with respect to the
rest of the structural system is prevented, and that is designed and detailed to
dissipate energy in a flexural plastic hinge zone free of openings or large
perforations, just above its base.
 Behaviour under cyclic loading

The most decisive factor affecting the seismic behaviour of a wall is its slenderness,
commonly expressed in terms of the aspect ratio (height to length ratio) hw/lw.
High slenderness walls (hw/lw>2), when appropriately designed and constructed, are
characterized by a ductile behaviour, failing in a predominantly flexural mode, similar
to that of beams.
On the other hand, in low slenderness or squat walls (hw/lw<2), the factor dominating
the seismic performance is shear, especially the possibility of sliding shear failure.

Slender wall Squat wall

 Typology of Wall Damage

Existing buildings with walls generally perform better than similar ones without
walls.
Some typical damage patterns in walls are summarized in the following.

Shear damage
This is a typical damage pattern. Diagonal cracking may lead to failure if edge
regions are not designed and detailed as columns.
 Flexure damage
This type of damage is rare, although walls in old
multistorey buildings are typically underdesigned in
flexure

Cracks at construction joints

This is a very common damage pattern, at least in
existing old buildings. The possible causes are the
poor detailing of the construction joint and
insufficient vertical web reinforcement (for this
reason, a min v is required, which may lead to
additional dowel bars in the construction joint area.
 Structural Behavior - Walls

This figure shows types of failures in shear walls.

The left figure shows a flexural failure with a plastic hinge zone at the base of the wall.
The second figure shows that severe cracking necessitates that web reinforcement
carries the horizontal shear force.
The last two figures show types of sliding failures: sliding along full depth flexural cracks
or along construction joints.
The most desirable is the flexural failure with other modes precluded. With proper
detailing, the wall can exhibit good strength and ductility without excessive drift or
collapse.
 Action effects diagrams

Axial force due to vertical loads

Bending moment due to horizontal forces

Shear force due to horizontal forces

 Design action effects

Design bending moment

Design envelope for bending moments in slender walls

 Design action effects

Design shear force

VEd = V ' Ed

S (T )
2 2
M
= q Rd Rd + 0,1 e c q
q M Ed S e (T1 )
 Resistance

- Build the axial load moment interaction diagram

- Consider the axial force bending moment action
For axial load and flexure, design
like a column to determine axial
load moment interaction diagram

To determine the required longitudinal reinforcement,

the wall is treated like a column.
An interaction diagram can be developed for the Confined boundary
selected reinforcing layout, and checked against element of free-edge
combinations of axial load and moment as wall end
determined from analysis.
 Shear resistance

Diagonal compression failure of the web due to shear

Diagonal tension failure of the web due to shear

Sliding shear failure

 Shear resistance
Diagonal compression failure of the web due to shear

The value of VRd,max may be calculated as follows:

a) outside the critical region:

as in EN 1992-1-1:2004, with the length of the internal lever arm, z, equal to 0,8lw
and the inclination of the compression strut to the vertical, tan, equal to 1,0.

b) in the critical region:

80% of the value outside the critical region.
 Shear resistance
Diagonal tension failure of the web due to shear

Horizontal web bars

Vertical web bars

Shear resistance
Sliding shear failure
 Bidiagonal reinforcement
The adverse effects of sliding shear may be limited by using cross-inclined bars,
crossing the open failure crack.
Cross-inclined (bidiagonal) bars were added and designed to provide resistance to
shear.
In this wall, the shear strength under cyclic loading conditions can be maintained, the
amount of energy dissipation was larger than in the wall without bidiagonal bars.

On the other hand, this solution presents more construction difficulties than the
conventional one of two grids.

Bidiagonal reinforcement in structural walls

 Geometrical constraints

Normalized axial force

 Critical region

Seismic
provisions for Height of the
the critical critical region
region of the
wall
 Critical region

Dual system

structural system in which support for the vertical loads is mainly provided by a
frame and resistance to lateral loads is contributed to in part by the frame system
and in part by structural walls
 Critical region

Curvature ductility factor

Confinement reinforcement

mechanical volumetric ratio of confining reinforcement

mechanical ratio of vertical web reinforcement

Mechanical ratio of vertical web reinforcement
 Web reinforcements in walls

500 mm
 Vertical Reinforcement

Uniform distribution Concentration at the edge of the wall

Vertical Reinforcement

Uniform distribution
Increasing the amount of
reinforcement, the resisting bending
moment increases but the ductility
significantly decreases

Concentration at the edges of the

wall
For equal total reinforcement, the
resisting bending moment is greater
than the previous case.
Increasing the amount of
reinforcement, the reduction of
available ductility is smaller
 Vertical Reinforcement

For axial load and flexure,

design like a column to determine axial load moment interaction diagram

To determine the required longitudinal reinforcement,

the wall is treated like a column.
An interaction diagram can be developed for the
selected reinforcing layout, and checked against
combinations of axial load and moment as
determined from analysis.
 Boundary elements

If there is a high compression demand at the edges of the wall, boundary elements may
be required.
A boundary element is a portion of the wall which is strengthened with longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement.
Widening of the wall may or may not be required.
 Boundary elements

Confined boundary element of free-edge wall end

Buckling of vertical bars in boundary elements and disruption of concrete core can
be prevented using adequate stirrups
 Boundary elements

Under seismic actions the compressive forces supported by the boundary elements
of the wall are very high.
Construction joints

Damage and failure near the cold joints

Example
Example
 Details of reinforcement at the corner

Example of shear wall

 Example of web reinforcement

Arrangement of wall reinforcement

around a small opening
 Shear panel reinforcement cage

This photo shows a shear panel reinforcement cage. Inspection is

extremely important to ensure that all required reinforcement is present and
in its proper location.
Building with shear walls
Building with shear walls
Building with shear walls
Coupling beam
 Coupled walls

Coupled walls when appropriately designed and detailed, may be a highly ductile
structural system, able to dissipate significant amounts of hysteretic energy through
flexural yielding of the coupling beams and possibly of the lower part of the walls
(which is detailed for a ductile response).
The fundamental difference between a frame and a coupled wall is that the relative
flexural strengths and stiffnesses of the (coupling) beams is one or even two orders of
magnitude lower than that of the adjoining walls, thus it is inevitable that the beams
will yield and the walls will remain in the elastic range, except perhaps at their base.
The latter depends on the strength of the beams and the intensity of the input motion;
ideally the walls will remain elastic for an earthquake corresponding to the
serviceability limit state, and will yield at their base when subjected to the design
earthquake (ultimate limit state). Whenever the system is subjected to high levels of
loading (possibly higher than the one they were designed for), the coupling beams
function as 'fuses' by preventing the walls from being seriously damaged;
subsequently, the beams may be repaired or even replaced without significant loss of
function of the building.
 Coupled walls

Critical regions of coupled walls subjected to horizontal loading: (1) coupling

beams, (2) locations of main diagonal tension cracking (3) construction joints
 Coupling beams
According to EC8, coupling of walls through slabs alone should not be considered
effective. Each vertical segment (pier) of a coupled wall may be designed for flexure and
shear as an isolated (typically slender) wall, using the procedures already described. It is
pointed out that in contrast to isolated wall cross-sections which typically have a
symmetric arrangement of reinforcement, piers of coupled walls are characterized by
strongly asymmetric reinforcement patterns, the largest number of bars being
concentrated at the edge which is distant from the opening (that is, at the exterior of the
entire coupled wall section). Coupling beams, which are the elements where the largest
amount of seismic energy is to be dissipated have to be reinforced with bidiagonal bars,
as shown in Figure.

Arrangement of reinforcement in a coupling beam

Armatura ad X per travi di accoppiamento prima del getto